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By
Rick Brunner and
Ben Tabachnik Ph.D.
@ Sport Focus Publishing
1023 Hook Avenue
Pleasant Hill, California 94523 USA
Printed in the United States of America
Copyright© 1990. by Rick Brunner and Ben Tabachnik Ph.D.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
IV
INTRODUCTION
1
PART 1
SOVIET AND AMERICAN SPORT
4
Advantages And Disadvantages of Soviet Sport
5
PARTIE
PARTUI
PARTIV
American Training And Restoration Methods:
A Soviet Viewpoint
28
CONTEMPORARY SOVIET
SYSTEM OF TRAINING
43
The Training System For Top Level Athletes
45
Long Range Development of Youth Athletes
122
SOVIET SYSTEM OF RESTORATION
151
Restoration Overview
152
Pedagogical Means OfRestoration
160
Physiotherapeutic Means Of Restoration
164
Pharmacology Means Of Restoration
180
Applied Pharmacology
242
SUMMARY
244
Afterword
248
Il
Acknowledgments
Our primary acknowledgments go to those Soviet scientists and coaches whose philosophies have had great influence
on our understanding of the contemporary training and recovery system. These include Vladamir Fielin, Izrael Brekhman,
Yuri Verkhoshansky, Arkadi Varabiov, Valentin Petrovsky,
Anatoly Bondarchuk, and many others.
Special thanks go to the many American coaches and
athletes who have shared with us their views on athletic
development and have expressed a great desire for more
effective methods of training and recovery. Their hunger for
new knowledge was great encouragement to us in the prepara-
tion of this book.
Introduction
Soviet Training and Recovery Methods is a self-help book
designed for coaches and competitive athletes who want the
latest and most effective means of improving sport results. The
history of preparing this book is unusual. It is written by two
authors; myself Rick Brunner from the USA, ana Ben
Tabachnik from the Soviet Union. This is the first ever Soviet/
American training book for competitive athletes.
The task of preparing the book began three years ago
when I first travelled to the USSR and Bulgaria in search of
new training and recovery methods. As a competitive hammer
thrower in the early 1980's, and more recently as director of
research for a large sport nutrition company, I was curious
about the reasons why Soviet athletes excelled in sport, and
how they were able to train at such a high intensity. Information about the Soviet methods of training and restoration was
hard to come by in the USA, and I found the little information
that was available was oftentimes incomplete. This served to
peak my curiosity more, until the opportunity arose to travel to
Bulgaria and the USSR with a group of coaches affiliated with
the National Strength and Conditioning Association. In Bulgaria, | observed the Bulgarian national weightlifting team in
preparation for the 1988 Olympic Games, and attended several
lectures by top Bulgarian coaches and scientists. I also held
private talks with the chief physician for the national
weightlifting team.
While in the USSR, our group attended lectures by top
Soviet coaches and scientists. The entire trip was an incredible
experience, with a lot of new and useful information being
learned. But, more questions than answers remained. What
complete system of training and restoration do the Soviet and
other East Bloc countries really use? What pharmacology do
they use? Many new questions were raised during this first trip
to the USSR.
In the Spring of 1988, I learned that a Soviet sport expert
from Moscow, Dr. Ben Tabachnik, was visiting family in
Baltimore and Washington, D.C. Ben’s position in Soviet sport
was head of the scientific research group for track and field
sprinters. He worked at the USSR National Research Institute
of Physical Culture in Moscow. After several telephone
conversations with Ben, I knew that the sport training questions
we discussed would be of great value to American athletes and
coaches. I invited Ben to visit me in California for five days.
During this meeting a great deal of information was exchanged.
Ben talked openly about the Soviet system of training and
restoration, information never before discussed with western
coaches. I in turn explained the American ways of training.
From this discussion it was clear that American athletes and
coaches weren’t aware of many highly effective means of
training. The two of us decided that much new information
from the USSR should be shared with American athletes and
coaches.
Ben’s task when he returned to the USSR was to establish
contacts with the best coaches and sport scientists, and to gain
as much information about the newest methods of training and
restoration as possible. Since Ben was already working at the
highest level of Soviet sport, this was not a problem. The best
coaches, pharmacologists, physiologists, biochemists, and
nutritionists were approached and asked to contribute to our
program. All of them agreed to help. Then, in the summer of
1989, I again travelled to the USSR, but this time I accomplished what had never before been possible. During this visit, I
met with the top coaches and sport scientists in the USSR, and
held talks concerning the new steroid alternative program with
Vasily Gromyko, Deputy Chairman of Soviet Sport.
Sergey Portougalov, Director of the Laboratory of Biologically Active Substances met with Ben and I on numerous
occasions to discuss steroid alternatives. From this experience,
I further realized that American athletes could improve their
sport results greaily by applying many of the Soviet methods of
training, and also by using their restoration means which
previously had been concealed from western athletes and
coaches.
Since November 1989 both of us have been busy prepar-
ing this book. After a ten year fight to leave the USSR, Ben
finaliy emigrated to the USA in April 1990 and has since been
lecturing to professional and college coaches about the Soviet
system of training. He has also been working individually with
many athletes from youth to the professiona! level on ways to
improve sport results. Ben continues to communicate regularly
with many top sport science and coaching colleagues in the
USSR, and we regularly host visiting sport scientists from
Soviet research institutes and national teams. This cooperative
arrangement is a first for the
USA, and only an indication of
great things to come.
What you have before you is a great deal of information
about the Soviet system of training and restoration. Much of
this information has never before been made available to
American athletes and coaches, and has certainly never been
presented in a complete systematic form. We have separated it
out into bite sized chunks so that you can see the main divisions, but you should always remernber that it is a system, and
it is the sum of the parts which make the Soviet system of
training and restoration so effective.
Rick Brunner
November 1990
San Francisco, California
PART I:
soviet and
American Sport
Advantages and
Disadvantages of
Soviet Sport
While no one can dispute the tremendous siccess the
Soviet Union has had in intemational sports competition over
the past thirty years, a most often asked question is “what
exactly do they do that makes them so good?” Our goa! when
we sei out to write this book was to set the record straight about
what is successful, and what is not successful with Soviet sport.
As you will see, there are many things the Soviet sports
program does that are superior to western methods. There are
also some incredibie obstacles that Soviet athletes must overcome to achieve success. By adding what is right with Soviet
sport to what is the best from the west, you will receive the
most superior sport development program ever developed.
Lei’s first look at what makes the Soviet program a success.
ADVANTAGES
Patriotic and Political Commitment
The Soviet government uses the sport program as a
mouthpiece to international acclaim. Each athlete is trained at
an early age to perform weil for motherland Russia, not just for
themselves. Let’s face it, the Soviet Union is best known for
building bombs and outstanding athletes. Aside from these, the
country is in tough shape politically, economically, and so-
cially. In today’s era, sports will continue to be of far greater
importance to the USSR than the USA simply because they
have placed sport within the political ideology of the state. If
sport wins, the country wins, goes the thinking.
A vast amount of money is spent on developing athletes in
the USSR, far more as a collective unit than that spent in the
USA or other western countries. Several times more money is
spent on the development of coaches, on sports research, and
on pharmacology.
Research, Research, And More Research.
Thirty to forty years ago, sport performances were much
less than they are today. Athletes could get away with training
only 4-5 times a week and still achieve good results. However,
the Soviet sport program observed that sport success at higher
levels demanded much more sophisticated research into the
methods of training and recovery. From this reasoning the
Soviet Union developed the first scientifically founded sport
program.
The Soviet Union conducts well over ten times as much
research in ways to develop athletes as do western countries. In
the National Institute of Physical Culture in Moscow alone,
there are over 1,000 researchers who devote their time solely to
making athletes better. In Leningrad there are another 500
research scientists. There are an additional thirty institutes of
physical culture throughout the USSR, and over 5,000 researchers who work with the elite national teams. These centers
have also produced hundreds of Ph.D’s which are very specialized in their research. For example, there are Ph.D degrees
bestowed in speed-endurance, wrestling techniques, the clean
and jerk in weight lifting, and pole vault just to name a few.
With such specialization, how could one not do better?
Research students as candidates for advanced masters and
doctorate degrees in sport biochemistry, pharmacology, and
physiology also work toward making the national team athletes
the very best. This combined effort is unheard of in the west
where very few research studies are conducted on athletes, and
those that are, are rarely applied to actual training plans.
Every Soviet national team has its own research group
which searches for the best methods of developing top athletes
for their particular sport. For example, because of its diversity,
track and field has five such groups: sprint and hurdle, jumps,
throws, endurance, and decathlon/heptathlon. During the
1980’s, Ben was head of the Soviet national team research
group in charge of sprint. He had thirty top level scientists who
worked with him in areas of biomechanics, biochemistry,
physiology, pharmacology, and sport psychology. Their task
was to provide the head coach of the national team with
information about an athletes condition before, during, and
after training and competition, to supply new research informa-
tion on speed development, and to help coaches improve their
skill level.
In addition to passing out information to athletes and
coaches, sport scientists also actively participate in the athletes’
training and development . It is common for research scientists
to travel with the national team to competitions where they
closely analyze the athletes competitive state. Sport psychologists for example are noted for their close contact with each
athlete for many years, even to the extent of living with the
athlete for a long period of time. Only in this way can they
make proper recommendations to coaches as well as directly
improve the psychological state of the athlete. Not only does
the Soviet national team have such a group of top scientists,
each republic such as the Ukraine, Beio-Russia, etc., has their
own research group for every sport.
In training camps it is common to have up to 30 research
scientists from different fields which assist upwards of ten
coaches in training fifty athletes. During high level competitions, research scientists analyze each Soviet athletes training
condition before, during and after competition. At the Goodwill
Games in Seattle, we observed Soviet scientists filming athletes
from every country. This film was then reviewed to determine
each athletes warm-up, competitive technique, and restorative
program which can give Soviet scientists and coaches new
ideas for future improvement of their athletes.
Standardized Coaching And Education
A big difference in sport development between the USA
and the USSR is in the training of coaches. In the USSR there
are two different degrees given, one for coaching and one for
teaching. In the USA we do not have a strong emphasis on
developing coaches. Parents, physical education majors, or ex-
jocks usually find their way into coaching, many willing but
unprepared to absorb the many techniques and methods which
must be used as a complex in order to optimize each athlete’s
potential. In the USA, physical education majors commonly
receive only two years of general education and two years of
major subjects such as learning technique in basketball,
baseball, football, track and field, etc. Top western coaches are
self-made, often not learning the best techniques from American textbooks, but rather from reading foreign publications and
watching international competitions on their own. In the Soviet
Union, students receive four years in a specific chosen sport,
complete with learning by lecture as well as practical coaching.
In the USA, students receive a brief introduction to many sports
which have less value for future use.
The Soviet Union has many specialized sport schools
which train coaches in individual sports such as track and field,
weight lifting, soccer, swimming, etc. Even the best Soviet
athletes, Olympic and world champions, must attend these
schools before being permitted to coach. In addition, a four
year specialized school only allows you to coach at sport
schools for young athletes. If you want to coach at a higher
level school or a special team, you must attend a high level
sport school for coaches located in a major Institute of Physical
Culture. There you undergo two additional years of education
towards the coaching of one specific sport. The USA sport
program has nothing even close to this. In fact, do we even
have a program?
All Soviet coaches learn from the same text books. Works
in biomechanics come from Viadamir Zats, physiology from
Yakov Kotz, biochemistry by
Nikolai Yakovlev, etc. Since all
students learn from a standard group of text books by the
leading specialists in the world, the best research in the world
reaches the coaches who can then put it to good use. This is not
to say that other textbooks are not referenced, many of course
are, but the emphasis is still placed on the works of the masters.
We believe this is a very effective means of training coaches.
The best information is made available, and it is used. In
contrast, western coaches are often bombarded with an array of
different books, theories and opinions which often are incom-
plete or in contrast to other works. This can create confusion as
to what is fact and what is fiction. We have observed many
western works which are mere duplication of what has already
been published. How many times must one re-invent the wheel,
or in the case of sport science, re-test the mouse? There are
certainly more progressive things authors of western books
could do with their time than duplicate what has already been
written. And westem scientists could be more progressive in
their research studies, especially when applied to advanced
athletes.
In addition to developing many fine coaches, the USSR
also develops many fine researchers. Many coaches and
researchers are one in the same. As an example, during the
period from 1970 to 1980, there were more than 60 doctorate
dissertations given to coaches for research emphasis in sprint
development. Track and field includes many coaches who not
only have advanced coaching degrees, but also doctorate
research degrees as well. Head coach of the track and field
national team Igor Ter-Ovanesyan, Valentin Balachnichov in
sprints, and Yuri Bakarinov in throwing events all hold doctorate degrees which give them a very broad and powerful
information base which can apply to training the best athletes,
not only in track and field, but also in basketball, weight lifting,
speed skating, etc. In the USA it is very rare to find a coach
who has an advanced scientific degree in their sport. Researchers in the USA tend to bury their heads in the ivory towers of
academia, while coaches hold fast to the playing field and
weight room. The two rarely work together to solve today’s
problems of developing advanced athletes.
The differences in the education and training of coaches
from the USA and USSR can be seen in the techniques of
athletes. In the USA, it is common to see many different
training methods and competitive techniques. In the USSR,
because the coaches are all given excellent information and
base education, the technique of athletes in training and
competition is very similar, incorporating the best methods
discovered through sound scientific research.
As a further incentive of ensuring that the best and most
current research is given to coaches, every five years each
coach must participate in a full month of extension courses
which include lectures and practical exercises into the latest
methods of training and restoration for their sport. If they do
not do this, they can be dismissed as a coach.
Soviet national coach and Olympic champion Anatoly Bondarchuk
and Ben Vabachnik reunite at the Goodwill Games in Seattle to
further their friendship and commitment to mutual exchange of
sport research and information.
Organization In The Long Range
Preparation Of Athletes
One of the biggest advantages of the Soviet system of
developing top athletes is long range preparation. You’re
probably aware that Soviet athletes often begin training at a
young age. Of course, this is nothing new to the west either,
where sports such a American football, baseball and basketball
recruit athletes from the age of ten. The difference lies in the
thoroughness of the Soviet selection and development process
of young athletes.
Each sport has a specific “model” athiete which they base
their recruitment on. Coaches look for young talented athletes
of a specific body type, flexibility, speed, endurance, and age
for each sport. Swimming starts at about age five, track and
field at nine, and weightlifting at eleven. In the pole vault for
example, world record holder and Olympic champion Sergey
Bubka, began training at age nine. His best attempt at age 14
1]
was 11°10" and by age 18 he had cleared 178". In 1983 at the
age of 20 he became the world champion. He continued to set
new world records and in 1988 he set a world record at a
phenomenal 19’10.5". In contrast, young athletes in the west
rarely begin to vault until they reach high school at age 14, five
years later than a Soviet athlete!
There are four sport grades which young athletes pass
through. In addition to their general studies, these gifted young
athletes attend special sport schools after their regular schooling. Each passes through a series of four levels; preliminary,
initial, specification and specialization. In the beginning,
athletes work on general conditioning. This usually involves a
variety of exercises and games which improve the body’s
general tone. As they mature, they are given greater opportunity to practice drills relating more to their chosen sport, and
finally, to practice the sport itself. In other words, each sport
starts an athlete at a certain age, performing base development
exercises which improve the athletes fitness level gradually,
while at the same time building confidence. It makes sense to
start early, take the time to build a good base, and prepare the
young athlete for a long and successful career in sport. But just
starting early is only the beginning. In order to maximize sport
results, a complete system or plan must be in place. The Soviet
youth sport program has such a plan.
While athletes in the west also begin training at a young
age in some sports such as baseball, football, and basketball,
often times young athletes are placed in a competitive environ-
ment right from the start. In the USA, there is little preparatory
time spent to strengthen the body and improve flexibility. Great
improvements in sport results will occur when young athletes
modify their training to include much more developmental
training rather than rushing into competition without the
necessary tools for top success. The best examples for a
planned youth program in the USA can be found in swimming,
tennis, and gymnastics. These are also some of our best international sports. Any wonder why?
Sport Schools In The USSR
The Soviet Union is famous for their concept of the sport
school, and many
countries such as East Germai.y and Bulgaria
have applied this system with great success. There are three
types of sport schools. The fist contains many different sports
such as weight lifting, track and field, gymnastics, etc. This
type of school is common in small cities and towns where the
economics of a complex group of sports is most effective. The
second type is a special sport school where the emphasis is on
one sport. Some of these are quite large and contain upwards of
thirty five coaches and over 1,000 athletes. The two schools
mentioned are exclusively for training, and each athlete must
first attend his or her regular school for general education.
The third school 1s for the very best athietes. These
athletes are able to receive an education and train within one
school. All education, training, meals and housing are paid by
the state. In this special school exercises are performed at least
twice daily, and the athlete also has the opportunity to train at a
special camp three to four times a year. This program grants
many athletes the opportunity to train in a professional way
from a very young age. Gifted track and field athletes and
weightlifters can attend these schools beginning about age 15,
swimming and gymnastic age 9-10, etc. The elite athletes in
this group are graduates of the first two schools, so they have
already been prepared quite well. ’
In the advanced schools there are many support coaches
and trainers such as masseurs, physicians, physiotherapists,
pharmacologists etc. There are even entertainers who help the
athletes relax by putting on shows and concerts. Many top
athletes graduate from these schools. It is common for most of
the 15 republics in the USSR to have at least one special sport
school for each sport. Track and field boasts over 30,
weightlifting 10, and basketball 20 such schools.
Over 80% of all coaches in the USSR work in one of the
three forms of sport schools mentioned. These sport schools
produce all of the top athletes which continue on to higher
levels. After each athlete graduates from a special school at
around age 17-18, the best of them can continue their preparation in a special sport club such as Dynamo, Military Army,
and others, or in a special school for top athletes.
The athletes who continue on are paid a salary depending
on their success. Those on a Republic team are paid more than
100 rubles a month. For those who participate in sport clubs at
the national level their salary can be 140-180 rubles a month. If
they are a member of the national team, they earn from 200-
500 rubles a month. These figures gain their perspective when
you compare them with the average salary of the common
worker who earns 150 rubles each month. Even more shocking
is the fact that graduates of universities in physics, medicine,
engineering and the like earn only 120-140 rubles monthly!
Above and beyond the salary paid to top athletes, many
receive money for all meals and housing which ranges from 612 rubles a day. Before Olympic games this amount climbs to
18 rubles a day. In addition, all top athletes are treated to the
best meals, living conditions and other luxuries rarely seen by
any Soviet citizen. The state provides the best athletes with a
free apartment, car and other luxuries. A car is an incredible
gift because most Soviets haven’t one because they cost
between five and ten times the average workers yearly salary.
Can you imagine working ten years for a compact car? The
Soviet state takes great care of the top athletes when compared
with the common person.
After reading about the many advantages of the Soviet
system of training and recovery, you may be asking yourself “if
their system is so good and has so many advantages compared
to the USA and other western countries, why are their perfor-
mances in many sports equal or inferior to those in the west?”
We'll answer this question in the following section on disadvantages of the Soviet system.
Sergey Litvinov, 1988 Olympic gold medalist in the hammer throw.
At the age of 16 he threw 60.68 meters (199 feet) and by the age of
28 he had threwn a near world record 86.04 meters (282 feet).
DISADVANTAGES
Soviet Political System And Sport
While the relationship between Soviet sport and the
political system serves to feed the sport complex with much
needed capital, there are also some great problems with this
united effort. Because of a greater openness between the East
Bloc and the West, the economic and political condition of the
USSR is no longer a secret. You now know that the Soviet
political system has produced disaster economically, but you
may not know the same holds true in sport.
Because the Soviet sport system is a part of the Commu-
nist plan, it has inherited many of the inefficiencies and shortcomings that the economic and political systems harbor. The
goal of those in the sport programs is to do their best, but just as
the farmer, miner, doctor, etc., must put up with great amounts
of red tape, so too must those in sport. Even with the finest
researchers and coaches in the world, it remains very difficult
to excel due to many shortcomings which have their roots in
the communist system.
It is not our task to discuss the problems within the Soviet
political system. Much has been devoted to this question by
western media over the past few years. We all recognize the
Soviet economy is in bad shape, and that it is the political
ideology which got it there. Recognize also that the Soviet sport
program must operate within this system as well. It is the
negative effects, rooted in the social programs which cross over
into the sport program, that we will discuss further. Because of
Peristroika, all Soviet citizens now know the truth about Soviet
sport. Now for the first time, so will you.
Leadership In Soviet Sport
Because of its importance, the Soviet Union’s national
sport program , called “Goskomsport”, is a communist state
controlled organization. Unlike a democratic method of
16
electing officials, the top Soviet officials are appointed by the
central committee of the communist party. Often times the
appointed official or coach holds the high ranking position not
because of their quality of work, but rather due to their allegiance to the communist philosophy. Many of these officials
come from either the Commsomol, a political party for youth
before joining the communist party, or from military programs,
and they have poor working knowledge of managing a sport
program.
High level coaches are also often appointed by top
officials, not because they are a good coach but because they
don’t make waves within the sport program. In the past it was
very rare for any coach to criticize the direction of the Soviet
sport system. Since the sport magazine for the USSR was
published by Goskomsport, all articles are screened for critical
remarks.
Ben recalls a time when he submitted an article to the
sport magazine. It wasn’t his first, but he had some critical
things to say about how the head coach for sprint, and officials
of track and fieid were developing sprinters. He began the
article by stating that since the excellent results of the 1972
Olympic champion in sprint, Valery Borzov, the USSR had
produced very poor sprinters. Ben followed this with examples
of why this happened, concluding with his ideas on how to
correct the problem. His criticism of the top officials and
coaches was clearly outlined. Since the chief editor of Soviet
Sport magazine often screened the submitted articles, Ben
waited until he was away on vacation before he submitted his
article. He knew it would not be published unless he could
sneak it by those officials who screen all materials. The article
was published, and it was distributed to all coaches in the
USSR.
The day the article hit the street, Ben was summoned to
report to the directors office of the National Institute of Physi-
cal Culture. Sitting across from the director and the head of
track and field, Ben was grilled as to who gave him permission
to criticize the national sport program. To criticize anything a
few years ago was no small matter. In Stalin’s time and shortly
after, criticism of such magnitude would have gotten you sent
to a concentration camp. If you criticized anything, it was as if
you were criticizing the communist philosophy and way of life,
a definite no-no in Soviet politics.
Ben survived the questioning. No one could disagree that
his opinion was justified and the ideas he presented were
correct. Many coaches from other sports who read Ben’s article
later came forward in agreement with his critique and suggestions for change.
Even today, coaches are reluctant to disagree with officials because of possible demotion or being prevented from
travelling abroad. Since Goskomsport issues the visas to travel,
if you get on their bad side you will never be allowed to travel.
This is unfortunate, because by stifling new ideas the creativity
is reduced, and many improvements are surely suppressed.
Success as far as a higher paying position often comes not from
being a good coach, rather it comes from playing by the rules.
Articles are published only about the positive aspects of Soviet
sport, while the negatives are suppressed. Without openness,
improvements are less likely than they should be.
Short Term Success
The Soviet Union has spent a great deal of time and
money researching the proper way to train athletes. The
outcome of many years of research dictates that long range
preparation of athletes is necessary for success in sport. We will
discuss the long range plan in detail in following sections, but
for now we will define this as a scientifically designed long
term plan developed for each athlete which will maximize their
results. The athlete’s individuai plan begins at a young age (8-
12), and is built upon every year well into the Master of Sport
category. A major component of the plan is that each athlete
progresses at a planned speed which will maximize his or her
sport potential. An excellent example of long range preparation
is the use of such a system by East Germany. The coaches in
East Germany have concentrated their poo! of talented athletes
from a young age, helping a great percentage of them to reach
the highest level in sport. They took a good Soviet idea of
training design and made it work like it should.
In contrast, the Soviet system is sometimes fragmented so
that coaches of young athletes are rewarded for today’s success,
not tomorrow’s. Many athletes are pushed to excel before their
time, the coaches going for the quick battle victory, but ultimately losing the war. It is easy for a less educated coach to
lose patience and go for the quick win, while a more talented
coach will attempt to use the long range preparation of training
which is the most effective means of helping an athlete reach
their highest level of sport success.
Because of the pressure to coach for today’s win rather
than prepare the athlete for future success, like being a European or Olympic champion, many coaches fail to design a good
training plan and resort to using anabolic steroids. This is an
unfortunate reaction, and by making rapid short term improvements, an athlete is often pushed too hard and fast. Many
athletes drop out of sport because of injury or early burnout.
Who knows how far many athletes might have gone had they a
coach who sacrificed short term success for a long term
champion. Which leads us to another weakness of Soviet sport,
that of research which never gets used.
Research Hits A Wall
The Soviet Union conducts more sport research than all
other countries in the world combined. They know more about
American athletes than American coaches and scientists, and
are constantly searching for the best ways to train their athletes.
We mentioned the advantage of having hundreds of sport
research scientists within dozens of institutes and universities,
over 1,000 within the Moscow Institute of Physical Culture
alone. The trouble is, about 80% of this research becomes
unused by Soviet coaches. There are several reasons for this.
While a research institute may have 500 researchers, there
are no “middlemen” who are responsible for passing this
information on to coaches. What is needed are about 25 such
people who bridge the gap between science and practice. Does
this sound familiar? It is the same thing that happens in the
USA. America has very capable researchers in its universities,
but one big shortcoming is that most researchers do not communicate with coaches. Again, the East German sport system
proves that when research is applied, great sport success
happens. How else could a country with less people than the
state of California field an Olympic team that places second in
medals at the 1988 Olympic Games in Seoul? The secret is just
plain common sense. We must conduct investigative laboratory
research on athletes, apply this research in actual field trials,
and then put the best methods learned into practice by commu-
nicating to coaches and athletes on a regular and non-scientific
basis.
The system or organization of coaching and sport science
development is not as good as it should be. While many smart
researchers and coaches graduate with high degrees, they are
actually paid much worse than a common laborer. In addition,
each coach at a certain level is paid the same. Because there is
no incentive to work harder, many Soviet coaches graduate and
20
then become lazy. After all, why perform a good job in coaching and research when you are paid the same no matter what
you do. There are many great ideas that stay undeveloped
because there is no incentive or reward to apply them.
The Condition Of Life
No other disadvantage has as great effect on a Soviet
athletes performance then the general condition of life. It’s true
that top athletes are often treated well by given housing, good
meals, a car, a telephone, etc. While these are considered
necessities in the west, they are luxunes in the USSR. The
living conditions are very harsh when compared to western
standards. Perhaps that is why the USSR was able to fight off
the German army during World War IL. It is common for Soviet
pecple to put up with great hardships, while the German army
was used to the best living conditions. The Soviet people are
tough because they have to be to survive.
Since the top athletes of today were the beginner athletes
of yesteryear, it makes sense to treat the young athletes well
too. However, in the USSR the living conditions are so bad that
young athletes must put up with a lot of hardships that western
athletes could never imagine. No doubt their performance is
adversely affected. Housing is very scarce for all Soviet people.
A typical family lives in a two room apartment. That’s a total or
two rooms, a kitchen /living room and one bedroom! In this
apartment may live upwards of six or seven people. The young
athlete in the typical house has no privacy to relax or study, and
the stress from home life is great.
Another harsh reality for a Soviet athlete is the amount of
travel required to receive training. In larger cities it is common
to spend upwards of three hours in transit, to-and-from the
stadium. First by metro or tram, then by bus, then by walking.
This of course must be repeated after practice as well, a time
21
which could be better spent recovering. Also, the methods of
transportation such as train or bus are usually overcrowded, so
the athlete is subjected to stress and also has no chance to study
for regular classes. The many hours of travel each week are
simply a waste of time.
Just when the living conditions seemed bad enough, along
comes a shortage of nutritious foods. Ben adds that it’s not just
a lack of nutritious foods, but a lack of any foods. Sometimes a
young athlete returns home after training only to find no food at
all. You’ve no doubt seen the pictures of long lines of people
waiting to purchase many of the foods we take for granted such
as sugar, meat, eggs, fruits and vegetables, and most recently
bread. Athletes must live in this same system as well. Even at
the elite athlete level, the variety of foods is not even close to
that in the west. When we take visiting Soviet scientists through
a California supermarket, they are blown away at the variety
and freshness of foods. They would never dream of such a
thing in the USSR.
As an example, in July 1989 a group of Soviet coaches,
scientists and the two of us were having dinner at the sport
hotel in Moscow. The topic of meat came up, and we compared
the beef from the USA with that from the USSR. In the USA,
you can buy fresh meat and then freeze it for a few days. In the
Soviet Union it is common to find meat frozen for up to two
years! It’s not a pretty sight. Why is this so? Again, the communist plan dictates when cattle will be raised, and when the
beef will be distributed. The times are not close together. There
are many more examples of such crazy conditions.
We’ve dined with athletes from the Soviet national teams
many times. Our observations clearly show there is a great
deficiency of fruits, vegetables, and lean meats. In place of
them you will find a lot of starchy foods empty of nutrients,
protein foods like sausage loaded with dime sized globs of fat,
22
and high fat cheese. In a study for Goskomsport in 1988 we
calculated the typical Soviet sportsman’s diet to contain about
50-65% fat calories! It’s easy to step back and recommend that
they simply modify their diet to contain more carbohydrates
and low fat protein foods, but this is not an easy task. While
they still need protein, it often comes from sausage and cheese
which is rich in fats. We recommended specific nutritional
supplements which contain high quality proteins, vitamins and
minerals, without fats to supplement the normal diet.
When McDonald’s first opened a fast food hamburger
outlet in Moscow, the wait for a meal was a couple of hours.
Thousands of customers lined up, not just for the novel effect,
but because they considered it a great meal. In order to make
the restaurant a success, McDonald’s had to build their own
greenhouses and farms to grow high quality vegetables and
cattle. A special potato was brought in because Soviet potatoes
are so small they couldn’t make a french fry out of them. Does
the answer to the problem of poor meals for developing young
Soviet athletes demand more fast food restaurants in the
USSR? Nutritionists in the USA warm us to avoid fast foods. In
the USSR they would be ecstatic if they had such good meals.
As a summary, the condition of life for most Soviet
athletes is very bad. The future of sport in any country relies on
it’s youth, but in the USSR these are the athletes who must put
up with such incredible hardships. As if training hard weren’t
enough, the stresses of poor housing, long travel times in
crowded buses and trains, and scarce high quality food place an
unnecessary burden on the Soviet athlete. There is much room
for improvements in these areas.
Facilities And Equipment
Picture the scene in Rocky IV, where Rocky is training in
the USSR for his fight against the mighty Russian heavyweight, Ivan Dragov. Rocky is shown working out in an old
28
barn, training with makeshift weights and running in the snow.
In contrast, Dragov is supervised by several scientists and
coaches while he trains on the most sophisticated computerized
equipment the world has ever seen. In real life, this scenario is
just the opposite. The Soviets are training in barns and base-
ments, and the equipment is forged from old railroad car axles.
They also run in the snow. Most Soviet athletes have never
seen a computer, let alone a computerized Cybex machine, a
Lifecycle, or a Stairmaster. They are using equipment that
athletes in America haven’t used since the 1950’s. There is a
shortage of every kind of equipment, including running shoes,
bicycles, weights and weight machines, clothing, etc. While
western athletes are used to machines with all sorts of bells and
whistles, Soviet athletes would be happy just having a set of
free weights and a good bar.
If the equipment is nonexistent or of poor quality, the
facilities are worse. An athlete can always do a lot with an
Olympic bar and free weights, but when you can’t train for
your sport in the winter because there are no indoor facilities,
you lose valuable time that can never be made up. Take for
example the plight of Rodeon Gataulin, ranked the second best
pole vaulter in the world. Rodeon comes from Tashkent where
the winters are harsh. Tashkent however has no indoor facility
from which he can train. As he improved, he was forced to
move to Leningrad where there was an indoor facility, leaving
his family and more importantly, his coach behind.
In addition to few indoor facilities in harsh climates, there
is also a scarcity of good running surfaces and swimming pools
which may be why the success in these sports is lacking. For
bodybuilders it is even more difficult to locate a place to train
and the equipment to train with. In many cases training is
conducted in someone’s basement by police permission, and
the equipment is forged from scrap metal. A Soviet basement is
24
not like those found in the USA. They are dirty underground
holes with no windows or fresh air. Bodybuilders train with rats
and cats running about. There are, of course, gyms for bodybuilders, but they are located only in the largest cities and don’t
even compare to the worst gyms in the USA. In fact, just a few
years ago bodybuilding was forbidden. It was considered an
expression of one’s individuality, and ran contrary to the belief
of the communist system of equality. There are now thousands
of athletes who wish to bodybuild, and although it is now
permitted, still can’t because ofa lack of facilities and equipment. One can only imagine how much better Soviet athletes
would be provided they have more facilities in which to train,
and more equipment. Even the very worst from the USA would
be a blessing for many Soviet athletes.
We’ ve painted a picture in this section of the advantages
and disadvantages of the Soviet sport system because it’s
important for you to know what the the strengths and weaknesses are. In many ways, the sport strengths of the USSR are
the weaknesses of the USA, and vice versa. By learning which
advantages and strengths make each countnies athletes so
successful, we can then develop the ideal sport development
plan. In this regard, the athletes from the west are in a better
position to move ahead because many of the weaknesses are
related to technique, planning, and scientific application, while
the weaknesses in the USSR are rooted in cultural and political
systems.
A good example of what we are talking about is the sport
system of East Germany. Since the 1972 Olympic games, the
GDR has dominated many international sports. In the 1988
Olympics in Seoul they finished second in the medal count,
with the USSR finishing first, and the USA third. The East
German success is obviously not because they have a large
pool of talented athletes from which to choose. On the contrary,
the total population of East Germany is about 20 million, while
25
the population of the USA is 240 million, and the USSR 280
million. The major reason why the GDR is so successful is
because they have optimally applied the Soviet systems of
training and restoration to all levels of athletes.
Each year many East German coaches and scientists
would travel to the USSR for training. While they may not
have had the resources to carry out a lot of scientific study, they
did make a great effort in using what they did learn to its
maximum ability. They also eliminated the many hardships like
poor food, living conditions, equipment and facilities found in
Soviet sport. Few talented East German athletes fall through the
cracks. While the Soviet and American sports programs may
start with 100 potentially gifted athletes, they may ultimately
field only one. The GDR on the other hand may start with ten,
and field ten. They have done the best with the limited quantity
of talent they have, focusing more on the quality. We speak of
the effective system of the GDR in past tense because now they
have united with West Germany. Today, GDR athletes have
lost full support from the state and they must begin looking for
a part time job to support themselves. The outcome in sport
from this merger isn’t hard to anticipate, and the performances
of top former East German athletes is already being adversely
affected by re-unification with West Germany.
We liken the success of the East German sport program to
the success by Japan in the auto and electronic industry. Japan
too started with nothing, often copying and learning from
American companies, and putting this knowledge to work more
efficiently and effectively. The following sections of this book
will outline the proven training and recovery methods which
will help make you the best you can be. It’s up to you to put
forth a systematic plan to optimize these techniques, by combining the best that the USSR has to offer, with the best of the
USA.
26
a“ +
Y
YY
WM’’JIW0W03000
Kast German shot putter and 1988 Olympic gold medalist Ulf
Timmermann.
vay
American Training And
Restoration Methods:
A Soviet Viewpoint
Many weaknesses in American programs are strengths in
the Soviet programs.The following section looks at some of the
gaps in the American way of training. By accepting these
shortcomings we can then develop a methodology to correct
them. Many of these corrective means will come from the
Soviet system of training.
There are no doubts that American athletes are doing
things right in regards to training. In the 1988 summer Olympic
Games in Seoul , South Korea, the United States finished third
in the medal count behind the Soviet Union and East Germany.
But, just as the USSR sport program has its deficiencies, so
does the USA sport program. Our task in this section is not to
downgrade the American training system, but to outline those
areas that can be greatly improved.
There are many talented coaches in the USA, some with
training methods even ahead of the Soviet system. For example, in swimming, these programs are close to or ahead of
Soviet programs. Many sports in one way or another have
adapted Soviet methods of training with great success.
In addition to qualified coaches, the USA has the greatest
number of talented athletes in the world. However, athletes
participating in the most popular sports in the USA, baseball,
basketball and football, still have great untapped potential. We
are enthusiastic about the many possibilities for other power
sports as well, such as weightlifting, powerlifting, and throwing
events in track and field. We are convinced the Soviet training
system will make big improvements in the results of these
events.
28
The American programs of training are well recognized
by Soviet experts. For many years, translators at the Moscow
Institute of Physical Culture have translated many American
sport books and magazines. In addition, every Soviet coach has
the opportunity to read these publications through the institute’s
sport library. The research and practical information gained
from reading western publications has allowed these coaches to
keep track of the latest sport development methods from the
west. In contrast, much of the training techniques and methods
from the USSR have remainecLunturned, not because they are
so secret, but because nobody from the west had access to
them.What western coaches and athletes have received is
sketchy and incomplete information. But, as the saying goes, “a
little knowledge is dangerous”.
AMERICAN TRAINING HAS NO SYSTEM
System: A regularly interacting or interdependent
group of methods forming a unified
complex.
There are many interrelated parts to proper training, each
one with its own unique function, used at specific times, in a
specific order. Some of the parts of the Soviet system of
training and restoration are well known in the USA, but much
is not known. Equally important is how the entire system 1s
complexed together. American coaches have parts to the
puzzle, but don’t know how important the parts are, which
athletes should use them, or how and where they fit in the
training plan.
The American program has no system of training from
beginners to top athletes. There are no guidelines as to what
training methods should be used at certain stages of an athlete’s
development. No one book seems to exist in the west which
29
adequately outlines how to identify talented young athletes,
how to test them, how much they should train or what exercises
they should perform. Ben is often asked a series of re-occurring
questions such as: at what age should we begin to look for
talented athletes, when should athletes begin to use weights,
and at what age is it advisable to specialize?
Lack Of Preparation Of Youth
For all sportsmen, the ages between 8-13 are the most
important years to develop the major characteristics of sport.
This is the period when quickness, speed, coordination, power
and flexibility are developed the most. International research
scientists have proven that certain centers of the brain respon-
sible for motor functions reach maturity by the age of 12 to 13
years. After this time it is very difficult, often impossible to
develop these functions. Many sports today are so competitive,
and the results so high, that it becomes important to begin
developing athletes at a younger age. If we wait until later, a
great amount of effort must be spent to improve the characteristics mentioned above, if they can even be improved at all.
In the USA, many athletes are not introduced to sports
until they reach high school at the age of 14-15. By this time a
great opportunity has been lost in developing these athletes,
many of which could have, and should have, started at ages 89. In addition, by the time young people reach high school,
many have already lost interest in sport, choosing other non-
sporting activities. From age 8-10 these youngsters wanted to
participate in sport, but many didn’t have the chance or guidance to do so. There is a great gap between secondary grades
and high school in the development of young athletes. This is a
great loss to American sport.
In high school, boys and girls have the chance to participate in many sports. It is common for young athletes to com-
pete in two or three sports during a year. For some athletes like
30
sprinters, this multi-sport program is not always harmful, but
for more technical sports such as pole vault and gymnastics, it
is impossible to achieve sport mastery in such a way. Modern
sport demands special preparation. It demands training for a
specific sport 4-5 days a week, year round. By participating in
many sports during a year, how could we possibly expect a
pole vaulter to excel with only 3-4 months of vaulting? The
answer is, we can’t.
Please don’t misinterpret our message here, we are not
proposing that athletes should specialize in just one sport. But,
if an athlete seriously wants to excel in a particular sport, he or
she will have to train year round to do so. Anything less is not
going to result in the highest performance. Much of the effort
of today’s advanced athletes is spent correcting shortcomings
that could have been prevented had they participated in a more
structured training program during their youth, especially in the
areas of coordination, flexibility, speed and quickness.
Soviet athletes participate in an effective long range
program, from youth ail the way to the highest international
level. Each athlete has a long term goal, as well as a goal for
their stage of experience. Like the belt colors and degrees in
Karate, all Soviet athletes participate in levels which allows
them to set their sight on achieving the next highest level.
These classifications start from left to right as follows: youth
class, class III, Il, 1, candidate master of sport, master of sport,
and the highest level which is the international master of sport.
The outcome of athletes achieving results at one level, then
moving on to the next highest level, is an excellent example of
both short and long range goal setting and preparation.
Coaching In The USA
Coaches of different sports oftentimes have their own
methods of training and conditioning. Even in the best of high
schools, there is not one main direction for an athlete to go.
31
Oftentimes the programs of football, basketball and baseball
are much different, each taking its own direction when preparing athletes. The football coach may preter free weights, and
stress the squat and bench press. The basketball coach believes
heavy weightlifting is bad because it hurts coordination and can
damage the feel of the ball. The Baseball coach encourages the
use of weight machines, but not other means. Each of these
sport plans are separate, while the athlete remains the same. A
more united approach for the improvement of the athlete would
be for coaches to support each other and combine their conditioning programs so that the athlete improves year round. There
are no guidelines, no structure, and most of all, no system for
the yearly plan in many American programs. The coaching
methods among American coaches within a particular sport is
quite diverse. Their philosophies concerning training methods
and exercises often vary. Coaches of different sports should
work together to develop a system of training and a common
direction for individual athletes.
Today, many American coaches are asking questions
about Soviet periodization, planning, and plyometrics (a form
of explosive exercises). We have read many recent articles and
books from the USA which discuss macro and micro-cycles,
even though the Soviet scientist Dr. A. Matveev invented these
training methods in the late 1960's. With great delay, they are
just now being discussed in the USA. In the past ten years,
many of A. Matveev’s ideas about volume, intensity and waves
of training have been changed in the USSR, especially for top
athletes. American coaches have literally been 10-15 years
behind in learning enough about the Soviet system to make it
effective.
We have also seen many books about plyometrics which
were written by American authors. For the USA, plyometrics
may be new, but they have been included in the Soviet system
of training since their development by Professor Y. Verkho-
eS)ie)
shansky back in 1962, some 28 years ago! Plyometrics includes
many exercises such as skipping, bounding, hoping, medicine
ball tosses, jump rope, and depth jumps. Coaches in the USA
have greatly exaggerated the significance of plyometrics in
training. They are effective only when used properly in complex with other training means. If solid planning is not considered, plyometrics will do more harm than good. What degree of
plyometric exercises should be used by a specific athlete?
When should they be used? How do the athletes condition
themselves to use it? What other exercises are compatible
within a single training session? Only when all these questions
are correctly answered can plyometrics be most effective.
When Ben has coached American athletes who have used
plyometrics, he has found they still have difficulty performing
the simplest of explosive exercises. Take for example a 15year-old athlete who had recently trained with Ben. He had
previously been instructed to use box jump plyometrics, which
are typically used only by the most advanced athietes. When
Ben tested him, 1t was discovered he had trouble handling even
the most basic plyometric exercises, let alone more intensive
box jumps. Ben had the athlete jump from a squat position as
high as he could, rebound and repeat for ten repetitions. He
failed to do this exercise correctly. In a standing long jump
exercise, which all Soviet athletes perform regularly before
plyometrics, this athlete also performed poorly. in fact, Soviet
children age 11-13 can perform these exercises more effectively. [t was not due to his lack of poteniial that he couldn’t
perform the test exercises correctly. It was that he had never
been taught them. This is a commonly found pattern in the
training of many American athletes. There are many intensity
levels of plyometrics, and you shouldn’t perform the advanced
forms until you can handle the simpler movements. Trouble is,
American athletes don’t know about the simpler movements.
32
Age or experience has nothing to do with how well an
athlete performs plyometrics. Ben has tested a large number of
college and professional athletes and many have failed to
perform even the most common jumping exercises. In one case
Ben was asked to work privately with a talented basketball
player. This athlete was interested in improving his jumping
ability through plyomeirics, which he was already using. Upon
examination of his training methods, Ben found him to be
lacking in basic jumping skills. These skills must be mastered
before any athlete begins more advanced plyometrics. He was
actually doing more harm than good, so Ben instructed him
how to perform basic jumping exercises that were needed
before using more advanced methods. These new drills were
tailor made for his individual needs. Other basketball players
on the program required slightly different methods which
demanded individual attention for maximum results. Many
American athletes have such poor preparation that they need to
begin at a more basic level of training. The misuse of
plyometrics is another example of how a lack of complete
information about any exercise can be dangerous.
Sport medicine professor Sergey Popov, Rick Brunner, and world
recognized expert in strength and power development Dr. Yuri
Verkhoshansky at the State Central Institute of Physical Culture in
Moscow.
34
Too Much Attention To Strength?
American coaches place (00 much emphasis on strength
development. Strenpth is necessary, but we are surprised that
athletes in power and speed related sports perform many of the
general preparatory exercises used by bodybuilders such as flat
bench press, arm curls, and pull downs. The strength prepara
hon is offentimes not much different fora sprinter, football
player, or basketball player. In contrast, within the USSR sport
propram, every sport has tts own special strength exercises. As
an cxample, the Soviet Olympic style weightlifting team won
six gold medals out of a possible ten in the 198% Olympics.
These athictes perform only sport specific lifts such as: squat,
snatch, and clean and jerk, Twenty years apo, Soviet
weightlifters performed a variety of lifts, many of which were
not specific. Today though, records are much higher than when
less specific methods were used. You won't find a Soviet
weiphditter of today with big arms or massive traps, because
they aren’t that necessary lor success in Olympic style
weightlifting, fi all comes down to sport specific strength.
Your task wil be to first determine what exercises are
right for your event. In football, there are different positions
which require special methods of training, yet many programs
don’t differentiate cnough between the preparation of lineman,
defensive backs, and receivers. In order to maximize perfor
mance, it is necessary to develop special strength exercises that
are unique to cach position or event. American coaches have
done an outstanding job in strength development. But, strength
does not directly lead to maximum power, it often leads only to
increased muscle size. In all sports except for bodybuilding, it
is important to have maximum power, which demands special
CXCICISCS,
Let's compare a top ranked football lineman with an elite
shot putter or discus thrower. Both are bip, weighing in excess
of 260 pounds. The throwers are quicker and can jump higher
35
than the football player who spends much more time in the
weight room. In fact, it is common for a top thrower to run a
4.4 to 4.6 second 40-yard sprint! American track and field
throwers are very explosive and fast as witnessed by Perry
O’Brien years ago, or Brian Oldfield in the early 1980's. These
are fast and explosive athletes who have trained specifically for
power, and not strength.
A football player can develop greater power and speed by
using the training methods of Olympic style weight lifters, as
well as jumping and short distance sprints (40yds for receivers,
20yds for lineman) from track and field. Due to their explosive-
ness training, Soviet weightlifters and throwers perform 20
yard sprints and jumping exercises with comparable results to
many of the best sprinters and long jumpers. An example of
explosive strength can be seen in the jumping results of Yuri
Vardanyan, Olympic and world weightlifting champion. His
results for the standing long jump is 11°6" and for the standing
high jump is 373". Isn’t this the form of explosive strength that
football, and many other sports want? It is possible within one
year to lower even the best professional football players 40
yard sprint time by .2-.4 seconds. American athlete’s should
look toward the preparation of track and field athletes and
Olympic style weightlifters to learn more about how to increase
power and speed.
About Speed
Speed is a critical component for most sporting events.
Even marathon runners often times sprint the last 200 meters of
a race at full speed. The USA has the greatest sprinters in the
world as proven in many Olympic Games, yet many coaches
only separately address parts of the system of developing sprint
speed. Football, basketball and baseball speed conditioning is
even further behind. Sometimes even the definition of speed,
quickness, and power get mixed up.
36
Speed is not a pure quality. It is a complex of quickness,
power, special speed-strength, speed-endurance, flexibility,
good technique, coordination, and timed relaxation. All of these
factors must be put together in a mixture unique for each sport.
Your first task is to determine the special speed requirements of
your sport, event or position. Sprinters must train one way for
speed, while weightlifters, basketball players, each position on
a football team, baseball players and others must train specifically for their sports speed requirements. The trouble is, many
athletes train for strength like a bodybuilder, and endurance as a
long distance runner. Both of these are performed at a slow
pace. When it comes time for participation at full speed in their
sport, they can only perform at a slow pace because that’s the
way they have trained. Worse yet, when maximal speed is
called upon, and the muscle has been trained at a slower pace,
an injury can occur. Pulled muscles are almost always prevent-
able, provided the athlete trains using special-speed exercises
directly related to his or her sport. For example, it is counter-
productive for football players to run at a slow pace around a
track, as this will only train them to perform at a slow pace
during competition.
Ben has reviewed many American books and tapes on
how to develop speed, but he couldn’t find a complete system
for developing sprinters. All of them discussed separate parts of
the system of speed development, and often exaggerated the
focus on technique. Questions such as what an athlete does
with his head, arms, hands, and thighs are common. It is not so
easy to make concrete recommendations about technique just
by what you see visually, it is also what you don’t see, the
biomechanical and neurological components of the sport.
Technique is presented in such a complicated way that it makes
natural movements appear more complicated than they are. If
you observe children age 7-8, their technique is the same as the
best top athletes. Technique is not the major problem in speed
3H]
development, as special physical preparation must lead the way
before any technique is mastered. Jumping ahead and working
on technique first will result in a lack of base development
which is essential for top sport mastery.
An example of mis-directed training is the accent on
developing leg extensor technique during the sprint. Athletes
are told to make a straight leg during the push-off phase.
Research has proven that this is not the most efficient tech-
nique, as even top athletes don’t have a straight leg when
extending at push off. Much of American speed training
methods focus on technique, but this is only one part of speed
development. It is of greater importance to design a yearly plan
which incorporates a variety of effective speed development
means and sprint exercises within a complex or system. All
stages of speed development have different goals, with each
being built on another, preferably beginning from a young age.
Often athletes are not prepared to advance to a higher
level because of a weakness in specific strength. This acts as a
weak link in the chain. When the athlete moves to the next
level, he or she can’t excel as fast, and may even become
injured. We must remind you again, speed development is
more than just performing at a fast pace, it is a combination of
many factors. Take for example the 100m sprint at full speed.
For 5-10 meters speed is at 100% maximum. During the last 10
meters the speed drops from 12m/sec to 11m/sec, so speedendurance plays a big part in sprinting. The situation is even
more pronounced during the 200m sprint. While both 100m
and 200m are sprint movements, they differ in some ways. For
the 100m, start acceleration is very important ,while running at
200m it is not as important. Likewise, speed-endurance plays a
greater role at 200m than at 100m.
Athletes want to increase their “start” but oftentimes don’t
know how. They simply try to run faster, but what is more
important are “special start exercises” that specifically improve
38
the start. To work properly in speed development is meticulous
work. If strength is too little or too much, it will decrease speed
results. Speed must come from sport specific speed-strength
training, and not from general strength development. So why
aren’t many American athletes faster? Because they limit most
of their conditioning to strength training.
Coaches often ask Ben how to increase speed. But they
rarely ask how to increase speed-strength, speed-erdurance,
flexibility, and other important means to improve speed. These
coaches place too much emphasis on developing technique and
recommending exercises which have little effect on improving
speed. In addition, the best time to develop speed and quickness
is during the early years of training. After analyzing American
football, Ben found that teams only work for a few days on
speed and devote much of the remaining time to building nonspecific strength. Many athletes pull hamstrings and other
muscles due to their lack of speed preparation using specific
speed-strength and speed-endurance training. During practice
they run at below maximal speed and lift heavy. During a game
at full speed these muscles aren’t conditioned for such explosive stress.
Sport conditioning is oftentimes called “strength conditioning preparaticn.” In the USA we have the National Strength
and Conditioning Association (NSCA), Certified Strength and
Conditioning Specialists (CSCS), and the
NSCA Journal. The
journal has made a good effort at educating coaches in proper
training methods. But the name shows its tendency toward
building strength. In the USSR there is special conditioning
preparation and special physical preparation, but never strength
conditioning preparation. In all sports, the conditioning must
become more specific in order to gain an edge on the competition. Reliance specifically on strength will not accomplish this.
Many of the common mistakes seen in American sport
today were common in the USSR 20 years ago. Soviet hammer
39
throwers during the 1970’s trained extensively using general
preparation exercises such as bench press, dead lift and squat.
Their best hammer throw results were in the 260 foot range.
Today, the hammer throwers of the USSR look soft in the
upper body. Their bench press, dead lift and squat results are
far behind the throwers of the 60’s and 70’s, yet they are able to
throw over 280 feet! The reason for the improvement is a
change to more specific methods of training which closely
match the bio-chemical, structural and neurological require-
ments of the throw itself.
Inadequate Restoration After Training
The USA has many of the best researchers and medical
specialists in the world. In areas of biochemistry, physiology,
and biomechanics, the US scientists have the brain power to
contribute greatly to sport. The tragic fact is, all this talent is
often buried deep within the ivory towers of academia and the
many hospitals and clinics throughout the country. The USA
sport program has received few benefits of the advanced
research.
American sport science has not given us a system of
restoration to go along with proper training methods. It is
impossible to compete effectively at the highest level without
proper recovery. Witness the win-loss records of pro basketball
teams on the road. They are often scheduled to play three or
four games in a week, often having to travel from one part of
the country to the other. Even the best of teams can play poorly
on the road. A major reason for this is that they do not use a
complete system of restoration, which means they haven’t
recovered fully from one game to the next. Even the simplest
means of restoration such as massage, sauna, and recovery
drinks would greatly improve performance. Combine these
with more specific means of restoration such as sport pharmacology and psychology, and a team which uses this entire
40
system would be practically unbeatable.
For the past several years doctors and scientists have been
warning athletes about the harmful effects of anabolic steroids.
But athletes know thai in order to compete at a high level in
sport they need the anabolic and restorative effects that something such as a steroid can give them. The general population of
the USA, along with many coaches and physicians have said
NO! to these harmful synthetic drugs. Trouble is, ‘hey didn’t
give the athletes the option to say YES! to something just as
effective. As a result the USA has lagged behind much of the
rest of the world in developing an effective alternative plan.
That plan specifically includes complete restoration, which the
athletes in America have not practiced to any great extent.
Bodybuilders are slightly ahead of the rest of the athletes
in the USA in regards to restoration. They at least consume
some nutritional supplements which have recovery and anabolic effects. But for the majority of athletes, little or no
restorative methods are being practiced. Even the general
population of the USA has become more health conscious over
the past decade by exercising more, watching which foods they
eat, and taking supplements. They are aware of the dangers that
stress, pollution, poor nutrition, toxic substances, and the like
pose to their bodies. These same people often utilize recovery
measures such as massage, sauna, relaxation tapes, antioxi-
dants, and many others. But competitive athletes who place
themselves under several times more stress then the weekend
warriors practice few of these very effective means of restoration. They should be using much more recovery means than the
fitness buff.
We have briefly addressed some of the shortcomings of
American sport development. The major areas where improve-
ments in sport can be made are through the development of
athletes from a young age, by placing less emphasis on strength
4]
and more on power development, understanding the complex
methods of training for speed, and by using a complete system
of restoration. In the next section we will discuss the newest
methods of Soviet training and how they can be applied to
sports in the USA.
An example of an analyzer which measures brain activity to
indicate work capability and pinpoint recovery requirements which
allows for corrective measures in training and restoration.
Contemporary
Soviet System
To discuss the modern Soviet methads of training is a
difficult task. Although much of the Soviet philosophy of
training was created 30 years ago, over the last ten years Soviet
scientists have greatly improved upon this system. Old ideas
were often substituted, criticized, or simply proven wrong.
Today’s sports records are higher than when the original
training systems were developed, so changes had to be made to
the original plan. The preparation of top Soviet athletes has
changed greatly over the past few years, and much of this
information has previously not been available to western
athletes and coaches.
Experience has shown that the training of intermediate
compared to advanced level athletes is significantly different.
In the case of intermediate athletes, the training methods
proposed by Dr. A. Matveev many years ago are still effective.
As for advanced athletes, these methods are not.
Top level athletes often perform less effective training
methods than they should, thus greatly inhibiting their sport
progress. Soviet sport scientists recognized this problem, and
developed new methods of preparing top athletes by restructuring the traditional principles. What worked before, does
not work today because the sport results are much higher.
The new contemporary system of training has two distinct
divisions: |) the system of preparation of top athletes, and 2)
the long range preparation of athletes from the beginner level.
We will discuss these two programs separately because they
differ in many ways.
44
The Training System For
Top Level Athletes
A number of unique characteristics are seen today in the
development of top athietes. Each has a great effect on the way
a training plan is organized, and requires great care by the
athlete and coach who must search for effective ways to plan
and institute modern forms
of training. There are some reasons
for such careful selection and presentation of exercises which
must be addressed as follows:
1) To raise sport results higher than today’s already
exceptional levels requires perfect execution of both the system
of preparation of top athletes, and the flawless organization and
timing of the methods used in the multi-year plan. In other
words, it’s not just what you do, but when you do it.
2)Top athletes today are ever-increasingly called upon to
perform at higher levels. Professional and top amateur athletes
may perform in top level competitions several times a year.
This is especially seen in professional footbali, basketball,
baseball, and tennis. To achieve. success in many competitions
within a single season requires an increase in the compactness
of training so that quality, stability, technical and tactical
mastery, and psychological ability are maximized.
3)Because of today’s high sport results, to raise results
further requires the discovery of reserves (untapped ability) for
raising the special physical preparation (SPP) and the system of
training preparation as a whole.
4)The significant increase in the volume of training further
stresses the need for proper distribution within the yearly plan
and its separate stages. It becomes necessary to investigate the
45
physical means of training, such as the training loads of
different emphasis, and the organization of workouts which
optimize the potential for adaptation to higher levels. This is
based on the connection between creating the proper training
stress and restoration.
5)The ever increasing role of sports science is vital to the
advancement of athletic achievement. Because sport performance is at such a high level, new scientific methods of
training, planning, restoration and the like are essential for
continued success.
If athletes and coaches remain passive and rely on outdated training methods of the past, it is obvious that sport
results will not improve very much, if at all. Progressive
coaches and athletes understand this well, and are searching for
new methods and systems which improve the effectiveness of
training. These efforts are meeting with great success as
evidenced by increasingly high achievement. So, many Soviet
coaches understood that the numerous training exercises which
they used during earlier stages could not supply the further
development of athletic skills and quality of training to achieve
high results. Now let’s take a close look at how Soviet coaches
bridged the gap between yesterday’s traditional methods and
today’s Ser enentsty mG
cal preparation (SPP) and general physical eons (GPP).
They are differentiated by the fact that GPP is general training
that does not closely match the nervous system, energetic, and
psychological demands that occur during competition. Ex-
amples of GPP exercises for power events such as football,
basketball, and Track and Field are performing exercises at a
slow pace, weightlifting as a bodybuilder, cross country
46
running, etc. The SPP on the other hand, which is more important to top athletes, does closely match the competitive physical
and mental demands of the competition. General preparatory
exercises are now used in the USSR for the general physical
development of young athletes, and as a restorative means for
top athletes after intense physical loads.
The means of SPP must closely match the conditions or
demands activated during competition. In other words, the
training exercise should come close to placing the same
demands on the body. One common mistake is to design
training methods which look like the event itself, but neglect to
meet the exact energetic, metabolic, and nervous system
requirements. An example of this was observed years ago in
soccer. Top Soviet athletes included special drills in their
training such as passing the ball, moving down field, and the
like. While the exercise appeared to be almost identical to the
sport itself, upon scientific examination it was learned that
several physiological requirements were not met. For example,
during the drill the athletes pulse rates were 105-140 beats per
minute, when the actual competitive rates were 170-180 beats a
minute. While the coaches believed the drills were SPP, the
biochemical examination proved they were GPP.
A good example of SPP is the use of squats by runners for
developing strength. While squats bear little resemblance to the
running movement, squats are justified because they actively
contribute to raising the athlete’s special work capacity in
running. Just because an exercise iooks like the event doesn’t
make it specific. Likewise, just because an exercise doesn’t
look like the event, this doesn’t make it ineffective.
Each sport has a variety of SPP exercises from which to
choose from. However, for advanced athletes it is important
that the means not only match the competitive requirements,
47
but actually exceed them with respect to maximum force, time
of maximum force, and the power of the metabolic processes
securing the athlete’s work capacity.
General preparatory exercises also play an important part
in athlete development. At beginner and intermediate levels,
they offer a multi-sided motor preparedness and the creation of
functional groundwork for future specific preparation. They are
also used by all athletes during recovery periods and at times
between cycles (block periods of training) to break up the
monotony common with special exercises.
In the beginning of sport preparation, practically all
exercises will have a positive influence on improving results.
But, in the preparation of more advanced athletes the general
exercises are most often useless and a waste of time.
Only 10-15 years ago many sports stressed GPP over SPP.
For example GPP was 75% of the training load, and SPP only
25%. This was an imbalanced ratio. You may wonder why this
would happen if coaches knew that SPP was important? The
reason why special exercises ware not used more often was
because coaches were required to select the proper special
means of training, and this demanded a lot of new knowledge.
To properly design specific methods you will need
information about the requirements of the sport during competition. For example, if you choose special means for a top
sprinter, you need those which compare with the competitive
exercise, of running full speed for 100 meters. You need to
understand the requirements of the parts of the race such as
what the curve of speed is, the time of different parts of the
race, the start requirements, and technique at certain stages of
the race. From this research information you can then design
specific exercises which closely match the 100 meter sprint in
demands of nervous system activity, energy requirements,
48
metabolic and restorative rates, etc.
Another example of special preparation can be seen in the
exercises of Soviet weightlifters. About 20 years ago, lifters
used many non-specific exercises during training. As performances improved, the need for progressive methods became
essential to achieve continued success. Today it is common for
weightlifters to limit their lifts to the squat, snatch , clean and
jerk, and related exercises during much of the year‘y plan.
These are exercises which most closely place demands on the
body similar to those in competition. Soviet weightlifters are
the strongest in the world, but this strength is specific. For
example, none of them have huge biceps, because those
muscles are not as necessary for success in their event.
Weightlifters rarely if ever do arm curls. However, they are
strong in muscle extensor related exercises because their
training plan is specifically focused on developing the extensor
muscles. The extensor muscles of weightlifters which participate in the Olympic style weightlifting mcvements are the
strongest of any group of athietes.
On the other hand, bodybuilders, gymnasts and wrestlers
all use their biceps (flexor muscle) in competition. They
consider bicep curls to be specific preparatory exercises for
their sport. If a weightlifter increased his biceps size by doing
curls, the bicep would grow, but his performance may remain
unchanged, or possibly even decline. In addition, large muscles
not necessary for success in the event might even propel him
into a higher weight class, which he obviously wouldn’t want
to be in unless he could lift more. For this reason, Soviet
weightlifters only have flexor muscles comparable to generally
fit athletes.
Some times top athletes try to improve results by using
general preparatory exercises, but these are a waste of time and
49
the athlete is doomed to failure. Coaches are also prone to this
mistake and oftentimes use non-specific exercises which only
increase volume and not performance. We have all been
brought up to believe that more is better, but in top level sport
this is not always the case. As an athlete advances in sport
mastery, the importance of volume (quantity) decreases, while
intensity (quality) increases. An example of this can be ob-
served in the training of sprinters. Sprinters run at four different
intensity levels in relation to maximum: 96-100%, 90-95%, 8090%, and at less than 80% of maximum. For many years
athletes trained at an intensity of less than 80% for more than
60 miles, at 80-90% for 40 miles, and at 90-100% for only 15
miles each season. However, it is now recognized that if a top
sprinter runs at anything less than 90%, it is not specific
enough. Efforts at less than 90% of maximum should only be
used between heavy load training cycles as a restorative means.
Another example can be seen when running 200 meters. If
your maximum effort is 21.0 seconds, your result at 90% is
about 23.0 to 23.5 seconds. If you run at a slower time than
23.5 seconds, the training result is not specific, and you will not
improve. One of the first sprinters to increase the intensity and
specificity of exercise was Valery Borzov, the gold medal
winner at 100 meters in the 1972 Munich Olympics. His
specific exercises were 2-3 times that of other sprinters of his
time, and his non-specific work was 4-5 times less.
Ben’s goal as head of the Soviet sprint research group was
to create new ways to increase specific exercises as much as
possible, because only specific exercise training results in
maximal results for advanced athletes. Soviet athletes using this
method are achieving excellent results.
The use of special preparation should be introduced
mostly after an athlete has developed a base of long term
50
preparation, which commonly ranges between four and five
years. In order to maximize the use of special exercises, you
must first decrease the volume of training, and then gradually
increase the intensity. Low intensity work should only be done
for restorative purposes after hard training loads.
Previously, many coaches thought that athletes should
perform blocks of GPP in order to strengthen their cardiovascular system, muscle tissue, and psychological/mentz! state. This
can stili be seen in American sports such as football, basketball
and baseball. After a season it is common for American athletes
to take a lot of time off. When they return to training, they often
begin with general conditioning such as running long distances,
performing general weight lifting, etc. What they are actually
doing is de-training their previous high level of special preparation. They are going backwards. Soviet athletes of today would
not do this. Generally after a competitive season, the athletes
take a small amount of time off such as one to two weeks, then
its back to work using specific exercises. It is impossible to
excel at the advanced level of sport mastery by using a lot of
general exercises for other than restoration, or by taking a long
lay off. You only wind up having to play catch-up.
—
INTENSIFICATION OF TRAINING
Intensification originates from the word “intensity” and in
Soviet sport comes to mean the use of specific exercises
performed near or at maximum effort, close to the competitive
level. It is a standard for quality, and not quantity of training.
Intensification means performing exercises such as jumping
with full explosiveness, the lifting of the heaviest weight, or
running at great speed.
In the traditional means of training, many Soviet coaches
51
believed that the way to breaking records, was by increasing the
volume of training. To do this, coaches mainly increased the
volume of non-specific exercises, because if they tried to
increase SPP exercises, the athlete’s couldn’t handle the loads.
Many of these GPP exercises were of course not very useful,
and oftentimes were more of an obstacle to gains than a benefit.
Again, more volume is not necessarily better.
It is now known that the reaction of training on the body is
quite predictable. If you train at a low intensity or slow pace,
your competitive results will be low as well. The action
(training) and the reaction (competitive result) are very close to
the same. If you use a lot of non-specific exercises, these will
dominate your program and your sport results will improve
slowly or not at all.
Valentin Petrovsky, the coach of the famous sprinter
Valery Borzov often stated that if a sprinter trains with a high
volume of exercises at less than 90% of maximum for a long
period, the athlete will adjust and adapt to this slow speed. You
must train at 90-100% of maximum in order to show the best
results in competition. The higher the sportsmen’s qualification,
the more the training load should be near to the competitive
level. Even back in 1970, Petrovsky recommended that ad-
vanced sprinters should carry out sprinting at near maximum
intensity during the full year program.
The same intensification plan was developed in
weightlifting at the end of the 1960’s by Arkady Vorobiev,
head coach of the national weightlifting team. He stated that if
a weightlifter does not use a weight close to his competitive
lifts for a great percentage of the total volume, his results will
not improve. It is impossible to use exercises of low intensity
and pace, and still expect to perform at high intensity during
competition. If Olympic style weightlifters were to use lighter
weights and perform at a slower speed (iower intensity), as is
the technique found in bodybuilding (high volume), their
results in snatch and clean would not be good. Likewise,
bodybuilders should not be expected to show the best results in
the snatch, clean & jerk, and squat because their aim from
training 1s to develop muscle mass, not explosive effort.
Today it is recognized that many sports must perform
training exercises under conditions as close to the competitive
level as possible. For example, it is recommended that long and
triple jumps, and pole vault exercises be performed at a high
speed, with distances close to those used during the competi-
tion. In gymnastics, high results are achieved by performing a
great number of exercises on the apparatus. In track cycling,
long distances are covered at the competitive speed. These are
ali examples of competition simulation. Competitive level
intensity in training provokes adequate competitive loads on the
body systems and thus helps to solve the tasks of special
physical training, as well as pertect the athiete’s technical,
tactical and psychological skills. Every athlete must train
specifically for his or her sport, at or close to that sports
maximum intensity.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TRAINING
VOLUME AND INTENSITY
Volume training for high level athletes is not as important
as intensity. Unfortunately, athletes and coaches often forget
about specific exercises of maximum intensity, and instead
choose to increase the volume with non-specific training
means. Their thinking is that more hard work will result in
improved results, but the hard work is through non-specific
means, either unrelated exercises or in related exercises at
below 90% of maximum. They are neither efficient nor effec-
tive enough for advanced athletes.
In running, throwing, jumping and weight lifting events,
the emphasis must be on the intensity of training. Research
clearly shows that improvements do not occur from increasing
the volume of training.
A common mistake when increasing the
volume of training is that non-specific exercises are added and
specific exercises are reduced. This is worse than if the athlete
simply reduced the quantity of exercise and kept the special
exercises the same.
As far as the body is concerned, the energy resources used
by both means are the same. If you spend energy on exercises
of non-specific means, you have nothing to give to specific
exercises. Many coaches and athletes recognize the importance
of specific exercises, but don’t make room by reducing the
volume of non-specific exercises. Could this be what you are
doing?
It is common for coaches and athletes to forget about the
relationship between volume and intensity. There is an optimal
level of both for every sport and each particular athlete, and if
the intensity is increased above optimal levels, the volume must
decrease. Likewise, if the volume is increased, the intensity
must decrease. It is possible to increase the intensity for a short
period of time without reducing the volume, but this will lead
to great fatigue and possible overtraining, and must only be
used for short periods of time.
Every event has its own specific correlation between
volume and intensity. For weight lifters, pole vaulters, shot
putters, etc., the name of the game is intensity. If, for example,
a weightlifter can’t carry out his training load properly, it is
wise to reduce the volume of training and maintain intensity. If
he is presently performing five sets of three reps with difficulty,
a change would be to perform five sets at two reps each. This
maintains intensity, but lowers the volume. Two great Soviet
weightlifters, Vasily Alexiev and David Rigert both used the
newer method of high intensity and low volume specific
traming. Of course, during the yearly training plan there will be
many variations, but in general most often the specific exercises will be performed, at or near maximum intensity.
For the past decade, training has been focused on more
specific means of preparation and ways to increase ‘he volume
of the specific exercises. With the help of restoration and
training planning, athietes are able to train at close to competitive levels all year Jong. Sometimes it is possible to use exercises which actually exceed the intensity of competition, such
as more speed, more weight, or more distance. For example,
pole vault world record holder Sergey Bubka generally vaults
at heights not less than 18°5", and oftentimes at close to 19’8".
Sometimes he increases the intensity (height) to beyond his
world record height, to 20' and vaults with a cross bar made of
elastic so he has no fear at such heights. By increasing the
specific exercise intensity to above maximum, he is capable of
forcing his body to adapt to higher levels. Anything slightly
less than this would not be effective as his technique and
general conditioning are already exceptional.
Runners can perform a similar technique by running
downhill at full speed. This exercise will help increase stride
frequency (intensity). Other devices which help to increase the
intensity of specific exercises are uphill runs, weight belts,
harness pulls, towing, different sizes of Speed-Chutes, and
surgical tubing.
In weightlifting it is common to apply above maximal
means by adding more weight to the bar while lowering the
number of reps. Soviet weightlifters most often perform sets of
1-3 reps each, and very seldom 4-6 reps per set which is usually
55
restricted to partial lift exercises and restoration. In contrast, 30
years ago lifters performed 10-30 reps per set! Times have
changed for the better, and so have the results. Many athletes
from the west have read about East Bloc weightlifters, especially from Bulgaria and the USSR, performing reduced rep
sets at or near maximum, several times a day. The reader
immediately recognizes that this method of lifting at one’s
maximum must be incredibly taxing on the body. In truth it is,
but not as taxing as if the same athlete was to perform more
reps at a lighter weight. The fact remains that 6 sets at 3 reps
each causes less physical fatigue than 3 sets at 6 reps each. You
have the same total number of reps, but the higher intensity lifts
are less taxing if planned correctly. This is a good example of
why more volume is not very effective.
Another reason for performing exercises near maximum is
that without it you wouldn’t know how good your technique is,
since performing exercises slowly changes technique. The
contemporary training methods of weightlifters today is much
different than years past. As can be seen in table 1, the majority
of snatches and cleans (98%) for Soviet weightlifters are in the
1-3 rep range, with over 57% coming from two rep lifts. Few
non-specific exercises are performed at the advanced
weightlifter level.
TABLE 1
SOVIET NATIONAL OLYMPIC WEIGHTLIFTING TEAM
# of Reps in One Set as % of Total
a
S6
Tet [sls] la
In summary, intensity demands a small group of specific
exercises, and the goal 1s to significantly increase the use of
these groups of exercises. Scientists now know that the adaptation to stimuli occurs very quickly, and that further reaction
(growth) from a constant or stable load will not occur unless the
sport specific intensity is increased. For athletes who have
spent many years training, the adaptation process is very
difficult. Many athletes reach a certain level and then stagnate
or plateau, often times becoming frustrated and discouraged.
How can this be avoided? The means to avoid this problem is
by using the variative method of training. It will not only
prevent stagnation, it will also help to intensify the training
process. This method is not new, in fact it was observed over
one thousand years ago by Greek coaches that athletes using
unchanging means did not improve, and that it is necessary to
change the training often to prevent stagnation.
VARIATIVE METHOD OF TRAINING
For athletes to perform at maximum effort for a long
period is a great task which must be planned correctly. It is
necessary to apply conditions which demand maximum and
above maximum toads that allow the athlete to break through
the plateaus or ceilings of training. To do this, athlete’s must
use variations of the normal competitive load, such as uphill or
downhill running, throwing or lifting lighter and heavier than
normal weights, etc. It is the complex or mixture of light,
normal, and heavy exercises which are the basis of variative
training.
An example of variative means can be seen in throwing
events which demand thousands of throws a year such as; shot
put (3,500-4,000), hammer (2,500-3,500). discus (6,000-7,000),
Dif
and javelin (9,000-11,000). These great amount of throws are
very monotonous, and it is easy to become bored or stagnant by
throwing the same weighted implement so many times. It is
also very physically taxing. To counter this problem, while it is
necessary to maintain the quantity of throws, it is also necessary to change something about them, such as making them
lighter or heavier.
For two months prior to the 1972 Olympic Games in
Munich, the Soviet javelin thrower Janis Lusis trained only
with the light weight
woman’s javelin. It was proven that by
throwing a light weight javelin the athlete is able to improve
technique. This is because the throwing of light weight implements is more complicated than normal implements. By
mastering the light weight javelin, Janis was able to perfect his
technique and increase his speed with the normal javelin. The
result was an Olympic gold medal.
The success of an advanced athletes ability to break
through a training plateau and adapt to a higher level is based
on the correct combination of light, normal, and heavy means
ofexercises. There are as many ways to use the variative
method of training as the imagination will allow. One way is to
begin the training session with heavy, followed by normal, and
then finishing with lighter than normal resistance.
An example of this process is illustrated by V. Kiselov,
the 1980 Olympic shot put champion who threw heavy shots
(8kg) for strength, and light shots (6kg) for speed. In the
hammer throw, former world and Olympic champion, and now
world famous coach Anatoly Bondarchuk used light (6kg) and
heavy (9kg) implements for a few months prior to major
competitions. When using light resistance in combination with
normal resistance, the mixture should be 1:1. In the hammer
throw for example, the athlete would throw the light (6kg)
hammer, then the normal (7.26kg) hammer, and then repeat the
58
cycle. For heavy resistance the sequence is 3:3. In the hammer,
the athlete takes three throws with the heavy (9kg) hammer,
followed by three normal weight throws, then repeats the
series. It is important to mix the light, normal and heavy
methods because if either the light or heavy means is used for
too long, the adaptation you desire, either speed or strength,
will not properly transfer to the normal competitive style.
The use of different weighted hammers can also act as a
useful evaluation device. National hammer coach A.
Bondarchuk evaluates the fitness level of his elite throwers by
using a light hammer (13 pounds) for technique, and a 35
pound weight for strength. The 1976 and 1980 Olympic
champion Yuri Sedykh has the best results in these tests.
The research conducted by Soviet coaches concluded that
heavy means should be used for 4-6 weeks, 2-3 times a year in
combination with strength conditioning work such as heavy
weight lifting. The lighter than normal means can be used for 68 weeks in combination with strength-speed exercises such as
jumping exercises, plyometrics, and sprints, but not as much
with heavy weights.
59
Maxim Tarasov, the pole vault world record holder for juniors at
5m 80cm (19 feet).
60
Resisted Exercises Of Variative Means
There are many kinds of resisted exercises which are very
useful to many events since they allow the athlete to produce
the competitive exercise under difficult conditions. The exercises of resisted training simply mean theforces acting on the
body are greater than those found in competition. There are
three methods of resisted training, oftentimes used in complex
with each other:
|.) Natural methods for strength conditioning such as
running in sand, snow, water, uphill, or against a load. In sport
games, heavy condition exercises are often used which make
play more difficult, such as by limiting the area in which the
athlete can move, or by increasing the number of competitors.
2.) Additional resistance methods close to the competitive
form are used such as heavy jackets and weight belts in gym-
nastics and track and field, a sled in cross country skiing, a
heavier puck in hockey, a larger gear in bicycling, heavier
implements in throws, a larger or more skilled partner in
wrestling, etc.
A new effective means of speed development for
many events is the use of a Soviet Speed-Chute which we will
discuss in detail later on.
3.) Technical means to harden the effort at the start such
as special equipment to increase resistance in sprinting and
swimming, and hydro breaks used on shells for rowing.
The effect of using hardening or heavy resistance exercises is to intensify the strength component of the competitive
movement, and to maximize the special-strength characters of
the sport.
High Speed Exercises Of Variative Means
There are also variative methods used close to competitive
form which are designed to intensify the training means for
speed development. Because they are performed at high
61
intensity and speed, and require top quality technique, these
exercises should be performed only by advanced athletes who
are highly skilled. The body must be prepared functionally for
such a demanding complex of exercises.
There are two groups we shall single out. (1) The means
of this group is a gradual increase in the rate of performing a
competitive exercise, so that the body is allowed to adapt
gradually. (2) These exercises consist of a periodic increase in
intensity beyond the newly attained level, with the goal of
activating further adaptation gains. It is extremely important
that proper technique is not violated during the use of speed
related means. The speed must be high enough to facilitate your
adaptive reaction, but not so much that it harms technique and
coordination.
The first group includes the performance of a competitive
exercise at a progressively increasing speed and distance.
Sports that demand this form of intensification of training are
cyclic or repetitive in nature such as; 800 meter run, swimming,
rowing, cycling, etc. In general, this method 1s utilized in
distance sports. Long-term acceleration is an effective method
of planned gradual adaptation to increasing loads by gradually
increasing the speed and the distance until you reach the
maximal competitive condition. In this way you increase the
speed so that the body can handle it without tension. If you
were to begin the competitive distance with full speed, it would
be very difficult and improvement would come slowly.
For example, athletes involved in middle distance running
can run at a medium speed, followed by fast acceleration for 8-
12 seconds, and then a return to the medium speed. The
following three variables of the acceleration phase should be
increased gradually: 1) speed of acceleration, 2) distance of.
acceleration, and 3) the number of accelerations. The medium
62
speed pace should always remain at the same distance during
the training cycle while the athlete gradually increases one or
all three variabies of the acceleration phase.
In acyclic speed and force related exercises, the technique
of using progressively increasing speeds is determined by the
motor structure of the sport. For example, in discus throwing
the start of the turn is realized by an optimal (below competitive) speed which is then increased to maximum speed at the
point of release. The proper rhythm, form and release angle are
strictly controlled. As the trainjng level improves, the speed of
throwing is gradually increased at the beginning of the throw,
and the intensity near to release is increased to maximum. Parts
of the event are produced at maximal speed rather than the
entire throw because an all out effort is very demanding. In one
series the discus thrower would perform 6-8 throws. The first
4-6 throws would not be at a maximum effort, and the final 1-2
throws would be at full speed while maintaining proper technique. The throwing distance should progressively increase
during the series. The 6-8 throws can be repeated for 3-4 series
with a small restoration period between each. If technique is
negatively affected, the speed should not be increased.
In all cases, some part of the exercise resistance is reduced
which is followed by an increase in speed. The transformation
of the neuro-muscular systems controiling the speed component of movement is increased to a higher level, and iraprovements in performance are obtained.
Assisted Exercises Of Variative Means
Assisted exercises are designed to reduce the resistance of
training to below normal competitive levels. Running downhill,
swimming with fins, and throwing lighter than usual implements in the shot put, discus and hammer are all examples of
=<"
using a less than normal resistance. The use of these assisted
63
means allows the athlete to increase the speed or frequency of
movement. This is effective in developing the feel of overfast
movements that can be transferred to the competitive exercise
at normal resistance.
The faster movement allows all the systems of the body to
gain experience in how to function under a faster condition.
When the faster than normal exercise is removed and the
athlete once again trains at normal unassisted maximal speed,
the body remembers the previous feeling of fastness and
applies it to normal conditions. Other examples of training for
speed and frequency include cycling at a slight decline, wrestling against a partner who is lighter in weight, or using a
lighter bat in baseball.
Sensory Stimulation Of Variative Means
In all speed movements there is a tempo of movement that
is predicated on both visual and audio feedback. Soviet athletes
sometimes train with mechanical means which increase the
tempo of the event. This could be a beep sound keeping time
with a certain stride, or a device which paces the athlete around
the track, not unlike a greyhound dog chasing a mechanical
rabbit. It could even be as sophisticated as using a Lifecycle or
Cybex exercise bicycle which gives the athlete visual feedback.
All of these means inform the athlete, either visually or audibly,
what target condition they should be at.
Emotional Stimulation Of Variative Means
This means is similar to the sensory exercises, but it plays
more on the emotions of the athlete. An example of this is
running with a partner who starts slightly ahead of you, and
then you try to catch up to them. This could be done with
cycling, rowing, and swimming also. The athlete has immedi-
ate feedback as to how they are doing. The use of music is
64
another example of emotional stiniulation. Music at a specific
rhythm can have a positive influence on work capability of
speed and quickness. Likewise, music of negative influence
will hurt performance.
Central Nervous System Stimulation
These means are designed to positively effect the nervous
system by stimulating the body before the compet'tive exercise.
The tonic effect of plyometrics and jumping exercises before
performing the competitive exercise can act as a stimulant. An
example of this means is when a discus thrower performs a
squat of 2 sets for 2-3 reps at a weight of 90% of maximum,
relaxes a few minutes, and then throws the discus at full effort.
The weight lifting has a tonic effect on the throw. For sprint
acceleration in football and soccer, a few short jumping
exercises such as the triple jump before play will prepare the
central nervous system for more explosive work.
SPEED CHUTE: NEW EFFECTIVE MEANS OF
SPEED DEVELOPMENT
To increase speed it is necessary to carry out a variety of
specific exercises near to the competitive pace. The goal is to
intensify the training process physically, as well as metabolically and neurologically. This type of conditioning 1s
oftentimes monotonous, and training at maximal speeds causes
a stabilization or adaptation to the technical characters of speed
development. It then becomes difficult to improve speed
because the athlete reaches a “speed hurdle” or plateau, and
further improvement becomes difficult or impossible.
For an improvement in speed to occur, the athlete must
use specific speed development exercises. But, it is these same
exercises which lead to the speed hurdle or plateau. In order to
65
reduce the possibility of hitting these obstacles, various exercises must be employed which do not give the body a chance to
adapt, rather they enhance the body’s ability to break through a
plateau.
In the speed development for sprinters and middle distance runners, football players, jumpers, basketball players,
etc., the variative methods of training using resisted condition
together with a normal condition are widely used. A resistance
condition (uphill running, weight belts and ankle weights,
running in sand and snow, hamess pulls, towing a sled or
surgical tubing, running against the wind) are often used to
improve the special strength necessary to increase the training
effort and the action of muscles. This is accomplished because
heavy means recruit more muscle and nervous system fibers,
which then transfer their effect to the competitive exercise.
These methods each have their shortcomings, especially in
regards to the negative effect on technique.
Because of Ben’s position as head of the scientific
research group for speed development, he conducted many
experiments using the variative methods of training. From this
research he discovered the positive effects and shortcomings of
each resisted hard, normal, and light assisted exercise. In 1988
Ben began secretly experimenting with a new variative training
device that we have named the “Speed-Chute”’ (SC). He
assembled a number of the best sprinters and jumpers from his
group of athlete’s to test the Speed-Chute at a secluded stadium
outside of Moscow. Privately, Ben researched the biomechan-
ics of the device with the help of a number of experts from the
Soviet Military and Space Institute. Test results proved that the
Speed-Chute was superior to all other devices designed to
improve maximal speed, start acceleration, and speed-endur-
ance. The results from actual training conditions confirmed
this. Times in the 100m were reduced by .20-.40 seconds, and
66
in the 200m by .8-1.10 seconds. These reductions in time were
for advanced athletes, not beginners, which illustrates the
significance of the Speed-Chute.
Fortunately, Ben did not present the Speed-Chute to
officials of Soviet sport before he left the USSR in the winter of
1989. He has saved the Speed-Chute for first use by athlete’s in
the USA. This unique device is patented internationally by
Atletika, where Ben now works to create the new joint R&D
Soviet/American sport program.
The Speed-Chute is far more effective and versatile at improving
technique, speed-acceleration, and speed endurance than old
methods of weighted belts, harness and sled pulls, and uphill
running.
67
The Speed-Chute functions as follows: As the athlete
runs, it inflates which creates a drag effect. The faster the
athlete runs, the greater the drag. Because the Speed-Chute
provides consistant resistance, it is Superior to any other
variative training exercise. It is made in three sizes for varied
resistance effect: a small size with approximately 9ibs, a
medium size with 13lbs, and a large size with 22|bs of resistance. Depending on the goals of training such as power, speedendurance, and speed, one or a combination of Speed-Chutes
can be used. Scientific studies have shown it is important to
vary the sizes and combinations of Speed-Chutes in training,
for maximal effect. There are six major combinations you can
use for increasing power, speed-endurance, and speed as
follows:
SIZE
RESISTANCE (Ibs)
| TRAININGGOAL
1.Two Medium
26lbs
Power/Start Acceleration
2. One Large
22\bs
Power/Start Acceleration
3. Two Small
18lbs
Power/Speed Endurance
Start Acceleration
4.One Medium
13lbs
Speed Endurance
Start Acceleration
5. One Small
9 Ibs
6. Medium or Small with release
Speed/Technique
Speed/Technique
The combination of Speed-Chutes will depend on the
period of the yearly training cycle. In one training session, the
difference in resistance used should not be great. If you are
training for power, you should confine your means to numbers
1-3 above, if you begin to work on speed-endurance you can
use #3 and 4, and for speed and technique you should limit
your use to #4-6.
68
There are several advantages to using the Speed-Chute in
training: 1) Unlike ordinary methods of resistance training
which can interfere with proper technique, the Speed-Chute
actually enhances technique. 2) It can be used not only in
straight running, but when running curves, changing direction
(football, basketball and soccer), over hurdles, and backwards.
3) It is the first and only device which can be released during
the sprint as a variative method for even greater improvements
in stride frequency and speed. 4) Unlike bulky equipment, the
Speed-Chute weighs just a few, ounces, and can be carried in a
gear bag pocket. 5) Athlete’s enjoy using the Speed-Chute
because of its stimulating and tonic effect compared to ordinary
training conditions which can cause monotony and lead to slow
gains and eventual plateaus. Because of its exciting shape and
colors, the Speed-Chute also improves the emotional state of
the athlete.
69
The Speed-Chute is effective for all sports which require explosive jumping
movements including long and triple jumps, and basketball.
70
The Recommended Use Of Speed-Chute
MAXIMAL-SPEED: The Speed-Chute is used from a
standing start for 60-80 meters for 4-6 runs, with 6-8 minutes
rest between each run. For the first 10m the athlete builds up
speed as the chute opens, then runs 40-60m at full speed. The
following exercises can be used to build maximal speed:
1)
Run with small or medium Speed-Chute for 3x,
and then 2-3x without SC.
2)
Alternate SC sprints with normal spriits at 1:1 for
3 series.
3)
Inthe middle of the sprint run (around 40-50m)
release the Speed-Chute and finish under normal
conditions. By releasing the Speed-Chute while
running at maximal speed, the neuromuscular
stimulation developed under the heavy condition
will transfer to the normal condition, resulting in
an improvement in stride frequency beyond
normal, which directly relates to faster speed.
The method of releasing the Speed-Chute and then
running at maximal speed is the most effective means for
breaking through speed barriers.
START-ACCELERATION: Athletes can run from blocks
or a semi-stance position as in football. When starting from a
sprint block, the Speed-Chute lies beside the block so that it
will clear. Starts are for 30-50m for a total of 350-450m per
session. Rest is 4-5 minutes between runs. Rest between series
should be 6-8 minutes. All sizes of SC can be used to build start
acceleration.
SPEED-ENDURANCE: The speed-chute can be used in
two ways: (1) Maximal sprints with a minimum amount of rest.
The athlete can run 80-100m at maximal speed with only 3
71
minutes rest for 3-4 runs, in 2 series with a 6 minute rest
between series. (2) The best distance for running with the
Speed-Chute is about 150 meters. At this distance the athlete
can maintain speeds of at least 90% of maximum. Distances of
200-250m are not recommended because a Speed-Chute is too
taxing at that distance, even after only one repetition. It is
preferred that athletes run for 150m for 5-6 runs with rests of 3
minutes between each for building speed-endurance.
POWER: To improve maximal power you should use the
combination of two medium, one large, or two small sizes. The
distance run should be between 40-80 yards for five runs per
series, for a total of two series. Rest between runs is 3-5
minutes, and 6-8 minutes between series.
An actual example of how effective the Speed-Chute can
be was demonstrated during a three month training cycle:
(1) March: The athletes (sprinters and jumpers) used the
following exercise for power and speed-endurance development: 80-150m at 90% of maximum speed for 5-6x. First 2
runs utilized the large or two medium size Speed-Chutes, next
2 runs use one medium or two small, final 1-2 under normal
conditions. Rest between runs is 8-10 minutes.
(2) April: The goal was to increase speed (to 95%), so the
resistance was decreased. Runs for speed-endurance are used:
150m for 5-6x, rest of 8 minutes, 2 times with one medium or
two small, 2 times with small Speed-Chute, and 1-2 without.
(3) May: Speed was again increased to maximal. For
speed-endurance: 150m of 1x medium, 1-2x small, 2x with a
release of SC the last 50m, and | under normal conditions if
possible. For speed and technique development you can use a
combination of | medium , then | small , and finishing with the
release method.
The top athletes in this study were able to improve their
72
speed by a significant amount. The above mentioned recom-
mendation for using the speed-chute is only one example for
sprinters and long jumpers. There are many variations of how
to use the Speed-Chute depending on the event. For example,
in addition to the exercises listed above, footbail players can
add special exercises directly related to their position. Line
backers, defensive backs, and safety’s can improve backwards
running speed. All offensive backs and receivers can increase
speed as it relates to actual game conditions by using changing
direction runs such as zig zag patterns of ten yards each
direction for 8-10 times. . Football players have only one way to improve speed, and
this is by increasing stride frequency. The other means of
developing speed is by increasing stride length, which is
impractical for football players because it places them off the
ground for too long a time. When off the ground, they are prone
to losing balance when contact is made with their opponent.
Using the Speed-Chute under the release condition method wiil
allow the player to increase stride frequency exclusively.
The Speed-Chute is not limited to speed and power related
events. It is also effective at improving the speed and endurance
of middle and long distance runners. Even when used while
jogging, the device gives resistance. Using the Speed-Chute,
distance runners can increase their speed and special-strength
preparation.
It is common for middle and long distance runners to
utilize uphill running as a special strength preparation exercise.
However, uphill running can have several drawbacks as
follows: 1) It can cause shortcomings in technique. 2) Uphill
surfaces are sometimes hard and/or unstabie. Running up a
slope greater than 3-4 degrees, which is common, can result in
shin injury upon the descent. 3) Many places of the USA do not
have the proper hills for uphill running. Places like Kansas have
few hills at all. Traveling to a place which has the proper slope
73
demands time which could be better spent.
The Speed-Chute will eliminate the-problems associated
with uphill running by middle and long distance runners. It can
also be used indoors during the winter months, a time when
distance runners should be developing specific speed-strength,
but have less opportunity to do so.
Although the Speed-Chute is a new invention for use in
speed development, it has been examined by leading international coaches from the USA, Germany, Italy, and the East
Bloc who recommend it highly for many sports. For informa-
tion on how to obtain a Speed-Chute, check the back of this
book.
Football players can use the Speed-Chute under a variety of
conditions such as start-acceleration exercises, backwards running,
and change of direction drills.
74
VARIATION OF TRAINING LOAD
While the variative means have so far focused on changing the condition of training from light, to normal, to heavy,
this is by no means the only way to improve sport performance.
In addition to changing the exercise, you can also change the
load (volume and intensity relationship), the character and
quality, the sequence and pace, and the rest between exercises.
These are all important parts of intensification.
Why is it important to keep changing all these variables?
Because in order to establish a constant adaptation response to
training, you must keep the bedy from becoming stagnant with
one method or tempo of training. In other words, to adapt, you
must not adapt. Training is the process of adaptation, but once
you adapt to a new level you must move on towards higher
levels. If you stayat one level too long, by using one type of
exercise or intensity, you will plateau. The trouble is, many
western athletes hit a level and go no further. Variative methods
greatly reduces the chance of that happening.
An example of adaptation occurs when a coach prescribes
a certain regimen for an individual athlete. The coach makes
the choice of specific exercises designed to improve strength.
In the first month of use the athlete adapts quickly, in the
second month very little, and in the third month not at all. As
soon as the first month ends, the coach should begin to change
the intensification. If not, the athlete will stabilize or plateau
and future gains will be impossible. This is why it is common
for Soviet athletes to change their training program every 5-7
weeks.
In the case of novice weight lifters, it is possible to
improve their lifts by an average of 110-130 pounds the first
year. But the next year the increase is not so great, and from
then on the gains become more difficult. This 1s why it is
important for an advanced lifter to constantly trick the body by
changing the training load.
1S
We liken training to a funnel. At the start of physical
conditioning, a novice athlete enters the wide end of the funnel,
where the gains are great, even when using a variety of general
exercises. As time goes by, the athlete moves closer toward the
narrow end of the funnel, where the gains become harder and
harder. At the narrow end, traditional means become ineffective
and the athlete must do one or both of two things; incorporate
many variative SPP exercises, and vary the training load
(volume and intensity). In this way he pushes out, our widens,
the narrow end of the funnel which allows him to make further
gains.
Training Load
The training load is a mixture of volume and intensity. In
the traditional way, the load was gradually increased. By this
method, the body adjusts quickly at first, but then stops improv-
ing. This method of training is not effective for top athletes.
Today within the Soviet training programs, it is common to use
a load which regularly changes from large, to medium, to
small.
In the traditional way as explained by A. Matveev, the
body rushes to adapt quickly, because the variation between
loads is small, and the reaction of the body is small as well.
Let’s say your best squat is 300 pounds and you want to
improve to 400 pounds. The traditional way would be to
gradually increase and decrease the load every few weeks,
somewhat like a roller coaster. Unfortunately, after a short time
of picking away at the weight, your lifts begin to plateau, and
you ultimately fail to reach your goal of 400 pounds. Soviet
weight lifters refused to use this gradual method of increasing
and decreasing loads as recommended by A. Matveev. The
more popular method today of making gains is by changing the
training load from small to large, large to medium, medium to
small, and other variations. This way the body isn’t given the
76
time to adapt. If you increase the load constantly, improvements are impossible. An effective means at certain times is to
use shock stress training which is a sharp intensification,
followed by a few days of greatly reduced loads.
One way to vary the intensity of training is by changing
the rest time. Athletes on the Soviet national weightlifting team
typically rest between 1.5 and 5 minutes between sets, with the
exception of the super heavyweights which rest 3-6 minutes. If
an athlete rests more than eight minutes, it becomes necessary
to warm up again. The rest between sets depends mostly on the
athletes condition and thetinte of day. If you decrease the rest
time, the stress on the body is increased. In competition, the
time between attempts is two minutes, so it is a good idea to
sometimes introduce twc minute rests between sets in training.
Soviet weighilifters typically use 4-6 different exercises in their
workouts, although sometimes the number of exercises are
reduced to 2-3 during high load periods, or increased to 7-8
exercises in restoration periods. Near to competitions Soviet
lifters use three exercises; the squat, snatch, and jerk. During
training sessions, a typical program is to lift for speed first,
strength second, and endurance last. Speed exercises come
from the snatch and related exercises. Strength exercises come
from the clean and jerk, and other lifts which are very heavy.
The final lifts are primarily squats and high pulls which
improve strength-endurance. About 60% of ail lifters begin
with the snatch exercise and finish with the squat. Bench press
and seated press are sometimes used for variety by about 20%
of all Soviet lifters. The squat is used for improving strengthendurance, and support exercises such as hamstring curls are
used as well. The snatch and jerk lifts are sometimes used in the
classical style near the end of the workout when the fatigue is
greatest. This method trains strength-endurance and helps to
prepare for competitions which sometimes last for 3-4 hours.
One successful method used by Soviet lifters is to vary the
1
training program often. This way the body never gets a chance
to stick at one adaptation point. Soviet coaches change the
routine even though the old one may be still working, in
anticipation of nearing a plateau. You should consider this for
your routine, whatever your sport.
Soviet experts recommend you vary a number of means in
the training sessions including: 1) The number and types of
exercises. Stick with your core lifts which are specific to your
sport. Use less specific lifts only to reduce monotony, as a
stimulus to change, and in restoration. 2) Change the pace of
the exercise. For example, squats can be done quick, medium,
slow, very slow, or variative. 3) Perform above maximal
weight partial lifts once a week to shock the body. 4) Vary the
time of rest between sets from 1.5-6 minutes. This depends on
the load and whether you are training for power (long rest) or
endurance (short rest).
Intensification of the training load demands very meticulous work. It is important to know exactly when to apply
special exercises, what the mix and intensity of exercises will
be, and what will be the outcome from stimuli. A progressive
coach must pay careful attention to each individual athlete in
order to recommend the proper complex of special training
exercises. Modern training is faced with an important task of
determining what the intensification will be, and without this
information it is impossible to succeed at the top sport level.
PROGRAMMING, ORGANIZATION AND
MANAGEMENT
The intensification process addressed earlier was shown to
be the correlation between the general and special preparation
means, volume and intensity, etc. We discussed the way to
achieve intensification, but how to complex this within a yearly
plan is a difficult task which requires further discussion. Now
78
within the USSR, many of the original theories and practical
applications of A. Matveev are being played down for use by
top athletes. Experience has shown that the preparation of
intermediate and advanced level athletes is significantly
different. The traditional principles are not so effective for the
top athlete, and can possibly delay or reduce performance.
Therefore, the necessity arose whereby qualified athletes had to
resort to new contemporary means of training. In the place of
traditional means came the new terminology of programming,
organization, and management of training.
Do not let these concepfs scare you off. While they are
new to sport, they are old terms to business and science.
Programming is defined as being the big picture, the strategy of
how and when you are going to achieve your major goal and
mini-goals. Organization is the practical application of the
program, taking into account the present state and potential of
eacn athlete. It coordinates the placement of exercises within
the training cycle. Management is the measurement of results
and the use of means to carry out the course of training. Special
tests are used regularly to monitor the condition and performance of the athlete to determine whether or not they are
meeting or exceeding the model organization plan.
The first thing to do to make the management of training
effective is to determine the main task or result. The amount of
improvement in sport results is due to the effectiveness of
training. Sport results are the product of organization of
complex external influences such as the movements and
exercise which displace the strength and motor systems. As a
rule, it is easy to set a task or goal. But the path to reaching it is
sketchy, often planned on a base of trial and error. As a result
of ineffective training, many coaches and athletes simply
increase the training load, the numberof exercises, etc. If the
athlete fails, it is often claimed to be a lack drive, psychological
problems, injury, the incorrect number of exercises used, poor
719
endurance, strength, speed, power, etc. Athletes imagine
themselves reaching great gains, but often times lack the
information and tools to achieve these goals.
How does all this training design and monitoring work?
First of all the coach and/or athlete must set a realistic goal for
future results using past history, such as last seasons best result.
Then, the requirements to meet the future goal must be known.
For example, a sprinter with a best time of 10.45 seconds in the
100 meters last year, wants to reduce the time to 10.20 this
year. In order to do this he must have good information about
the competitive activity:
1) What is necessary to run 10.20 in the 100 meter sprint
is accomplished by breaking the race down into parts. What
should the start be like, what is the time after 10m, what is the
30m time, maximum speed, the decrease of speed near the
finish, the correlation between stride frequency and length, etc.
All of these are referred to as “model characteristics” and they
exist for every sport. To improve a shot put throw from a best
of 62 feet to 68 feet would require a certain result in squat,
clean and jerk, bench press, 20m sprint, vertical jump, etc. An
actual model characteristic in sprint is illustrated in Tables 2
and 3.
Table 2
MODEL OF TIME IN 100M SPRINT
The Time Of Sections In Seconds
Goal
in
First
50m
Seconds
3.70-3.80
3.80 -3.90
4.00 - 4.10
4.10 - 4.20
4.20 - 4.30
80
Second
60)
in
Time10m
in
Last
90 - 100m
Table3
MGDEL OF SPECIAL PREPARATION FOR ADVANCED SPRINTERS
1H
3-3
2H)-275
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324-332
3.00
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2) It is also necessary to have information about the
competitive activity from the previous year. How did you
achieve 10.45 in 100m? The resultsin the above mentioned test
measurements such as start, 10m time, standing long and triple
jumps, etc., from the previous year are also known. From these
you determine what your strong and weak points are. In what
parts of the competitive 100m sprint and support exercises
which are specific to the event are you close to the model for
10.2? Which need improvement?
3) The competitive activity depends most of all on special
physical preparation. There are many tests which can determine
the level of specific sport preparedness. If you wish to run
100m in 10.20, you need to know what your results should be
8)
in jumping exercises, weight lifting, endurance tests, etc. This
is shown in Table 3. Some of the exercise results at 10.45 may
not even be acceptable at that level, which means you compensated by having better results in others. Before you could
possibly reach 10.2 seconds you would need to strengthen your
weak points from your level of 10.45. These become your
micro-goals which must be met before your main goal of 10.20
seconds can be reached. If you achieve 10.20 seconds by the
end of the season, you will know which abilities allowed you to
get there, and if you fall off the mark and reach only 10.30, all
of the tests and race analysis will give you a good indication of
why you failed.
As we already mentioned, years of Soviet research have
established model testing plans for each sport. Specific exercises are used and the event is broken down into parts to create
micro-goals. No doubt some of this is being used in the USA,
but its application is not even close to the extent it has been
refined in the USSR. All of the figures of what your goals and
actual results are can be used to monitor and plan your future
program. This is a logical step, but one which is often neglected. If we do not have information about previous and
present sport results, as well as a model guide of test exercises
to determine our level of achievement, it is impossible to
accurately set goals for the future.
82
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Traditional (Planning) And Modern
(Programming) Organization
The complex form, which was recommended by some
Soviet researchers and has been practiced in the USSR, uses
simultaneous (within a single workout or micro-cycle) and in
prolonged stages of the year, a number of training tasks with
different emphasis. An example of this is when we combine
strength, speed and endurance iraining means into the same six
week cycle plan. In the past, research showed this method to be
effective. The athlete was able to achieve multi-sided development, with each ability (strength, power, speed, endurance)
building on one another. In contrast, unidirectional methods of
training were viewed as too monotonous and resulted in
diminished training means as time wore on. It was believed that
prolonged unidirectional work (one sided training for strength,
or speed, etc) causes the body to plateau, and not continue on to
further adaptation levels. However, the research into the multidirectional training methods was conducted many years ago on
lower class athletes. If qualified athletes had participated in
these studies, their results would only have been average. There
is little reason for high-class athletes to use a complex of
training.
First, top level athletes have a high level of special
physical preparedness. In order to raise this level significantly,
which is most necessary for world and Olympic champions, we
must use a strong, one-sided means for an extended period of
time for the following: (1)In complex training programs, the
distribution of special exercise loading for different outcomes
(speed, strength, endurance, etc) is unable to provoke the high
level adaptational stressers necessary for high level achievement. (2) High level athletes demand a more specific structure
of training, and complex-training does not meet this need.
(3) These athletes execute the competitive exercise
skillfully, with a precise amount of effort and control. High
84
volume complex loading with its many means leads to general
fatigue which has a negative effect on the quality of training.
The negatives of the complex direction of training are not
apparent in the conditioning of low and middle class athletes.
But, it is significantly apparent in the conditioning of high level
athletes, as the compiex system only yields average results. In
order to improve the body’s response to training stimuli at the
high level, the athlete must change to unidirectional loading in
separate workouts and micro-cycies. The accommodative
processes within the body are more intense than when trying to
achieve several training objectives (speed, strength, endurance,
etc) by using means of different primary influence.
For example, let’s imagine you are a football player.
Under a complex system of training you might participate in a
workout which utilizes three separate, and quite different
means. You start with sprints, explosive jumps and plyometrics
(speed), you move on to heavy squats and power cleans
(strength), and you finish with a two mile run (endurance).
Each one of these exercises was designed to build on the next.
The sprints you performed at the beginning of the workout
acted as a stimulant which heiped you be more explosive in
your squats and cleans. The weightlifting fatigued you, so the
effect from the two mile run on endurance was greater than had
you been fresh. This is the concept of building on each means
so the sum result is greater than the parts. For lower class
athletes, the complex form of training is usually acceptable, but
for the advanced level athlete, it does not work well. As an
athlete improves, it becomes increasingly difficult to make a
significant improvement in sport results. To accomplish this,
more intensive means must be employed. The complex means
does not do this, but the unidirectional means does.
In addition to separate workouts which concentrate either
on strength, speed, technique, or endurance, unidirectional
loading is also appropriate in micro-cycles. Research shows
85
that the primary use of unidirectional training for a prolonged
period (4-10 weeks) is very effective. By using a variety of
means which yield a specific motor response, plus a gradual
increase in their intensity, this method is very effective at
increasing speed-strength, power, speed-endurance, and the
improvement in technique. Special concentrated unidirectional
training loads of eight weeks are very effective at improving
the sport result of advanced athletes.
The effectiveness of concentrated strength loading has
been confirmed by many coaches of cyclic and team sports,
and individual sports of speed, strength and power. The use of
concentrated unidirectional strength loads enables the total year
volume to be decreased by 15-20%.
While this form of training is highly effective for talented
athletes, there are some precautions that must be taken. Concentrated unidirectional strength loading is very taxing on the
body, and causes a decrease in speed-strength. This has a
negative influence on the athlete’s performance and compli-
cates the task of perfecting technical mastery of speed and
movement. For example, a discus thrower who is involved in a
six week concentrated strength program will train using high
loads of mostly strength work. Very little if any work will be
done with speed or technique. If this athlete were to be tested in
certain exercises, or asked to throw at maximal speed during
this training cycle, the outcome would be well below normal
for speed and technique parameters. This is because the
unidirectional work is very taxing on the body.
The realized gains such as better performance in speed
and power related exercises, and also throwing at full effort will
not occur during or immediately after the strength cycle. Within
one or two weeks of the restoration phase the body systems will
adapt to the higher level of ability. This delayed reaction to
high training loads is an example of the scientific terminology
of supercompensation. The body is given the chance to fully
86
adjust to heavier training loads and it strengthens itself for
future loads of like kind. In Soviet sport terminology, this
reaction to stress is also referred to as the Long Term Lag
Effect (LTLE).
It is also recognized that an increase in volume of special
strength training means for four to eight weeks results in
increased muscular stiffness and a decreased working effect of
explosive and speed efforts. Unfavorable conditions for
improving speed and technique, and the increased possibility of
injury, increase significantly. There is no doubt that high
volume strength joading makesit difficult to improve tech-
nique, speed, or explosiveness. While some technique work can
be performed during the strength phase,itis considered second-
ary.
Although there are disadvantages of the unidirectional
system, it is still superior to the complex method of training. In
order to employ a unidirectional plan, you will have to carefully
organize the yearly training program so that all of the major
block periods (cycles) compliment each other. For example,
because technique training demands a certain “freshness” of the
athlete’s body, it is necessary to have sufficient rest after the
completion of strength related exercise cycles. This is especially important as you near competitions as they demand that
the body be at its highest functional state.
There are two stages of technique within the preparatory
period. Stage one perfects those components of technique
which need improvement. Stage two emphasizes the execution
of the sport in its whole, with a high level of intensity.
Following a long period (4-8 weeks) of a unidirectional
high volume of training, a reduction in the volume is required
to obtain the LTLE . This simply means that the action (stress)
you place the body under today, will have a reaction (gain)
tomorrow. It is important to recognize that gains from a high
volume strength program are oftentimes realized one to two
87
weeks after a unidirectional program is completed.
Many athletes make the mistake of improper training
management by not balancing the high load training period
with a full restoration phase. Athletes oftentimes rush into the
next heavy load cycle without first allowing the maximum
adaptation response to occur. It is possible to outwardly appear
restored, but still not be, especially within the nervous and
metabolic systems of the body. Additional volumes not only
prevent the full realization of previous training effects to occur,
they also cause a hindrance to future work as well. All future
work such as for technique and speed should begin only when
the delayed training effect is fully realized.
The just examined forms of unidirectional loading such as
for concentrated blocks of 4-8 weeks for strength, power, or
speed indicate a great change from the complex methods of old.
However, the new forms of training by no means diminish the
need for complex preparation. They only show that the blocks
of different unidirectional training must be stacked in correct
order within the yearly plan to achieve maximum results. In
recent years, Soviet coaches have begun to use a so called
“sequence” system of the organization of training loads. The
term sequence means a strict order and succession of introducing loading of different emphasis into the training plan. Each
preceding load provides a favorable background for raising the
training influence of the new load.
A scheme of loading organization based on the sequence
system is presented in figure 1.
88
FIGURE 1
Zz
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CO a
te TIME
Microcyele (1} Strength Preparation (2) Speed (3) Speed-Endurance (4) Technique
The scheme shows an optimal sequence of means but
without a set time or volume. The advantage of the sequence
system is that it provides a significant stable cumulative effect
of loading of different primary means. It can be used not only
within a yearly program but also in micro-cycles as a single
primary emphasis. For example, within the year plan you may
begin with strength work, followed by speed, then speed
endurance,then explosiveness, then technique, then competi-
tion. Each of these blocks of different emphasis are presented in
a sequence which leads to maximum traiing results. Additionally, each block could have its own sequence. In the explosiveness or power block you could begin with 50m bounding and
multi-jump exercises, later switching to 10m bounding, and
then completing the block with plyometrics and jumping
exercises. Each exercise feeds into the next period for a maxi-
mum synergistic effect.
Compensatory Adaptation
There are two ways the body adapts to training which are
presented in figure 2.
89
FIGURE 2
Results
FORMS OF ADAPTATION
(A) Traditional (B) Contemporary
The first (A) is characterized by a gradual increase in
response all the way up to where the adaptation slows and
begins to plateau. The second (B) begins with a steady decline
and then a sharp incline in the functional state of the body, up
to a level that significantly exceeds that of A.
Form A represents the traditional means of training
organization and is quite popular in the USA. This method is
characterized by a gradual but continuous increase in the
training load. For example, the first week you start off with a
weight lifting routine, and you increase each lift five pounds
per week until the end of the cycle. This method is not effective for advanced athletes.
The special characteristics of method B are necessary for
the advancement of high-level athletes. It begins with a training
stage devoted to a large concentration of special physical
preparation exercises. The volume increases and decreases
more steeply than in the traditional schemes, and there is also a
rise in the intensity of the load. This period is very demanding
on the body to the point where the shock of such a specific load
provokes extensive changes in the body, indicated by a reduc90
tion in physical performance. Within this period it is not
expected that technique or speed will be even close to optimal.
The body becomes fatigued, and exercises which demand great
coordination, reaction time or speed are not used because the
reduced state of the athlete would only hurt technique and set
the body up for possible injury.
Following the training stage, the body will be in a fatigued
state. It is now important to begin high quality recovery
measures to restore body functions. In this restorative period
the functional indicators (power, speed, reaction time, etc.)
begin their climb up the adaptation ladder. In other words,
within the first period you stressed your body aimost to the
point of overtraining, and now you are giving it the nourishment (rest, massage, pharmacology, etc.) it needs to greatly
accelerate the adaptation response. Just as a roller coaster
propels you from the bottom of a ride to the top, so restoration
will propel you from the bottom of a training stage to a higher
level of performance.
The large stage just discussed lasts for 3-4 months, and
within each stage are micro-cycles of special physical prepara-
tion exercises which build on each other. Soviet scientists
recommend that athletes perform this stage two to three times a
year. After the restorative period, which is characterized by a
reduction in the training load and proper restorative measures,
the athlete can then begin to work on improving specific sport
technique, speed, and explosiveness in preparation for competition.
PRACTICAL TRAINING APPLICATION FOR
ADVANCED ATHLETES
We have already discussed the many variables of developing an advanced athlete. Now let’s take a look at a practical
example of how to apply this information to a training plan. We
91
have selected a training cycle for the development of sprinters,
because speed is important in many events. This model plan is
only an illustration used to give you an idea of how one block
training period builds on another. In actual application, your
own individual plan for your particular sport will vary.
We begin with a model of a 22 week training and competitive plan. The first two weeks are designed for adjustment
to future training loads, and as restoration from a previous
training cycle. Here the emphasis is on light general preparation
and games such as basketball, soccer, cross country jogging,
light strength exercises, etc. The next 18 weeks are reserved for
the core development plan in preparation of the final four
weeks which can be devoted to either pre-competitive training
or as a competition period. The core period of 18 weeks is
broken up into three, 6 week blocks which form to make stages.
Each stage is designed to feed into the next, so the stages build
on one another for the total maximum training effect. A six
week period is chosen because scientific studies have proven
that generally the six week period (macro-cycle) is the optimal
time period for adaptation to occur, anything less being not
long enough, and more a waste of valuable time.
There are three distinct focus points or goals when
developing sprinters and many other sports which require
speed. These are speed-endurance, speed, and speed-strength
development as listed below:
1) SPEED-ENDURANCE: Speed-endurance exercises
are used to strengthen the glycolytic mechanisms of the body.
When designing a sprint program, a coach takes into consideration two different energy supplies required to fuel the body.
The first which lasts only for 5-6 seconds of a sprint is the
alactate mechanism. The second which lasts longer than six
seconds is the glycolytic mechanism. The goal of speedendurance training is to improve the glycolytic mechanism of
the sprinter by using exercises which are between 85-90% of
92
maximum. While most athletes think of endurance training as
long-slow distance work, in the case of speed-endurance the
intensity is at a higher level. The exercise is performed at close
to maximum, with the rest time being reduced to gain the
endurance effect. Even though the athlete may be exercising at
only 80% of maximum, the short rest period causes a greater
stress, which yields the speed-endurance effect. For example,
an athlete performs a 100m sprint at 85% of maximum for ten
times, with 1-2 minutes rest between sprints (100m, 10x, 12mr), or (200m, 6x, 3mr), or (250m, 5x, 4mr). In addition to
sprinting under normal conditions, the variative method of
using techniques and devices which increase the effort (uphill
running, weight belts, ankle weights, Speed-Chute, sled pull,
etc.) are used.
2) SPEED: The development of speed is accomplished by
using exercises closer to maximum intensity and for a shorter
duration. In addition, the rest treme between reps is increased so
that full function is restored before the next exercise. It is
important to give the body adequate rest, as maximum speed
work is very taxing on the body. As an example, the sprinter
performs 50-60m sprints for five reps in a set with 2-3 minutes
rest between each sprint. This 5 rep set is then repeated in a
new series after 5 minutes rest. The entire plan is written as:
(50-60m, 5x, 2-3mr, 2 series, 5mr). Exercises for speed can be
made in the normal state, when using resistance exercises as
explained above, or by using above-normal speed methods
such as downhill running, release Speed-Chute, or pulling
exercises.
3) STRENGTH AND POWER DEVELOPMENT:
Weight lifting exercises are designed to build base strength and
power, and jumping exercises are designed te improve explosiveness. In the beginning of the block period, the weight lifting
exercises such as jump squat, snatch, and clean and jerk are
93
used at 50% of maximum for 8-10 reps each set. This helps
build good speed and explosiveness. Most often, multi-jump
exercises such as 50-80m bounding and 10 rep jumps are used.
In addition, triple jump, single rep standing long jump, stair
running, and more advanced plyometrics are used some of the
time.
The following section outlines the model-plan for an
advanced sprinter preparing for a competition four months
away. Observe that the plan moves from one of developing
speed-endurance and base strength, to one of maximum speed.
There are a total of four stages, each one building on the
previous stage. The first three stages are each six weeks long,
and the fourth is a pre-competitive stage which is four weeks
long.
Stage 1 (Speed Endurance, 80-85% max)
DAY 1) — Sprint exercises are at 80-85% maximum.
DAY 2)
Uphill runs or Speed Chute, 60m, 8-10x.
Stadium stairs, 20-40m, 4-5x. Multi-step
long jump, 60m, 4-5x.
Running 200m , 6x, First 3 in resistant
condition. Multi-jumps on grass, 60m, 4SK:
DAY 3)
Weight lifting: Lifts done near 50%
maximum.Snatch or snatch like, 4-5 reps.
Stretch while resting for 5 min between
sets, repeat . Jump from squat position 8-10
reps/3-4 sets, 5 min rest between sets.
Jumping from half squat 10x for 3-4 sets.
Support lifts such as hamstring curls, situps, back extensions, etc.
94
DAY 4) — Running stairs 20-30m, 4-5x. 100m sprint
10x with | min rest between reps. Multijumps 60-80m, 3-4x.
DAY 5)
Short jumping from standing position,
triple jump (TJ), 5-7 reps each. Shuttle
sprint for 60m, 5x, 1-1.5 min rest, 2 series
with 5-6min rest between series.
DAY 6)
Multi jumping exercises of 50-80m for 4x.
Snatch lifts alternated with hurdle jumps,
5x for 5 sets, 10min rest between sets.
Bench jump-up 10x, 3-4 sets. 8x, 100m
sprint with 100m jogging between each
sprint as a rest, on grass.
DAY 7)
Rest.
Stage 2 (Speed Endurance, 90-95% of max)
For improving the level of speed trom 90% of maximum
at the beginning of the six week cycle to 95% at the end. The
rest between repetitions increases because of the higher intensity level. All sprints are performed at 90% cf maximum or
greater. Examples are: 150m, 6x, 7-8 min rest or 200m, 5x, 810 min rest or 250m, 4x, 10-12 min rest. The last rep in a series
should be the quickest. For example, the first rep is done at
87% and the final one is at 92%. Other speed-endurance
exercises such as 50-60m sprints 5x with a 75 second rest are
also used.
For speed acceleration and speed, a distance of 30-80m
(not more than 450m total), with 3-5 minutes rest between reps
can be used. Distances are run under variative conditions using
weighted devices, Speed-Chute, sled, etc. It is common to run
for 5x, 3x with a Speed-Chute and the last 2x without under
normal conditions.
For strength conditioning, specific weight lifting exercises
at greater loads and less reps are used. The classic Olympic lifts
95
of snatch and jerk are employed often, with a starting point at
80% of maximum the first two weeks and progressing to 95%
of max after the sixth week. Jumping exercises such as 10 rep
alternating jumps using both legs, one leg or a combination,
single rep long and triple jumps, and plyometrics are used.
DAY 1)
Short jumps 5x from standing position, 5x
TJ, 5-10x LJ. Running near maximum
from start close to maximal speed using
Speed-Chute for 60m at 6x, then 4x
without Speed-Chute. Rest for 4-5 minutes
between reps. Throw 5kg (121b) shot
underhand using both hands, 10x.
DAY 2)
Running 90-95%maximum 250m, rest 1012 min, or 200m, rest 8-10min, or 150m, 6
minutes rest. Jumping exercises.
DAY 3)
Weight lifting. Snatch at 80%max, 3-4x,
85% for 2x, 90% Ix for 3-4 sets. Rest with
stretching 5 min between sets. Jerk 80%
max, 4x, 85% for 3x, 90% for 2x 3 sets.
Rest 5 min. Half squat with pop up at 90%
of a full squat maximum for 8x, 5 sets Rest
5 min. General conditioning for back,
stomach, hips, etc.
DAY 4)
Jumping for sets of 10 reps, 7-8 sets. Sprint
60m 4-6x for 2 series, 75-80 seconds rest
between sets and 6-8 min rest between
series.
DAY 5)
Shot pass 10x. 200m, 5x, first 4 under
resistance condition (speed-chute), and last
without.
DAY 6)
Two weight lifting exercises from the list
of snatch, squat, clean and jerk.
Plyometrics and easy jumping exercises.
96
Running on grass 100m, 8-10x near 80%,
jog nd repeat.
DAY 7) — Restoration methods and rest.
Stage 3 (Speed Endurance 95-100%)
All conditions for speed development are used for a total
distance of 400m in one training session. Sprints of 20-80m are
used with 3-6 minutes of rest between each rep. Speed is at
maximum and good starts and acceleration are stressed. The
training is carried out only when the condition of the athlete is
good. Downhill and towing exercises are aiso used to improve
stride frequency. Shots are thrown underhand to improve
explosiveness.
For speed-endurance the distance covered is 150-250m
and the intensity is 95-100% of maximum.Common running
exercises include; 150m, 4x with 10-12 min rest, or 200m, 3x
with 12-18 min rest, or 250m, 2x with 15-18 min rest. The last
stage of each rep is run at full speed. An example is beginning a
200m sprint near 90% and ending near 98%. If the athlete
cannot maintain a high % of maximum, the number of reps
should be reduced.
i
For strength development, this period is characterized by a
great increase in intensity. After a few days layoff from the
previous stage, it is common for the athlete to break previous
records in the 1-3 rep maximum lifts during the first days of
this new period. The lifting is increased to maximum intensity
of 3-4 sets each. Jumping exercises such as single rep TJ and
LJ, 5-10 rep multi-jumps, and plyometrics are used widely, at a
greater speed than in previous stages.
DAY 1) — Shot toss 10x. Short jumping 5x LJ and 5x
TJ, 2x 10 single leg alternate jumps for 2
eries. Start exercises. Full speed 50m
97
sprints, 4x with 5 min rest for 2 series, 8
DAY 2)
min est between series.
Jumping exercises of LJ and TJ, single and
5x each for 5 sets. 250, 200 or 150 meter
sprints from 95% max as recommended
above. Last 50m are at full speed.
DAY 3)
Weight lifting close to maximum. This day
is used also as a tonic for the next day.
DAY 4)
Speed work. Sprinting for 80-100m, the
first 60m with speed-chute and the last 2040m without for 3x, 8 min rest, 2 series
with 12 min rest between series.
DAY 5)
Sprint at maximum 150m for 4x, first 2x
with medium speed-chute, and 2x with
small, releasing after 100m.
DAY 6)
Weight lifting. Plyometric take-off drills
(jumps)for 100-120 reps. Running on grass
at a relaxed pace for 100m, 5-6x.
DAY 7)
Rest.
Stage 4 (Maximal Speed Period)
The emphasis in this stage is strictly on speed. To
DAY 1)
DAY 2)
begin 3-4 weeks before competition.
Shot toss 8-10x. Short standing jumps.
Start work. Speed regime is less than 400m
with a good rest of 4-6 minutes between
reps.
Short standing jumps, TJ 5x, multi-jumps
4x, all at full speed. Flying start for 40m,
5x, 4-5 min rest between sets. Relay
exercises, 3x receive and 3x give baton.
DAY 3)
98
Weight lifting for tonic effect, 30-40 min.
DAY 4) — 150m, 4x in broken motion regime (50m
full speed, 50m slightly reduced and
relaxed 50m at full speed).
DAY 5) — Variative methods for restoration.
Jumping
exercises. Running on grass. Strength work
n an easy way.
DAY 6) — Start and acceleration speed exercises near
to competition pace.
DAY 7)
Rest.
Summary
The program listed above is just one example of how to
design a system of speed development which is predominantly
speed-endurance related. It does not mean that their are no
other ways, and wil! of course vary from athlete to athlete and
sport to sport. The plan should be looked upon as a model. In
each block the goal was to increase speed-endurance and
speed-acceleration by using the variative methods of training
which use increased, normat and decreased resistance methods.
All of them work in complex and build upon the previous
stages, which is why this method is so effective for advanced
athletes.
The training plan listed above was used for two years by a
Soviet athlete whose initial result in the 100 meter sprint was
10.6 seconds, timed manually. He was not the most gifted
sprinter, in fact he was only average. After this program, his
result improved to 10.0 seconds manually (10.30 electronic)
and he finished as the Soviet national champton.
99
Olga Bryzgina, double gold medal winner in 400 meter and 4x400
meter relay at the 1988 Olympics in Seoul.
The model program listed above is an example of specific
physical preparation using a high intensity variative method of
100
training. Athletes only manage to perform at this high level for
a long period of time by using excellent means of restoration.
Twice weekly the athlete gets a full massage and sauna. Diet,
sport nutrition, and pharmacology is also organized along with
the training plan for maximum recovery in a minimal amount
of time.
STRENGTH DEVELOPMENT
There are many ways to develop strength, and the particular method oftentimes depends on your goal in sport. Whether
you are training for speed, power, endurance, or muscle size, a
base of generai strength is important. A most common method
of strength development in the USA is to train as a bodybuilder.
By this we mean weightlifting exercises which use below
maximal weights and are lifted for several repetitions (typically
5-10 reps per set) at a slow pace. While this is perfectly acceptable to the bodybuilder, it is not very efficient for most other
sports. While bodybuilders often work with a weight they can
handie for 5-10 reps, or until failure, this method is not the most
efficient means to develop strength. It has been proven that
heavier weights lifted for 1-4 reps are more efficient at building
strength.
Soviet athletes typically employ weights close to or at
maximum. This is most easily seen in the training of
weightlifters who demand maximal strength with a minimum
amount of muscle mass. If they were to train like a bodybuilder, they would not become as strong, but they certainly
would increase the size of their muscles. This would put them
in a higher weight class which is what they don’t want. Sports
such as weightlifting, wrestling, powerlifting, and judo require
a maximum amount of strength with a minimum amount of
101
mass. In sports like basketball and football (lineman for
example) it is important to have an optimal amount of mass in
order to defend yourself, while in other sports or events such as
baseball, sprinting, long jump, and swimming, mass is not as
necessary and can even inhibit performance. Which brings us
to the often asked question of “how should I train ?” The
answer is that you train for your sport.
You must analyze your sport and determine just what is
most important. If you are a bodybuilder, your most important
goal is to have the maximum amount of muscle size and
definition for all visible muscles of the body. You don’t care
that you can’t perform a snatch like a weightlifter, a 100 meter
sprint like a sprinter, or run a marathon like a long distance
runner. You must train as a bodybuilder. Likewise, a 100m
sprinter doesn’t care about muscle size, all he wants to do is run
100 meters as fast as he can. Which brings us to a major
dilemma that plagues the American system of sport. Many
athletes that are not bodybuilders are training like bodybuilders.
There is no doubt that America has the best bodybuilders
in the world. The art of bodybuilding is of great interest nght
now in the USSR, and many athletes are taking up this sport.
Unfortunately in the west, much of the bodybuilding philosophy of multiple repetition sets has spilled over into other sports.
Perhaps this is due to the great exposure bodybuilding has had
in the west, through television, magazines, picture books and
the like. Perhaps it is also due to our desire to look good, and
bodybuilders are often regarded as bastions of fitness and good
health. Another reason is that bodybuilding methods are less
technical than the explosive lifts such as forms of snatch and
clean and jerk. There are few coaches in the USA which know
how to correctly train athletes for explosive power and speed
using the Olympic style movements. As a result, athletes fall
102
back on easier methods to learn which are oftentimes less
productive.
The tide has certainly changed. Just 25 years ago the
USA had some of the best weightlifters in the world. Now,
gyms in the USA are devoted primarily to bodybuilding, and
there are few gyms to train at for explosive strength and speed.
Whatever the reason, we are troubled to see many athletes in
sports such as football, baseball, basketball, wres‘ling, and track
and field, training as bodybuilders. There is a great distinction
between how a bodybuilder should train, and how athletes in
other sports should train. We will now present to you some
information that is well known in the USSR but has escaped
application in the USA. It will be of great help to ali nonbodybuilding athletes, both male and female.
If you are a bodybuilder, or have been training as one,
don’t conclude that we are anti-bodybuilding. Nothing could be
further from the truth. We just want to present some methods of
weight training that many athletes are not using, methods
which will greatly improve their sport result. Bodybuilding
methods are certainly important, but they are just one method
of strength development. Read on and learn of other methods
which are essential for the development of top athletes.
Maximal Exertion Method
These methods are characterized by exercises performed
near maximum weight for only a few repetitions. Because the
resistance is higher, there is a more economical use of energy
when compared with multi-rep exercises. This is why when
you read of incredible feats by East Bloc weightlifters you learn
that they generally perform only 1-3 reps per set and may train
up to four times daily for one hour each session. Immediately
you think of your own training plan which may include
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weightlifting for 1-2 hours, leaving you very taxed, and wonder
how the weightlifters could possibly train so hard. The answer
lies in their selection of strength development exercises and
proper recovery methods. If they were to train as a bodybuilder
by using many rep sets, they would become too fatigued. They
have specifically trained for their sport, relying more on the
quality of training than the quantity. By training near or at
maximum, they develop the explosiveness and speed necessary
to excel. Most other sports require the same. Here are some
forms and examples of the maximal exertion method. They are
characterized by maximum or near-maximum weights lifted in a
quick pace as in the snatch and clean and jerk. They have a very
strong action on the central nervous system and stimulate the
improvement in power and speed without increasing muscle
mass. Each is listed using the key as follows: (reps, sets, % of
maximum, rest between sets, # of series, rest between series). A
series, if you are not familiar with this term simply means a
repeat of the first group of sets.
1)
Warm up with 50% of maximum for 1-2 exercises
(2-3, 3, 90-95%, 3-4 min, 2 series, 6-8 min). This
could be for the squat, snatch, clean and jerk, or
many variations of these lifts.
2)
Warm-up. Four sets, 2x90%, 1x95%, 1x 100%,
1x100% + 2-4 Ibs. Between sets rest 3-4 minutes
with relaxation of muscles. If you don’t feel able
to perform the last set completely, don’t do it.
Repeat a second series if you feel up to it.
3)
Warm-up.(1, 4-5 sets, 100%, 5-7min, 2 series, 6-8
min)
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4)
This exercise demands spotters to help the lifter
up after a slow negative lift (1, 3, 120-130%, 34min, 1-2, 6-8min). Eccentric squats.
5)
Mixture of eccentric and concentric exercises.
Squat 130-140% of maximum, remove weight to
70-80% and then return to top with great speed
and power. (3 rep, 2-3 sets, 130-140% to squat,
and 70-80% on return, 3-Smin, 2 series, 6-8 min)
For giobal exercises such as the squat, snatch and clean
and jerk, the repetitions should be less, and the rest between
sets more, than in isolated muscle lifts such as bench press,
shoulder press, arm curl, etc. In general, athletes training for
non-bodybuilding sports such as track and field, football,
basketball, baseball and others should train for maximum
power and speed. This often demands sets of no more than
three repetitions near maximum.
Repeated Exertion Method
This method employs an optimal sub-maximal weight. It
is characterized by more volume as a great number Of repetitions and sets are used. These methods are most popular with
bodybuilders and powerlifters because they help to maximize
the increase in muscie mass. This is because the muscle
proteins are stressed and broken down during the training,
which activates the protein building functions of the body for
enhanced muscle growth after training. There are three different regimes that can be used. One increases muscle mildly, one
increases muscle mass greatly, and one improves strength-
endurance.
If you want to increase muscle mildly, the weight used
should be 70-80% and the intensity great and concentrated. The
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training session shouldn’t be long, and a good amount of rest
should be allowed between sets to ensure proper restoration.
The weight should increase gradually and the rest between
sessions should be 2-3 days.
1)
(5-6 reps, 2-3 sets, 70-80%,4-6 min, 2-3 series,
2)
Each series has 3 sets of 10x80%, 5x90%,
6-8 min)
2x93-95%. Rest 4-5 min, 2-3 series, 6-8 min.
3)
Each series has 4 sets of 12x70%, 10x80%,
7x85%, 5x90% Rest 4-5 min, 2 series, 8-10 min
rest.
If you want to increase the size of muscle greatly, there
must be a high intensification of exchange in muscle substances. This is commonly called anabolic training and is
characterized by a great activation of the glycolytic mechanisms of the muscle and a high destruction of muscle proteins,
followed by a large increase in muscle proteins during restoration after training. The activation of protein synthesis is slow,
often taking 48-72 hours after exercise. The characteristics of
this type of training are: 1) a weight heavy enough for the
stimulation of muscle protein synthesis, 2) the work must have
an increase in time, sometimes to fatigue or cheater sets, 3)
short rest between sets of 1-2 minutes, 4) work is specific and
targeted at certain muscles, 5) in one training session 2-3
muscle groups are worked, and 6) the exercises vary so that
each muscle has 48-72 hours of rest and recovery.
This means is good for increasing maximum strength in a
slow movement but is not effective for power or speed strength
development. It can be used in the beginning years to acquaint
an athlete with weight lifting in general. Examples are as
follow:
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1)
Slow pace for 10-12 reps at 70-80% of maximum. 2-3 sets with 2 minutes rest for 2-3
muscle groups.
2)
(5-10 reps, 3-5 sets, 80%, 2-3 min rest)
3)
(15-20 reps, 3-5 sets, 60-70%, 2-3 min rest)
4)
(5-8 reps, 3-8 sets, 85-95%, rest 3-5 min,
with help)
5)
85-90%, reps till fatigue + 2-3 cheaters for
2-3 sets.
6)
For small muscles use 10x65%, 10x60% and
7)
The weight you can lift for 6 times, followed by
2-3 cheaters.
10x55%. Rest is 1-2 minutes.
The means listed above are very popular with bodybuilders as they have a significant effect on building muscle mass.
They too can be complexed within a training cycle using the
variative method of training. Even for bodybuilders, the
training routine should be changed every 4-7 weeks to prevent
stagnation and a plateau in gains. Incredible gains can be had
by bodybuilders providing they vary their training’ and improve
their restorative function. Bodybuilding is very taxing on the
body, and protein synthesis demands a minimum of two, and
sometimes up to four days to reach maximum. It is important to
use proper restorative means which can greatly enhance the
protein building process and reduce the catabolic process after
training.
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Yuri Zakharevich, Olympic weightlifting gold medalist at 110 kg
performing the jerk. Several dozen sport specific strength exercises
are used to build a strength base to withstand the rigorous multitraining sessions daily at maximum or near maximum intensity.
Strength Endurance
There are some muscle fibers that fall between the slow
twitch (red) and fast twitch (white) types commonly referred to
in exercise physiology. By strengthening these muscles to
handle prolonged stress, we can receive good gains in sport
performance. It is important for sports which have prolonged
times of activity to have the strength-endurance necessary to
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Maintain maximum power. Oftentimes it is not the athlete who
exhibits the highest power, but the athlete who is able to
maintain power. In many sports including wrestling, football,
400m sprint, and basketball, the development of strengthendurance is a great advantage.
1)
Start with 3 sets of three reps at 80-90% maxi-
mum with a rest of 2-3 minutes. Then drop the
weight to 40-50% of maximum and perform 4
sets of 15 reps each in a medium to slow pace.
2)
Ata weight of 40-50%, perform the maximum
number of lifts you can in 20 seconds, rest 20-30
seconds, then repeat for 1-2 extra sets. Maintain
pulse at 120-140 beats per minute.
3)
Perform 8-10 different circuit exercises in a
medium slow pace with 30-60 seconds of rest
between exercises. Keep pulse below 140 bpm.
Choose exercises common with your sport.
As an example of the use of strength endurance we draw
on exercises used by Soviet wrestlers. In a circuit, a wrestler
performs the following ten exercises within a 20 minute period:
squat, bench press, situps, dumbell flys, upright row, twists
with bar on back, pull overs, bicep curls, bent over row, and
shoulder press. This is extremely dernanding on the strengthendurance of the athlete.
Isometric
Isometric exercises were popular about twenty years ago
in the USA but have since then fallen out of grace and are
rarely used today. This is a case of putting too much emphasis
on any one exercise as can be seen today by the use of
plyometrics. Like plyometrics which in some ways are similar,
isometrics are just one group of exercises that are used by
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Soviet athletes. They can be most effective at improving the
static strength of sticking points in sports. Typically the tension
of the muscle is increased to maximum where it is maintained
for 6-8 seconds. An example is 2-3 sets with 5-6 tensions. The
rest between tensions is one minute or less, and 4-6 minutes
between sets, for 2-3 series with a rest of 6-8 minutes. It is
important to know the angle of tension of a particular sport or
event and to reproduce that angle in the exercise. For isometric
tension for the thigh you would make the exercise at a 90
degree angle. As an example, a ski jumper would work at
angles of 80, 110, and 140 degrees. Isometrics are most
effective when mixed with dynamic means.
TRAINING FOR EXPLOSIVE STRENGTH
(POWER)
For the development of explosive strength it is necessary
to use the maximal strength effort described previously. This is
especially important for events which deal with a great resistance such as weightlifting, football, throwing events, wrestling, etc.
The development of explosive strength is accomplished
not only by lifting weights, but also by using isometric exercises and the shock methods of training such as jumping
exercises and plyometrics. Oftentimes these methods are
complexed together, which is far more effective then when
used individually. It is important to use these methods of power
development only when you are fresh and free of fatigue,
because maximum involvement from the nervous system is
required. Power training is often positioned after a period of
recovery or the day following an easy training session, and
never after strength or endurance training.
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Plyometrics
Much has been written about plyometrics by western
coaches, so we will limit this section to just a few thoughts
about how to make them more effective. Plyometrics are a
small part of the exercises for explosive strength. Every child
who has skipped rope has done plyometrics.They are not the
most important means of training and should be used in
complex with other exercises. We have observec many western
athletes using them improperly and too often. Plyometrics look
deceptively easy, but the proper technique and application of
some forms is difficult. Improper use, which is common, is
worse than not doing any plyometrics at all.
It is important that athletes begin to train for plyometrics
by performing single and multiple jumps, including the
oftentimes used standing long and triple jumps, and multi
jumps of five to ten repetitions. These jumping exercises are
necessary to improve start acceleration. They will also prepare
the body for more advanced box jumps, etc. For the upper
body, special exercises with different weight medicine balls is
effective at improving upper body power for throwing events,
wrestling, football, etc.
Plyometric exercises are often used, but only if the athlete
is at a high level of development. Experienced figure skaters
use box jumps from a height of 75cm for men and 60cm for
women. Boxers also use box jumps (70-75cm) by jurnping
down into a boxing stance and then a punching motion on the
explosive movement upward. The choice of plyometric
exercise depends on the level of the physical condition of the
athlete. To perform plyometrics can be dangerous if you don’t
prepare for them properly.
Complex Method Of Power Development
When designing a program for the development of power,
it is most effective to incorporate exercises of heavy and light
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weight together. By using the heavy weight, the body is
prepared for a great effort, calling upon maximum muscle and
nervous system action. Then, when the light weight is employed, the body reacts with more involvement and explosiveness. As an example, let’s say you are in your kitchen and you
place a pot filled to the top with water (a weight of about
twelve pounds) on the stove. You leave the room for a minute,
and while you are gone someone pours out most of the water
from your pot, leaving only two pounds. When you return and
pick up the pot, your nervous system expects it to be heavy, and
it is quickly jerked upward faster than normal. The same
reaction holds true for heavy and light exercises using 90% and
30% of maximum as well as jumps. Special power exercises
used in complex are listed below.
1)
Perform 2-3 reps with 90% for 2 sets. Then, 6-8
reps at 30% for 3 sets using explosive movements. Rest between sets 1s 3-4 minutes and
between weight changes 4-5 minutes. Perform 23 series with 8-10 min rest between series. A rest
pause (a rest at the finish of a lift without racking
the bar) should be done between each 30% of
maximum movement. Remember the goal is not
endurance, so take your time to get balanced and
then explode upward. This exercise can be
performed in the squat, clean, jerk, and seated and
bench press. It’s only limited by your imagination.
2)
Squat for 5-6 reps at 70-80% for 2 sets, then 4-6
minutes rest, then jumping exercises LJ or TJ for
6-8 reps and 2-3 sets. Repeat series 2-3 times with
8-10 min rest between.
3)
Squat 2-3 reps at 80-85% for 2 sets, rest 3-4 min
between sets. Using dumbells of 30-60 pounds in
each hand, jump up explosively for 6-10 reps, 2-3
sets and 3-4 min rest. Repeat series 2-3x with rest
of 6-8 min.
4)
Squat of 2 reps at 90-95% for 2 sets with 4-6 min
rest, after final set, 2-4 min rest, then box depth
jumps 6-8 reps. Repeat series 2-3x with rest of 810 min between series.
Speed Strength
Speed strength movements are very quick as the resistance
is not so great. The exercises are done more closely to full
speed, with maximum effort. The two kinds of speed strength
are start strength and acceleration strength. It is necessary to
have optimal strength to provide a quicker movement, but not
so much that it cannot be used, or in some way hinders explo-
siveness. A mistake many athletes make is when they build
general strength in a lift that has little bearing to the sport, and
especially far more than is necessary.
A commonly abused lift
by western athletes 1s the bench press where non-powerlifters
can be observed training with weights of 400-500 pounds, way
in excess of what is required for the sport. Had these athletes
concentrated more on power and speed, they no doubt would
produce superior results.
Weights are used in this regime too, but are kept to 30-
50% of maximum for starting strength exercises for sprinters
etc., and 50-60% if the sport involves a great resistance such as
shot put, hammer, football and wrestling. An example would be
to perform a lift of 30-60% for 6-8 reps at maximum speed for
2-3 sets in a series. Rest would be 3-4 minutes between sets and
6-8 between series.
Another example of developing speed strength is the use
by hockey players of heavy pucks (600-800 grams) in passing
drills for 10-20 meters between partners. Plyometrics are also
used but in a faster speed than when training for explosive
strength. Hockey players often take 90-120 passes with the
puck in practice, about 30% of them with the heavy puck while
using the normal puck for quickness and full speed.
When explosive strength exercises are used they are not
just for the specialization of an event but to also improve skill.
An example of this is in the use of jumping exercises of track
and field athletes. For beginners, jumping exercises are good
for developing maximal and explosive strength. For advanced
athletes, especially jumpers, the same exercise is no longer used
for maximal strength but for explosiveness and speed. If an
advanced athlete only uses weights for the building of maximal
strength, it will lead to a decline in explosiveness and speed
strength. Many Soviet research studies have proven that
jumping exercises are very effective for developing maximal
and explosive strength for hockey, soccer, bicycling, X-C
skiing, and many others. Football players in the USA and
Canada would develop greater explosiveness if they incorporated jumping exercises into their training. This would reduce
the reliance on strictly building maximal strength which is often
in excess of what is necessary.
Sometimes the explosive exercises are done when the
athlete is in a fatigued state to mimic a game situation.This can
be seen in the use of circuit training by basketball and football
players. An example is the use of circuit training by basketball
players where the following six exercises are used: jumps with
weights 8x, jumps at a standing position from one leg to
another 10x, jumps with dumbells 8-10x, jumps from half squat
10-12x, jumps up onto a 40-60cm bench with both feet then
return to floor for 6-8 reps, multi jumps (10x) 2x one leg and 2x
other. Rest between exercises is 15-20 seconds. Perform 2-4
series with a rest of 6-8 min between series.
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Another circuit: Each exercise lasts for 90 seconds, with a
rest between stations of 60 seconds. 1) Squat with plate.
2) Jump from a deep squat position. 3) Push-ups. 4) 50-701b
push press. 5) Dumbbell snatches. 6) Medicine Ball throws.
7) Jumping in one place. 8) Acceleration with acrobatic
exercises (movement drills).
Another circuit: Done at maximal pace for 15-20 seconds
each, moving immediately to the next station. 1) Jumping with
raised knees at 90%. 2) High pulls to chest 40-SOkg. 3) 20-30kg
split jerks. 4) Presses with 40-SOkg from chest. 5) Jumps with
two legs up onto box, 60-70cm in height.
In summary, each sport demands a specific form of
strength. In training, you should use a variety of methods which
focus on sport specific power, speed-strength, and explosiveness.
QUICKNESS DEVELOPMENT
There is a difference between quickness and speed. It was
pointed out earlier that speed is a complex of many factors, one
of which is quickness. Quickness is defined as an action of the
body which does not require muscular effort or the complex
coordination requiring energy. The physiological mechanism of
quickness is associated with the functional properties of the
central nervous system. In other words, quickness is the ability
to perform high-speed movements with no significant external
resistance or great energy. It is simply the first stage of reaction
to stimuli. There are specific forms of quickness which we will
explain in the following sections.
The quickness of the motor reaction is determined by the
period between stimuli or signal, and the response. There are
simple and complex reactions. A simple reaction being a
His)
response to a known and suddenly appearing signal through
pre-trained movements. An example of simple reactions
includes the sprinters starting reaction, speed shooting, etc. All
other types of quickness reactions are complex ones which
would include those which can have a variety of outcomes.
The time of a simple motor reaction is divided into two
periods; the latent period, and the time of motion. The latent
period is the time from initiated stimulation until the emergence
of muscle biocurrents. This latent period of simple reactions is
inherited genetically, and cannot be developed through training.
The time of motion however is of practical interest in sport.
This is the time between when the body picks up a stimulus
after the latent period until a reaction occurs.
In the case of a complex motor reaction, the reaction calls
for an estimation of the situation, choosing the best possible
decision, and reacting quickly. Under such conditions, the time
of reaction depends on the number of alternatives. The more
difficult the choice, the longer the time of reaction. As the
athletes skill improves, the time for receiving and processing
information becomes shorter. An example of a complex
reaction would be a football defensive back who must make a
split second decision whether to move right or left to cover a
receiver. Obviously more than one option is available, and the
optimal quickness to choose the right option is necessary for
success.
In some cases of sport competitions, prediction of the
eminent situation is an important factor to reduce the reaction
time. For example, an experienced soccer goal-keeper can
predict the direction of the kick by the forward’s preparatory
movements. This can also happen in football, basketball,
hockey, tennis and the like.
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Under more complex movements the coordination of
muscle becomes more complicated. A boxer’s moves characterized by a shift in the direction of movement, sudden side
steps, and the transition from defensive to offensive reactions
are highly complex. In basketball, the success of play is
determined by quickness of simple and complex motor reac-
tions, time of starting and supporting reactions in jumps, as
well as the speed of realizing a single movement.
Another form of quickness is the frequency of movement
as is found in the dribbling ofa basketball or the punching of a
boxer. These are very complex movements. Years ago, simple
tapping tests were used to determine quickness, or reaction to
stimuli. However, these tests were for simple movements, and
had no relation to the complex movements of the sport.
By improving the flexibility and elasticity of muscles, the
mobility of joints, and the relaxation of muscles, a faster
realization of neuromotor reaction to stimuli will occur. To
improve muscle coordination, movements should be made
more difficult to perform. Difficult or stressful work demands a
greater activation of fast motor units which improve the
intramuscular coordination.
It is effective to perform major training exercises after
previous tension-regulating work. An example of this is the
pushing of a 10-20 pound medicine ball which helps to stimulate the quickness in a boxer’s punches. Medicine balis and
dumbelis can be used to stimulate reaction time and develop
motion quickness. It is important to relax the muscles prior to
the exercise, to perform the movement very quick, and then to
relax again.
Soviet scientists have also used the expressed information
method of developing quickness with great success. The
method consists of comparing the actual outcome of an exercise with what the athlete perceived the outcome was. For
117
example- An athlete is told to sprint for 40 yards. After the
sprint, the athlete is asked what he believes his time to be. His
answer is then compared with the actual time. If he thought his
time was 4.9 seconds, when it was actually 5.3 seconds, his
judgement of time is not yet in line. By practicing this over and
over again, he will be able to feel what his speed actually is.
Every time he runs 40 yards, he will know how fast he is
running.
It is common for athletes to become easily adapted to
quickness exercises. To prevent this, stimuli of varying intensities should be used. An example of this can be seen in the
training of the sprint start. It is often recognized that improvement in starting speed can be achieved by practicing from the
block using starting commands (hand clap, voice, starter gun
shot). For beginner and intermediate level athletes, this method
is effective, but as an athlete improves their skill, they adapt to
these methods. The stronger the stimulation, the quicker the
adaptation. For this reason, sound stimulants of varying
intensity (with preference to weak ones) are used to start the
sprinter. This process avoids the adaptation to the force of
stimulation on one hand, and renders the exercise more complex on the other. The athlete must be very attentive to react to
a weak starting signal such as a whisper, the tap of a pencil, a
soft start from a distance, etc. The same method of quickness
development can be used in the football start, however in this
case the stimuli is sometimes visual and not audio.
ENDURANCE DEVELOPMENT
For many years, endurance was recognized as being the
capability to work for a long period of time. In the traditional
way coaches believed it was necessary to have endurance in
order to fight off fatigue. Exercises were chosen which helped
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to resist fatigue, namely those which were connected with
strengthening the heart and lung systems responsible for
providing oxygen to muscle. Exercises such as long distance
running, cycling and swimming were chosen to improve these
systems.
New research has clearly pointed out that endurance is not
connected entirely with the quantity of oxygen to muscle but
rather the adaptation of muscle to a long period of work. As
such, it becomes necessary to not only train the oxygen function, but also the capability of muscle to metabolize and better
use the oxygen which the muscle has. It is important that
muscles function in a relaxed manner and in an economical
way.
For many years endurance was divided into two parts: 1)
Generai endurance (aerobic), and 2) Special endurance for the
competitive event. it was a mistake to divide endurance into
two parts for the advanced and top athlete. The higher the skill
of the athlete, the more specific the endurance training must be.
Even the so called general or aerobic endurance should be
specific. Some years ago, coaches believed that if aerobic
endurance training (running, swimming, or cycling long
distance miles) were used, the sport results would be improved.
Now scientists know that this is not true. For example, if you
are a competitive swimmer and you use distance running to
improve your endurance, this will not help your swimming
much. Likewise, if you are a runner and you cycle long dis-
tance, this will not help your running much. Of course, we are
speaking about the effects on an advanced athlete. For a
beginner or intermediate athlete, it is acceptable to sometimes
cross over and use other endurance means.
For many sports, endurance plays a role in overall perfor-
mance. However, it is seldom that endurance is looked at
singularly. It is more likely that endurance is tied to speed and
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power movements. An example of this is found in football. A
typical play in football lasts only a few seconds. During play,
the main characteristics called upon are explosive strength
(power), and speed characteristics (Starting, accelerating, speedstrength). Endurance comes into play due to the repetitive
power movements combined with short rest penods for a long
period of time. As such, endurance should not be classified as
general or aerobic, but rather as specific for the sport.
Once a general level of aerobic conditioning has been
achieved, the football player should concentrate on more sport
specific endurance exercises. These could be characterized by
near maximum weight lifts with a shorter rest between reps, a
circuit training program, actual football scrimmage with less
rest between plays, etc. These are all examples of explosive
movements such as those found in football, combined with less
rest. The exercises will train the body's muscular system to
restore more fully after an explosive effort than the athlete
could accomplish from running laps around a track, wind
sprints, etc.
An example in weightlifting would be to perform a squat
every second for 10-12 repetitions without decreasing the
speed. This is an example of strength-endurance which is most
appropriate for power sports like football, wrestling, and
basketball. Other exercises could be split squats, jumping with
dumbells, and cleans, all with a short rest between reps.
There are two kinds of jumping exercises which can be
used for endurance work. The first exercises are intensive and
include for example multi jumps for four sets of 10, 10, 8, and
6 jumps per set in the series, with 10-15 seconds rest between
set and one minute rest between series, for 3-4 series. The
second method is not as intensive and includes 100-200m
jumping exercises at a not so powerful pace for 4-6 sets with
one minute rest between sets, for 2-3 series with a rest of 8-10
120
minutes between series. Uphill running can also be used.
Endurance exercises should be specific to and closely
match the metabolic and neurologic requirements of the sport.
Because the activity or time of movement is very short in sports
such as football and basketball, endurance training should
closely match the sport. Circuit training, weight lifting, and
jumping exercises are most effective, while long slow distance
(LSD) work is not. Even for middle distance runners, the use of
LSD training is not of much benefit for building sport specific
endurance. In order to improve endurance
for a particular sport,
it is necessary to use endurance exercises which match the
tempo of the sport.
Summary
This concludes the section on developing advanced and
top athletes. We have introduced means to develop special
strength, quickness, speed, endurance, and others. Every sport
has its own special requirements for speed, power, endurance
and quickness.
Athletes often make the mistake of using a particular
exercise to develop one component of their sport such as
endurance, or speed, or quickness. To do this ai the advanced
level is a mistake. In all events, a mixture of qualities work
iogether. In a footbali game for example, a player may be
called upon to run, make contact, jump, fall, and accelerate.
During competition, the components of speed, power, quickness, and endurance do not exist separately. Training exercises
should not exist separately either.
In order to optimize your training program so that it best
meets the demands of your sport, you must use sport specific
special unidirectional! exercises at high intensity under variative
conditions.
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Long Range Development
Of Youth Athletes
In the previous chapter we discussed the methods of
training top-level and advanced athletes. We began at the highest
level because it is necessary for all athletes and coaches to know
what the long range goal of training is. The preparation of the
top athlete is the model, and to reach these top results, all long
range preparation must be directed towards it. In order to
succeed at a high level you must begin the preparation 4-6 years
beforehand, because the advanced level athlete has no time for
general physical preparation.The later years must be spent
honing the specific sport skills necessary for top results.
Now we turn our attention to the beginning of sport training, the long range preparation from youth which is the base of
future success. It is well known that the performance of mature
athletes depends largely on the preparation which takes place
during the years of growth. Shortcomings during the early stages
of training strongly influence the realization of the athletes
potential. In the USSR there are special coaches experienced in
discovering talented youth athletes. They are aware of the basic
development guidelines that apply to a sound training program in
each phase of the first 8-10 years of sport development. These
guidelines include the characteristics of the sport, parameters of
the training load, and testing norms. In all events there is a model
of what it takes to become a top athlete. The sport specific
qualities of strength, speed, power, and endurance are all established for sports such as weightlifting, soccer, basketball,
sprinting, weight throwing, and others.
All long range preparation is divided into stages, with all
the stages fitting together, each building on the previous one.
The cornerstone or take-off point for this system is the selection
or identification of sport ability in children. Looking for
talented and athletic children is not ai easy task, and it does not
occur in one day. This process is vital to the Soviet system of
election and development of top athletes. Even if you have the
best scientific research, the finest equipment, and superior
nutrition, it will be all for nothing if talented athletes are not
found. Today’s results are so high that it is impossible for
everyone to become a top athlete. Even at the college level,
scholarships are hard to earn for football, basketball , track and
field and the like. To reach this high level demands proper
selection and training at a young age.
Alexander Karelin, 1988 Olympic gold medalist in Greco-Roman
wrestling at 130kg.
HOW TO FIND TALENTED ATHLETES ?
The problem of finding talented youth athletes is a
complicated task. It is impossible to test young athletes in one
day and weed out the talented ones. The selection process has
stages too. Each sport in the USSR has an established age when
coaches begin to look for talented athletes, but as a general rule,
the age is between seven and twelve years old. Even for high
load events such as weight lifting, where weights were once
considered harmful to young athletes, it was proven that youth
athletes can safely begin to train from age 12. Coaches begin to
look for potential lifters at age 10, because at this time many
motor skills are most easily developed. In many other events
such as swimming, tennis, figure skating and gymnastics,
coaches can and do begin looking for athletes from the age of
6-7 years.
For young athletes age 10-12 years, coaches can accu-
rately predict the future physical characteristics (height, weight,
bone length, physical work capability, etc.) which the athletes
will reach at the competitive age of 19-20 years old. If coaches
wait until the athlete reaches puberty, a great deal of time is
lost, and it also becomes very difficult to predict future physical
traits.
Soviet coaches know that there are both genetic factors
and training factors which must both be at high levels in order
to become a champion. To develop maximum sport capability
demands a concentrated and structured effort between the
young athlete and coach, because the time is short. For ex-
ample, athletes have only from the age of 10 till 22 to perfect
their sport form, while musicians, scientists, engineers and
artists have a lifetime. There is little time to waste when
building a sports champion.
There are three levels of sport capability which coaches
search for. The first two are general, while the third is sport
specific:
124
1) Characteristics common for all sports include good
health and physical growth, personal character, enthusiasm for
hard work, etc.
2) The capability to learn technique quickly, adaptation to
training load, ability to cope with fatigue, and fast recovery
after the training load.
3) Special capabilities are determined by testing the young
athlete using sport specific exercises for the first 1-2 years. The
coach looks at the athletes potential for making rapid gains. The
beginning performance level is not as important as what gains
occur during the entire 1-2 year period. One young athlete may
be very talented at the start, but make poor gains in the future,
while another is biologically young for his or her age, but
makes excellent future gains. If coaches have the chance to
observe a young athlete for 1-2 years, they can say more
exactly about their capability and potential. During this period
of evaluation, the young athlete has a chance to develop sprint
speed, jumping ability, relative strength, coordination, etc.
In all events there are special criteria for the identification
of young talented athletes. These criteria include height,
weight, bone structure, muscle composition, etc. The athlete’s
biological age is also considered at the ages of 10-12 years old.
Sometimes there is a two year difference between athletes of
the same age. The athlete biologically behind is given a good
opportunity to improve. The second criteria is the level of
motor capability such as quickness, endurance, strength, etc.
The third is coordination and the ability to learn, and the fourth
are genetic factors. For many sports and events there are special
tables for judging these different characteristics. Some of these
examples are shown in tables 4 and 5. Searching for talented
125
TABLE 4
IDENTIFICATION OF THE FITNESS
LEVEL OF WRESTLERS.
Age 10-11 year old
.
Initial Test
With 1 Year
of Preparation
30 Meter Sprint From
Standing Start
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.8
Excellent
Good
Fair
Poor
5.1
5.2
5.3.
5.5
Excellent
Good
Fair
Poor
Standing Long Jump
(Distance in cm)
160
155
150
140
Excellent
Good
Fair
180
175
170
160
Excellent
Good
Fair
Poor
Poor
Holding Legs at
90 While Hanging
from a Chin-up Bar
Excellent
Good
Fair
Poor
Excellent
Good
Push ups With
Feet Raised 60cm
On A Bench
Excellent
Good
Fair
Poor
Excellent
Good
Fair
Poor
Excellent
Good
Fair
Poor
Excellent
Good
Fair
Poor
Medicine Ball
Between Athletes.
Athletes use upper body only to
take medicine ball from each
other.
If one athlete takes it away 3x,
his result is excellent, 2x its
good, 1x is fair, and Ox is poor.
126
3 Wins.
2 Wins
1 Win
Excellent
Good
Fair
Fair
Poor
TABLE 5
GENERAL PHYSICAL PREPARATION
FOR BASKETBALL PLAYERS
Age
10 - 16
TEST
20m Sprint From Standing Start
|
Standing Long Jump (cm)
3.83
204 | 225
Long Jump with Approach (cm)
Medicine Ball Tess (3kg) Meters
|
10.52
11.63}
60m Sprint
athletes is not an easy task. For example, to find a potential
champion basketball player demands that the model athlete be
tall, have good speed, with good coordination and touch. The
chances of finding a young athlete who matches the height
requirement alone may be | in 1,000. For both height and
quickness | in 10,000, for height, quickness and coordination |
in 100,000, and so on. This example illustrates that it 1s most
effective to search at childhood for such talented boys and girls,
and then develop their potential to the maximum.
The Hidden And Lost Athlete
According to recent surveys, the physical condition of
children in the USA is very poor, with many children classified
as obese! The fitness levels of American youth are much worse
than they were forty years ago. The future health of sport
doesn’t look good unless changes in youth fitness are made
127
soon. If changes are not made, our source of talented athletes
who can compete on an international level will fade away.
Today, millions of children are overweight, stressed out,
allergic, ill, and oftentimes lazy. This is the pool of talent that
the USA must work with. Who knows how many Joe
Montana’s, Michael Jorden’s or Jose Canseco’s are hiding
behind a blob of fat. The low level of fitness doesn’t mean our
youth haven’t got the talent, it just means they aren’t using it.
If we want to develop young athletes for sport, we must
give them a good chance by locating them and getting them
started in games and sports early while it’s fun. If they haven’t
participated in serious exercise and sport by the time they reach
high school, they will flop down in front of a video game or
television and become a vegetable. That’s not our guess, it’s a
fact.
In contrast, within the USSR sport program there are
special talent scouts who are constantly in contact with elementary level school teachers. They visit the classes and watch the
children play games and perform drills. If a boy or girl is
talented, the coach will see it. This same plan has been perfected by the East German sport federation. Every teacher from
the first grade on has contact with coaches. If they have a gifted
child in their class they will inform the coach. Many of the best
athletes do not come from the cities, but from the rural areas
where hard work is a way of life, and there are fewer distractions. The Soviet Union uses the term “Physical Culture’’ which
places the physical conditioning of children equal to other
cultural aspects such as art and music, so there is a determina-
tion for fitness not seen in America.
The decline in health and fitness of American children is
not only a serious problem for sport, it is a national health
problem as well. Health patterns and lifestyles are developed
early in life, and if we continue to sit back and do nothing about
128
the fitness of children and young people, our entire country will
be hurt badly.
There are two stages for identifying talented athletes:
|) From the 8-10 year old stage children with good motor
abilities and also those who have a desire for sport are allowed
to train at special sport schools. This training is used both as a
device to analyze the athlete’s potential, and also to get a jump
on the training. The focus during this period is or general non-
specific preparation whereby the young athletes play many
games, and work on quickness, speed, coordination and
flexibility. These are the base criteria for future sport success
and are developed maximally during this period. If for example, an athlete participates in a special sport school for track
and field athletes, they will usually perform many different
exercises such as long jump, sprint, hurdle, high jump, and
sport games.
American coaches often ask us what methods can be used
to find talented athletes. We advise them that the selection
process begins at a young age and for up to two years of
observation. In the USA , young athletes 8-10 years of age can
be seen performing the bench press or running two miles, but
they have done nothing to buiid a base of coordination, flexibility, or general strength. We go so far as to put young athletes
into football gear at eleven years of age, without special
strength, speed, power development, and little general preparation. This “rush to the end zone” mentality is great fun for the
parents and children in the beginning, but how many athletes
become needlessly injured, or never reach their potential, all
because society puts them through too much too soon?
2) Sticking with our track example, the second stage of
youth selection occurs once the child has participated for 1-2
years in general track and field preparation. He or she will then
choose a specitic event to master in. This applies to all other
sports as well.
129
In the USSR, GDR and other Eastern Bloc countries,
when coaches look for talented athletes, they compare the
results of special tests from an initial stage to test results one
and a half years later. From the improvement during this period
they can accurately predict future ability. Coaches use the
following formula as a basis for determining sport improve-
ment:
W= V2-V1/ 1/2(V1+V2) x 100%
Where W is the level of improvement in percent, V1 is the
initial result in testing, and V2 1s the final result. For the years
11-12 after 1-1 1/2 years of training, the improvement in speed
exercise should be 7-10%, and speed-strength exercise such as
jumping should be 9.5-12%. For example, a child 11-12 years
old whose initial result in the standing triple jump was 6m, and
then in | 1/2 years was 6.60m, the level of improvement is
calculated as: 100(660cm-600cm)/.5(1260cem) = 100x60/630
= 9.5%. This result is in the acceptable level.
In the second stage of selection, for athletes in the age
group of 14-15 years, the results in special exercises should be:
sprint 9.5-11%, jumping 18-20%, throwing 22.5-25%, in
strength condition testing such as bench press and squat 4547%, and in speed-endurance exercises such as a 300m run
10.5-12%. This allows the coach to evaluate more accurately
the potential for gains in later years.
For the first 8-10 years of sport development, each athlete
participates in a multi-year process through five major developmental stages: preliminary training, basic specialization,
specialization, the phase of perfection and the high performance phase. We will briefly describe the training phases for
sprinters and weightlifters. This format can be used for other
sports as well. An example of long range preparation can be
seen in the results of Sergey Bubka in tables 6 and 7.
130
Sergey Bubka, the 1988 Olympic gold medalist and world
record holder in the pole vault. His early years of training
with sprinting and jumping exercises laid the foundation for
his becoming the most explosive vaulter of all time.
TABLE 6
LONG RANGE PREPARATION TEST RESULTS OF SERGEY
BUBKA-WORLD RECORD HOLDER IN POLE VAULT
ca
as oo.
100m
Triple
Jump
(cm)
Weight
(ka) 60mStanding
StartFirst
Stand
Movement
Standing
Long
Jump
(cm) Standing
StartFirst
From
Movement
Jump
Long
(cm)
rate fefuelofm toto to]—
|
1976 | 12
cmc
hme
refs
|
Press
Tage
+
Press
[79 [135 | 24% | 715 | 600 | 30 |
o[sprferfs[efote
[ea
re Pofe fies[owToo foro fefo]
[re
mela fela a
LaPefire
[ae
[ow
Pow
To
Lo
[J
forfrotetor
feta Ta
CeCe
310 |940 | 725 | 95 | 80| 45|
Paes foePa[ow[reoo[oD
TABLE 7
SERGEY BUBKA
Training Load Of Long Range Preparation
Age 15 - 20
THE MAIN MEANS OF PREPARATION
Number of:
Training Sessions
Pole Vaults
Weight Training (Tons)
Special Gymnastic Exercise (Hours)
General Jump Preparation Exercise (Take off)
Run with Pole Vault on Approach (km)
Special Sprinting & Hurdle Exercise
Sprinting 60-80m & Sprinting with Pole Vauit (km)
Sprinting more than 100m (km)
# of High Jump, LJ, Bke off's
Competitions
132
LONG RANGE PREPARATION
OF SPRINTERS
The long range preparation of sprinters is divided into
phases by age of the athlete, and each group is judged using
specific testing norms as shown in table 8.
TABLE 8
TESTING NORMS FOR SPRINTERS
18.0
40.0 - 38.5
250 -260
Stand Triple Jump {m} = |
6.50 - 6.30
10 Step Jump (m)
7.40 - 7.80
26 - 28
-
=
15.3
-15.0
Shi2=
E
33.4
-32.6
0 -
285
- 8.20
:
8.50 -9
300 - 315
9.50 - 10.00
31 - 32
35-36
Preliminary Training
Preliminary training usually begins around the age of
eight, and continues for 3-4 years. The aim of this phase is to
assure all-around physical development, the teaching of various
exercises, and creating an interest in the chosen sport.
Several studies have shown that the development of
movement skills, speed, power, agility and flexibility are best
achieved during the early years of schooling. This applies
greatly to the development of speed, as the stride frequency
improvement in speed comes to a stop by age 12-13. For this
reason, at ages 8-12 it is important to.use training methods
which stimulate movement frequency and increase speed.
Selected games, specific exercises, and relay running are
suitable for this purpose.
15
Basic Specialization Phase
This phase usually takes place at special sport schools, and
continues for three years (starting at age 12-13 and ending by
age 15-16). The aim of this phase is to progress with all-around
physical development, to improve the general functional
performance level, and to gather experience for the future. It is
important not to over emphasize performance at maximum
intensity in this training phase. On the contrary, emphasis
should be placed on training under various conditions and
exercises. As an example for young sprinters, many games
which demand speed changes such as soccer, basketball, and
handball are suitable for the development of sprint ability at this
age. Additional exercises would include jumping over 6 to 10
hurdles (16-20"), medicine ball (4-121b) exercises, light barbell
exercises (2-3 sets of 5-10 reps), bouncing over medicine balls,
performing gymnastic movements, short run-up long jumps,
and exercises with a shot put. Sprints ranging from 20 to 200
yards together with specific running exercises are used during
this training phase. Hurdling exercises and long jump drills are
also used to develop sprinting technique, as well as physical
performance capacity.
The development of general physical performance is
particularly important in the early training phases, as the
improvement of movement patterns depend largely on the
develop of these abilities. Coaches and athletes must not be in a
hurry to begin with the teaching of more advanced movements
such as a crouch start. Emphasis should be on the development
of a standing start, the ability to accelerate rapidly, and to react
to starting commands. An important aspect in the basic specialization phase is the correction of running technique faults (arm
action, knee lift, body lean, relaxation, etc.). It is important to
avoid large training loads during these years of rapid growth.
The load should be gradually increased in volume, without
increasing the intensity. The competition program should have
134
a lot of variety. It is recommended that competition in the
standing long and triple jumps, high jump, long jump, hurdles,
20-, 40-, 100-, 200- and 300 yard sprints and relays should be
included. The emphasis on this section is further improvements
in general physical preparation using a variety of exercises to
build a sound foundation for future work. To specialize in one
event, limit the variety of exercises, to increase the intensity
during this time would be like building a house on sand.
Model Micre-Cycles For The Basic Specialization
Phase (Age 13-14 years) ©
MICRO-CYCLE 1
General Physical Preparation (GPP)
MAY iL
Warm-up. Exercise with medicine balls, 80
throws. Running exercises, 4x40m. Run
with accelerations, 3x60-80m. Push-offs on
each 4,5, 6th strides, 6x50-60m. Run with
intensity at 80%, 250m+200m+150im (rest
pause, 5-7 min).
DAY 2
Warm-up. Running exercises, 6x30m.
Starting exercises (start during a walk or
jog, with support on one arm), 15x15-20m.
Run in a broken motion regime (30m fast20m free-20m fast), 6x80m (first 3 reps are
run with a 3-4kg belt). multiple jumps of
4x40m.
132
Day 3.
Warm-up. Running exercises, 4x40m on
grass. Walking over 6-8 hurdles, 8-10x.
Running over 4-5 hurdles, 8-10x. Exercises
for the lower back and spine, abdominals,
and feet, 100 reps. Broken running (60m
fast and 120m jog), 6x.
DAY 4.
Active Rest.
DAY'S.
Basketball, 15 min. Exercises with barbell,
25-40kg (good mornings, trunk rotation,
clean and jerk, pulls, squats, hops), 2x8-10
reps. Basketball 20 min.
DAY 6.
Play, for 20 min. General development
exercises (GDE) circuit training, 2x8-10
exercises. Long jumps, 12-14. Exercises
for learning technique of receiving and
passing a relay baton (in place, while
moving). Baton passing, 3-4x. Running
stadium stairs (every two steps) 8-10 x 3050 steps.
DAY 7.
Recovery and Rest.
MICRO-CYCLE 2 (GPP)
DAY 1.
Warm-up. Throws of the shot, 10x.
Running exercises with weights on the
shins (300-400g), 5x40m. Running with
accelerations 3-4x60-80m. Long jumps
with a run-up over objects, 50-60cm high
136
for 8-10x. Run with broken motor regime,
4x120 (40m fast + 20 free), 2x. Rest 3-4
min. Multiple jumps on grass, 4x40m.
DAY 2. — Play for 15min. General development
exercises with a partner. Standing long
jumps 8; triple jumps 5; frog jumps 5;
starting exercises 20; uphill running; 80-
100m for 5-7x.
DAY 3.
Warm-up. Exercise with a barbell, 25-40kg
(clean and jerks, pulls, squats, walking,
lunges, jumping out of squat, hops), 10-12
sets total with 8-12 reps each. Soccer for 40
min.
DAY 4.
Active rest.
DAY 5.
Warm-up with a partner. Specialized
exercises for the hurdler. Hurdle running,
6-8 x 4-5 hurdles. Series of take-offs with
flight in the “step” after 3, 5, 7th approach
strides, 3x60m on each leg. Run with the
intensity at 85%, 220m + 180m + 150m.
Rest pause, 6-7 min.
DAY 6.
Warm-up with circuit training. Running
exercises (with weight belt of 2-3kg),
6x30m. Run from a low start, 10x20m.
Relay running, 6x40m (technique of
receiving and passing the relay baton).
Multiple jumps, 6x40m.
DAY 7. — Restoration and rest.
137
MICRO-CYCLE 3
Special Physical Preparation (SPP)
DAY 1.
Warm-up. Exercise with medicine balls, 80
throws. Running exercises, 6x30m. Hurdle
run, 6-8 x 4 hurdles (76-84cm). In 3, 5, and
7th strides (12-13m to the first hurdle,
further on it corresponds to 16-18m, 1213cm, 8-9m). Run in broken motor regime
(40m fast plus 5-6 double stride free), 3-4 x
110-120m.
DAY 2.
Warm-up. Standing long jumps, 10. Triple
jumps, 5. Running exercises, 3x30-40m.
Starting exercises, 10x20m. Uphill running,
2x60m. Running on the flats, 2x60m.
Uphill running, 60m + 40-60m on the flats.
DAY 3.
Play, 15 min. GDE, 10-12 min. Throws of
the shot, 10. Series of take-offs as in the
long jump (after 5-7 approach steps), 3x60
on each leg. Run with the intensity at 7590%, 150m + 120m + 80m. Rest pause, 6-8
min. Multiple jumps, 3x30m.
DAY 4.
Rest
DAY 5.
Warm-up with circuit training. Running
exercises, 6x30m (on an incline track).
Accelerations, 4x60m (on an incline track
with transition onto a run on flats). Run
from the low start, 6-8x20m. Relay run-
ning, 3-5x receiving and passing the relay
baton. Springy skips, 3-4x30m.
138
DAY 6. _ Play for 15 min. Exercise with a barbell 20-
40kg (each exercise is executed for 2 sets,
8-10 reps. Play, 20-30min.
DAY 7.
Rest.
MICRO-CYCLE 4
Spring-summer competitive period.
MICRO-CYCLES5 ¢
(When tn training camp)
DAY
1.
Morming—General development exercises
using gymnastics apparatus. Running
exercises, 5-6x40m and accelerations, 4-
5x50-60m uphill. Jumps and reaching to
the sky 20x. Evening—Play.
DAY 2.
Morning —GDE with a partner. Exercises
on flexibility and joint mobility. Specialized exercises for mastering technique of
the hurdie run, 20-30min. Movement
games. Relays. Evening—Swimming.
DAY 3.
Morming—GDE with elements of acrobatics. Throwing smail shots. Broken running
(60-80m, quickly), 120-150m; jogging, 810x. Evening-Swimming.
DAY 4. |Morning—Cross country, 20-25min.
Throwing medicine balls and shots.
Evening—basketball or soccer, | hour.
139
DAY 5.
Moming—GDE, 12-15 min. Exercises
with dumbells and jumps. Flexibility
exercises. Team handball, 30min.
Evening—S wimming.
DAY 6.
GDE witha
partner. Standing triple jumps,
15. Jumps for distance from a short
approach run. Relays and movement
games.
DAY 7.
Tourist walking, 10-12km. Play. Swimming.
Typical micro-cycles for sprinters in the educational
training group during the second year of training is orientation
and can serve only as a principle model. Using them will be
effective only if the coach creatively complexes them together,
depending upon the training conditions (availability of weights,
medicine balls, gymnasiums, etc).
Specialization Phase
A deeper and more specialized development of athletes
begins at ages 15-16 until ages 18-19. The volume and intensity
of training is increased considerably, using the following
methods: 1) Repetition method of power development, employ-
ing the use of light resistance at maximum speed. 2) Sprinting
and running exercises, performed under normal conditions. 3)
Speed development exercises, performed under varied conditions (harder and lighter). 4) Sporting games suitable for speed
development.
The use of optimal resistance is extremely important in the
technical and physical development of sprinters. The chosen
resistance should allow the athlete to perform with the dynamic
structure of competitive sprinting action under slightly reduced
140
speeds. The coach must carefully decide the correct stimulation
without causing straining.
Use of small and medium size Speed-Chutes is very
effective at creating the necessary resistance. Sprinting at
maximum speed with a belt weighing 4% of the athlete’s body
weight can also develop the main muscle groups used in
sprinting without changing the rhythm and structure of the
action. A belt weighing 8% of body weight is used to develop
the strength component of power. The same can be achieved by
sprinting uphill (4 to 5 degrees), sprinting in the sand and snow,
and sprinting into a head wind. The use of ankle weights (4-8%
of body weight) can also have a positive influence.
Downhill running (4-5 degrees), is effective to develop the
feel of “over-fast” movements that can be transferred to
running under normal conditions. However, uphill and downhill sprinting should be employed in continually changing
patterns that includes running under normal conditions. The
recommended pattern is 1:1:2, 1:2:1, and 2:1:1 for downhill,
normal and uphill sprinting. The pattern for uphill and normal
sprinting is 2:1.
It is important during the specialization phase to avoid
employing too many maximum speed runs. Lack of variety in
the training methods used, together with normal condition
maximal speed runs are responsible for the development of a
movement stereotype, which stabilizes speed causing performances to plateau or even drop. Variative methods of training
are important here.
Phase Of Perfection
This is a phase of narrow specialization with the training
volume increased further, often reaching an individuals maximum. The coach, after observing the training for 3-5 years, is
well informed as to the athlete’s capabilities, character, toler-
14]
ance of training loads, and physical and technical performance
levels.
Although many sprinters compete successfully in both the
100 and 200 meter sprint, specialization at one of the distances
is often in order. For example, athletes of average or below
average height, relatively heavily muscled, with an excellent
ability to accelerate and a very high stride frequency, but
average or below average stride length, are best suited for the
100m. Tall and relatively light athletes, with long strides and
the ability to sustain maximal speed over distance are likely
to
succeed in the 200 meters. The model parameters in Table 9
indicate the required tendencies for each event.
TABLE 9
TESTS TO HELP MAKE THE DECISION AS TO WHICH
DISTANCE IS MORE SUITED FOR AN ATHLETE.
Model Characteristics of Sprinters Age 17-18
100m
Parameters
200m
(10.80 - 11.00) | (21.4 - 22.00) _
Total Time Of The Start (sec.)
0.42 - 0.44
0.44 - 0.47
5m Time From Start (sec.)
1.30 - 1.35
1.35 - 1.40
30m Time From Start (sec.)
4.15 - 4.20
4.25 - 4.30
Difference In Time Between
First and Second Half of 100m (sec.)
1.10 - 1.15
1.20 -1.30
Difference In The Time Between
First and Second 100m !n 200m Sprint (sec.)
Number Of Strides In 100m
48 - 52
Relationship Between Best 100m
and 200m Times (T100X2 - T200)
(0.60 - 1.0)
0+0.2
Stride Frequency At MAX. Speed
(Strides per second)
5.10 - 4.80
44-46
Stride Length (m)
2.05- 2.15
2.20 - 2.30
165 - 175
175
- 185
65-75
65575
| Weight (kg)
142
Once the tendencies become obvious, different training
methods are employed for each distance. Athletes who appear
better suited for the 100m place more emphasis on the start and
the improvement of stride frequency. They make use of a great
number of jumping and bounding exercises to develop power
for rapid acceleration. Those better suited for the 200m place
more emphasis on speed endurance, relaxed running technique,
and the increase in stride length without decreasing stride
frequency. Jumping exercises which include standing jumps
and bounding from one leg to another over 50 to 200 meters
develop speed-endurance-as ‘eli as exercises for maximal
speed, and are important for 200m sprinters.
Attention during the phase of perfection is directed not
only to the choice of training methods but also to the number of
training sessions, their intensity, duration and recovery. When
the aim is to develop speed, the heart rate is expected to stay in
the range of 105-115 beats per minute. Recommended recovery
times are 2.5-3 minutes for 30 meter sprints, 5-6 min for 60m
reps, and 8-10 min for 100 meters. The total distance covered
in a workout ranges between 200 and 500 meters.
In the deveicpment of speed-endurance, the heart rate is
expected to be 120-135 beats per minute for distances ranging
from 60 to 300 meters. The recommended number of repeti-
tions is 7-12 for 60m, 4-10 for 100m, and 3-5 during the
preparation, or 1-2 during the competition phase for 300
meters. Total distance covered in a session is between 400 and
1200 meters and recommended recovery times are 2.5 minutes
for 60m, 3-5 min for 100m, and 6-18 min for 300m repetitions.
High Performance Phase
The high performance phase begins at age 20-21, following eight or nine years of preparatory training. The best perfor-
mances are reached between the ages of 22 and 29, depending
on the process of specialization. These athletes are the elite
143
class athletes and they employ close to maximum intensity
running all year round. Athletes in the advanced category and
above are included in this phase, and since we have discussed
training for the top athlete in detail previously, further discussion is not necessary.
WEIGHTLIFTING AND LONG
RANGE PREPARATION
Strength and power development is important for all
sports, and the Soviet Union is regarded as having many of the
best weightlifters in the world. In the 1988 Olympic Games
they recorded an incredible six out of ten gold medals in
weightlifting! Many of the other East Bloc countries including
Bulgaria, the GDR, and Poland have used the Soviet preparation methods with great success.
We should mention at this time that the goal of an Olympic style weight lifter is to lift as much weight as possible in
two classical lifts, the snatch, and the clean and jerk, while
maintaining the lowest bodyweight possible. For example, in
contrast to football lineman, weight lifters want the strength,
speed, and explosiveness, without the mass. For this reason,
many lifts are performed near maximum which improves speed
and explosiveness but does not measurably increase muscle
density.
The Soviet Union has five stages of long range
weightlifting development for different age groups as follows:
Stage |
Preliminary training Age 9-10
till 13 years old.
Stage II _—_Basic Specialization Phase Age 14-15.
Stage III
Specialization Phase Age 16-18.
Stage IV
Phase of Perfection Age 19-20
Stage V _—_High Performance Phase Age 21 and above.
144
TABLE 10
TRAINING LOADS AND TESTING OF THE LONG
RANGE PREPARATION OF WEIGHTLIFTERS
SPP:GPP
|
| Ratie
20:80 | °
:
:
|
E
50:50 | 60:40
50-70 |60-70 |70-80
Bench Press
j 00-70 |60-70 |60-70 |70-80
Snatch Exercises
|
.
6
z
Snatch
|60-00
-{
| 50- mir
ia
|
3-4
ao- _ 70-80.
80 |
|_80-90 |80-90
34 | 24 | 12 | 12
|
=f)
2"
| 60:40
9-4
70-80 | 70-80 |
3-4
3-4
90 |
70-80 |70-90
c
yee
| Clean & Jerk
3-4
60-70 |70-80 |70-80
Front Squats
|
}_/0-80
a
—
mo
9
70-90.
ae
10-80 | 70-8 ae
. Weightsare the% of axiinps Result/Repetitions in
i Set.
145
Pavel Kuznetsov, 1988 Olympic gold medalist at 100 kg competing
in the snatch. The classical lifts of snatch and jerk can greatly
improve the power of any athlete.
TABLE11
GENERAL PHYSICAL PREPARATION
|
[KgReps
AGE OF WEIGHTLIFTER
| 1 | 2 | 13 | 4 | 5 | 16
Dumbell
Standing
Press
B
(GPP) TESTS
P
10x2
5
12x2
5
16x2
5
16x2
8
50
Sl
60
|
70
80
|
85-90
|
34
P
146
40
50
60
70
80
70
3-5
90
3-5
100
3-4
110
3-4
120
2-3
NS
a
34
=x
eee
TABLE 12
TESTING FOR WEIGHTLIFTERS FROM 11-16
Special Prenaration Exercises (SPP)
* From age 11-13, Exercises are made 3-4x, age 14-15 for 2-3x,
age 16 for 1-2x as a % of Body Weight
The testing norms for weightlifters age 11-16 can be seen
in tables 10-12. Table 11 outlines tests for genera! preparatory
exercises while Table 12 shows tests for special preparatory
eXercises.
This is a critical period of development for today’s top
lifters. Technique is very important in Olympic style
weightlifting. In stage I, priority is given to Special
Weightlifting Preparation (SWP) in contrast to General Preparation (GWP). Research shows that development of proper
technique must begin at age 11-13 years. This is because the
major motor systems of coordination and learning are strongest
during this time. If a weightlifter waits until after age 13 to
begin training, it is almost impossible to achieve the best results
because coordination, development
and learning is decreased.
This is a big reason why American lifters have such poor
showings in Olympic style weightlifting. They start at a late
age, and by this time the ability to learn proper technique is
147
much reduced. The same problem applies to other sports such
as pole vault and hammer throw which demand great timing
and coordination.
Because the Olympic style lifts are so technical and
demand learning from a young age, the athletes in Stage I
devote 60-70% of their training efforts to the snatch, clean and
jerk, and some fifty related exercises. In fact, it is worthwhile to
mention the ratios of special weightlifting preparation to
general weightlifting preparation for all five stages. The GWP
include non-Olympic style lifts such as some seated press,
bench press, and especially squat and related forms. We should
mention that there are 100 different exercises used by Soviet
weightlifters. For the snatch there are 28, the clean and jerk
there are 33, and the squat 3. Many support exercises for the
lower back, shoulders, hands and legs are also included. Within
the ages of 11-13, young athletes learn 38 weightlifting exercises.
Below we have listed the ratio of special weightlifting
preparation to general weightlifting preparation, listed as
SWP:GWP. Much of the lifting in GWP, especially in the later
stages is directed at the front and back squat, and support lifts
like good mornings, presses and the like.
Stage I
70-60:30-40%
Stage Il
—50-40:50-60%
Stage I]
40-35:60-65%
StageIV
35:65%
Stage V
40:60%
STAGE I (Age 9-13)
1) Learning technique using sticks, bars, and
light weights.
2) The identification of talented athletes.
3) To develop speed, quickness, coordination, power,
and flexibility.
148
4) To develop the functional capability to handle
heavy loads.
5) To build an interest in weightlifting and a desire
for hard work.
6) To begin teaching about competition participation.
STAGE II (Age 14-15)
1) To continue developing technique.
2) Develop speed, strength, and coordination at
a high level.
3) To build special endurance for weightlifters.
4) To greatly increase functional capability.
5) To begin significant participation in competition,
to leam how to deal with tactics and
psychology, problems, failures, etc.
6) To bring out higher qualities of hard work,
persistence, etc.
STAGE Hl (Age 16-18)
1) To develop special physical qualities.
2) Increase special endurance for weightlifters. .
3) Improve the technique of the classical lifts.
4) Increase the physical capability by gradually
increasing the volume of the training load.
5) More learning of tactics in competition and
the building of persistence.
STAGE IV (Age 19-20)
1) To complete the development of GWP.
2) Concentration on developing SWP at high loads.
3) Improve technique in snatch and jerk at heavy loads.
4) Greatly increase the volume and intensity of the
training load for snatch and clean and jerk.
5) Strength and power conditioning now become
more individual. Athletes work on weak points.
6) The concentration on achieving great skill
in competition.
STAGE V (Age 21+)
1) Highly specific increase in volume and intensity.
2) Achieve best results and records.
3) Perfect technique at the highest loads.
4) Master behavior during competition and have
a great understanding of the event.
We have presented sprinting and weightlifting examples
of long range preparation which have the components of
strength, power and speed, each important for all events. Soviet
coaches are provided with scientifically based training methods
to ensure that youth athletes are correctly led to become top
athletes. The two parts of this system, 1) the long range preparation of youth athletes, and 2) the preparation of top athletes,
both work together. The model for top athletes is a guide to the
development of youth athletes since it acts as a goal. The
preparation of youth athletes is the base for future success and
the making of top athletes. This is one of the biggest advantages of the Soviet sport system.
150
soviet System
Of Restoration
Restoration Overview
Now that you’ve learned about the Soviet methods of
training and long range preparation, it’s time to switch gears
and examine the second half of the Soviet sport system. Just as
important to training is the science of restoration. Without
proper restoration it is impossible to achieve your best results.
With proper restoration you will surpass your competitors
much quicker. Ever since the 1972 Olympic Games, the
number of training sessions has increased from 4-5 a week to
an incredible 2-3 times a day! Training up to twelve times
weekly is now very common. Along with this dramatic increase
in training volume comes the need for carefully planned
restoration. Without it, the ability to train at such a high level is
impossible. As an example, Soviet weightlifters typically
receive 1-1 1/2 hours of restoration daily, for 10-12 hours every
week.
The contemporary system of preparing athletes involves
three key stages: 1) Training, 2) Competition, and 3) Restora-
tion. In Soviet sport, restoration is given equal importance to
improving sport results. Restoration is a system of recovery
from the stresses of training and daily life. Whenever you train
correctly, your body is subjected to functional and structural
changes. It is these changes which are the basis of training
related fatigue. Once you have created the fatigue state, you
must administer correct restorative means to cause an adaptation response or gain. This process should be a never ending
cycle of stress + restoration = adaptation. The skill level of the
coach will determine how well the athlete is restored after an
effective training load. If the athlete is not fully recovered,
further training can lead to overfatigue and ultimately
overtraining and injury.
While research into ways to facilitate recovery from
training and stress has been conducted within the USSR for
152
over forty years, this topic has only recently been discussed by
western scientists, coaches and athletes. Because the western
world has fallen behind in the study and practical application of
effective restorative techniques, we feel this section of the book
will be of invaluable aid to competitive athletes. Proper recovery techniques will allow you to utilize the training methods
outlined in section two to their maximum adaptive effect. It is
impossible to train at a high level without proper restoration.
There are four classes of restoration that will be discussed
in detail. Each one addresses an important component of the
restorative process. A comptex 6f all four restorative means are
recommended for the best results. They are: 1) Pedagogical, 2)
Physical, 3) Pharmacological, and 4) Psychological.
As we discuss the many components of each class of
restoration, you will no doubt be familiar with some of them.
But it is not just being familiar with them that is important. We
have analyzed hundreds of individual and group training and
restorative programs in the USA. From these investigations we
have discovered that coaches and athletes are not using restorative means as a system. Many means are not practiced at all.
Let’s outline the four means so you can better understand their
role in recovery. Then later on we will analyze each one in
detail.
Pedagogical Means
The word pedagogical comes from the word pedagogy,
meaning “‘to teach.” In the case of restoration, pedagogical
means are used to describe the design of training as it relates to
recovery. It was discovered long ago that each athlete has his or
her unique individual recovery ability. Some athletes require
more rest between sets than others, more days off between
training sessions, and greater or lesser needs for a variety of
restorative means. Your recovery potential is unique to you,
and how you recover will determine in part how your training
plan is designed.
[53
, CHEE
Restoration psychologist Dr. Valentin Nekrasov demonstrating
exercises which stimulate biologically active points of the leg to
trigger the production of special neurohormones that increase the
activity of muscle contraction.
154
Physical Means
Soviet scientists have developed many physical methods
which can improve restorative ability. They serve to activate
the physical, chemical, and metabolic processes in the body.
When used properly they can have a positive effect on the
central nervous system, heart and skeletal muscle metabolism,
general work capability, and the resistance to stress.
There are two classes of physical means of restoration;
natural means, and additional means. Natural means includes
hydro-massage, special showers and baths, heat, UV light,
massage, and means of nature sfich as training in pine forests or
by the seashore. Additional means include baro chamber,
electro-muscle stimulation, electro-sleep, ultrasound, magnetic
pulsation, accupressure and accupunciure. Some of these
physical means require little investment, yet few are practiced
to any extent in the USA. When used properly at the nght time
and in the correct amount, they are very effective at speeding
up the recovery process.
Pharmacological Means
Sport pharmacology in the USSR is part of the general
medicine program for common people. Much of what is
adapted to sport first comes from the studies conducted on the
general population. For exampie, the use in sports of glucose
polymers for energy, and amino acid substances for muscle
growth, grew from their use in hospital trauma and bum cases
which are in a critical period where the body needs to recover
quickly from an extreme catabolic state. Another example is
mineral succinates, which are part of the body’s energy cycle.
They were originally studied for use in treating hospital patients
and Soviet cosmonauts. Later, they were introduced into sport.
Within the section of pharmacology is the study of
biologically active substances (BAS) which influence the
physiological, mental, and physical capacity of individuals
subjected to extreme physical conditions where a stable
environment is required. Typical stressful environments where
the introduction of BAS are justified include; space travel,
piloting of airplanes, air traffic control, lengthy travel, hot and
cold climates, where the condition of life changes such as for
miners working underground, and in training and competition
for sport.
The study of Soviet sport pharmacology and the use of
biologically active substances has grown rapidly during the past
twenty years. The first symposium of Soviet sport pharmacology was held in 1969, and since then the goal of sport pharmacology has been to: 1) cure disease in overtrained athletes, 2)
increase the level of immunological resistance of the body, and
3) increase the process of rapid restoration and bring the body
back to homeostasis (balance), so that maximum gains occur
from training.
The use of pharmacology and BAS by western athletes is
a means of restoration which should be discussed and understood in detail. We have observed many athletes dabbling in the
use of BAS without understanding their place within the
restorative complex. The use of metabolic optimizers by
American bodybuilders, carbohydrate drinks by runners and
cyclists, and the trace mineral chromium by many athletes are
examples of many times unwarranted means to making optimal
gains. Manufacturers of such compounds continue to develop
clever ways of advertising and marketing many ineffective and
non-scientific based products. Athletes buy these latest fad
supplements at an alarming rate. This is most disturbing to us,
and we believe more harm than good is occurring to many
athlete’s success due to improper experimenting with sport
supplements. More knowledge and legitimate scientific
156
research needs to be expanded in regard to proper supplementing, and hype and oftentimes misleading advertising needs to
be ignored.
Since the early 1980's, sport nutrition in the USA has
grown at an incredible rate. Many new substances were
introduced by manufacturers, and hundreds of thousands of
dollars in advertising were spent to entice athletes to buy the
latest pill or powder. While some of these compounds do have
merit as BAS, many do not. None were placed into a carefully
planned training and restorative program because the manufacturers had no idea how to tse them. There was no plan, no
system, and no guidelines for the athlete to follow.
Any BAS must be sensibly matched with a properly
designed training program. Mistakes in proper selection and
timing of substances can lead to antagonistic reactions between
compounds which results in ineffective or harmful reactions
within the body. Sloppy application of supplements and the use
of certain substances for lengthy periods of time can also cause
trouble to the body’s metabolism. This results in adaptation to
the supplement itself, and gains can be actually decreased
beyond what is expected from training without a supplement.
Too much of a good thing is not smart pharmacology.
Within this section we will discuss the many BAS used
within the Soviet sports system which can accelerate restoration. Some of these compounds you may be familiar with,
while others will be new to you. The important thing is to keep
in mind that no one substance or supplement is “the answer” to
your sport restorative goals. They must be combined in a
system with other restorative and training means for the best
effect. The form of these compounds, when and for how long
they are used in the training cycle, the amount used, and what
they are complexed with, are all vital components within the
157
pharmacology plan. When used properly within an effective
training program they can yield great gains in muscle size,
strength, power, speed, and/or endurance.
Sport Psychology
The psychological means of restoration is an ongoing
process and requires great effort by the athlete and coach to
achieve optimal improvements in sport results. Each athlete is
treated on an individual basis. The coach must recognize the
temperament, concentration, confidence, and neurological
response of each athlete. This is not a simple task and does not
occur overnight. In order to be most effective the sport psychologist must work with each athlete for a very long time.
This analysis can sometimes take up to one year of constant
contact between sport psychologist and athlete.
Soviet athletes are observed by their coach or sport
psychologist every day as to his or her general physical and
emotional condition at rest and in training. Means are often
employed to regulate, correct and improve the athletes psycho-
logical condition.
In the west, sport psychology is seldom given a thought.
When it is, usually through books, it is often shrouded in
mysticism. One would think you absolutely had to have a
highly qualified sport psychologist on call at all times. Nothing
could be further from the truth. Stories about Soviet athletes
using sophisticated mind manipulations and concentration drills
to improve performance are greatly exaggerated. Special
psychological techniques such as centering, focusing, and
relaxation drills can all be helpful to the athlete, but they are far
from the super-scientific techniques you may have been led to
believe. In the Soviet Union, athletes are exposed to a variety of
means which can improve their concentration, learning ability,
158
relaxation and overall metabolic state. This does not occur as a
separate subject, but rather as a means within the complex
system of training and restoration which is developed from a
young age.
The subject of sport psychology is a very expansive topic
which requires more detail than this book can possibly cover.
Because of this, the subject of sport psychology will be expanded in a later book.
159
Pedagogical Means
Of Restoration
The pedagogical means of restoration is a simple yet
significant part of recovery. The training session itself can be
very effective at restoring the athlete. Even if you use the best
medical and nutritional means, if the training is not planned
correctly, poor performance will result. There are two factors
which can make training more effective: 1) The optimal
influence of the single training session relating to the warm-up,
the mix of exercises in the session, the rest period between sets,
and the cooldown. 2) To make the long term training process
more individualized for each athlete by using different micro
and macro-cycles, a good variety of training means and
methods, and by varying the place and time of training.
Individualized Training For Recovery
Designing an individual training plan for young athletes is
not always necessary. Many of them can utilize the same
training methods. But, as an athlete improves his or her skill
level, a much more individualized training plan is recommended to achieve the highest results. The training load should
be matched with the functional ability of the athlete. This is
sometimes accomplished by testing the athlete using pedagogical, medical, and biological means. Mechanical assay methods
such as blood and urine analysis, tissue sampling, electrical
impedance, and others are often used. Self testing methods
were designed so that the athletes themselves could easily
detect the daily nitrogen level in their body. This then would be
an accurate indicator to determine if they are in an anabolic or
catabolic state. The results of this simple test help guide and
160
modify the daily training schedule for maximum results. In
addition, the coach can use the feelings of the athlete such as
mood, sleep pattern, appetite, and coping with increased
traning loads as a guide.
In the USA tf ts impossible for coaches to fully individualize the training plans of athletes. For one reason, coaches have
little contact with the athletes outside of training. For the
second reason, many coaches are responsible for the training of
dozens of athletes. An example of this is in American football
where one strength and conditioning coach can be responsible
for training 100 athletes. The Coach can’t possibly expect to
vary the yearly training plan for every athlete.
In the Soviet
Union it is Commonplace to find one coach
working with less than seven athletes in training camp, fora
period of 9-11 months a year. The coach controls the entire
program of the athlete such as training, the taking of meals,
sauna, and entertainment. With complete control over a smail
select group, itis possible to develop an individual training plan
for each athlete.
Hach athlete has their own unique sensitivity to training
and restoration as can be seen in the study of two athletes who
have equal results in competition, The first athlete may be able
to handle a specific training load fora period of four days,
while ihe second athlete may be too sensitive for that amount.
This second athlete may require a reduced load after two or
three days of training. [tis up to the coach to determine the
optimal training load and means for each individual athlete.
An example can be seen in the training of two sprinters
for speed-endurance. Each runs 200 meters at 24 seconds for
each repetition, with one athlete requiring a rest between reps
of eight minutes, while the second sprinter may require ten
minutes rest. Or, the coach could have the first athlete run
200m while the second only 150m, both with the same amount
of rest. The coaches experience with each individual athlete
161
will dictate the training plan. Some sprinters can run distance
while others can’t. Some can train at a high intensity for long
periods while others show a loss of technique sooner.
In the USA many athletes have a tendency to copy the
techniques and training plans of top athletes. Sprinters may
mimic the training methods of Carl Lewis, bodybuilders that of
Rich Gaspari, football running backs that of Roger Craig, etc.
These and other top athletes train at their own level using
exercises most suited to them. While the technique of training
may be similar for you and your “idol”, your training load, rest
periods between sets and series, and your ratio of high to low
load days of training will vary.
Single Training Sessions
When designing each training micro-cycle (i.e. weekly
plan) or an individual workout, you must consider not only the
exercises themselves but also their variety from week to week
and the rest periods between sets. This of course is individual to
each athlete as was explained above, and can contribute to
whether or not they will make fast or slow gains. Athletes often
consider restorative techniques to be things to do after training
such a hydrotherapy, taking a supplement to replenish lost
nutrients, or massage. But, restoration is also important during
training. Each time you finish a set, you are in a recovery mode.
If you cut your rest off too soon, you will not be fully recovered
for the intensity or volume necessary to cause further adapta-
tion. If you take too much time between sets you will fall below
the adaptation curve and achieve little or no gains.
Obviously, most athletes could go into a gym and pump
iron for three hours straight at a high intensity, with short rest
periods. But, it is almost guaranteed that the next moming few
of them could roll out of bed, let alone go through another
grueling session like the day before. This is an example of
162
overtraining, and it leads to a reduction in sport form rather
than gain. In contrast, let’s say we spend only ten minutes in
the gym, training at just 80% of maximum. This is an example
of undertraining. Both overtraining and undertraining are
methods to be avoided because they result in either maintaining
or reversing sport form.
Each individual training session must be taken as seriously as the yearly plan. By planning correctly, you can
optimize your gains by stressing the body’s neurologic and
metabolic systems enough to cause further improvement, while
recovering enough to do itagain as soon as possible. When you
increase the training load and/or the intensity, you must
increase the restoration also. Often times athletes do just the
opposite. They train hard, but move on to the next set too
quickly, never allowing the restorative system to do its part. It
is the little successes from every single set, of every single
workout that are the building blocks to maximum gains. You
can always achieve the perfect single workout, but can you do
it again and again?
163
Physiotherapeutic Means
Of Restoration
The use of physical factors as restorative means has been
extensively studied in the USSR. Physical means of recovery
consist of a complex of different methods which act on all parts
of the body and can change the physical, chemical and meta-
bolic processes in the muscle tissue. These means serve to
promote a better use of oxygen and the rapid release of toxic
metabolic by-products from muscle cells. When used correctly,
they will effectively stimulate the nervous system, improve
heart function and the resistance to stress, and accelerate the
restoration process after training loads. The use of such methods will reduce fatigue and improve recovery which results in
the fastest gains possible.
Many of the means we will discuss are common in the
west. The difference is in their application. As an example, to a
western athlete, a shower after training is simply a means to get
clean. To a Soviet athlete is is often recognized as a physical
means of recovery. Likewise, sport massage is practiced in the
West but not in any great amount or for any length of time.
Within the Soviet system of restoration, massage plays a key
role, and virtually every team has one or more massage thera-
pist.
The Soviet methods are not always better than those in the
west. We’ve met some very good massage therapists in the
west, and certainly our showers are better quality than those in
the USSR. The real reason why these means are so effective is
because they get used on a regular basis. We can easily predict
that provided an American athlete receives an effective local
massage daily, and a full body massage 2-3 times a week, he or
she would never become injured, and their improvement in
164
sport would be dramatic. This has been proven with Soviet
athletes for years, and when proper massage means are used
injuries such as pulled hamstrings rarely happen.
Lack of physiotherapy often means performance below
potential, while the misuse or overuse of such means can be
destructive, and more is not always better. An example of
overuse can occur when taking a hot bath. If you lie in the tub
for 10-15 minutes, you will relax your muscles, but if you stay
in for one hour, you will become fatigued. Every
physiotherapeutic means of restoration has a time limit beyond
which you can become overstimulated or fatigued.
Great care must be taken not to use the same restorative
means all the time. The body can adapt to physical means of
recovery just as it can to training and nutrition. This is something to avoid because the body gets used to the means, and it
soon has no effect. Some means can be used for 3-4 times a
week, while others should be used only once weekly.
Using physical means to accelerate restoration will
promote the appearance of BAS in the body resulting in an
increase of enzymes, energy intermediates, vitamins, and
microelements. According to Soviet sport scientists, some
means can increase the resistance to illness and injury by
strengthening the immune system.
The action for physical means come from two groups. The
first group are means of common action, such as full body
massage, showers and baths, UV light, and ionization. The
second group are means of local action such as baro massage,
localized massage, electro muscle stimulation (EMS), and
ultrasound.
After a great volume of training it is best to use means of
common action followed by an adequate rest period. For
restoration between sets and after individual workouts it is best
to use means of local action. If you train twice daily, you
should use local means after the first workout and common
means after the second. The capability to restore the body
depends on the nervous system of the athlete. Remember, it is
important to focus on recovery for muscles and the nervous
system. Some means like warm baths serve to calm down the
athlete, while showers of alternating warm and cold temperatures act as a tonic effect. For rapid restoration, physical means
can be employed 15-20 minutes after training. To restore for
the next day’s workout, physical means from 4-8 hours after
training can be used.
166
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Hydro Action
Water is an excellent medium for improving the flow of
blood, metabolites, and toxins through the body. Showers,
whirlpool baths, and swimming pools are all used for their
restorative effect. Water has a physical capability thirty times
greater than air, which increases the pressure and massage
action on skin and muscle. It is also an excellent medium for
the transfer of heat to muscle tissue. The temperature of the
water, and the addition of mineral salts and BAS can greatly
improve the effect of the hydro means.
A warm temperature
will improve blood flow, accelerate exchange of nutrients,
reduce toxins and soreness, relax muscles, increase the heart
rate, chemical processes and enzyme activity, and activate
biologically active substances such as histamine.
The temperature of the water must be within a certain
range. If the water temperature is the same as air, the water will
feel cooler and take heat away from the body. Cool and cold
water are used strictly for their tonic effect. The action on the
body depends on the temperature of the water. Try taking a
warm shower for 10 -15 minutes and then a cold one for 1-2
minutes and see how the tonic effect of cold water acts as a
stimulant.
A common means of hydro restoration 1s the use of
special showers which produce certain physical actions depend-
ing on the mechanical movement of the water, and the temperature. There are at least seven variations of showers used. Some
spray water from the sides and angles, some pulsate, and some
alternate between hot and cold water temperatures. A “‘Scottish” shower pulsates from hot water 115°F to cold water 60°F
for 30 seconds each for 4-6 series, beginning with hot and
ending with cold for a total of 5-8 minutes. While Soviet
showers are not available in the west, you can modify a typical
shower by applying a shower head which pulsates or changes
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pressure. By alternating from hot to cold temperatures, you can
come close to the real thing. All these showers help to improve
metabolism and facilitate the removal of lactic acid and other
toxic by-products. In addition, alternating hot and cold showers
produce a tonic effect on the body.
Another popular form of hydro restoration is the use of
special baths which are kept at a temperature of about 106°F.
These baths serve to improve circulation and the lymph
exchange in muscle and tissue, as well as eliminate body
toxins. Time of use should be less than 20 minutes, with
swimmers using the bath for 557 minutes, runners 7-10 minutes, and power athletes such as weight lifters, wrestlers and
football players for 12-15 minutes. Temperatures of 100°-102°F
can be used to relax the athlete after morning workouts and
before bed, for 4-5 times a week. Many baths also have a
whirlpool action which serves to accelerate the restorative
effect. Aeromatic substances like pine oil tablets are sometimes
added to the bath to calm the nervous system, open the nasal
passages, improve the exchange of metabolic substances in the
body, and accelerate restoration.
Baths which release CO2 and O2 gasses into the water are
also used. The water temperature is kept at between 96° and
98°. These baths are used after intense training loads and
competitions for 10-15 minutes each session, for a total of 1012 sessions in a three week period. Also used by athletes are
salt baths and natural mineral water baths.
A final form of hydro action is the use of swimming pools
with a water temperature of 80° to 85°F. The athlete moves at a
slow and relaxed pace, traveling only short distances. The
movement of arms and legs in the water is enough to cause a
good restorative effect.
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Sauna
We have devoted an entire section to discuss the use of
sauna in sport because it is an effective means of restoration for
athletes. In fact, entire books have been written on the subject
by Soviet scientists. The noted expert on sauna, Professor Felix
Talyshev, conducted many years of research into its use, and
his recommendations are recorded in this section.
Sauna is a room heated to between 175 and 205 degrees
Fahrenheit, containing between 5% and 15% humidity. It is a
dry heat sauna, and should not be confused with the popular
steam room which is also common in the USA. Steam rooms
are not used by Soviet athletes because they have no restorative
effect. Steam rooms function at a temperature of about 150°F
which is not enough to penetrate muscle tissue and cause the
physiological changes necessary. It also places excess stress on
the head and the lungs.
Research studies using sauna as the means of restoration
show that it is effective at increasing work capability and
accelerating restoration. The heat from a sauna produces a good
physical action on the body by increasing temperature exchange and functions of the central nervous system, improving
blood flow, sweat gland activity, and skin porosity. Soviet
researchers also use a sauna to improve the function of the
kidneys, exert a healing action for many diseases, and facilitate
the faster healing of muscle injuries. Sauna is especially
valuable to weight lifters and endurance athletes who demand
accelerated recovery from high physical loads.
First we will outline a standard procedure for using sauna,
and then follow this with some variations.
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How to use a sauna for maximum restoration
1)
Use sauna 1-2 times weekly, but no more. It is very
taxing on the body.
2) Before entering sauna, take a warm shower 100°-110°F
(Do not get head wet).
3) Towel dry after shower.
4) Keep head protected while in sauna to prevent dizziness by using a hat or by wrapping a damp cool towel
on your head.
) Take a dry towel to sit on and enter sauna. Sit on
cn—
bottom level of sauna for 2-3 minutes to adjust to hot
temperatures of {65°-175°. This is the first of 2-3 series
or sets you will perform.
6
Nae
After 2-3 minutes you can move to the higher !evel.
The temperature will be between 195°-205°F. Avoid
moving around. The best position ts to lie on your back
and remain calm.
7)
Stay in the sauna for 6-!0 minutes. After this time,
leave sauna and quickly take a cool shower (50°-55°F)
for 20-40 seconds, then alternate with a warm shower
of about 100°F for a few minutes. Repeat as needed for
five times, then rest for a few more minutes.
8 Towel off after your 10-15 minute break and re-enter
sauna for the next series. Repeat procedures 5-7 again
—
for up to total of three series.
9) Warnings and Tips:(NEVER) Do not exercise while in
the sauna. Do not take a sauna while intoxicated,
overly fatigued, or very sick. People have died in a
sauna for doing such things! (ALWAYS) Maintain a
strict schedule of leaving the sauna after 10 minutes to
cool down for 10-15 minutes. Drink a glass of cool
juice or electrolyte drink after your sauna session.
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While it is common to lose an average of 1.3 quarts of
water weight during a sauna, you should not drink this
much at one time right after sauna. It is most effective
to extend the consumption of liquids over a period of
2-3 hours.
The use of sauna depends on the sport and the training
load. Weightlifters, bodybuilders, wrestlers and football players
generally require a higher dosage of sauna. If the training load
is high, it is common to use sauna twice a week. For example, a
sauna is taken on Wednesday evening with the following
Thursday morning off, and on Saturday with all of Sunday off.
This allows the sauna to be used after high training loads, and
to follow it with time off for rest. The Saturday dosage is
usually longer because it is followed by a full day of rest. For
light training loads or near to competition the use of sauna is
reduced to once weekly. A sauna is not recommended less than
one week before competition. After competition it is common
to take a sauna the following day to reduce nervous tension in
the muscles.
There are some variations to the recommendations listed
above for certain athletes. Because young athletes up to the age
of 16 are more sensitive to the strong actions of sauna, Soviet
scientists recommend the temperature of the sauna be lower,
and the time shorter. Because saunas are used by young as well
as older athletes, young athletes should remain on the bottom
level only, and time should be cut to 4-5 minutes per series,
with the usual 10-15 minute rest outside sauna while taking
warm and cool alternating showers.
For athletes who wish to lose weight in order to make
weight classes in weightlifting, wrestling, boxing and judo, the
ideal way is to use a less hot sauna of 165°-175°F for 15-20
minutes each series. This procedure will be less taxing but still
eliminate water weight.
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After using a sauna, it is recommended that you rest for at
least 45-60 minutes and consume extra mineral salts that have
been lost through sweating. A sauna is hard on the body's
nervous and metabolic systems. It is most effective when used
after a heavy training load, followed by a long period of rest
before the next training such as a half or full day of rest.
Sport Massage
There are four parts of sport massage:
1) Restorative massage (the largest part)
2) Training massage (as a replacement for training when
injured)
au
3) Preparation for competition (in training sessions and
before warm-up)
4) Massage after injury (to reduce soreness)
As we discussed above in the hydro action section, the
restorative ability of massage is a very important part within the
recovery system for competitive athletes. In contemporary
training plans, baro-massage, hydro-massage and vibromassage are complexed with physical massage. Research into
the use of massage in sport began in the USSR in-1928 and has
since then become an important part of restoration. Athletes use
sport massage in every sport school and team in the USSR. It is
common at the advanced level to have one masseur for every
six or seven athletes. In addition, many coaches and athletes
have been instructed in sport massage and self-massage
techniques. As a rule, athletes receive a full body massage
twice a week during high training loads.
A sport massage therapist can easily determine the
condition of an athlete’s muscle. Because of this it is rare that
an athlete becomes injured. If the massagist discovers a tight or
fatigued muscle, he will inform the coach, who then will
modify the training load by reducing intensity and volume. A
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good example of this is when Ben’s son Oleg worked as a
massage therapist for the Soviet national team. He worked with
six top athletes for two years, and none of them had a single
injury. These athletes are world class, and to not have any
injury is an incredible testimonial for the effectiveness of sport
massage.
Sport massage facilitates the removal of metabolic byproducts from muscle cells during and after training, normalizes the muscle tonus, and improves micro circulation, neurological balance, sleep and appetite. In general, massage is an
excellent restorative aid, and in many cases is sometimes more
effective at improving body function and recovery ability than
pharmacological means.
The USSR has conducted more investigations into the
application of massage in sport than any other country in the
world. The foremost international expert on sport massage,
Professor Anatoly Berukov from Moscow has pioneered many
specialized routines for sport massage. All Soviet coaches and
physical education students spend six months studying sport
massage, and many also receive additional training in advanced
methods of massage. In total, between 700 and 900 hours are
spent studying and practicing sport massage. The best students
are assigned to the Soviet national sport teams.
The dosage of sport massage depends on the time and
strength or tempo of the massage. The means vary depending
on the fatigue of the athlete, the rest time between training
loads, and the character of future work. The major means of
sport massage are light stroking or rubbing, friction, kneading,
vibration, passive action, tapping, and squeezing. At the
beginning of a massage the light rubbing form is used to warm
up the area, then other means are utilized, with kneading being
used 60-80% of the time. The main focus of restorative massage is to relax the body, in contrast to pre-exercise massage
which is often designed to tonify the body.
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The main tasks of restoration massage are:
1) To reduce nervous tension and the feeling of fatigue,
and create a condition for rest. This form of massage is
a full body type. The pace is slow and not deep, only
light kneading. Often times the athlete takes a warm
shower for a few minutes before, and a warm bath
after the massage.
2) To relax muscles, improve blood circulation, and
stimulate the oxygen restorative process. This is a
deeper type of massage that is 80% kneading, but
without pain. It is used primarily for muscles which
carry a base load. For example, massage for a
weighilifter would be concentrated on the lower back,
buttocks, and thighs.
3) To remove the toxic substances from the body. Similar
to number two above, the movements are mainly
kneading, especially at the site of stressed muscles.
4) To remove the feeling of pain. Local massage is used
at a place higher than the pain area toward the torso.
The goal is to remove excess biood that is pooling in
the area. Ice is also applied.
5) To normalize sieep. Massage can be local or full body,
but it must be light. Warm showers and baths are also
used.
The conditions for massage include: 1) The room should
be comfortable, with plenty of fresh air, a temperature of about
75 degrees, and not very bright. 2) Slow relaxing music can be
played. 3) Before the massage the athiete should take a warm
shower for five minutes to relax the muscles, then after the
massage, a warm bath. 4) All exercises of massage are done in
a slow tempo, with sport creams used upon recommendation
from the physician for use in local massage. 5) The large
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muscles of the body (back, legs, chest) should be massaged
first, the smaller muscles (shoulders, arms, feet, face) last.
The amount of time for a restorative partial body massage
after each training will vary depending on workout intensity.
Light training requires 5-10, medium 10-25, hard 15-20, and
maximal work 20-25 minutes of massage.
For a full body massage the time is dependent on the body
size of the athlete. Athletes weighing 135 pounds or less
typically require 40 minutes, 136-150lbs for 50 minutes, 151-
2001bs for 60 minutes, and athletes weighing more than 200
pounds need 60 plus minutes of massage. Weight lifters and
bodybuilders oftentimes require more due to the tightness in the
muscles. After competitions many athletes receive a massage
for 20-60 minutes. Massage for young athletes should not be as
long nor as deep.
A qualified sport massage therapist is a great asset to any
training and restorative program. Once you have experienced
the use of sport massage you will understand why. We are
convinced that if an athlete receives regular sport massage, he
or she will greatly reduce the chance of injury due to
overtraining and fatigue caused by training stress. The Soviet
sport massage therapist is a key member of the training team
and they work together with the coach, pharmacologist, and
physician.
As an example, a massage therapist who has worked with
an athlete for a period of time can easily tell if the athlete has
been taking anabolic steroids after only five minutes of mas-
sage because the muscles will feel tight and more dense. They
can also tell if an athlete is not prepared for the next workout
which is an indication that the training intensity must be
reduced to prevent injury. The coach and massage therapist
communicate daily on the condition of each athlete. If an
athlete is found to be tight or overstressed, the workload is
176
lightened by the coach so that the athlete will avoid possible
injury. This type of prevention and restoration is very rare in
the west.
This section on massage has been a very simplified
overview. To learn more about this powerful training and
recovery technique we urge you to make contact with a local
sport massage therapist. Even one or two sessions a week
during heavy training loads can cause a noticeable improvement in your performance.
You can also perform many massage techniques yourself.
Techniques such as partner and self massage which improve
lymph drainage and blood flow through muscles, plus increases
range of movement can be easily learned. For more information
on obtaining a book on self and partner sport massage, check
the back of this book.
lar
Soviet athletes commonly use special audio tapes of sea and forest
sounds. The use of autogenic training (relaxation commands) are
used before competition to reduce tension, and after exercise for
restoration.
Electro Muscle Stimulation (EMS)
There are two types of machines which are used in the
USSR for restoration purposes; electro muscle stimulation
(EMS) and ultrasound. In the USA, ultrasound is a medically
regulated piece of equipment and most athletes will have
difficulty obtaining one. Ultrasound is commonly used by
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physical therapists and chiropractors on patients. It is effective
on improving the tonus of stressed muscle when used for 15-20
minutes, pulsed in a 1:4 ratio at .8-1.0 watts/cm and a frequency of 1.0 MHz.
As for EMS, these units can be purchased for personal
use. The concept of EMS is not new, and for years it has been
used by physical therapists for rehabilitation purposes. Over the
past few years, athletes from the west have seen advertisements
for these units in magazines. Oftentimes the ads proclaim the
EMS unit to be effective at increasing muscle mass by citing
the fact that athletes use therh. This is not a correct statement.
We would like to set the record straight on the subject of
EMS use in sport. Soviet athletes do use EMS units, but mainly
for restoration and not muscle gains. The only effective muscle
gains have been observed in small muscles, like those around
the ankle or wrist. EMS is not effective on large muscle groups.
For restoration purposes it works well, but it is still only one of
many methods of physical restorative means.
Massage ranks higher in importance than EMS in Soviet
sport.We recommend that if you want to use EMS, you should
combine it with the other physical techniques presented in this
chapter. As always, it is a complex of physical means which
will work the best, not one “magic” answer.
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" Food should be your medicine, and medicine
should be your food.”
Hippocrates
Pharmacology Means
Of Restoration
To introduce natural medicines into an intense training
program is essential for maximum results in today’s sports.
Because of the dramatic increase in training loads over the past
twenty years, it has become increasingly evident that
yesterday’s means of restoration by nutritional means are not
very effective. This is witnessed by the explosion of anabolic
steroid use by athletes. What is required is a system of recovery
by using a number of natural medicines in the form of sports
nutrition supplements. After several years of critical investigation and practical use, Soviet scientists believe that it is possible
to achieve top results without the use of harmful doping agents.
Use of doping agents such as anabolic steroids cause an
unnatural stimulation and destruction of the body’s limited
resources, with the outcome being measurable harm to the
body. They are foreign substances to the body which cause
freakish changes within the physical, neurological, and emotional processes. Natural pharmacologic means of restoration
effectively replace anabolic steroids by improving recovery
potential, the ability to withstand hard work, and muscle
growth. It is not simply a matter of selecting one pill over
another, but rather a mixture of many helpful and safe com-
pounds which are combined with other restorative methods and
proper training exercises and planning. This is no easy task, and
demands constant attention to detail by a clever athlete or coach
180
in order to make it an effective steroid alternative.
The requirements of all sport supplements is to supply the
body with substances which will improve metabolic function
and increase the restorative potential, without causing any side
effects or damage. Over the past twenty years, a great amount
of investigative work on this topic has been conducted within
the USSR. The result of these laboratory experiments, as well
as practical research on top athletes, has resulted in the development of a system of restoration through medicinal and
nutritional means. This system is a complex of different
nutritional means introduced at specific times of the training
cycle which lead to significant improvements in recovery
ability as well as improved performance.
In our opinion, the Soviet system of restoration for sport is
the finest and most complete in the world. Until today much of
the research had been kept a secret from coaches outside the
East Bloc. tn this chapter we witl present the Soviet system of
sport pharmacology. It is highiy effective and functions as an
excellent compliment to the most dernanding training and
competitive programs. It will greatly improve performance if
combined properly with the training methods proposed in this
book.
One of the major deficiencies of sport pharmacology and
nutrition use in the west is that there is no complete system.
Open up any major bodybuilding magazine and you'll find
dozens of colorful and glitzy advertisements touting the
benefits of the latest “miracle” supplement. But, there is no
method to their use, no sound scientific research to back up
their claims, and no system to complex them with other
nutrition substances and training means. This is very confusing
to even the most educated coaches and athletes. They must
have good information about the many effective substances
available from around the world, as wel! as how to complex the
181
best of them together to receive the maximum effect. Without
such information, athletes cannot make intelligent use of all
that is available.
We recognize that little effort has been made in regard to
educating athletes and developing an effective system of sport
pharmacology, because athletes are still asking the same
questions they did ten years ago. No one is getting the complete
message, and many manufacturers of sport supplements in the
West must take the blame for the lack of a systematic plan for
using effective sport pharmacology in coordination with
contemporary training means.
The following sections concerning sport pharmacology
will clear up much of the confusion surrounding the many
substances used in western sports nutrition and also address
new substances previously available only in the USSR. We will
also show how these substances should be complexed together,
something that has been lacking in western sports nutrition.
It is a great error to simply throw substances together.
Some work against one another, while others work together to
strengthen the body. Nutrition substances are required at certain
periods within the training cycle, and not others. No one
substance should be used for any length of time (longer than 45 weeks), as this causes adaptation to the supplement and a loss
of effect.
It is essential that you recognize that there is no one safe
and natural medicine or supplement which will tum you into
the super athlete you want to be overnight. Before you use a
sport supplement, you should answer the following questions:
1) Which ones accomplish what you want them to do (energy,
anabolic, antioxidant, adaptogen, etc.)? 2) In what doses are
they effective? 3) In what part of the training cycle should they
be used? 4) How can they complexed with other substances for
maximum effect?
182
It has been common practice for Soviet athletes to be
tested regularly using blood, urine, and tissue analysis to
determine their training state. The goal of these tests is to
maintain the athlete in an anabolic state as much as possible.
By knowing how the body is functioning, the coach can then
modify the training and pharmacology program to maximize
gains. This procedure greatly reduces the chance of
overtraining or undertraining.
Athletes are now using an inexpensive self tusting device
to determine their training state. By testing once weekly they
are able to keep close watch on the way their body 1s functioning. If the test shows the athlete is entering a catabolic phase,
the coach can modify the training plan and increase the use of
sport pharmacology to bring the athlete back into an anabolic
phase. Non-evasive diagnostic tests such as this help take the
guesswork out of training and help to guide the athlete to more
efficient training and restorative means for the maximum gains
possible.
The contemporary pharmacology program of the USSR
has a number of natural and safe medicines (supplements)
which can rapidly contribute to restoration and adaptation to
high physical loads. As you read this section you should be
thinking about which substances can apply to your program.
There are most likely a number of them that will. We will begin
with poly-vitamin and mineral compounds, move through
structural, energetic and adaptogenic substances, and finish
with antioxidants and liver protectors.
183
A sample of the many sport pharmacology preparations used by top
Soviet athletes.
POLY-VITAMINS
The six major components required for optimal body
function are: protein, fats, carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals,
and water. Vitamins such as A, B-complex, C and E are
organic substances which function as a coenzyme or a precursor to a coenzyme in the body. Minerals such as calcium,
magnesium, and potassium are inorganic substances that are
essential to life, and many are required in larger dosages during
high training loads. Microelements such as chromium, zinc,
iron, and selenium can be components of body fluids (electrolytes), as cofactors in enzymatic reactions, as binders and
transporters of oxygen, and as structural components of nonenzymatic macromolecules.
Soviet and other international sport biochemists and
nutritionists recognize that additional vitamins and minerals are
essential for many competitive athletes. Many recent studies
184
have shown that athletes are at risk if they train at high intensity
while consuming ordinary foods without supplements. This
may in part be due to the poor nutritional quality of our foods
due to refining, storage and processing, as well as an incomplete variety and quantity of nutrient rich foods in the diet.
Whatever the reason, consumption of adequate vitamins,
minerals and microelements obtained through supplements are
essential during times of illness, climate and altitude changes,
nervous tension and high physical joads.
While the cal! for vitamin and mineral supplements is
necessary, the dosage and 4imé of introduction is important too.
It is disturbing to see the mega-doseing of certain substances by
western athletes, encouraged by the zealous sales methods of
many nutrition companies. Of particular concern is the over-
consumption of microelements such as chromium, selenium,
boron and others by athletes. What is needed is a more systematic and logical approach to using these substances. While
mega-doses of some nutrients can be effective, others are
clearly not, and can even lead to reduced performance.
Some compiexes work synergistically, while others do
not. Examples of synergistic complexes are the B,C, and E
vitamins. If used in the correct dosage and in complex with
other such substances, many of these complexes will greatly
help to improve the anabolic and restorative state of the body.
In the following sections, certain vitamins, minerals and
microelements will be analyzed as to their effects on sport
performance. Vitamins A, C, and E will be discussed in a later
chapter on antioxidants due their ability to reduce free radical
damage in muscle tissue.
While there are thirteen substances now classified as
vitamins, we will limit our discussions to specific vitamins
which scientists believe are important to sport performance.
The first group to be discussed are the B vitamins which are
185
particularly essential as supplements for competitive athletes.
The B vitamins are usually complexed together, sometimes
also with vitamins C and E. Much is known about the function
of a certain form of B vitamins called coenzymes which serve
as parts of enzymes. A co-enzyme is a non-protein compound
that forms the active portion of an enzyme when combined
with a special protein known as an apoenzyme. Extensive
research on the structure and function of the co-enzymes
derived from B vitamins began in the USSR several years ago.
This research showed that the demand for the B vitamins
increased by at least three fold, and sometimes much more for
certain B vitamins. Special synergistic blends of the vitamins
were made for Soviet athletes. Some of these complexes are
used to facilitate protein exchange, while others are for carbo-
hydrate and fat exchange.
While B vitamins are very important in the nutrition of
athletes, be aware that the body still requires only a small
amount for proper function. Ingesting more vitamins catalyzes
no more metabolic reactions, because the cellular system acts
as a limiting factor. More in the case of vitamins and minerals
is not always better, and can even be harmful to performance.
Vitamin B1 (Thiamine)
Thiamine, as thiamine pyrophosphate, is an important
coenzyme in many biochemical reactions in the body and
serves to release energy from carbohydrate by converting
pyruvate to acetyl coenzyme A. It is required for optimal
function of neural, cardiovascular, and endocrine systems. A
deficiency of thiamine will impair carbohydrate metabolism
which can pose a problem in athletics, especially endurance
sports. It is also important in nerve cell function.
Thiamine is a precursor of co-carboxylase, one of the
most important co-enzymes for biological oxidation. Increased
186
dosage of vitamin B1 before high competitive loads results in a
considerable increase of co-carboxylase in the body, which in
turn serves to maintain high level working capacity. The best
effect is to consume a dosage of 10-40mg daily for 3-4 days
before competition. A single dose before competition is
ineffective.
Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)
Riboflavin is made up of two coenzymes involved in
energy metabolism. The main component is flavine adenine
dinucleotide (FAD). it is a-critfcal component in the oxidative
reactions within muscle and is important for all athletes.
Niacin (Nicotinamide, Vitamin PP)
Nicotinamide is made up of two coenzymes, NAD which
functions to produce ATP from glycolysis, and
NADP which is
involved in fat synthesis. These components are necessary for
optimal carbohydrate, protein and fat metabolism as well as
being important parts of the electron transport system and citric
acid (Krebs) cycle. By including vitamin PP as NAD and
NADP a significant increase in oxidative reactions are observed
which are of benefit during strength-velocity training. While
the RDA for vitamin PP is 20mg, athletes can consume
amounts up to 100mg daily. Vitamin PP is a popular addition to
many complex Soviet formulas and is also taken before
competitions in doses up to S5Omg. During the last few years a
new complex containing vitamin PP and the amino acid Lysine
was administered to weightlifters in dosages of 30mg per
kilogram of bodyweight for 15 days. The result was a 16%
increase of lean body mass and improved working capacity.
Avoid the nicotinic acid form of this substance as it causes
uncomfortable side effects such as reddening and itching of the
skin, and stick with nicotinamide.
187
Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)
The most active co-enzyme of vitamin B6 is pyridoxal-5phosphate (PLP). The co-enzyme PLP plays a great role in
enzymatic reactions involved in amino acid metabolism and as
such is important to athletes. Exercise increases the demand for
pyridoxine, especially for power athletes like weight lifters,
wrestlers, football players and bodybuilders. While the US
RDA is only 2 mg, Soviet athletes are known to consume
upwards of 50 mg daily for a period of 10-20 days during
highly anabolic training cycles.
Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin) and Coenzyme B12
(Dibencozide)
Vitamin B12 is required for nucleic acid (RNA-DNA)
synthesis and is essential to the development of fast-growing
cells like those found in the immune system, bone marrow, and
the intestines. It also is involved in protein, carbohydrate and
fat exchange, liver metabolism, and central nervous system
function. Vitamin B12 has a slight anabolic effect.
In the Soviet Union B12 is used in complex with other B
vitamins during highly anabolic training loads and to reduce
training stress. While other vitamins are measured in dosages as
milligrams (a milligram is one thousandth of a gram), B12 is
measured in micrograms (mcg, one millionth of a gram). While
the US RDA requires only six micrograms of B12, it is often
used in 30 and 100 microgram dosages by athletes in the
USSR.
A form of B12
to recently hit the sports nutrition market
in the USA 1s the co-enzyme form called dibencozide. In the
Soviet Union this co-enzyme compound is called cobamamid,
and because of its fragile structure is most often taken in
injection form. It can be purchased in ampules of 100, 500 and
1000 microgram amounts. We are amused at the advertisements for cobamamid (dibencozide) in the west which claim
188
co-enzyme B12 to be a very effective anabolic. Sometimes
these ads even compare it in effectiveness to anabolic steroids.
While it does have a slight anabolic effect, it is by no means as
effective as the claims lead you to believe. Certainly it is not
worth the price athletes are paying for it. In the USSR
cobamamid is used only by very young athletes age 11-15. It is
commonly complexed with L-carnitine and protein supple-
ments at a dosage of 20-SOmcg per kilo of bodyweight for 20
days prior to competition. For more advanced sportsmen there
are dozens of safe and natural substances from China, India and
the USSR which have 10-20 trmes the anabolic effect of
dibencozide.
Pantothenic Acid (Pantothenate)
Pantothenic acid through its metabolism to its active form
called co-enzyme A is involved in carbohydrate, protein and fat
metabolism. Co-enzyme A is aiso an important cofactor in the
Krebs energy cycle and in the building of steroid hormones.
During high physical loads the body requires additional!
pantothenic acid to metabolize extra proteins from amino acid
consumption as well as increased energy demands. While
10 mg is the US RDA for pantothenic acid, Soviet athletes have
been known to take upwards of 50 mg of the pantothenate form
daily together in complex with other B vitamins.
Biotin
Biotin acts as a co-enzyme in many biochemical reactions
involved in gluconeogenesis (a process within the liver
whereby glucose is formed from other substances such as
pyruvate, alanine and glycerol), and in fat metabolism. While
adequate amounts of biotin are made in the intestine by bacteria, this coenzyme is often complexed with other B vitamins
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and formulas for improved gluconeogenesis within the liver.
While the US RDA is 300 mcg, dosages of up to two milligrams are common in some Soviet formulas.
Folic Acid (Vitamin Bc)
The active coenzyme form of folic acid plays a key role in
nucleotide and amino acid metabolism. There is an interrelationship between folic acid and vitamin B12 as well as its role
in the production of normal blood cells. A good source of folic
acid can be found in leafy green vegetables such as spinach and
broccoli, and Soviet athletes take supplemental vitamin Bc in
dosages of 50-300mcg, much like that found in the USA.
Phosphaden (Vitamin B8, AMP)
Phosphaden is an end product of inosine metabolism and
takes an active part in protein synthesis. It is administered by
intramuscular injection of 20-40mg for 4-5 times daily, or
orally two tablets 3-4 times per day. Soviet studies show
phosphaden to significantly increase the working capacity in
male and female athletes. In the USSR it is commonly
complexed with co-carboxylase and mineral orotates or
aspartates for maximal effect.
Calcium Pangamate (Vitamin B15)
Calcium pangamate is an extremely effective antihypoxant. It significantly increases the oxygen utilization by
tissues, hinders the un-coupling of oxidation/phosphorylation in
muscle mitochondria, and enlarges glycogen synthesis in
skeletal muscles and heart. It is taken to improve the working
capacity during training and to facilitate recovery. Calcium
pangamate is prescribed 4-6 days prior to competition and for
the days of competition in a dosage of 15mg daily. It is typi-
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cally packaged 100 to a bottle in Smg tablets and is popular in
the USSR and Europe.
Studies by Nikoli Yakovlev and others from the USSR
shown that calcium pangamate significantly increase the work
tolerance among athletes, especially endurance athletes. When
ingesting B15 daily for one week before testing, research
showed an increase of 10-20% in treadmill times. In 1973,
Dr. A. Apanasenko administered B15 daily to athletes for 30
days in dosages of 150mg. His results showed calcium
pangamate to be a donor of methyl! groups, activating oxygen
metabolism, and having a detoxifying and lipotropic effect on
the body.
Caicium pangamate has been used by Soviet athletes for
over 25 years. In the late 1970’s many supplement manufacturers in the USA began marketing a whole range of substances as
vitamin B15. They were touted as the Soviet “secret” substance
which improves performance by oxygenating the body. What
athletes actually received were products with mostly filler, and
rarely the real thing. Because so many manufacturers sold
bogus supplements, the FDA banned the sale of all so called
“vitamin B15” or “pangamic acid” products from sale within
the USA. The Soviet athletes still use the reai thing with great
results, but unfortunately it is generally unavailable to Ameri-
can athletes.
MINERALS AND MICROELEMENTS
Of the many major minerals and trace elements that are
necessary for proper body function, some are of greater concern
to athletes than others because many minerals are far more
essential to life than vitamins. Within the Soviet Union,
research into the needs of athletes for specific minerals has
been going on for several years. The findings conclude that
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certain minerals plus specific compounds they are bound to can
have a noticeable effect of sport performance. The findings
further showed that mineral supplementation is unique to each
individual athlete. While we can make rough estimations of the
needs of these compounds, the dosages will vary from athlete
to athlete. For example, some female athletes are deficient in
iron, while others are not. Deficiencies are also found for zinc
and chromium. Because of this dilemma, it is important not to
overdose on certain minerals, particularly many of the trace
minerals. While dosages of B vitamins can be dozens of times
higher than the US RDA without ill effect, the increase beyond
US RDA for some trace minerals should be approached with
caution. Below are listed the different minerals found necessary
for body function.
MAJOR
TRACE
Calcium
Chromium
Chlorine
Cobalt
Magnesium
Copper
Phosphorus
Fluorine
Potassium
Iodine
Sodium
Iron
Sulfur
Manganese
Molybdenum
Nickel
Selenium
Silicon
Tin
Vanadium
Zinc
Minerals are often regarded by athletes as the least
important concem when designing a diet and supplementation
program. We believe, and many Soviet studies have proven,
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that minerals consumed in addition to the normal diet are
essential for optimal sport performance. There are very close
relationships between minerals, and they should rarely be taken
individually. Take for example the situation of anemia. There is
no question that iron is important in the treatment of anemia,
but copper, vitamin C and E are also important. To single out
just one mineral is a mistake.
The goal of mineral therapy is not solely to achieve
acceptable results, it is used to heip facilitate far greater performances than were ever before possible. The minerals most
often administered to Soviet athletes in larger dosages for
normal maintenance are: calcium, magnesium, potassium, zinc,
iron, and chromium. Of course, many other minerals are
administered as well, especially in complexes found in supplements like Aerovit-plus and Biogain. These sport supplements
and others are very important carriers of mineral complexes.
Calcium (Ca)
Calcium plays an essential roje in the regulation of many
metabolic processes. It is also necessary for the development
and maintenance of the skeletal framework which supports the
body and allows for strenuous physical activity. About 99% of
the calcium in the body is located in the bones, heart tissue and
teeth. The other 1% is just as vital because it is involved in
controlling blood clotting mechanisms, and the excitability of
nerves and muscles. Heart beat regulation is one of the most
important and critical jobs calcium performs in the body.
As much as 40% of the entire population of the USA is
calcium deficient. While this figure may be lower in athletes
due to better diet habits, it should still be of concern. While the
RDA for calcium is {000mg (1 gram), dosages upwards of 2-3
grams daily can be necessary for some athletes.
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Magnesium (Mg)
Magnesium aids in the efficient metabolism of glucose by
maintaining the body’s acid-alkaline balance and for the
mobilization of calcium from bone. The RDA of magnesium is
400 milligrams for ordinary people, but because it is lost easily
during training the demand by competitive athletes is much
higher. Soviet athletes have consumed upwards of 1-2 grams of
magnesium daily, principally in the form of magnesium
orotate, aspartate and succinate. Characteristics of a deficiency
are muscle tremors, depression, poor memory and heart
irregularities.
Potassium (K)
Potassium deficiency is an extremely rare condition in
athletes. Even with prolonged exercise in very hot weather,
potassium needs can be met from an intake of 4-5 grams per
day. The body’s electrolyte balance is delicately maintained by
proper levels of potassium, and athletes should drink an
adequate amount of fluid which contains potassium during
competitions and long training sessions, especially in hot
weather.
Zinc (Zn)
Muscle contains about 65% of the total body zinc, with
bone containing a great amount as well. During intense physi-
cal loads the muscle catabolism associated with hard training
releases zinc into circulation and much of it is lost. It is esti-
mated that as much as half of all athletes may be performing
with sub-optimal zinc levels.Without proper supplementation, a
zinc deficiency can occur within 24 hours.
Zinc is a multi-functional mineral that is involved in
numerous phases of growth and development including muscle
and DNA synthesis, and cell division. Because zinc is required
for the activity of several enzymes involved in carbohydrate,
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amino acid and lipid metabolism, it is common for athletes
deficient in zinc to have below optimal levels of muscle
strength and endurance. The consumption of supplemental zinc
in the daily amount of 15-30mg daily in the form of zinc
picolinate should correct the metabolic dysfunction associated
with inadequate consumption and increased loss. While zinc is
not the most toxic trace mineral, consumption in excess of
50mg daily should be avoided. It is also recommended that
copper consumption be increased by 2-4mg as well since
excess zinc has a tendency to inhibit copper absorption.
7
Iron (Fe)
Iron is the most abundant trace element in the body, with
the majority found in the form of hemoglobin and myoglobin in
the oxygen-carrying portion of blood. About 30% of the body’s
iron is stored in the liver, spleen, and bone marrow. The US
RDA for iron is 10mg for men and 18mg for women.
The iron intake is often times lower than this, with the
average falling between 10 and 15mg/day. Iron deficiencies are
especially prevalent in female endurance athletes, and a
measurable loss of endurance 1s often noted due to increased
sweating and erythrocyte destruction. The combined action of
low iron intakes, plus increased loss due to intense exercise,
often warrants supplemental! iron as ferrous succinate in the
range of 20mg daily. Athletes who train in hot climates can
show an even greater need for iron. Caution must be taken
when consuming dosages larger than 40mg daily as iron tends
to inhibit the absorption of zinc through the intestine.
Chromium (Cr)
|
Chromium is an essential element in carbohydrate, fat and
nucleic acid metabolism. Its role in carbohydrate and fat
metabolism is related to the potentiating action on insulin.
Chromium deficiency in athletes can result in impaired glucose
195
tolerance, decreased insulin receptor number, and poor uptake
into muscle of necessary glucose and amino acids. This results
in a loss in physical performance.
The necessity for increased amounts of chromium in the
diet of athletes was noted by Soviet scientists since 1978.
Various stresses including carbohydrate loading, infection,
physical injury, and intense exercise, all accelerate chromium
loss. The diets of athletes are most often found to be deficient
in adequate amounts of chromium. Combine chromium
deficiency along with increased training demand, and supplemental amounts become essential.
The potentiation action by chromium on insulin is of great
importance to the athlete because or insulin’s powerful hormonal action. It is important to take only biologically active
chromium, typically noted as chromium GTF (glucose tolerance factor), as this is the only form which will yield acceptable
results. Without chromium GTF, insulin will be unable to affect
the body’s metabolism.
Chromium GTF was discovered by a USDA researcher
named Dr. Walter Mertz back in 1959. As of 1988 this little
known secret lay hidden until sports supplement companies
began promoting it. Two forms of chromium emerged. Chromium bound to either nicotinic acid or picolinic acid, each
marketed by chemical companies who charged an excessive
amount of money for something that is inexpensive to make.
Be careful how you interpret findings from research
experiments conducted on chromium as it can be manipulated
to fit a particular scientific belief. Many experimenters go into
the laboratory to prove a theory that they already believe is
correct, and are going to go to great lengths to overlook the
facts that disprove their point. Take this into consideration
when you read the results from research studies in an advertisement or article for a certain substance or supplement. In many
196
cases the importance of the substance, like chromium and so
called “steroid alternatives” are greatly exaggerated, even to the
point of an outright lie.
Chromium GTF should be taken in dosages not less than
200 micrograms (mcg), and not more than 600 mcg per day.
Our preference is chromium picolinate, but there are others that
potentiate insulin uptake in muscle too. Chromium should not
be taken separately, but rather in a complex with other vitamins, minerals, and macroelements.
Mineral Transporters’
We have included this section on mineral transport
because it is one of the most important qualities of mineral
pharmacology. Active mineral transport is the process whereby
4 mineral is chemically combined with a carrier agent which
improves the mineral absorption through cells. Most minerals
in their natural inorganic state as salts cannot be absorbed.
Consider rust for example. As iron oxide it is a natural source
of tron, but the fact that it contains tron does not guarantee it
will be absorbed. In order for absorption to occur, the mineral
must first be solubilized. What the mineral is aitached to
determines to a great extent the degree of absorption. By
attaching the minerals to substances such as amino acids,
aspastates, succinates, orotates and the like, absorption can be
much improved. Because of the high protein diets of athletes, it
is important that alkaline minerals be consumed.
As an example, electrolytes and electrolyte transport play
a role in sustaining the normal function of the heart muscle.
The heart gets about 50% of its energy from fat which is
mobilized by enzymes controlled by calcium. Therefore, an
active transport of calcium is very important to the heart muscle
function.
Other minerals play a great role in heart function as
well.
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Our favorite mineral transporters are the orotates and
aspartates. Mineral orotates such as Ca, Mg, and K are used
widely in the USSR for their anabolic and energetic effects.
They are used as a therapeutic agent to improve heart and liver
function as well as general overall metabolism. Its administration results in a higher level of pyrimidines which are precursors of nucleic acids, and also the pyrimidine cofactors essential for the conversion of carbohydrates, fats and other metabo-
lites. This leads to an increase in the rate and capacity of
different metabolic pathways where pyrimidine components are
operating, and to the promotion of muscle growth.
As for the aspartates, L-aspartate travels to the inner layer
of the outer cell membrane, then upon metabolism releases the
mineral to become the ion. The orotates are capable of penetrat-
ing the outer cell membrane and is metabolized at the site of
intercellular mitochondria.
Unfortunately, orotates are no longer available in the USA
because of FDA intervention. They are not harmful if used
correctly, but the powers to be say they aren’t allowed in the
USA. In any event, an acceptable alternative are the aspartates
which are involved as intermediates in pyrimidine biosynthesis.
The supplement Panangin contains mineral aspartates which
improves performance by facilitating aerobic potential and
restoring the urea cycle for the proper elimination of waste
products.
Another form of mineral transporter is succinic acid.
Succinic acid is also an effective carrier of vitamin E, calcium,
potassium and others. For example, calcium succinate has a net
assimilation of 96%. The biological availability of calcium
from Ca succinate is about 28% which is higher than the
commonly used forms of Ca carbonate, sulfate, lactate and
oxide. Ca succinate is also 14% higher in bio-available calcium
than Ca from propionate, hydroxide or citrate.
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SUBSTANCES OF ANABOLIC ACTION
The word “anabolic” means growth promoting. What
many athletes fail to realize is that anabolic activity is not the
only process where muscle tissue is increased. The exact
opposite metabolic process is called “catabolic” which means
to break down. The acceleration of net muscle gains can occur
not only from increasing the anabolic activity of the body, but
also by decreasing the catabolic activity. This anti-catabolic
effect is just as important as anabolic effect, and certain
substances have anti-catabolic activity which makes them very
valuable to athletes.
a
Agents which stimulate anabolic effect include the
dispensable and non-dispensable amino acids, inosine,
methyluracil, L-carnitine, plant sterols, orotates and aspartates,
and the lecithins. These substances have been studied in the
USSR for over forty years for their anabolic effect, especially at
the Institute of Physical Culture in Leningrad where a majority
of steroid and non-steroid anabolic agents are researched.
These safe anabolic substances are commonly used during the
building phase of macro-cycies.
Amino Acids
Like all other substances in the body, protein does not
exist in a Static state but is always in a flux, reflecting the
balance between synthesis (anabolism) and breakdown (catabolism). Somewhere between 250 and 300 grams of protein are
formed and destroyed during each day in an adult male of
average size, and considerably more in athletes involved in
intense training cycles.
The breakdown of muscle tissue during exercise causes a
release of amino acids from the cells, and synthesis requires
that amino acids be present in the correct amounts at the right
place and time so that the manufacture of protein can occur. As
well as being used to build muscle tissue, amino acids can be
199
broken down and used as fuel just like carbohydrates and fats.
In fact, at rest about 15% of the body’s energy comes from the
breakdown of amino acids. This occurs in many tissues, but
particularly from amino acids in the liver and branched-chain
amino acids in muscle.
Athletes who stress muscle by lifting weights in the 5-10
repetition range for 70-85% of maximum, with short rest
periods causes the greatest catabolism in muscle tissue during
and immediately after training. The counter effect of this stress
is an increase in muscle synthesis after training for several
hours. This action/reaction is the means by which building
muscle mass is increased.
A great amount of discussion has taken place in the west
as to which amino acid formulas are most effective at establishing an anabolic state for maximum muscle growth. In the past
when the first chemically defined diets were formulated for
hospital use, it was generally believed that proteins required
complete hydrolysis (breakdown) to free amino acid form
before any absorption took place. This theory has been disproved many times over the past ten years. Clinical studies
have shown that amino complexes in the form of two (di) and
three (tri) peptide forms are equal to or more effective than free
amino acids. It was discovered that these di and tri-peptide
forms are transported through the intestine from different entry
points than are free amino acids. As such they do not compete
at the limited receptor sites and thus enter more quickly and
evenly.
Perhaps we have jumped ahead of many readers already.
The questions of what amino acids are, why they are important,
and which ones work best have been asked by athletes for
many years, and still the message is not getting through. We’ve
dedicated a good part of this section to greatly simplifying
these questions. Lets start from the beginning.
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1, Amino acids come from proteins. There are both
animal (meat, fish, poultry, eggs, milk) proteins, and vegetable
(beans, and grains) proteins. The vegetable proteins often lack
enough of one or more important amino acids required for
building adequate muscie. As such, they must be mixed with
other proteins in the diet that have the missing amino acid.
Animal proteins on the other hand are complete and require no
additions.
2. There are twenty one amino acids that are necessary to
build muscle tissue. Some ate called dispensable (non essential). They can be produced in the body from other amino acids.
The others are indispensable (essential) and you must get them
from the foods and supplements you eat. Because competitive
athletes increase catabolic and anabolic activity in muscle, both
essential and non-essential amino acids actually become
essential, and all must be replaced by additional protein foods
and supplements.
3. Amino acids sold as sports supplements typically come
from two sources. Most come from the hydrolysis (breakdown)
of milk proteins such as lactalbumin, and casein. To make an
amino acid hydrolysate, an enzyme or_acid is added to a vat of
milk proteins. As time passes, the acid or enzymes begin to eat
away at the bonds between the amino acids contained in the
protein. If this hydrolysis process 1s allowed to continue for a
long time, the final product will be mostly free amino acids and
very smal] peptides (2-3 amino acids long).
The second type is in the form of free amino acids. They
are often grown on a bacteria culture.
All of the 21 amino acids
can be produced in free form. Each free amino acid varies in
price from just a few doliars per pound to over $100 a pound.
The reason why free amino acids are so expensive is because of
the high cost of raw materials..
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4. Both milk protein hydrolysates and free form amino
acids are excellent high nitrogen sources. It is the nitrogen
present in proteins and not carbohydrate or fat which is required for muscle building. There are both high and low grade
hydrolysates available in the USA. Some products sold as
amino acid hydrolysates or free amino acids, are not broken
down much at all. They are little more than milk powder at an
inflated price. Some are also produced by acid digest, even
though some manufacturers claim otherwise. This digest form
is very harsh on the protein bonds, and during the breakdown
process amino acids are destroyed.
Hydrolysates are usually formed into tablets making it
difficult to determine the quality. Because there is no set
standard as to what an amino acid formula must be, some
manufacturers have sold pressed milk as amino acids. While
this is certainly unscrupulous, it is not illegal. The FDA has not
taken an interest in this issue and many athletes continue to be
taken advantage of while the manufacturer laughs all the way to
the bank.
A high quality free amino acid complex is the second
form. Because they often cost three times more than the best
hydrolysate, they are not a good choice. In fact, hospitals today
choose hydrolysates over free amino acids because they work
better and cost much less. The Soviet sport programs have
never used free amino acid complexes for this reason too. The
only time free amino acids are used are for developing special
supplements which require a certain singular amino acid such
as the branched-chain amino acids (leucine, isoleucine, and
valine), alanine, and glutamine.
5. Amino acid mixtures are simply a high nitrogen source
derived from protein, nothing more and nothing less. They are
anabolic when used properly, but are still just one of the
anabolic agents used in the USSR along with many other
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substances of high biological activity. Many athletes who have
little knowledge about amino acid complexes consume only six
to eight amino acids a day in the belief that this is enough for
anabolic activity. This thinking is mainly because of the high
cost of the supplement.
It is common for Soviet athletes training within a building
cycle before the competitive season to consume upwards of 40
grams of highly hydrolyzed amino acid formulas each day for
up to four weeks. We believe the optimal amount for most
athletes is about 25 grams per day, along with protein from the
protein rich foods.
RB:
6. The timing of amino acid consumption is something
you need to consider. Since anabolic activity occurs after
training, it makes sense to take amino acids at this time. Some
athletes make the mistake of consuming amino acids before
training in the belief that they will help build muscle. This is a
false belief. Taking amino acids before training will only serve
to interfere with the body’s natural hormonal process which
will negatively effect performance and growth.
We have observed many athletes taking amino acid
preparations with meals. This too is self-defeating. The purpose
of an amino acid formula is as a fast acting high nitrogen
source. [f you combine amino acids with foods, the absorption
of the amino acids will be slowed down. This negates their
value as an efficient source of muscle building nitrogen. Amino
acids should be taken during periods of high anabolic activity
and when nitrogen levels are low. Soviet athletes are now
taking a new amino acid formula called Aminofit. It is taken
between meals, and also one to two hours after training.
Aminofit also contains a unique vitamin complex and other
natural bioenergetic agents which enhance natural anabolic
activity.
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During post-exercise recovery the use of amino acids for
adaptive protein synthesis is intensified. Obviously the renewal
of structural and enzymatic proteins of the muscle tissue can be
completed only after the training session has ended. This
coincides with a high rate of protein breakdown, constituting an
increased rate of protein turnover. Improved muscle protein
synthesis can occur both by increasing the rate of synthesis as
well as reducing breakdown.
The catabolic response to exercise is dependent on the
intensity and duration of training. Heavy training loads cause a
great breakdown in muscle proteins. The content of amino
acids in muscle and liver diminishes during heavy exercise
because of the breakdown of branched-chain amino acids for
energy.
The greater the intensity of exercise, the greater the rapid
growth of skeletal muscle. This means that a carefully planned
workout should cause a great stress or load on the muscular
components of the body. This must be followed by pharmacological restorative means soon after training in order for
maximum gains in muscle mass to occur.
During exercise there are three different pathways by
which amino acids are metabolized. The first is the breakdown
of the branched-chain amino acids by contracting muscle. The
second is through the alanine (and glutamine) formation in
muscle and in its breakdown for fuel in the liver. The third is
the use of amino acids in protein synthesis within the liver and
muscle. Certain medicines which contain the amino acids
leucine, isoleucine, valine, alanine and glutamate prove useful
in reducing unnecessary breakdown in muscle and liver during
training. This is the only time amino acids should be consumed
within one hour before training.
What about the dosages of proteins and amino acids
which an athlete should consume daily during a very intense
building cycle? There is no cut and dry answer to this question.
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The dosage will depend on the particular athlete, the training
load, the types of exercises and the goals of training. Athletes
most concerned with building significant muscle mass are
superheavy weightlifters, bodybuilders, football players,
wrestlers and others. Their aims are much different than
runners, gymnasts, cyclists and swimmers which generally
require less muscle mass. For any athlete wishing to increase
muscle mass beyond normal means and without the use of
anabolic steroids they need to consume extra proteins and
amino acids, but only when combined with a very structured
and intense training program. If you are not actively training to
increase lean bodymass or power, you should stick to eating
ordinary protein foods such as chicken, egg whites, tuna fish,
and lean beef. Save amino acids for really hard training periods.
The recommended daily dosage of total protein during
heavy training loads would fall in the range of 0.80 grams to
1.25 grams per pound of bodyweight. Case in point: A com-
petitive Soviet weightlifter is entering a building cycle at a
bodyweight of 190 pounds. This athlete should consume
between 152 and 238 grams of protein daily. If the dosage of
protein recommended is 190 grams, the protein source should
be as follows: 40g (21%) vegetable and 121g (64%) animal
proteins, plus 29g (15%) of amino acids from Aminofit.
L-Carnitine
Carnitine was discovered by Soviet scientists in 1905 and
has a long history of study. In the west it is often used to help
facilitate the burning of fat, but from the Soviet viewpoint it 1s
classified as a substance with anabolic effect. L-carnitine is
often complexed with cobamamide, Aminofit, or branchedchain amino acids within a building cycle. Carnitine is similar
to choline and is related to amino acids m composition.
The major indispensable function of carnitine is in the
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burning of fat for body energy. This is accomplished by linking
up with fats and then transporting them into cells to be burned.
It is also involved in the metabolism of amino acids and by
forming branched chain acyl-carnitines. These substances are
transported into muscle mitochondria. There they are burned,
providing additional energy for exercised muscles. Carnitine
also helps the liver convert ammonia to urea. This detoxification of ammonia is necessary during intense exercise when the
liver is generating glucose for muscle from lactate. These
combined benefits contribute to the anabolic effect.
The price for L-carnitine is quite high. Because of this,
manufacturers cut the recommended dosage down to 500mg/
day to make their products last longer. This is an ineffective
dosage. An effective daily dosage of L-carnitine is 20mg per
pound of bodyweight . It is often used 15-20 days prior to
competition, as well as for two weeks during the main building
phase of a training cycle. For an athlete weighing 190 pounds,
the effective daily dosage would be 3,800 milligrams (3.8
grams). Due to the high price and dosage requirements, we
recommend athletes use L-carnitine only during the most
intense training loads and before competition.
Inosine (hypoxanthine riboside)
Inosine is a medicine of primary importance in stimulating
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) levels in cells. It is oftentimes
used as a heart medication for ordinary people, but is also
classified as an anabolic-energetic substance in Soviet sport
pharmacology. Of all the known nucleosides, inosine has the
highest permeability through cell walls. Inosine enhances
nucleotide levels, activates beneficial enzymes, and improves
liver function. It also increases the absorption of the coenzyme
flavine adenine dinucleotide (FAD), the synthesis of nucleic
acids and protein by liver cells, aids in the absorption of iron,
206
the formation of hemoglobin, and a delayed destruction of
erythrocytes. For these reasons inosine is classified as a
substance of anabolic activity and has been used by Soviet
athletes for many years. Inosine is not harmful in large dosages.
inosine has been used in Soviet sport pharmacology since
1974, but only since about 1985 has it become popular in the
USA. While many formulas are the real thing, some manufacturers have been known to use disodium inosinate and inosinic
acid, commonly used as flavor enhancers in foods. These
substances are not good for athletes since they are ineffective
and therefore should be avoided. The most popular Soviet form
is Inosine-F as inosine hypoxanthine riboside (HXR) combined
with asparagine. The effective daily dosage of inosine is
1000mg, 2-3 times per day.
Anabocyd
Anabocyd is a newly developed natural anabolic regulator
of plant origin. It is unique because of its significant nitrogen
sparing effect on the body. Anabocyd improves the uptake of
amino acids in muscle and the conversion of ammonia/urea
into nitrogen resulting in increased muscle mass. Weightlifters
training for increased strength showed significanily higher
levels of body nitrogen and muscle weight gain when using
Anabocyd in dosages of {-2 grams daily for 20 days. This
compound may be the best natural anabolic agent yet discovered for bodybuilders and others whose goal is to increase lean
muscle mass. Anabocyd is typically taken in dosages of 1-2
grams daily for a period of 15-20 days. This cycle can be
repeated after 1-2 weeks of non-use. It is often complexed with
amino acids as in Aminofit, or as a tablet in 500mg dosages.
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Methyluracil (Metacil)
Methyluracil is from the group of pyramidines and has
high anabolic and anti-catabolic activity. It accelerates the
process of cell regeneration and stimulates hormonal factors
and blood substances for resistance to stress. Its therapeutic
effect is connected with hemoglobin in nucleic acid exchange
in the stomach and liver. Research conducted by Soviet sport
scientists showed methyluracil sharply stimulates protein
synthesis in skeletal muscle. It is considered a most effective
non-steroid anabolic due to its ability to increase lean body
mass. It also stimulates the utilization of carbohydrates,
facilitating an increase in liver glycogen and improving the
metabolism in heart muscle.
Methyluracil is commonly used by Soviet athletes to
accelerate protein synthesis. It is very effective at increasing
bodyweight due to an improvement in muscle mass, appetite
and accelerated recovery from intense training. The dosage is
1.5-2.5 grams per day for 15-30 day cycles. It should be
consumed during or after meals. For enhanced anabolic effect 1
is complexed with potassium orotate or aspartate and protein
sources such as hydrolyzed caseinates, lactalbumin, and
Aminofit.
Phosphaden
One of the end products of inosine metabolism is
phosphaden. It too takes an active part in protein synthesis.
Soviet scientists testing phosphaden on middle and top class
male and female athletes showed a significant increase in total
work capacity. It is administered by intramuscular injections of
20-40mg (up to 100mg) 4-5 times per day, or two tablets orally
3-4 times a day. Its effectiveness is enhanced when taken
together with either potassium orotate or aspartate.
208
An Elika-4 diagnostic device used to chart biologically active points
on the body and is used to evaluate the condition of the athlete in
restoration.
209
ENERGETIC SUBSTANCES
The substances and supplements listed in this section are
used by athletes to promote the deposit of bio-energetic
substances into muscle, heart, and liver. The principal compounds used for deposition of glucose in muscle via the liver
are glucose polymers and fructose. Also, through indirect
pathways such as lactate, pyruvate, and the amino acid alanine.
Substances used primarily to oxygenate and energize skeletal
and heart muscle are creatine phosphate, inosine, L-carnitine,
lipoic acid, and Ca, Mg and K orotates and aspartates.
To solve the problem of energy supply the body has three
main ways of fueling muscles. The most immediate is phosphocreatine (PCr) which is available in only very small amounts
but is a good buffer against sudden increases in energy demand.
At the other end of the energy spectrum is fat which is the
primary endurance fuel. Glucose in muscle and liver is used
during all levels of training intensity.
Glucose Polymers (GP)
A common form of carbohydrate used in many sport
beverages and powder supplements are glucose polymers, also
called maltodextrins. Glucose polymers are typically made by
the acid-enzyme hydrolysis (breakdown) of corn starch. They
contain a mixed chain length of glucose units about five times
as heavy as glucose, and are especially effective at refilling low
muscle glycogen stores.
Glucose polymers have a glycemic index of 100, the
highest level. In comparison, sucrose has a glycemic index of
59, and fructose a very low 20. When you drink beverages
containing GP, a large rise in blood sugar levels and the release
of a significant amount of insulin occurs. In some cases this
reaction is good, in other cases it can be harmful to training
results.
210
Glucose polymers can be found in many sports drinks,
both liquid and powder. Years of research have proven them to
be effective at re-filling low muscle glycogen and blood
glucose levels. When combined with protein compounds they
can help create a greater anabolic effect.
Glucose polymers contain four calories per gram, the
same amount of calories as proteins, and less than half that of
energy dense fats. They are bland in taste and mix well in
water. There are two forms of glucose polymers available for
use in sports supplements; agglomerated (instantized) and nonagglomerated. There is no difference in nutritional value
between the two forms. The agglomerated form is characterized by a fluffy light texture and a slightly higher solubility. It
is also twice as expensive. The non-agglomerated form is more
dense and slightly less soluble. The form most often used in the
USSR is the non-agglomerated type which undergoes less heat
processing, mixes well, and costs much less.
Glucose polymers can be used in two major ways:
(1) In a concentrated form they are a good source of quick
calories which can be blended with foods and added to juices
and shakes. Athletes who require a large amount of calories can
benefit from GP because they are calorie rich without bulk, and
unlike most fats they digest quickly. This is important for
athletes who train several times each day. The total calories
burned from three to four workouts per day can exceed 5,000.
To maintain bodyweight from day-to-day it is umportant to
consume the same number of calories. But, because of multiworkouts and the fatigue that accompanies them, the ability to
receive ample calories from ordinary foods is impossible. The
solution to this problem is by consuming GP enriched drinks
which are high in calories and digest quickly.
Glucose polymers are extremely effective for football
players during two-a-days as they help maintain bodyweight
and energy levels. Endurance athletes can use GP to carbo-load
Zi
before races. Other intense sports will see similar results. It is
important not to consume GP too close to training and competi-
tion because its increase in insulin level will lower blood
glucose and inhibit brain function. If you need extra energy
during training, you should pre-load your muscles and liver
with glycogen by consuming GP at least one hour before
training. In the USSR, recently developed energetic supplements such as Biogain, Glycolone, and Activate are used.
(2) Diluted with water, glucose polymers significantly
prolong time to fatigue in endurance events such as the marathon and ultra-marathon, long distance bicycle rides, and
triathlons. There are many effective fluid replacement products
available in the west that contain small amounts of GP. While
fluid replacement/energy drinks are important for endurance
events and long training sessions in hot weather, their use by
weightlifters and bodybuilders is questionable. There is no need
for such beverages during training sessions indoors for less than
two hours, and their use may interfere with the body’s metabolism during training.
Fructose
Fructose is the second most popular carbohydrate used in
sport drinks. It has a low glycemic index of 20, meaning it does
not yield an insulin response. Fructose acts differently than
other carbohydrates because it is slowly absorbed from the gut
into the bloodstream and first must go to the liver to be converted either to liver glycogen or glucose. This process prevents
its flooding the bloodstream with excess carbohydrate. As a
liver fuel, fructose can increase glycogen formation three times
over that of glucose polymers. Thus, fructose is more effective
at liver glycogen repletion than GP.
Because glucose polymers inhibit lipolysis (the burning of
fats), and fructose does not, fructose is the preferred fuel source
for use during exercise. Many Soviet sports nutrition supple212
ments contain fructose including Glycolone and Hepatrol, two
very effective energy replacement compounds.
Lactate
Lactate is a special substance that is of great interest to
Soviet sport biochemists and pharmacologists because of its
function as a preferred energy source and blood buffer. Ameri-
can, German, and Soviet studies all support the use of lactate in
sports nutrition. Do not confuse lactate with lactic acid, they are
as different as GTF chromium is to the chrome on a car
bumper. Lactate is a natural by-product of lactic acid production. Even as you sleep, lactic acid is being made in the body
and broken down and used as fuel. The lactic acid molecule is
made up of fwo parts, a lactate anion and a hydrogen ion (the
acid part). Under ordinary conditions the acid part of the lactic
acid molecule is neutralized by the body’s natural buffering
systems. However, under high training loads rapid production
of lactic acid exceeds the body’s buffering capacity resulting in
muscle fatigue.
The importance of lactate in sport performance became
known within the past five years. Until then, only calcium
lactate was administered to Soviet athletes for energy. Now
there are far superior formulas which contain unique forms of
lactate, the main one being Glycolone which was tested at the
Institute of Physical Culture in Moscow with good results.
There are six reasons why athletes should use lactate based
products like Glycolone:
1. To supply energy quickly.
. To maintain blood glucose which feeds the brain.
. To spare and restore liver and muscle glycogen.
. To reduce the perceived exertion and muscle burn.
. To hasten the uptake of water and electrolytes
. To
NY
BW
Nm
preserve bicarbonate reserves and maintain
normal blood pH.
213
Because lactate has a molecular weight much less than
glucose, and bearing no insulin requirement in blood, it is a
much more rapidly utilized fuel source. Lactate is especially
effective for use by speed-endurance athletes such as 100-800m
sprinters, football players, and power athletes as a restorative
substance after intense training loads. When used with minerals
and amino acids, the three together act as a synergistically
powerful complex which helps normalize the metabolism in the
body.
When used during training by cyclists, distance runners
and triathletes, it exceeds the performance enhancing characteristics of other endurance based compounds such as glucose
polymers and fructose alone. Lactate should be used during
high load training, changes in climate, stress due to travel, and
especially during acclimatization to high altitude training.
Lactate is commonly bound to amino acids, minerals and
fructose (alpha-K-polylactate) for effective entry into the
bloodstream. Typical daily dosages of the alpha-K-polylactate
compound are 5-7 grams, 1-3 times daily. This natural medicine has extreme biological activity and can cause stomach
distress at high dosages. Soviet scientists and pharmacologists
often dilute it with glucose polymers and fructose for use in
restorative drinks such as Glycolone.
Pyruvate
Pyruvate is an alternative substrate of oxidative metabolism and is a kissing cousin to lactate. It too is bound to mineral
salts and added to powder formulas. Although the price for
pyruvate is nearly three times as expensive as lactate, it is used
in Soviet supplements. The main function of pyruvate is to
normalize metabolism during intensive workloads. It is commonly used in formulas to regulate and improve heart function
after physical loads. In Soviet formulas such as Hepatrol, it is
added as poly-pyruvate with other high energy substrates to
214
replenish liver glycogen stores and help to normalize liver
function, thus improving the anabolic state.
It is also an important addition to Triotene, an energy
substrate complex which in 30 day trials reduced bodyfat
weight by 8-11% and increased lean body mass up to 5%. It is
used as a natural replacement for somatotropin (growth hormone) which also reduces bodyfat. Poly-pyruvate is sometimes
taken in complex with other energetic substances in dosages of
2-3 grams, 1-2 times a day for a general restorative effect, and
2-4 grams twice daily for bodyfat reduction.
Lipoic Acid
Lipoic acid is an important coenzyme involved in several
metabolic reactions, As a Kreb’s cycle co-factor, it functions in
the enzyme related reactions of the tricarboxylic acid (TCA)
cycle, in the decarboxylation of glycine, and in the metabolism
of branched-chain amino acids. Beneficial effects include
improved fat and carbohydrate exchange, anti-atherogenic
activity, and as a protector of heart and liver function. The
effective d-lipoic acid form is very expensive, but luckily the
dosage for athletes is only between 50-80 mg daily for 15-20
day cycles.
Phosphocreatine (Pc)
Phosphocreatine is an intracellular high-energy phosphate
that is involved in supplying energy for heart and muscle
contraction. It is a natural therapeutic compound and when
administered via injection or orally it exerts a protective effect
on heart muscle. It also improves restoration by facilitating
ATP synthesis.
.
Creatine based compounds are presently some of the most
popular substances in Soviet sport pharmacology. They are an
extremely concentrated energy source with good anabolic
activity. They can be taken by injection, and also orally in 250215
500mg amounts twice daily. Creatine is most effective when
used in complex with amino acids and other anabolic substances such as Aminofit..
Medium Chain Triglycerides (MCT’s)
Medium-chain triglycerides are made up of a mixture of
short chain fatty acids and are relatively soluble in water.
Soviet athletes do not use MCT’s, but they are popular in the
USA.
MCT’s have been used since 1950 in the treatment of fat
absorption disorders. Because they are a smaller molecular size
than ordinary fats, they are broken down quickly in the gut and
transported to the liver much faster. In fact, they are absorbed
as fast as glucose. When MCT’s are supplied in the diet, they
are rapidly oxidized (burned up), forming many ketone bodies
and supplying a quick source of energy. They also aid in the
absorption of calcium and magnesium and do not require
carnitine to facilitate uptake into muscle mitochondria. As a
lipid source, they are twice as energy dense as carbohydrates or
proteins. For diets which demand a great deal of energy they
are an ideal source.
MCT’s are a preferable food for persons who have
increased energy needs, such as post surgery patients or athletes
in growth states. They also seem to produce a slight
thermogenic effect which may be beneficial to bodybuilders
interested in bodyfat loss, although this is probably a minor
benefit.
MCT’s should be considered an energy source from pre-
digested fats (coconut oil) . They are no more effective than
glucose polymers, except that they contain over twice the
calories. One major drawback is that they cause diarrhea if used
in too large a dosage. Because they are six times the price of
glucose polymers, they may not be worth the price.
216
ADAPTOGENS: NATURAL BIOSTIMULANTS
The stress that plagues today’s athletes is greater than
ever. With increases in training loads has come the need to find
substances which will] help athletes adapt to high stress. Most
injuries and illness don’t just happen, they develop over time,
building from one training session to another. Combine intense
training loads with many other life stresses and physical and
mental] fatigue can develop.
You may be one of the lucky athletes that can train and
compete without setbacks. If so, we congratulate you. Either
you're genetically gifted with tremendous anti-stresser reserves,
or you are undertraining. Most athletes though, know that if
they could just avoid or reduce the little nagging injuries and
fatigue, the loss of mental focus and concentration, and the
stresses of family life, job, or school, they can make much
greater gains. The class of plant and animal based medicines
known as “adaptogens” will help you cope with stress related
situations sO you Can train at greater intensity and make more
significant gains.
Much of the information presented on adaptegens has
been obtained by us from in depth discussions with the foremost authorities on plant based medicines in the USSR.
Professor Izrai] Brekhman, Director of the Department of
Physiology and Pharmacology of Adaptation in Vladivostok,
USSR has been a helpful advisor to us. According to Dr.
Brekhman, for a natural substance to be considered an
adaptogen it must have the foliowing characteristics: 1) It must
not be harmful to the body, 2) It has a non-specific tonic action
by increasing resistance to a broad range of physical, chemical,
biochemical and neurological factors, and 3) It has a normalizing action, always re-aligning the metabolic processes of the
body.
As a significant part of Soviet sport pharmacopia,
adaptogens are taken by business travelers, elderly persons,
2AT
cosmonauts, sportsmen, and others. In an age where westem
society continues to look at synthetic drugs for relief trom
illness and disease, the USSR, China, and India continue to
pioneer the way in the discovery of natural substances with
healing and tonic powers.
Do not discount the positive effects of natural substances
like adaptogens. After hundreds, perhaps thousands of years
use as folk medicine, and another 20 to 30 years of laboratory
investigation, scientists know they help the body adapt to
training stress. There are several reasons why you haven't
heard much about these substances before: 1) Few have been
available to western athletes. While some can be found in
health food stores and herb shops, they have been mainly taken
by non-athletes. 2) The drug companies in the USA don’t want
you to know about adaptogens. Drug companies invest in
substances they can patent. Since plants aren’t patentable, they
want nothing to do with them. Drug companies lobby against
their sale as useful anti-stress agents, and also discourage
research, 3) There has been little clinical research conducted on
the adaptogens in the west. Hundreds of investigations made in
the Far East, including the USSR clearly point to their useful-
ness in sport.
The use of plant and animal based adaptogens by Soviet
athletes is a common practice. Western athletes on the other
hand approach herbal preparations with much skepticism. They
have been led to believe natural medicines are not as effective
as synthetic drugs. This belief is a great error, and western
athletes have missed out on a classification of sport pharmacology that is safe and effective.
Adaptogens are prescribed by Soviet sport physicians to
athletes in order to prepare them for an enormous amount of
work during high-load training cycles. Soviet coaches recog-
nize that the more an athlete trains, the more he or she has a
chance of winning high level competitions, so they train them
218
very hard. From one training session to the next the athlete
must replenish depleted structural and psychological reserves.
Restoration is a critical part to future training success, and
medical efforts using adaptogens assist in tolerating ever
increasing training loads. The purposes of adaptogens are to
accelerate the restorative process after intense training and to
increase the body’s resistance to stressful conditions. In
addition to use during heavy physical loads, adaptogens are
widely used during travel to far away competitions as they
greatly reduce trave! stress and jet lag. The plant and animal
pased medicines listed below have been studied and manufactured in the Soviet Union. Some of these are now available in
the USA. Please see the last page of the book for more information on how to obtain these adaptogens.
Adaptogens used by Soviet athletes. Many are taken as liquid
extracts or tablets, but the raw material is still brewed as a tea by
many Soviets during high-stress conditions.
219
Eleuthrococcus senticosis (EC)
Also known as Siberian Ginseng, the root extract of EC is
the most widely used of the adaptogens. It belongs to the family
of Araliaceae, and has been well studied for its stress reducing
and tonic effects. EC extract was approved by the Pharmacological Committee of the USSR Ministry of Health for clinical
use as a stimulant in 1962. It is taken as an alcohol based
extract which is added to juice or tea, within a mixture of
adaptogenic and supportive herbs, or as a tablet. Investigations
show that the active ingredients in EC contain glycosides,
aralin alkaloid, and oils that play a role in the regulation of
neuro-transmission. EC also provokes key enzymatic reactions,
stimulates protein and nucleic acid biosynthesis, and activates
metabolism.
EC is a good stimulant which increases an athletes
capacity for hard work but produces neither an exciting effect,
nor any undesirable changes in the functioning of internal
organs or in metabolic processes. The stimulating action of EC
will become evident after taking daily dosages of between 2030 drops of the extract twice daily, or in a mixture with other
adaptogens such as Adaptozol and Tonedrin, for 25-30 days,
then repeated after one or two week intervals. The tonic effect
of EC will improve appetite, muscle weight gain, sleep, and
increase blood hemoglobin. Even a single dosage of EC causes
a better utilization of glycogen, creatine phosphate and ATP in
muscle as well as intensifying the process of oxidative phosphorylation.
There are studies which show a slight anabolic action of
EC, which is most likely due to its affect on carbohydrate and
protein metabolism. In EC experiments conducted with laboratory and farm animals, an increase in body weight was observed after two weeks use. From our own experience EC
greatly reduces fatigue during intense training loads, in accli-
mation to high altitude training, and when traveling overseas to
prevent jet lag.
Note: EC has tonic properties that gradually build over
time, rather than having an immediate effect. It is taken for four
to five weeks for best results. A single large dosage gives a
tonic effect and is sometimes used before competitions. We
find that by pre-loading with EC one week before a high stress
period, the stress is much better tolerated. Soviet athletes
oftentimes take 3-4 times the normai dosage of EC about 30
minutes before competition for its stimulation effect. In this
way it is most effective while femaining off the list of banned
substances. Use EC for its ability to increase endurance,
reflexes and coordination, and to reduce training stress from
heavy loads.
Schizandra chinensis
From the berries of Schizandra chinensis
(Schizandraeceae), a member of the magnolia plant family,
more than 30 helpful compounds have been isolated. The
berries are shown to prevent overstrain, increase working
capacity, accuracy of movements, and sleep status. Schizandra
is used as an extract for 20-30 drops, 2-3 times daily. It is also
complexed with other adaptogens as in Adaptozol. The therapeutic course lasts 30-40 days. After 1-2 weeks of non- use the
cycle can be repeated.
Pantocrine
Pantocrine is made from the antlers of male spotted deer
(Cervus nippon) which are found in the far east of the USSR.
Bio-organic chemistry studies have isolated 20 elements in
pantocrine which most likely help play an adaptogenic role.
Numerous amino acids are present, specifically glycine,
alanine, proline and leucine, plus phospholipids and glycosides
Studies dating back to the 1940’s show that pantocrine in-
creases the working capacity of fatigued muscle, improves
mental concentration, and accelerates recovery from training.
Athletes using this substance notice increased resistance to
fatigue during high volume and maximal intensity training
loads. Pantocrine is administered 30 minutes before a meal in
tablet form (150mg) at a dosage of 1-2 tablets twice daily for
20-30 days.
Rantarin
Rantarin is an animal based adaptogen similar to
pantocrine. It comes from the antlers of male reindeer which
are raised for food and medicinal purposes. Rantarin also
increases physical and mental work capacity and is often
prescribed to treat undernutrition, fatigue, sexual impotence,
adaptation to climate changes and hypotension. The dosage is
1-2 tablets three times daily for 25-30 days. Treatment can
again be repeated 1-2 weeks after initial course.
Saparal
Saparal is obtained from aralia roots and is indicated as a
tonic agent for athletes. It is very popular with Soviet athletes
and has stimulating and anabolic effects similar to EC and
schizandra. The steroid-glycosides in saparal are known to
possess anabolic properties and are shown to increase protein
synthesis and activity of enzymes involved in carbohydrate and
fat metabolism. Saparal should be taken after a meal in dosages
of 50mg | tablet), 2-3 times a day, preferably in the morning or
afternoon for 15-30 days. You can repeat the course in 1-2
weeks.
Mumie
Mumie is a most unusual adaptogen/anabolic supplement.
It is black in color, has the feel of putty, and a very distinctive
smell and taste. It’s origin is from high (7,000-20,000ft) up in
toNONo
the Pamir and Tyan-Schang mountain ranges of Middle Asia.
In this region grow many trees and over 6,000 different plants,
half of which are not found anywhere else in the world. These
plant substances take hundreds of years to form the unique
complex of mumie. It is extremely rare, and because mumie is
harvested by hand in very small amounts, it often takes one
person three months to gather just one kilogram!
The chemical composition of mumie are glcosides,
saponins, chloropny}, essential oils, keratin, flavanoids, miner-
als and microeiements, polyphenols, amino acids and sterols.
For many years before the increased usage of anabolic steroids,
mumie was used as a natural anabolic. Soviet pharmacology
has established that mumie is very useful for mineral exchange
and as a biostimulator. Mumie also promotes the movement of
mineral substances, especially calcium, phosphorous, and
magnesium in muscle tissue and bone. As an excellent univer-
sal natural regulator, mumie increases lean weight gain,
improves heart action, stimulates the immune system and
improves restoration.
Information from the Second Annual Symposium on
Mumie held in Moscow clearly point to its benefit in many
post-operative and stressful situations where healing is im-
proved by up to SO%. The effectiveness of mumie’s anabolic
activity has been proven under hundreds of studies in the
treatment of illness such as stomach ulcers, gum disease, low
back and knee pain, broken bones, and radiation poisoning. It is
used in the USSR as a tonic and stress preventive agent by
pilots, air traffic controllers, cosmonauts, drivers, and athletes.
Mumie is one of the most popular and effective sport
supplements used by Soviet athietes.on every national team.
Caution must be taken that the mumie taken is of the highest
quality. We have seen many forms of mumie in the form of
smal! packets, capsules, and pliable tablets. The quality differs
greatly. Because of its high price there are many “watered
223
down” versions, so you must be careful to purchase only the
certified form which has been cleaned and purified as an
extract. We recommend the natural tablet form in 200mg
amounts, one tablet 2-3 times daily for 25-30 days during
intense training.
Adaptozol
Adaptozol is a complex of substances with adaptogenic
action. It contains, eleuthrococcus, schizandra, suma,
astragulus, and licorice. Adaptozol contains many of
adaptogenic properties mentioned above for a total improvement in metabolism, an anabolic effect, and improved energy
transfer. Dosage is two tablets, 2-3 times daily for 25-30 days.
The cycle can be repeated after 1-2 weeks.
Tonedrin
Tonedrin is also a complex of adaptogens and is often
alternated with adaptozol during intense training loads. It
contains herbs mainly of Soviet and Chinese origin. Dosage is
two tablets, 2-3 times daily for 20-30 days.
ANTIOXIDANTS
The body’s antioxidant defense system is composed of a
broad spectrum of complex and simple compounds ranging
from antioxidant enzymes, vitamins, amino acids, plant based
compounds, and related molecules. These compounds possess
specific molecular configurations that deactivate oxygenderived active species so that antioxidant resistance is main-
tained. During exercise, oxidative stress can begin to overwhelm the available antioxidant defenses with the result being
tissue damage and loss of optimal metabolic function. Inflammatory, immunologic, and carcinogenic states are examples of
unchecked oxygen toxicity.
224
Oxy stress (oxidative stress) is any oxygen-consuming
process resulting from an increase in reactive molecules in the
system (free radicals), or a decrease in the antioxidant defense
capability. It is important to manipulate the antioxidant defense
system so oxy stress can be minimized. This manipulation is
both preventive pre-exercise, and restorative post-exercise in
nature.
Free radicals are common in biological systems and in
fact are essential for the maintenance of life. However, they are
molecules which are extremely reactive by virtue of having
unpaired electrons. Once they are initiated, free radicals tend to
increase in population by taking part in chain reactions, and cell
damage is common. Training stress is one such reaction which
increases free radical production.
Research beginning in 1985 uncovered that many antioxidants have the ability to hold training stress in check. The result
was improved performance and faster restoration. Supplemen-
tal antioxidants are particularly effective for athletes involved
in aerobic training, exercise in polluted environments, and high
altitude training. There are several effective antioxidants
available to athletes, specifically beta carotene (co-vitamin A),
vitamin C and E, the mineral selenium, the amino acid
tripeptide glutathione, and special plant extracts. Soviet scientists recommend a mixture of these antioxidants as they work
synergistically together. One effective antioxidant tablet used
by Soviet athletes is Protect. An effective daily dosage range of
these antioxidants would likely be beta-carotene (10,00020,000iu), d-alpha tocopherol (vitamin E, 400-8001u), gluta-
thione 20-40mg, selenium (60-90mcg), and ascorbic acid
(vitamin C, 500-1,500mg).
225
LIVER PROTECTORS AND REGULATORS
The liver is a large gland through which blood from the
stomach must pass. It serves to regulate the metabolite levels in
the blood which are controlled by liver enzymes. The liver also
removes toxins and excess hormones from circulation and
breaks them down. It also secretes bile which acts as an
emulsifier of fats to help in digestion.
In western sport, the liver is rarely considered when
designing pharmacological means of restoration. In contrast,
Soviet sport scientists view the liver as a very important factor
in performance. It is so important that special supplements are
designed to help its metabolism. As simple as the liver is, it is
still responsible for over 100 complex metabolic functions
including carbohydrate, protein and fat metabolism.
In carbohydrate metabolism, the liver removes sugar from
general circulation and stores it as liver glycogen. Through
glycogenolysis, liver glycogen is broken down so blood
glucose can be maintained. Since the brain and other vital
central nervous system structures are almost entirely dependent
on the glucose fuel from blood, proper liver regulation of
carbohydrate is vital for maximum sport performance. When
liver glycogen stores are exhausted, the liver converts other
important substances like amino acids from muscle into
glucose via gluconeogenesis. In other words, if you have a low
liver glycogen level and/or a dysfunctional liver, your body wiill
pirate energy from muscle, the thing you’ve worked so hard to
build!
The liver is also responsible for regulating enzyme
systems and amino acids, the interconversion of metabolites,
the manufacture of blood proteins, the detoxification of toxins,
the formation of bile, and vitamin storage. If the liver is
allowed to reach a catabolic state, muscle loss will occur. Some
supplements are designed to maintain the fed state (anabolic
state), while others are designed to protect the liver from
training stress and toxins.
Although liver glycogen makes up only 14% of the body
carbohydrate stores, it contributes about 33% during aerobic
exercise. Liver glycogen fuels most central nervous system
functions at rest at a rate of 9 grams per hour. The brain alone
requires 125 grams of glucose daily, most of which comes from
the liver. During exercise, liver glycogen can be used at 40-65
grams per hour, which uses up the liver glycogen reserves (100
grams) in about two hours. It can only restore glycogen at the
rate of about !0g/hr.
‘
The significance of these figures is that the liver has a
limited reserve of glycogen to feed the body, and during
exercise liver glycogen stores can be depleted within two hours.
Liver glycogen is also very low after a night’s sleep. Once this
happens the body interprets an upcoming catabolic state and
begins to destroy muscle for energy. It is vital that the liver be
maintained in a fed state to enhance anabolic activity. This can
be accomplished by eating smai! meals rich in carbohydrate
every two hours and taking special sports supplements which
efficiently and-effectively feed the liver.
Creating An Anabolic Liver
As we just stated, to maintain an anabolic state and
prevent the breakdown of muscle proteins for fuel, the liver
must be kept full of glycogen. If the liver is allowed to fall low
in liver glycogen, the brain will trigger a catabolic response,
and the breakdown of body proteins will begin. In order to
achieve maximum sport success, the goal of restorative means
is to improve the anabolic state while. reducing the catabolic
state. The correct feeding of the liver will reduce the catabolic,
and improve the anabolic state. The major “at risk” periods
when low liver glycogen is most common are within the first
227
two hours after training, before a night’s me and upon
waking in the morning.
After training, it is important to re-feed the liver so it has
enough energy to halt the breakdown of muscle for fuel. Many
western athletes feed the body before training with substances
such as glucose polymers and amino acids. This 1s in reverse of
practical biochemical thinking. The result of pre-exercise
supplement use often causes a disturbance of the body’s
hormonal system and a loss in sport performance.
We have reviewed western sport supplements which are
intended to reduce lactic acid burn in muscle during training.
The use of these supplements is contrary to what should be
done. If they are used, the body will not adapt as well to
training stress. They create an unnatural state at a time when
muscle should be learning how to handle excess lactic acid.
The only time they should ever be used is before competition.
The post-exercise recovery period is the single most
important time in the use of sport pharmacology. The liver
should be fed with glucose polymers, fructose, amino acids,
and electrolytes to reduce the catabolic state of training and
quickly create an anabolic state. The Soviet program uses a
variety of substances as liquids such as Biogain, glucose
polymer/electrolyte drinks, and Aminofit within 1-3 hours after
intense physical loads.
An often overlooked period for making gains is before
bedtime and upon waking up in the morning. Soviet athletes
often take substances 1-2 hours before bed to re-fill liver
glycogen stores and create an anabolic state. This is because
during sleep the liver loses much energy as it feeds the brain
with glucose. Upon waking the liver is usually low of energy,
so it is re-fed at this time also in preparation for the morning
training. To keep the liver functioning optimally a special
powder drink supplement designed with gluconeogenic
precursors called Hepatrol is taken in dosages of 25 grams, 1-2
hours before bedtime and upon waking in the morning. It is
very effective at creating an anabolic state in the liver during
heavy load training cycles. Hepatrol should be used for 20-30
days, then 7 days rest before it is repeated.
Liver Regulation And Protection
Because the liver is the body’s main chemical laboratory,
it is subjected to additional stress from intense training. Liver
fatigue is a common occurrence in competitive sport because
the liver must increase its production of bile, activate enzymes
for protein and carbohydrate synthesis, and detoxify poisons
that enter or are produced in the body. Two areas of major
concern are bile stagnation and the stress from toxic substances,
both of which harm performance. One occurrence in top
athletes is the “hepatic pain syndrome” whose symptoms
include liver dysfunction as evidenced from elevated SGOT/
SGPT enzyme levels, heaviness in the abdominal area, and
heartburn. Top soviet athletes undergo regular liver function
tests which help to determine their fitness level. If these tests
uncover a dysfunctional liver, corrective measures are quickly
taken. Corrective measures include the elimination of most fats
from the diet, increased water consumption, massage, sauna,
mineral baths, and hepatoprotector medicines.
WARNING: Oral anabolic steroids are extremely toxic to
the liver and will cause cholestatic jaundice, liver cell cancer,
and peliosis hepatis. Many athletes that use anabolic steroids
are under the misconception that an ordinary blood test to
determine SGOT/SGPT ievels is an.adequate indicator of liver
health. This is not the case. While the liver enzyme levels may
appear normal, this under no circumstance means that the liver
is not being damaged.
229
Soviet physicians monitor each athlete on anabolic
steroids. The method used is electrical impédance which offers
a good indication of how the liver is functioning. Electrical
impedance is a non-invasive test to determine the fluid level in
the liver and takes only a few minutes to administer. Athletes
are tested monthly.
Athletes in the west do not use these preventive detection
methods. If you are using anabolic steroids we urge you to
contact your physician or local hospital for more accurate
testing. In addition, liver protectors should always be consumed
during and after an anabolic steroid cycle.
Because optimal liver function is so vital to maximal sport
performance, athletes in the USSR take special liver protective
medicines to improve the flow of bile, and protect the liver
from toxic substances. We were very surprised to learn that this
protective method is virtually unknown in the west.
Millions of bottles of liver protectors are used annually by
Soviet athletes. They are composed of plant and plant extract
substances which elicit a tonic and protective effect on the liver
and improve the flow of bile. The most popular forms are
LIV52, Legalon, Carsil, and LiverGuard. The dosages vary but
each protectant is highly effective at improving liver function
as evidenced by better glucose utilization, lower SGOT/SGPT
values, electrical impedance, and elevated alkaline phosphatase.
They also normalize the appetite and elevate the anabolic
state. We recommend these substances for all athletes, whether
they take anabolic steroids or not, because everyone will
benefit from such treatment during hard training.
230
NUTRITION AND HYGIENE
IN RESTORATION
In the previous sections we discussed many of the special
forms of natural medicines used in Soviet sport pharmacology.
Now we turn your attention to more basic means of restoration.
Foods and living conditions are of great importance in the
conditioning of Soviet athletes. While the use of special sport
supplements is important to the competitive athlete, we consider them secondary to a good base diet and proper hygiene
methods. [f you haven’t truly sat down and planned out the
foods you eat, and when to éat them, you are building your
sport program on sand.
The first thing nutritionally any athlete must do is develop
a base diet and feeding schedule. The reason for this is that
many foods are rich in biologically active substances which
help to restore the body’s functional condition. A sports diet
must not only meet calorie needs and prevent illness, it must
also supply the body with the ability to quickly adapt to a
variety of training stressers as well as general living conditions.
To achieve optimal restoration requires careful planning on the
athletes part. Many athletes have failed in this regard. We have all been subjected to irrational nutrition that is
damaging to performance. Today’s high variety of foodstuffs
are oftentimes so poor in nutritional value that they are quite
harmful to sport performance. Diseases such as hypoglycemia,
cancer, and liver complications are reaching epidemic proportions in the western world, in the opinion of many medical
experts often due to poor diets. Refined foods such as white
flour, white sugar, and refined fats are good examples of
useless products, void of high biological activity. These
devitalized products represent 60% of the calorie intake of food
in North America. We believe an athlete must omit most of
these foodstuffs from his or her diet plan and replace them with
more biologically active substances in order to maximize sport
gains.
231
We’re not saying that you should run off to the nearest
commune, don a woolen sarape and eat pine nuts for the rest of
your life. A little pizza and ice cream now and then is a good
change of pace from health foods which can become boring.
What we’re urging is simply a more careful analysis of the
foods you eat which can effect, both positively and negatively,
sport performance.
One thing we didn’t prepare for this book is a lot of
lengthy charts and graphs about this and that food, it’s calories
and nutrition composition. There are dozens of books that have
done this, and athletes still continue to eat foods which are not
helpful for sport. The best recommendations we can make are
to avoid fried foods, peanut butter, whole milk, most cheeses,
TV dinners, fast food and other junk foods.
Increase your consumption of raw or lightly cooked fruits
and green vegetables, carrots and beans. Also, eat whole grain
rice, white meat chicken, dietetic (no added salt) tuna and other
low fat fish, nonfat or 1% milk (if milk tolerant), low fat
cottage cheese, etc. Eat a variety of fresh and natural foods, as
each one has its unique biochemical makeup and can synergistically work with other foods to improve health. Never forget
variety, don’t eat the same things day after day because the
body adapts to them. Just as there are variative methods for
training and restoration, there should also be a variative method
of eating. Consuming a variety of good foods is one area where
you can excel over most Soviet athletes because they have a
poor variety of foods from which to choose from. Don’t give
up this important advantage.
The timing of nutrition is also important. Below we have
listed a daily meal plan for an advanced athlete. His caloric
expenditure is 3,500 calories daily.The ratio of macroelements
are: 58% carbohydrate, 20% fat, and 22% protein.
232,
Period
1.Wake up 7:00am
2.Breakfast 7:45am
% of Calories
# of Calories
A%
22%
145
750
4.Post Training I
7%
250
5.Lunch 1:30pm
31%
1,085
3.(AM Training) 11-12:30
6.(PM Training) 4:30-6pm
7.Post Training I
8.Dinner 7:00pm
9.Pre Bedtime 9:00pm
71%
250
25%
875
4%
145
Hygiene
There are several other daily procedures that can also have
an effect on restoration including: hours of sleep, living
conditions, relaxation time, training environment, etc. The
amount of sleep varies depending on the athlete, but generally it
falls between 8-10 hours. The quality of sleep is important too,
and the room should be between 63-65 degrees, with plenty of
fresh air. You should avoid large rneals before bedtime, and
drink plenty of water. A one hour nap is very restorative if
taken one half hour after lunch.
The training environment should be changed on a regular
basis. You could change the gym you train at every few weeks
or months, the running surface or court, your workout partners,
etc. These methods are often practiced in the USSR to keep
athletes fresh and avoid monotony tn training, and is another
example of the variative method of training.
The use of music during training has been researched
extensively in the USSR. Special music is played during
training and also in recovery. Some is designed to slightly
stimulate the athlete, while other types are made to place the
athlete in a relaxed state.
233
ANABOLIC STEROIDS IN SOVIET SPORT
In the previous sections we described the many means of
Soviet pharmacology. This section on anabolic steroids is an
issue on the minds of all athletes, coaches, scientists and sport
officials. In this section we will discuss the past and present
Soviet perspective concerning anabolic steroid use in sport.
For many years the subject of anabolic steroid (AS) use by
athletes was a forbidden topic of discussion in the USSR. It has
only been during the past 2-3 years, thanks to glasnost, that this
topic has been openly discussed. The Soviet press, newspapers,
magazines and television are now openly discussing the
problems of steroid use, and abuse, by athletes. Since the 1988
Olympic Games in Seoul, international pressure for the banning
of AS in competitions and during the year round training
program have grown. Today the USA and USSR have com-
bined to fight the abuse of AS in sports through each country
setting up a random year round testing program for top athletes.
The results of this joint agreement can be seen in the suspension of several athletes from both countries either for being
caught, or for failure to comply with the tests.
Now in the USSR, many coaches and scientists are
speaking out against the use of AS in sport. The former director
of the Moscow Research Institute of Physical Culture, Sergey
Vietsehovsky, recently stated in an article that the national sport
committee, Goskomsport pressed him to make investigations of
AS use on top athletes. Former head coach of the national
weightlifting team, Arkadiy Varabiov in his book on training
for weightlifters, discussed the AS issue stating that: “In
optimal small dosages, anabolic steroids are not harmful, but
their use is out of control because it became the business of
athletes and coaches, without the input from physicians and
pharmacologists. Now it is difficult or impossible to check how
much steroids should be used, what types should be used, when
234
they should be given, and how to monitor the dosage and
results. Today anabolic steroid use has moved from one of
scientific means, to one of trial and error and is very dangerous
to the health of the athlete.”
Of course, American athletes are well aware of the
physical and psychological dangers of anabolic steroid use. The
harmful effects of AS in sport have been investigated in the
west for several years. The Soviet sport system began to
experiment and apply AS in sport towards the end of the 1960's
and at the beginning of the 1970's, especially in the events
which required strength and power such as weightlifting,
throwing events, and wrestling. In the beginning, Soviet
scientists and physicians believed that AS use was not harmful
to the athlete if applied medically. In 1972 the top Soviet
researchers made investigations on the effectiveness of AS and
their use in sport, and secretly published these results for top
coaches and officials. We obtained an original copy of this
investigation, which showed that anabolic steroids yield
superior training results as indicated by great increases in
strength, speed, speed-endurance, and recovery ability after
high training loads. Soviet scientists and coaches have known
for a long time how steroids work, which types work best, how
much should be used, and how often they should be cycled.
Unfortunately anabolic steroid use has changed from a
manageable issue to one that is unmanageable. Today more and
more athletes and coaches are involved in the abuse of AS, and
less and less physicians and pharmacologists are involved in
making sure they are used correctly. For the past several years
the competitive marks have been so high, especially for
women, that to not use AS was a great disadvantage. Witness
the results of jumping near 25 feet and shot put of 72 feet by
women, or improvements by weightlifters by 50-60kg. This is
believed to be impossible without anabolic steroids.
2395
Now in the USSR an anti-steroid campaign is moving
forward. Even young athletes of 15-16 years of age are tested
during national championships. In spite of this, many have been
caught using anabolic steroids. Of course Soviet sport in
general has tried to deny that Soviet athletes use drugs. But
many times Soviet athletes have been caught. Even in 1978,
more than ten Soviet track and field athletes were caught during
the European Championships in Prague, only to have their test
results hidden. They were punished only privately and these
same athletes were allowed to compete in the 1980 Olympic
Games in Moscow.
Soviet athletes are rarely caught at international competitions today because the USSR has an excellent doping test
program. Before an athlete can attend an international competi-
tion, he or she must pass a drug test. Even in such controlled
testing, some athletes were caught, as is the case of the shot
putter Bogach during the 1989 European Cup. He took an
anabolic steroid right before competition, after he tested clean
at the Soviet laboratory.
A few years ago, two of the best Soviet weightlifters,
experts on anabolic steroids, were caught trying to smuggle two
suitcases full of Russian anabolic steroids through customs into
Canada. They were arrested and sent bask to the USSR where
they were banned from competition. Later on they were
reinstated.
Even in the 1988 Olympic Games in Seoul, where sprinter
Ben Johnson and two Bulgarian weightlifters were caught
using doping agents, the Soviet athletes managed to avoid
detection. This is because they were tested many times before
competition. A special Soviet ship complete with a laboratory
full of doping detection equipment was docked in Seoul harbor,
and athletes were tested up to the day of competition.
Any doping test can be beaten if the athlete and their
physician are clever enough. Sometimes Soviet athletes refuse
236
to take a test, as in the case of the female runner Tatiyana
Kazankina in Paris. She refused to be tested and was thus
disqualified. Another trick is to claim an injury and not compete. It isn’t a matter of getting caught for a smart athlete. In
most cases, because they are tested ahead of competitions,
athletes know whether or not they are clean of dirty. If they
know they will test positive, they try to pick a meet that is not
tested, or supply a clean sample of urine through various
methods.
In November 1988 an agreement was reached between the
national Olympic committees of the USA and USSR for
random year round drug testing. The program consists of the
following: 1) Mutual doping control of athletes of both countries in various sports during training cycles and competitions.
2) Joint research on doping in sports, and the publishing of the
results. 3) The sharing random testing results with the commission, the [OC medical board, and international federations. 4)
The development of educational materials and anti-doping
propaganda. 5) Production of an annual report of the commission to the national Olympic committees of the USA and
USSR.
This random testing program can be effective only if it
maintains its independence. American doctors will travel to the
USSR and test Soviet athletes, and Soviet doctors would come
to the USA to test American athletes. This system has already
been tried in both countries. In 1989 during the Soviet national
weightlifting championships, American doctors were present to
test the lifters. More than half of the best Soviet weightlifters
did not participate because they were afraid of being caught by
the anti-doping controls. Those that did lift had results 30-50
kilograms less than their best. Even though the athletes knew it
was a tested competition, three were caught using anabolic
steroids.
237
The future of this potentially effective anti-doping program is in question. In the USSR the program is easier to
enforce, but in the USA it may be a few years before the courts
allow random drug testing on a wide spread basis. Although
USA track and field randomly tested athletes in 1990, and
suspended those athletes who failed to take the test, few other
sports have conducted random testing. It looks to be a long
slow process until all competitive athletes from every sport are
tested year round.
While the use of anabolic steroids by top level competitive
athletes can be greatly reduced through anti-doping control,
athletes such as non-competitive bodybuilders and high school
athletes remain outside the control of organized testing and
policing. It is these athletes who are at significant risk. For
example, because of a lack of needles, it is common practice in
the USSR for bodybuilders to pass around the same anabolic
steroid filled syringe and needle, or take one of many impure
and very dangerous steroids found on the black market. While
needles may be in greater supply in the USA, because of the
crackdown on the drug by law enforcement agencies, the
supply of quality steroids is questionable. Today, many black
market steroids have been examined, and some of these were
found to contain impurities which could cause great illness.
Others contained no steroid at all. Of course, an athlete could
try the steroid, and if he gets a good result he will know it is the
real thing. But, what about the impurities which easily invade
the liver, kidneys, heart, and other parts of the body? It’s too
great a risk when there is an alternative program available.
The USSR sport program realized that for novice athletes,
as well as the top level competitive athletes, there are three
ways to fight the use of anabolic steroids: 1) To forbid their use
through random year round testing, and to severely punish
those athletes caught using them including the manufacturers
and suppliers. 2) To educate the athletes as to the dangers of
238
steroid use and make sure they know how to use them properly.
3) To substitute anabolic steroids with effective alternatives
from safe and natural training and restorative means.
The best way to reduce the reliance on anabolic steroids is
to recognize the dangers of their use, and learn that alternatives
are available. Once athletes know that there is an option which
is safe and effective, they will not use harmful anabolic steroids. This has been proven in the USSR.
The use of anabolic steroids in sport is not a manageable
problem anymore. It has fallen into the hands of uninformed
coaches and athletes who know little about their proper use but
more about their misuse. We are amazed that American athletes
follow the recommendations of underground steroid pushers
and so called “steroid experts” and refuse the advice of physicians. This is mainly because the scientists and physicians in
the USA for a long time denied that steroids were effective at
increasing strength and muscle mass. When these scientists
finally admitted anabolic steroids were effective, their recommendations for safe use fell on deaf ears.
The best example of steroid use comes from the GDR
(East Germany) which has managed the steroid issue at the
physician and pharmacologist level from the beginning and
never has had an athlete caught using steroids. The GDR has
done an excellent
job at protecting it’s athletes from state or
international embarrassment, and goes further than just testing
to see if their athletes are clean by properly managing the use of
anabolic steroids. To accomplish this the GDR placed the
business of using AS exclusively in the hands of the physicians
and scientists. Coaches and athletes weren’t told whether or not
the athlete was given a steroid or a vitamin.
The East German scientists conducted many investiga-
tions to determine which steroids were best for each individual
athlete, as they vary from one athlete to another. They also
239
determined how much anabolic steroid to give, when to give it,
and how to clean the body of dangerous toxins. In fact, each
athlete on AS is closely monitored, and hospital stays are
common for the cleaning of the blood and internal systems.
Studies of female athletes using anabolic steroids proved that
an increase in sexual activity strengthened the anabolic effect.
As a result of these studies, female athletes were prescribed sex
daily during the anabolic steroid cycle. Soviet athletes also
followed this recommendation. This is a good example of how
serious the united effort between scientist, coach and athlete to
improve the anabolic effect is. The athletes are kept in very
good health, even though they use anabolic steroids.
We have discussed the use of anabolic steroids with many
American competitive athletes. Some of those who take AS
have had their blood tested for harmful effects, but many still
haven’t. While blood tests are important, they are only one of
the tests that should be made. To rely on just a blood test would
be a big mistake. Soviet athletes undergo impedance testing
and other liver function tests once a month. In addition to blood
and impedance tests, liver protectors should also be taken
during an AS cycle and into recovery.
Soviet and East German athletes use AS with a great deal
more thought than athletes from the USA. Anabolic steroids are
complexed with the correct training process, and substances are
used to enhance the anabolic effect while others help reduce the
harmful side effects of the AS. In the west many athletes
believe that steroids should be used alone, without additional
nutrition supplements and protective agents. This is an unfortunate mistake.
Today Soviet sport officials and coaches recognize that
there are three ways to prevent the use of anabolic steroids by
athletes:
240
1) To make it illegal to use anabolic steroids. This is
enforced by accurate testing programs and stiff
punishment for use.
2) To establish an extensive education program to
inform athletes and coaches about the harmful
effects of anabolic steroids.
3) To replace anabolic steroids with alternative
natural means. This is the newest method being
implemented in the USSR. It is not a quick-fix
solution to a several decade oid problem. In order
to replace arfabolic steroids with new safe and
effective means requires great attention by
coaches, much planning, and an adequate amount
of time to observe comparable positive results.
Perhaps it will take until the next generation of
youth athletes to see widespread use of new means
of training and restoration as the alternative plan,
along with the elimination of anabolic steroids in
sport. There is no doubt that the natural means of
today, and those developed in the near future, will
greatiy improve the anabolic effect without
harmful and damaging side effects.
241
Applied Pharmacology
In the previous sections we have introduced many new
exercises and means of training and restoration. While these
two systems have been discussed separately, they are meant to
work together as one program to maximize training results.
One without the other is ineffective.
It is impossible to give examples for training and pharmacology for all events and all individuals, because each have
their own unique requirements. What we can do though is
present a base model for the use of select pharmacology agents
within a certain type of training program, because for all events
there are common pharmacology requirements. The following
pharmacology plans are examples of what the athletes of the
Soviet national teams use along with training.
Base Development Stage
This stage is the building phase for all sports. It is when
the maximum gains in strength and power occur and is also
called the anabolic stage. Specific supplements which enhance
the anabolic activity of training are used during this period.
This group includes: Aminofit, Biogain, Inosine, Adaptogens,
Panangin, Hepatrol, Aerovit and other vitamin/mineral compounds. Substances such as Liverguard, Carsil, and Liv 52 are
used to protect and clean the liver of toxins produced during
these heavy load training periods.
Specific Preparation Stage
This is a period of the yearly cycle where the intensity of
training is greatly increased, requiring a significant amount of
energetic substances. During this period the need for anabolic
substances is not as great as that of energetic substances. For
athletes training for special speed, power and endurance, the
following substances are effective: Glycolone, Glucose Poly-
mers, Panangin, Biogain, and numerous Adaptogens.
242
Competitive Stage
Compounds which improve sport performance via
energetic and metabolic pathways such as the liver during pre-
competitive, competitive, and post-competitive periods are:
Hepatrol, Panangin, Biogain, Adaptogens, and liver protectors.
The above mentioned pharmacology programs are
designed as a guide for the development of your individual
training and restoration plan. Each substance is typically taken
within a four to six week period, followed by a break of 1-2
weeks, than repeated as necessary. Since most training cycles
are designed in six week blocks which are designed to facilitate
gains while preventing adaptation plateau’s, the use of six week
pharmacology programs is most effective. Before you begin a
training cycle you must determine what your goals are, and
design your restorative plan accordingly.
243
Part IV:
Summary
This book has explained the contemporary Soviet system
of training and restoration. Some of the information you are
most likely already familiar with. You probably sometimes said
to yourself“I know that” when reading the chapters. Many of
the training and restorative methods are based on just plain
common sense. Training athletes at a young age is an example
of this. If you have learned anything from this book, we hope it
will be the appreciation that there 1s no one big secret to Soviet
sport. The secret, if there 1s any, is that the Soviet sports
program is a scientifically based system. It is not exclusively
special exercises, nor is it a single unique supplement. It 1s a
combination of many different sport specific exercises and
restorative means in a systematic plan. This systematic training
and recovery plan has never before been used in the USA.
After reading this book a couple of times, you will be
armed with a new arsenal of training and recovery techniques.
But, there is still more to come. We couldn’t possibly cover
every aspect of training and restoration planning that the Soviet
athletes use. There are dozens of books in Russian on these
subjects, even so far as for each sport to have their own publications on how to train top athletes, prepare young athletes,
pharmacology, and the like. We wrote Soviet Training and
Recovery Methods as a base guide from which you can build
your own individual program.
You may have had some difficulty reading this book
because of the terminology. But, it is impossible to describe the
Soviet system without using its own terminology.
This is the first time that many of the Soviet Union’s sport
training methods have been presented to westem athietes. A
warning is in order. Some of you may pick one particular
exercise, or you may rush out and Joad up on supplements,
hoping for the quick fix answer. Don’t do it! The way to
maximize your gains in strength, power, speed and endurance
245
is to use the means discussed as a system. Don’t fall into the
trap of placing all your efforts into training, letting your
recovery plan fall by the wayside. And don’t take huge
amounts of pharmacological aids expecting them to build you
up, like spinach builds up Popeye.
The secret to all this information is this: There isn’t any
secret. What you have in front of you, if used properly as a
system, will increase your sport performance beyond your
wildest dreams. Just remember that training is a system, and
even the simplest things like sport massage, eating a variety of
foods, using special sport supplements, or taking a cold shower
can all improve performance if used together.
Our final bit of advice to all athletes is this call for action:
1)
Read this book a second time, take notes, under-
stand how it applies to your own sport. If you have
further questions, discuss them with your coach.
2)
Analyze your sport. What are your past results?
3)
Design a yearly plan of training and restoration for
How far do you want to go? What is required?
your sport. Don’t forget the restoration part, it’s as
important as training, and will allow you to train
harder than ever before.
4)
Train specifically for your sport. Don’t waste your
time on areas that do not influence your sport
result. Recognize that the unidirectional and
variative methods of training are very effective.
5)
Think and train for yourself. Don’t apply anyone
else’s training plan. Remember you are an individual, and your plan is unique. Use the variative
methods of training to prevent stagnation.
Don’t rush these new training and restorative
methods. It can take years for an athlete to understand how their body works, and what methods
and means yield the best results for them.
246
Our final advice to coaches is this:
1) Treat each athlete as an individual. Each one has a
unique ability for training and recovery. We know
this is hard to do in team sports, but it must be
accomplished as much as possible for the maximum improvement in sport results.
2) Design a yearly plan for all your athletes. What
they do in the off season or when training for
another sport is important to your program. If you
are a high school or college coach and your athlete
competes in other sports, get involved in his or her
training and recovery plan for these sports as well.
Your year round attention will better prepare the
athlete for your sport.
Make sure restorative means are available. Sport
massage, saunas, pharmacology, good nutrition,
and others are extremely important. Failure to use
them is to accept lower than possible results. Use
all the proven tools you can. Today’s sports are
highly competitive, and even the little things can
mean the difference between winning and losing.
4) Keep on learning. If you have questions or need
help in planning, let us know.
247
Afterword
SOVIET AND AMERICAN JOINT PROGRAM
The book Soviet Training and Recovery Methods is the cornerstone of a long range USA-USSR joint research and development
program. The goal of this program is to provide American athletes and
coaches with information, methods, and new technology of training
and recovery which will help them to succeed in sport without using
anabolic steroids. Dozens of leading Soviet scientists and coaches are
participating in this program which helps to make it the first of its kind
in the world. The following section lists what is presently available
and what is planned during the upcoming year.
Educational Materials
The more you know about how to train and recover correctly for
your own sport, the greater the opportunity of reaching the highest
level. As a compliment to Soviet Training and Recovery Methods we
will have available a series of educational books which deal with the
specific training and restorative requirements for several individual
sports. The following list of books will be available in 1991.
SOVIET SPORT SYSTEM BOOK SERIES FOR
AMERICAN ATHLETES
1)
How to Develop Speed
New ways of increasing speed acceleration, maximal
speed, and speed endurance. For youth and advanced
athletes in track, football, basketball and other sports
which require speed and explosiveness. Includes
program design, testing measurements, and practical
applications.
Available by April, 1991.
248
2)
Program Design for Bodybuilders
The Soviet system of training and restoration as applied
to bodybuilding. Includes model plans for increasing
muscle mass and definition, plus a special section on
natural muscle growth and fat reducing pharmacology.
Describes new methods on how to break through
plateaus.
The Soviet System of Long Range Preparation
of Youth Athletes
Designed for coaches and parents of young athletes age
6-18. Contains guidetines to develop a healthy lifestyle,
improve fitness, and prepare the young athlete for
future sports such as football, baseball, basketball,
soccer, track and field, and others. Includes testing
programs by age group tc measure progress, plus
exercises which improve speed, coordination, flexibility, and general sport skill. A special section on the
prevention of injuries and overtraining of young
athletes is included. Suggested reading for any serious
coach or concerned parent.
4)
The Soviet System for Training in Pole Vault
Exposes the complete Soviet system for developing the
best pole vaulters in the world. Special sections include
the development of beginning and advanced pole
vaulters. Includes the training plans for Sergey Bubka,
Rodion Gataullin and others.
5) Soviet Restoration Methods for Athletes
The Soviet program of massage, stretching exercises,
and psychological means of restoration. A practical
hands-on guide for any athlete or coach who wants to
significantly improve recovery from intense physical
loads. Available in 1991.
249
6)
Strength Preparation for Endurance Events
Contemporary methods of developing special endurance through proper strength preparation based on the
latest scientifically based research. For middle and
long distance runners, swimmers, rowers, cyclists and
others. Available in 1991.
7)
Strength and Power Series.
A collection of three books specifically designed for
football, basketball and hockey. Totally new approach
to conditioning, specifically tailored for each event.
Contains detailed plans for increasing not only strength
and power, but specific speed, endurance, and technique. This methodology has been successfully used by
the Soviet National teams, but never was published
openly.
Sports Development Clinics
Athletes and coaches receive hands-on experience in Soviet
training and recovery methods by attending one of our regional
seminars. Each one or two day clinic begins with detailed instruction
to coaches, and ends by working with these coaches and his or her
individual athletes. Instructors are leading Soviet coaches and
scientists. Team and individual consulting is also available. The
following clinics are available:
The Soviet Sport System (Training and Restoration)
Speed and Power Development
Long Range Preparation of Youth Athletes
Developing Speed-Acceleration in Football
Assistance in Program Design
Team And Individual Consulting
Ben Tabachnik is available for consulting teams, individual
athletes and coaches. He will analyze training methods, design
correct preparation, and develop a program which is guaranteed to
increase speed, speed acceleration, and power.
Sport Pharmacology
in cooperation with leading Soviet sport biochemists and
nutritionists we have developed a superior sport pharmacology
program which includes individual supplements as well as complete
sport nutrition programs for the building, pre-competitive, and
competitive phases of the yearly plan.. These supplements and
programs are used by members of the elite Soviet national teams.
Many are available in the USA, including the following:
Biogain
Aminofit
Glycolone
Hepatrol
Mumie
Liverguard
Adaptozol
Panangin
Anabocyd
Aerovit
Glucose Polymer
Speed Chute
The Speed Chute is available in three sizes for five combinations with the following approximate resistance: Small (9 Ibs),
Medium (13 lbs), Two Small (18 Ibs), Large (22 Ibs), and Two
Medium (26 Ibs). Contact ATLETIKA for further details.
The products listed above are produced and marketed by
ATLETIKA Inc. If you are interested in obtaining one of the books
listed above, contact us and we will place your order on the preferred
first run list. Your interest in a particular book will prompt us to
produce it first over other books in the series. For more information
on this new program and the supplements offered call 1-800-6212602. Or write to us at 1023 Hook Avenue, Pleasant Hill, California
94523.
About The Authors
Rick Brunner holds a Master of Business Administration
degree and is an All-American in Track and Field (Hammer
Throw). His position as Director of Research Center for
ATLETIKA permits him access to several of the Soviet Union
national teams, biochemistry research centers, and pharmacology laboratories.
Coach Ben Tabachnik holds masters degrees in Physical
Education and Biology, and a doctorate degree in Speed
Development. He is the former Head of Scientific Research
Group (Sprinting) for the Soviet Union National Track and
Field Team. He has devoted over 30 years to the development
of youth, advanced and top athletes, the past 20 years with the
USSR National Team. Ben has published more than 100
articles and books on speed and power development. Thirty of
these articles have been re-printed internationally.
The First Training Book From Top Russian Coaches
¢ How to develop Strength, Power and Speed.
¢ New Training Methods for Advanced Athletes
¢ Long Range Preparation of Youth Athletes
¢ Sport Pharmacology in the USSR
¢ Effective Restoration Methods
“This book is excellent and greatly needed in the United States. A must for
any coach interested in speed and power development”
Frank Costello
Head Strength and Conditioning Coach
University of Maryland and
NHL Washington Canitals
“Original and uncensored information about training and restoration
presented as a complete system which will greatly benefit athletes in
all events.”
ISBN 0-9622039-2-0
Dr. Thomas D. Fahey
Director-Exercise Physiology Laboratory
California State University at Chico