1. The Human Person as an Embodied Spirit
Man is an important subject in Philosophy & an understanding of the nature and condition of man is the foremost goal
of the discipline.
The word man is a general term w/c is commonly used to refer to the entire human race.
Other related terms include humanity, mankind & humankind
The word human refers to man as a species – homo sapiens sapiens[modern human beings]
Persons is a much more complex term w/c generally refers to a human being granted recognition of certain rights,
protection and responsibilities.
As w/ any major philosophical question, the concepts of man and human nature are much-discussed and highly debated
among philosophers and scientists. From these discussions & debates, various perspectives have emerge regarding the
nature of man.
ɸ view on the nature of Man
Biological Perspective
 Considers man as a part of the natural world & a product of evolution
 Modern humans [homo sapiens sapiens] – are considered one of the most successfully adapted species on the
planet
 Humans also share w/ other animals the so-called primal instincts such as the instincts for survival &
reproduction
 Human have progressed & developed additional traits and capabilities such as the capacity for
a) planning & intentional action
b) Innovation & creativity
c) Communication through language & writing
d) Technology
e) Symbolic interaction as evidenced by religion & art
 Culture is considered man’s most significant achievement w/c sets apart the evolution of humanity from other
species on this planet
Psychological Perspective
 Places emphasis on human behavior & thought processes in analyzing human nature
 Man possesses mental faculties that enable him to possess awareness, a sense of self, & the capacity to perceive
and experience
 The significant mental faculties & capabilities of man include:
a. The psyche – refers to the human mind & is divided into the conscious & unconscious mind
- Conscious mind is the part w/c governs awareness
- Unconscious mind consists of latent or repressed emotions, thoughts & desires
b. rationality – or the state of being reasonable, the ability to understand experiences in order to solve
problems or do tasks, and engage in decision making and judgment.
c. Intelligence – or the ability to perceive information, store knowledge, and apply it
in various
situations
d. introspection – or the ability to examine one’s own conscious thoughts, feelings,
and mental state, and the capacity for self-reflection.
Economic Perspective
 Focuses on man’s ability to engage in productive activities in an effort to meet wants & needs
 This perspective emerged in the 19th century and places emphasis on the “economic man” [homo economicus] –
who is driven by rationality and self-interest in his desire to possess wealth.
 It considers man as a productive being – his primary role is to produce & engage in labor
 Economic forces are considered a greater influence on the actions of man than society or culture
Theological Perspective
 Considers man as God’s creation
 Man is considered to have a special relationship w/ the Creator, being created in His image & given an immortal
spirit
 Man’s existence was brought about by the purposive creative act of God, and his ultimate destiny is part of a
divine plan
ɸ have proposed certain views as to its nature of the self
The self as Innate
 The self is an essential part of the human being and self- awareness is natural & innate
One of the most unique traits of humans is the awareness of self. Like all other animals, human beings possess
sentience – the ability to feel & experience. Sentience is often seen as the ability to perceive surroundings &
react to stimulus such as pain. However, we humans not only experience and react to the world around us. We
are also able to look into ourselves and be aware of our distinctness and uniqueness.
 Religious views consider the concept of self as synonymous to the spirit or soul
The self as Emergent
 Holds that awareness of the self is gained through interaction w/ the world & other human beings
The self as Integrated and Developing
 Holds that the self is composed of varied elements that change over time
Varied notions w/c justify the recognition of personhood
The person as an “Autonomous being”
 A human being is considered a person if he or she possesses the ability to determine his her life through
“reasoned free choice”
 This view assumes that man possess reason, the capacity for reflection and the ability to engage in decision
making
 Tis perspective is a major influence in determining the legal definition of a human “person” and the
conventional concept of an “adult”
The concept of the self is closely tied w/ the ideas of identity & personhood.
● Identity – is defined as the distinct personality of an individual
Personal identity is composed of a person’s unique physical characteristics, mental attributes, experiences, memories,
ideas, and views. Identity is said to persist through time, though certain aspects of it may change.
● Personhood – is the recognition of a human person as a distinct entity – a person
The person as a “unified individual”
 The human being has the inherent capacity to function as a person.
 It emphasizes the potential of the human being & recognizes that each human possesses the means to achieve
his her capabilities
 On this perspective – disable people, the unborn fetus, infants, and children are recognized as persons although
they may not fully possess the cognitive faculties of an adult.
The Person in Relation to others
 Asserts that a human being becomes a person through interactions w/ other human beings
 Remove him/her from society and he/she ceases to become a person
 Karol Wojtyla [Pope John Paull II] asserts that the person is defined by his/her actions and experiences, and
through them achieves self-development and fulfillment.
 There may be situations where a human being may not be recognized as a person. For instance, people suffering
from debilitating conditions that impair their judgment may lack the means to make decisions for themselves. A
person who suffers extensive brain damage or a comatose individual may not be recognized as persons and thus
other may be empowered to make decisions on their behalf.
 Throughout history, there have been instances where certain groups of people have not been recognized as
persons. In ancient times, slaves were considered property. Women were also not granted recognition as
persons during most of the ancient period. In ancient Greece, for example, women were not considered citizens
and had limited roles in society and government.
 It was only in the late 19th century that women were given the right to vote and participate in government.
 There instances that the concept of “person” is extended to other entities aside from human beings. In legal
circles, organizations and corporations may be granted personhood as they are given certain rights and may take
action in court to protect their interests
 Still, personhood remains largely applied to human beings.
 The concept of the human person is especially important in law & politics as it is closely tied to the concept of
civil liberties and rights.
 Being Human is to be aware of two specific elements:
 1. Being a body as object.
 2. Being a soul as subject.
 The body
 Has passive desires.
 Sets limitations on life-projects.
 The soul
 The seat of freedom
 Can transcends bodily limitations.
Man as Entanglement
 In realizations, one is an entanglement of body and soul.
 One is expected to struggle between these two elements.
 One must also accept that we cannot fully control the world around us.
 Being able to resolve and harmonize the directions of both the body and soul leads to the realization of
ourselves as “embodied, free, rational, creative, moral and finite.”
Man is Determined
How?
 Cultural
 Political
 Religious
 Sociological
Though he is determined by them, he is free to transcend and reinvent what is ‘determined.’
 Understanding what it means to be human is dependent on the exchanges between the transcendent capacity
known as the voluntary soul and determined, involuntary body.
 One views human consciousness connected with the body.
 Man’s voluntary will is bounded and entangled by the limitations of an involuntary body.
 The voluntary element is thus “fundamentally reciprocal” with the involuntary element, the
involuntary serving as a “vehicle for the will.”
The Soul as the Essence of the Human Person
Plato and Aristotle accepted the distinction between the body and soul, but made the soul as the true essence of the
human person
Plato
 The true essence of the person according to Plato was already present, prior to having a body.
 His previous existence was in the “world of forms.”
 The soul taking on a human body was deemed an accident that imprisons a “free and pure soul.”
 For Plato, the human person and its source of movement ultimately derive from the soul.
 The soul is divisible into three distinct parts:
 1. Reason
 2. Spirit
 3. Desire
Reason
 Reason, the seat of the mind and the intellect, is the conscious part of the soul.
 It allows the human person to provide the distinction between the real and the false.
 It is expected to consider and perform wise decisions which make life properly lived.
Spirit and Desire
 Spirit is in charge of the motivation of the human person to action.
 Its expected function is to carry out the dictates of reason in day-to-day living.
 Desire, also known as emotion or appetite, is the part of the human person that desires bodily pleasure.
 Desire and bodily pleasure is regulated by reason and is deferred at certain times to achieve appropriate
pursuits.
Phaedrus’ Chariot and Morality and Virtue
 In Plato’s Phaedrus the rational soul is characterized as a charioteer whose chariot is driven by two horses: an
unruly horse, and a disciplined and obedient horse.
 The unruly horse characterizes desire.
 The obedient horse characterizes spirit.
 In respect to morality, Plato would utilize his theory on the soul as its basis.
 Morality and virtue are special states of the soul.
 For Plato, there are three main sources of motivation or desire:
 1. Satisfying one’s instincts.
 2. Preservation
 3. Understanding and truth
 These sources of motivation have some ability to affect one’s moral decisions.
 Example: The Thirsty Man
 A very thirsty man is wandering through the desert and sees a pool of water.
 As he comes closer, he sees a sign that states that the water is poisonous.
 Upon viewing the sign, the man enters a state of conflict within his soul.
 Desire says to drink, but reason says not to.
 Reason says that partaking of the water will worsen his situation and so he employs spirit to overcome
his desire.
 Spirit however, can go either way depending on the pull between the two forces.
 Though the soul should be prior in importance than the body, the body is heavily influenced by the world of the
senses and is more influenced than the world of forms.
Aristotle: “The soul cannot exist without a body.”
 Aristotle agrees that the soul is the essence of the human person.
 It functions as the principle of actuality, the source of movement, and is also known as the form of the
living thing.
 However, the body is seen as important to the living thing and is inseparable to the soul.
 “The soul cannot exist without a body” though it is not itself a body.
 [Notice that for Plato, the soul existed without a body and entered it. So, it can exist without a body for
Plato]
 The soul for Aristotle, is something which “belongs to” and “exists in” a body of a specific kind.
Three Levels of Soul
 There are three kinds of souls and their functions
1. Nutritive soul - growth and nutrition; belonging to plants
2. Sensitive soul - locomotion and perception; belonging to animals
3. Rational soul - thinking; belonging to human beings
 The three souls are presented in a hierarchy from the one having the most functions or powers at the top and
the least functions at the bottom.
1. Plant Soul - Growth, Decay, Reproduction, Nutrition
2. Animal Soul - Growth, Decay, Reproduction, Nutrition, Locomotion, Sensation
3. Human Soul - Growth, Decay, Reproduction, Nutrition, Locomotion, Sensation, Reason
Reason, Excellence, Virtue and Happiness
 For the Human Soul, adjustment to reason is what deems such a person with excellence and virtue.
 Aristotle’s theory of soul is very significant to his ethics.
 The pursuit of happiness (the good life which is the target of ethics) must be in line with what it
means to be a Human Soul.
 What is happiness?
 The highest good.
 “Proper to the nature of the person.”
 An essential possibility.
 Man can only attain happiness by performing what is his function - Reason.
 Non-rational activity is neither proper nor, “within the human person’s control.”
It is not easy to partake of the life of Nous
 What is rational to the human person or shall we say proper role of reason is finding the mean in situations
under the duress of emotions, habits or one’s usual way of going about.
 To be good is also difficult since it is not easy to find the middle of every action or what is proper to the
situation.
 “The best activity of the soul therefore must be the one that activates whatever is best in us.
 It is the one that incorporates the levels of nutrition and reproduction, sensation, and reason. At the very
peak is nous or mind; the non-passive, purely active source of knowledge and wisdom.
 The best is the activity of the nous, the highest good and also the greatest happiness for a human being.”
Interference
 Though there are expectations of man to “perform virtuous acts,” people may do not do so at all times.
 The soul is again connected with the body, and the body interferes with the project of reason.
Human Possibility for Fallibility
 The body and the will are not without gaps or spaces. [is not seamless]
 We exist dialectically.
 We are free, yet constrained in boundaries that are beyond our control.
 People have a “certain character along with an unconscious mind that defies their will.”
 “The human being which is supposed to be the unified locus of the voluntary and the involuntary
appears instead as the intermediary of its antinomical structure - ‘suspended between a pole of
infinitude and a pole of finitude.’”
 This makes fallibility for the human being possible.
Fallibility: Knowing, Acting, and Feeling
 Fallibility is the manifestation that allows evil to come in as “a fault, as an interruption or distortion” in
the will.
 “Human beings experience fallibility in the dimensions of
1) knowing
2) acting
3) feeling
Fallibility in Knowing
 In the dimension of knowing: Fallibility is the disproportion between sensibility and understanding.
 The split is due to a disproportion between what is expressed about “being and truth” (understanding)
and particular appearance of perspective (sensibility).
 Seeing is one thing, but its meaning is another.
 Thus the intermediary that bridges sensibility and understanding would be the pure imagination in the
form of “synthesis of presence and meaning in things.”
Fallibility in Acting
 In the dimension of acting or activity, fallibility “is experienced in the disparity between character and
happiness.”
 One’s character is seen as “the finitude that expresses the affective aspect of perspective which
motivates one’s practical dispositions to act.”
 Character is not infinite and character expresses our moods or feelings which are motives for
action.
 Character is acquired through personal assessments of the world and the world of values
surrounding us.
Fallibility in Acting and Happiness
 Happiness
 is the aim of the completion of our totality.
 the point of view of every personal action.
 However, it is not certain that we will be happy and that is because character as the orientation of all
one’s ways of being motivated only attains happiness if all motivations end up towards realizing that
character.
 The disconnect here is that though our personality is our view of the total field of motivation. Happiness is the
end towards where all motivation moves to.
Disproportion between Passions and Affectivity
 In the dimension of feeling, fallibility is caused by the disproportion between pleasure and happiness.
 Happiness is realized in the three human passions of having, power, and worth.
 Having, power, and worth depend “on the intentions of the self or how they affect the self.”

Intentionality and affectivity (feeling) are paradoxical, “cannot be seperated,” and are the roots
of fallibility.
 In sense, one can never intend the object of intention without seperating the inner effect it has
within him or her.
 Example: one cannot say “I love you” apart from the feeling of love.
Having, Power, Worth and Conflict
 Pallauer describes various distortions between personal affectivity and the object of intention
 Having reduced to “what is mine.”
 Power reduced to the ability to command others.
 Worth reduced to esteem dependent on others.
 Conflict is essentially then - the “disproportion between happiness and pleasure.”
 “This conflict indicates the possibility of fallibility as something constitutive of human condition.
A human being experiences conflicts within him ‘between his self , his character and his
personality, his thinking and his feelings, etc.’”
Conclusion
 The project of man is in conflict between two directions: fallibility and transcendence.
 Willing can imagine valid conditions, and generate projects not grounded on particular experiences
which allows the human being to transcendence .
 One can eventually find fallibility as not bad since it allows for the human being to become creative.
 Restlessness and insatiability of desire allow us to create our story.
 Feeling allows me to continue my existence.
Human Activity, Transcendence, and Reflection
 Human activity always allows for attention of one’s body.
 Human activity is therefore tied down to the range of the involuntary, and thus poses eminent fallibility.
 Realizing that the self is defined and grounded in its concrete history “signals moments of
transcendence.”
 His self-conscious activity helps to lead him into reflective activity.
 To will gives one many possibilities and allows one to be grounded in one’s own project.
 There is doubt and indecision.
 Hesitation is present because of lack or involuntary aspects of the person.
 Hesitation allows for that possibility.
 Choice closes that possibility.
 To will gives one many possibilities and allows one to be grounded in one’s own project.
 There is doubt and indecision.
 Hesitation is present because of lack or involuntary aspects of the person.
 Hesitation allows for that possibility.
 Choice closes that possibility.
2. Man and the Environment
 So what is a study of “Humanity and the Environment” all about?
 “Environment refers to the totality of things, both living and non-living, and conditions in the
surroundings.”
 When studying the environment, one must already hold the presumption that there is a subject that is
surrounded and affected by his or her surroundings.
 When studying the environment, priority of attention is given to what is guided by the laws of physics in
contradistinction to the supernatural.
 The basis is that environment and man are natural, and so, myth or mysticism has no place for the topic.
 All living and non-living things cannot be thought of in isolation, and so, we consider such an order as
biophysical.

 Major issues tackled by the environmental philosophers are humanity’s role in the world, the interaction
between nature & human activities, and humanity’s response to environmental challenges.
Different Views
● Most views in environmental philosophy emphasize the role humans play in causing environmental changes.
● Other views recognize that changes in the environment are part of a larger interplay among organisms and
ecosystem on the planet
Gaia Hypothesis
• non-organic elements in the planet play a significant role in maintaining balance in the environment as they
interact with living organisms to regulate the various systems that enable life to continue thriving on Earth.
Anthropocentrism
• is the belief that humans are the central & most significant species on the planet.
• humans are considered the primary cause that drives changes in the environment.
Deep Ecology
• the world as being maintained by the interrelationship among living organisms
• every living thing on the planet is dependent on each other for survival
• human interference as a significant threat to the natural world and all living things
Theological View
• Mankind is intended to live in harmony with all creation.
• God created man & granted him dominion over all creatures and tasked him to “subdue” the earth [Gen 1:2628]
• This dominion did not mean wanton exploitation & destruction but rather to care for nature & the
environment, enhance it, and contribute to its growth & development.
PJPII
• Recognized man’s lordship over nature as a “ministerial” act, a continuation of the work of the Creator, and such
mission must be exercised w/ wisdom and love.
Philosophical views that influence environmental actions
● The varied philosophical views all regard man as an active participant in the environment, and the key to
nature’s thriving or ruin.
● Current philosophical discussions, coupled w/ scientific studies, point to the increasing negative impact of
human activities on the condition of our planet.
● The growing concern for the environment and the evidence of the impact of human activities on nature has
led philosophers to advocate for the application of ethical concepts to environmental concerns
Environmental Ethics
• All no- human have value and should be preserved.
• The preservation of environment is beneficial.
• Man has the responsibility to safeguard the planet.
Social Ecology
o Applies ecological and ethical approach in analyzing society
o Sees a relationship between social problems and Environmental problems
o Society should implement changes in order to address issues regarding the environment.
o In the face of the realities of climate change, policy makers have sought insights from philosophers in the
development of programs that will effectively deal w/ the degradation of the environment
o The human factor can be clearly seen in environmental problems such as pollution, environmental
degradation, depletion of natural resources, global warming, and climate change.
The growing concern about the climate change and other environmental problems inspired number of views such
as:
Climate ethics and Climate justice
• Consider climate change as a significant issue.
Environmental justice
• Refers to the fair distribution of environmental benefits and burdens.
• Significant social movements that were inspired by increased environmental awareness include the
environmental protection and conservation movement, animal rights, and green politics.
• Activism & increased organized action are indications of the growing awareness of environmentalism in
today’s society.
● There is a position called aesthetic environmentalism.
○ Prizing nature on the basis of beauty.
Environmental Aesthetics
● Discuss concepts of beauty in nature.
● Maintaining the order and balance in the environment.
● There are criticism of aesthetic environmentalism
○ Though it is counted as a human need, “it is too relative to provide a firm ground for an
environmental advocacy.”
○ Conformity to human taste is not a necessary reason in order to preserve or justify the environment’s
existence.
○ Nature can exist without our admiration and neither are we a necessary being for the rest of nature.
Environmentalism
• Has also become an important issue in international politics.
Significant developments
• Signing of Kyoto Protocol
• Earth Day, 1970 up to present
We are a Part of Nature
 At times we may think that we can focus on those things proximate to our interests like our phones,
or games, or computers.
 However, without nature we would not be able to exist since whatever we have now came from the
processing of the fruits of nature itself.
 Hence, one cannot escape being a part of nature.
Fitting in
 The environment is necessary for us to exist in.
 At the same time, it is a necessity for us to adapt to our surroundings.
 It is possible for us to exist because our ancestors were able to fit in the environment
 “They fit in their environment in spite of heat and cold, diseases and accidents, predators and scarce
resources.
Patterns of Relations in the Environment
 Some patterns in how we are related can be listed.
 Mutualism - two different organisms interact and benefit.
 Commensalism - two different organisms interact; one benefits, while the other is not adversely
affected.
 Predation, parasitism, and herbivory: one benefits, while the other is adversely affected.
■ Predation - kill and consume.
■ Parasitism - feeds on the host and may or may not kill the host.
 Example of Mutualistic Relation:
■ People have a mutualistic relation with dogs.
 Dogs get a free meal, shelter, companionship and belongingness, and we get help with
our hunts, protection and companionship.
Humans are Predatorial
 Given our needs, we are not usually cast in mutualistic relations; we are mostly seen as predatory
creatures.
 We compete among ourselves and other predatory species.
 At times, we may cooperate with others of our species.
 Relations between predator and prey can be adversarial.
 Apex predators are not preyed on, and so they need to be smaller in population than their
prey in order to keep the harmony in the ecosystem.
 Parasatism can also be a characteristic of human beings
 Nietzsche noted on the parasitism between people.
 Herbivory - is an option for man despite our apparent inclination to predatory consumption.
Survival of the Fittest and Keystone Species
o When we say “survival of the fittest” we are not necessarily trying to compete in order to dominate.
• We are filling in an ‘ecological niche.’
o
Superiority relative to other species does not make us necessarily equal to all other species.
• Some species perform a key function in the ecosystem that their lose would lead to malfunction or
instability in that environment.
• Such species are called ‘keystone species’ since loss of these organisms would lead to malfunction or
cessation of the ecosystem.
• “A keystone species has disproportionately significant effect on the ecosystem relative to its
population size.”
o Unfortunately, Homo Sapiens are not a keystone species and thus the ecosystem can be better off without us.
o To survive we must fit in our role in the ‘web of life.’
• we participate as both consumer and contributor to other species.
• Our participation sustains the equilibrium of the ecosystem’s balance for the present and the future.
Balance With the Environment
o In order for us to maintain the balance of the ecosystem, we’re called on to adjust our way of life.
o Culture, with the environment.
• Consumption is one way of being at harmony with the rest of the environment.
However, it must also extend to what we use, how we use it and our waste products.
o Having presented patterns of how species interact with others, one asks what would allow us to fit with our
ecosystem; our niche?
• We consume, but one also needs to reply to the fact that our resources are limited.
• we must consider how we are going to manage resources now and for the future.
o How much do we need?
• We simply divide the usable part of the Earth for present and future generations who wish to use it.
o We are currently at the apex of being predators.
• Except for rare occasion, we are able to keep many of our adversaries or predators at bay due to our
technology.
• In fact, most people die due to other people than by being food of other animals.
• We have colonized every habitable part of the globe and, In a sense, “our presence is almost an
infestation.”
o “We consume to satisfy our needs and wants.”
• Economics focuses on how we sate our drives.
• We generate energy in order to fuel the processes of production, consumption, and disposal.
• During this process energy and matter is lost while some of it end up as waste.
• The faster this process continues, the more waste is produced as by-product which eventually goes
back to the environment.
o Our activities eventually make the environment more unpredictable and adversely affect agriculture and
income.
o Heat increase melts glaciers in the arctic regions.
• Water levels rise and flooding and drought occur.
o These are in result due to our human activities.
o We are a ‘purpose-oriented species.’
• When we have a need or a want, we seek to satisfy it.
• We have the capacity of understanding causation.
• This allows us to plan ahead to a certain degree better than animals.
o Though humans have varied desired interests, what is common is we find satisfaction upon their completion.
• We feel anger, deprivation and dissatisfaction upon failure.
• So, what makes us do more harm than benefit to ourselves?
o “All living things are genetically programmed to function to survive.”
• At times, humans go beyond that general function and we tend to consume more than what is needed
to live.
o We consider ourselves free.
• For those communities lacking of resources, there is frustration and deprivation.
• For those communities abundant in resources, ‘choice fatigue’ is a source of unhappiness.
o
o
o
o
o
o
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
It is assumed that if a person is given a choice, that person should make the best solution, but
often times, it is a source of unhappiness when abundant.
Choices are not the culprit of unhappiness themselves, rather it is the person making the choice.
• The environment can provide for our physical needs, but not our psychological ones.
Nature does not have unlimited resources.
• Moderation must be put in order least we exhaust all of our resources.
The problem here is not consumption itself, but how we are approaching our resources.
• “The problem is the extent and patterns of consumption; the problem is consumerism.”
• Our values are in coordination with constant consumption.
• Mass media reinforces this activity by conferring identity in correlation to our purchases.
o our purchases are what determine our identity.
Once a community sees that it is not in nature but how it approaches nature - via culture - it has a chance to
be aware that perhaps some of its practices are not compatible with nature.
Man is aware of its capacity for choice.
• Proper use leads to satisfaction.
• Unmitigated attention to possibilities leads to dissatisfaction.
We are constantly assailed by natural hazards
The rate of mineral exploitation, though not entirely exhausted, adds to the hazard.
○ Mining destroys vegetation, pollutes the air, soil and water.
○ Burning coal to fuel rampant consumerism contributes to the path of climate change.
Resource mismanagement also puts stress on society.
○ Government resettlement problems put all the problems of the scarcity of land.
○ Cultures cannot harmonize.
○ Competition for limited resources put stress on the environment.
○ forests are denuded besides frequent conflict.
Resource mismanagement eventually takes its toll on the economy.
○ There is indeed a need to manage how we work with our limited resources.
Knowing that we are the cause of damage to the ecosystem, we now have a basis to reflect upon what is our
role in nature and what would be the consequence of not performing that role.
We are aware that we can change the environment drastically
what is more important than having the power to change the environment is changing ourselves rather than
the environment itself.
We can also be selective of what species we prey on.
○ There is a need to chose other species since there are some species either weakned in population or
extinct.
○ It is important to preserve keystone species to ensure longevity of the environment.
The change must come from us and not on nature itself.
Concern for finding our niche in the planet or ecosystem we live in is palpable.
○ Humans as a species have significantly changed the planet’s climatic patterns and if we continue on
our current course, Homo Sapiens will no longer exist on this planet and be replaced by other resilient
species.
The extension of the term ‘environment’ is extended across the planet.
○ Many of the things that we purchase and use are sourced from other places all across the planet.
○ The raw materials from other parts of the planet are sent to other places and they are manufactured
into [chocolates, clothes and electronics], for example.
“Economics is the ecology of man; ecology is the economy of nature.”
We recall that we are a species that consumes whatever is in our immediate environment.
We were not given a user’s manual on how we ought to care for ourselves and our environment.
○ We can learn from past experiences and focus on what works.
○ We change our environment for good or worse and change our behavior through our experiences.
We can in a sense control ourselves.
○ We cannot control the natural laws and the consequences that necessarily follow from certain
actions.
○
○
However, knowing “the structure, laws, and mechanisms of nature” our activities are predictable to a
certain degree.
This knowledge of predictability allows us to choose actions with consequences that benefit all
stakeholders involved.
3. FREEDOM
What is Freedom?
 Is a social & political concept w/c has great significance in how people participate in society.
 Enlightenment thinkers believed that early an existed in a “natural state”& have absolute freedom.
 The establishment of societies required people to surrender some of their freedoms in order to live
in harmony w/ others & ensure survival of society
 People entered into “social contract” w/c defined freedoms that they will be enjoying as members of
a society and the state.
 In political & social context – freedom of an individual from oppression, compulsion, or coercion
from other persons, an authority figure, or from society itself.
Two types of Political Freedom
 Positive liberty – a person taking control of his own life and fulfilling one’s potential
 Negative liberty –freedom from external restraints, barriers, and other interferences from other
people.
The development of a number of political ideologies was influenced by varied ideas on human liberty
 Liberalism – upholds the preservation of individual rights and stress the role of the government in
protecting these civil liberties.
 Libertarianism – believes that the individual, not the government, is the best judge in upholding &
exercising rights.
 Socialism – considers freedom as the freedom to acquire economic resources &the ability to work &
act according to one’s desires.
 Freedom also entails the recognition of certain rights & entitlements of person
 Natural rights – w/c are innate in the person such as the right to life [these are considered universal
& inalienable ]
 Legal rights – based on society’s customs & laws, & are enacted by legislation & enforced by a
government. [the enjoyment of these rights is based on citizenship]
 Theological views – freedom from sin & living a life of righteousness. [Christians define freedom in
the context of living in accordance with the will of God]
In simplest sense
 Freedom – the freedom to make choices in life
Philosophers relate human freedom to the concept of human agency.[the capacity of a person to act &
exert control over his/her behavior]
What makes us free? How does freedom shape our experience?
Two ways human freedom is expressed
 Freewill – the capacity to choose fro alternative courses of action or decision
 Free action – freedom to perform an action w/out any obstacles or hindrances
 Faculties model – we have free will due to our intellect and that each human action is based on
rationality and sound judgment
 Hierarchical model – free will is based on wants and desires, individual is faced with various wants
and desires that need to be met – a person exercise his free will when he/she identifies one desire as
acceptable and decides to act on it
 Reasons-responsive view – an has free will because he/she is able to entertain reasons not to enact a
certain decision and act upon them when the need arises.
What can prevent us exercising our freedom? Human freedom has its constraints

o
o
o

Constraints on free action include external obstacle such as
Prohibitions
Laws
social controls imposed by society
Constraints on freewill include certain methods that cloud the person’s judgment such as
manipulation & brainwashing.
 People can also be coerced to perform actions against their will
 A person can also be performing an action by disability or sickness, or by coercion exerted by
another person
 Other external factors that may restrict free action include the weather, accidents, or poverty.
 Considering these constraints, it is then possible for people to exercise their free will but are
perverted to engage in free action
 Example – a family may decide to go on vacation but a storm may force them to cancel their plans at
the last minute.
 It is also possible for a person to freely act w/out freewill regarding his/her actions- as a person
forced to participate in hazing ritual to gain admission into an organizatio does not have freewill.
Human freedom - Free will and existentialist philosophy.
1. Natural libertarians vs determinism.
2. Existentialism: Jean-Paul Sartre and Gabriel Marcel.
 Natural Libertarian View and Its Anti-ThesisWe are natural libertarians - i.e. we believe we have free
will.
 First Challenge to free will presented: Theologico-Philosophical point that God knows all.
 If God knows all, and, by extension, what we will do in future, then, by virtue of God’s omniscience,
we do not have a decision in whatever we do.
 We are forced to do actions as a result of God’s knowledge.
 If I don’t do the action that God already knows, God’s knowledge would not be perfect.
 Therefore, due to divine foreknowledge, we do not have free will.
 Determinism – a philosophical view that believes that every event in the world is brought about by
underlying causes or factors
 If man is indeed free – how can he exercise his free will & action in a world where events are already
determined by outside forces?
 Natural DeterminismSecond Challenge to free will: Natural Determinism.
 Everything is set up before human existence.
 “Free will” is an illusion - a by-product of natural laws, genetics, and natural environment.
 The case of Robert Alton Harris.
 Harris murdered two teenagers and it was argued that he was not responsible for killing due
to bad circumstances in his childhood.
 His actions were a product of his heredity and environment.
 St. Augustine’s Counter to Theological Determinism
 St. Augustine would respond by saying that though God knows all, we are still free to decide,
otherwise Hell would not make sense.
 “Love, and do what thou wilt”
Compatibalism
 free will and determinism are mutually compatible and that it is possible to believe in both without
being logically inconsistent
 it is possible for an agent to be determined in all her choices and actions and still make some of her
choices freely.
Harry G. Frankfurt
 Compatibalism and the Priniciple of Alternative Possibilities (PAP) is exemplified by Harry G.
Frankfurt
 “[A] person is morally responsible for what he has done only if he could have done
otherwise.”
 Freedom = not being in a situation where you can only do one thing.
 Criticism to PAP: “Frankfurt examples”; “Frankfurt-type examples.”
 Even if there are no other choices, one can still be morally liable.
 A captive forced to shoot someone could still be liable.
 One can still “mentally will” oneself not to shoot, though physically forced to shoot.
Human Freedom in Existentialist Philosophy
 Concerning human freedom/autonomy.
 Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980) - free in isolation
 Gabriel Marcel (1889-1973) - freedom within one’s community
 Sartre
 He would assert that it is only in contradiction that one can be free.
 “Hell is other people.”
 People’s action restrict our own actions.
 Freedom can only be found when we can find a way to make others actions not affect
oneself.
 Sartre's point was not to criticize other people but to point out the objectification and loss of
freedom that come along with needing the approval of others.
 Humans are self-determining.
 Man is what he makes of himself.
Essence Precedes Existence Inverted
 What do we mean by saying that existence precedes essence?
“We mean that man first of all exists, encounters himself, surges up in the world – and defines himself
afterwards. If man as the existentialist sees him is not definable, it is because to begin with he is
nothing. He will not be anything until later, and then he will be what he makes of himself. Thus, there is
no human nature, because there is no God to have a conception of it. Man simply is. Not that he is
simply what he conceives himself to be, but he is what he wills, and as he conceives himself after
already existing – as he wills to be after that leap towards existence. Man is nothing else but that which
he makes of himself…”
Thomas Flynn
 Thomas Flynn and freedom having an ontological basis (existing).
 Being is a presence-to-self not in-itself.
 Presence-to-self is transcendence or nihilation to one’s self.
 Means being is both awareness and control of one’s self.
Being in control means we are masters of ourselves.
Gabriel Marcel
 Freedom entails engagement with others since man cannot understand “freedom” apart in a
vacuum.
 Hence, self cannot be understood in isolation.
 Esse est co-esse (One’s essence is to co-exist).
 One cannot be said to “exist” in isolation.
With this in mind, one’s dealings with others defines oneself.
In his work, “Truth and Freedom”, Marcel writes concerning obligations.
 Marcel says that freedom of the self is linked with obligations in society.
 Obligations are not seen as coercive since this would be considered - ‘endanger to the
community.’
Summary
 Natural Libertarians: There is free-will
 Theologico/Philosophical Point: God Knows -> So, no freedom.
 Hard determinists: Free-Will is an illusion.
 Genetics and Environment determine actions.
 Compatibilism/soft determinism
 Free-will exists, but genetics and environment physically determine our activities.
 We are free but this freedom is limited because there are things outside of us that we don’t have
control
 Our choice/s can shape our future – we are responsible of the freedom that we have