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Overview of World Literature
Welcome to your GEE 19 class,
Lesson 1: Literature Defined
Literature has been a part of human culture for thousands of years. Some of the earliest written documents are literary works,
and oral storytelling has been critical to human societies since time immemorial. The impact of literature in society is major, and
literature has been the subject of extensive analysis for centuries. There are many ways to understand the role of literature in
society, and there are many theorists who have made attempts to codify what literature is and what it does.
Much stories have been told to you when you were small. So many interesting nuggets of wisdom have been shared to you by
many people. For sure, you have enjoyed a lot of poems, songs, and drama already. All these are forms of man's expressions
for what is beautiful, true, important, meaningful, and enjoyable in life. These are the expressions of literature.
Definitions of the word literature tend to be circular. The 11th edition of MerriamWebster’s Collegiate Dictionary considers
literature to be “writings having excellence of form or expression and expressing ideas of permanent or universal interest.”
The 19thcentury critic Walter Pater referred to “the matter of imaginative or artistic literature” as a “transcript, not of mere
fact, but of fact in its infinitely varied forms.” But such definitions assume that the reader already knows what literature is.
And indeed its central meaning, at least, is clear enough. Deriving from the Latin littera, “a letter of the alphabet,”
Literature is a record of man’s greatest thoughts. According to Webster, it pertains to the written or printed productions of
the human mind collectively dealing with themes of permanent and universal interest, characterized by creativeness and
grace of expression, as poetry, fiction, essay, etc. distinguished from works of scientific, technical, and journalistic nature.
(Webster)
It is a body of written works. The name is often applied to those imaginative works of poetry and prose distinguished by the
intentions of their authors and the excellence of their execution. Literature may be classified according to a variety of systems,
including language, national origin, historical period, genre, and subject matter. (MS Encarta
Encyclopedia)
It consists of writings which interpret the meanings of nature and life, in words of charm and power, touched with the
personality of the author, in artistic forms of permanent interest.
(Henry Van Dyke)
World literature can be defined as works of literature that have been created, distributed, and circulated beyond their country
of origin.
World literature brings studies in history, geography, and foreign language to life. Stories are memorable because they take
us into specific characters' lives and their experiences in time, allowing us to live through them.
World literature means poems, novels, and stories from around the world. World literature has its own advantages as it
opens new horizons. It broadens a person's horizons as they get to know about people who are different from them. It
allows a person to be sensitive toward others and respect individual differences.
literature is first and foremost humankind’s entire body of writing; after that it is the body of writing belonging to a given
language or people; then it is individual pieces of writing.
Taking the common denominators in the aforementioned definitions from various authors and sources, thus, we ask, why do
we study literature.
Lesson 2: Why do we study Literature
Why do we need to study literature? Studying literature enables one to better understand social situations, history, one's own
emotions, and various cultural practices. It also makes one more empathetic.
When there are so many things to study today, why study literature? Traditionally, at least two answers have been given to
this question. One is that literature is fun. It's delightful. One of the basic purposes of literature has always been to entertain,
and anything that is genuinely entertaining has value. The other answer is that literature teaches us many things. It not only
delights, it instructs. Those two answers are as old, or older than the Roman poet Horace. Let us first look more closely at the
second of these two answers and see what literature teaches us.
There are several reasons why we should study literature. In this lesson I am sharing with you the 12 reasons by Richard
Jacobs why we should study Literature.
According to Richard Jacob Literature opens on to the world of creative imagination. Not only does it develop skills that are
essential for today’s global environment, but it also inspires change and innovation. Literature studies help us understand our
world in all its social, political, economic and cultural aspects through stories, novels, poems, and plays.
In his book Literature in our Lives, awardwinning teacher and author Richard Jacobs shows that reading, thinking about, and
writing or talking about English Literature involves us all personally: texts talk to us intimately and urgently, inviting us to talk
back, intervening in and changing our lives.
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Literature also functions to contribute values of human lives. In education program, literature may give significant
contribution for students’ development and
knowledge. The contribution of literature in education covers intrinsic values and extrinsic values. The intrinsic values are the
reward of a lifetime of wide reading recognizable in the truly literate person while the intrinsic values facilitate the
development of language skills and knowledge.Many literary texts such as poem.
Literature improves communication skills. The easiest way to improve vocabulary, writing, and speaking skills is to study
literature. ...
Literature teaches you about yourself. ... Literature teaches about the past. ...
Literature cultivates wisdom and a worldview. ... Literature entertains.
Those who assume that Literature is less significant than STEM subjects have failed to understand Literature’s potential to
enlarge and enhance our own minds. Jacobs has shared his dozen reasons why studying literature matters, despite what the
government says.
Here are reasons why we should study Literature.
1.
2.
Literature can help us make better sense of our world, our lives and ourselves.
3.
Reading, thinking, writing and talking about literature is both a personal and collegiate experience - a model of
how society operates or should operate.
4.
Literature embodies the values of imagination, identification and empathy. These matter in an increasingly divisive
world.
5.
Characters in literature are very often transformed by the plot and this process models the way literature
intervenes in our own lives and can transform them.
6.
The shared experience of studying literature in class gives us the ability and the need to read the world and its
texts on our own.
7.
Studying literature recognises that the making of meaning is a dynamic and volatile process and that meanings are
socially and culturally produced, as various and multiple as readers.
8.
Studying literature explores the text in its many contexts, how the text finds and makes a place in the world, how
it is enabled to speak and to make a difference.
9.
Studying literature and critical reading are an opening out that returns us to the text in an adventure that never
finishes.
Literature has the power to give us an enriched understanding of other worlds, lives and times, of the way things
have been and how they might be.
10. The study and criticism of literature is the asking of questions that generate more and better questions.
11. The study and criticism of literature is not just a social act but an inherently political act. Authoritarian
governments are for that reason suspicious and antagonistic towards advanced literary study.
12. Studying literary texts with my own teachers, and later with my own students, has very often changed my life.
Take every opportunity to have your lives changed by the reading and studying of literature. Because it matters.
Learning Insight 1.
At this point let us have a short exercise: From the above discussion of Literature from lesson 1 and 2, I would like you to
make a-one-page reflection about Literature.
Lesson 3: Important Features of
Literature
Considering the common denominators in the aforementioned definitions from various authors and sources, we can, thus,
identify the important features of literature.
1.
It is written. Literature is preserved through the written medium, thus they come to us through written or printed
books and manuscripts. Although there may be oral literature in the past or that some of them started through the oral
traditions, still, they were given form in writing.
2.
It is characterized by greatness of expression. Literature is a form of human expression, and a lofty one at that
since it is the expression of man’s highest thought, noblest aspirations, and deepest feelings. But not everything man
expressed in words--even when he has thoroughly organized and written them down can be considered as literature.
Those writings that are primarily informative--technical, scholarly, journalistic--would be excluded from the rank of
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literature, mainly because, and especially if they are not written with artistic consideration or they lack artistic merit.
Literature is an art, and it must be created artistically.
3.
It is presented by using distinct artistic forms. These works of literature make use of artistic presentations like
poetry, drama, short story, novel, essay, etc. The different literary forms used to package these great ideas and
enjoyable stories of man’s experiences is what we call literary genre. (pronounced as zhanra) Genre is a category of artistic
composition, as in music or literature, characterized by similarities in form, style, or subject matter.
4.
Its appeal is not ephemeral. Unlike journalistic writing, their appeal and relevance are good only for a period when
news are fresh to readers. However, literature provides insights of lasting value.
5.
It deals with life. Man’s life is the focus of literature. It interprets and presents life in artistic manner in order for
man to gain deeper insights into his humanity.
6. Literature varies depending on language used, epoch or time, nation or culture of origin, and
genres. Literature is broad since every nation and language has its own literature, every era in human
civilization can boast of a body of literature it has produce. Added to this, literary forms or genres are so
varied that every national literature may also have distinct literary forms.
The term literature is derived from the Latin littera, "a letter of the alphabet." Thus, we can say that literature is
first and foremost mankind's entire body of writing; after that it is the body of writing belonging to a given language or
people; then it is individual pieces of writing.
Literature has an obvious kinship with the other arts. When presented, a play is drama. Most important films have
been based upon written literature, usually novels, although all the great epics and most of the great plays have been filmed
at some time. Conversely, the techniques required in writing for film have influenced many writers in structuring their novels
and have affected their style. Literature provides the libretto for operas, the theme for tone poems or interpreted in music
and provides the lyrics of songs. Many ballets and modern dances are based on stories or poems. Sometimes, music and
dance are accompanied by a text read by a speaker or chanted by a chorus.
The good thing about this relationship is the fact that we may enjoy literature by using other art forms based on
literature. Modern day technology has given us a chance to enjoy Shakespeare, for example, by watching a movie based on
his play. Let us just bear in mind that in studying literature, the main focus is
appreciation of what is good, what is true and what is beautiful.
Literature is not simply studied; it is enjoyed. But along with the enjoyment that it gives are a host of other benefits.
1. Literature appeals to man’s higher needs and nature – spiritual, intellectual and creative. Man can survive without
literature. But that is all he can do. He cannot truly live without it. To live is after all not just to survive or simply exist.
Let me bring you attention to the idea of
Abraham Maslow. Maslow believes that man
has needs and that his needs come in a hierarchy, or ladder. To illustrate:
Self-realization/
actualization/fulfillment
Competence/prestige/
esteem
Love and belongingness
Security and Safety
Basic physiological needs
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Basic physiological needs are the primary elements that the physical body of man needs in order to survive. It
includes food, water, air, clothing, shelter, and sex.
Security and safety needs are seen in those mechanisms which he used to protect himself from harsh forces of
nature, thus, he would build sturdier houses, arm himself, etc.
Love and belongingness is manifested in his social needs to belong to a group or being with people with whom
he shares mutual interest and even love.
The fourth level of man’s needs, competence/prestige/esteem include those seen in his effort to be a better
person by means of gaining education, developing his talents and skills, exposing himself into fashion, good grooming and
works of arts so that people would appreciate him to be educated, cultured, and of high self-worth. It is at this level of his
needs that literature is included. Literature, like all other forms of art, is used by man to fulfill his aesthetic needs, or the
need to appreciate beauty. As a humanizing element, it is a form of higher need. Unlike his basic needs which he shares
with the rest of the members of the animal kingdom, the need for beauty is one that makes him more than an animal but
more of a human being.
The last level is self-actualization. It is the point by which a man realized his potentials, accepts and
improved his weakness, and strives to be more of a creation of God. Thus, it is the primary aim of literature to enable man
to address his higher needs, In order that he may actualize himself and gain self-fulfillment.
2.
Literature, like all forms of art, entertains and gives pleasure. Pleasure is derived from the reading of
beautiful lines and dialogues, in lofty ideas and freshness of expression.
3.
It fires the imagination and arouses noble emotions. Reading provides vicarious experience. It allows
the reader to be aware of an experience without going through the real process. As a result, noble emotions are aroused in
him as he relates with characters he meets in the stories. It is just like saying, you don’t need to lose someone you love in
order to understand sorrow.
4.
It enriches man by enabling him to reflect on life and by filling him with new ideas. Great ideas are
embodied in a literary work. A good reader would always look for something that would enable him to understand his
existence. Discussed as a literary standard, intellectual value of literature enables man to think deeply.
5.
It gives the ability to cope with life. By reading literature we are able to develop an understanding of
human nature and gain new perception of life and people.
It should be remembered, however, that the main attraction of literature is that it is studied for appreciation. We
study literature in order to enjoy beauty found in nature, in experience, in ideas, in relationship, and life, in
general.
Lesson 4: Literary Standards
How does one know whether a piece of reading materials he is reading is good or not? A good literary piece can
be considered great or of high literary value if it possesses the certain standards:
Standards of Literature Literary writing can be intellectual and contain a lot of cleverly hidden meanings which ensure the
writing can be enjoyed and studied on many different levels and often still enjoyed many years after it was written. Many
people believe that literature cannot be defined and literary theory should simply be thought of as way of interpreting both
texts and events. The seven standards that a piece of literature usually contains to be considered literary are:
1.
Artistry- refers to the artistic value of a literary work. As a work of art, literature possesses artistic
merit. It is this quality that appeals to our sense of beauty and makes us admire the literary piece. This is a quality which
appeals to our sense of beauty. - Is a quality that describes a novel's ability to reveal and convey hidden truth and beauty
2.
Intellectual Value – great literature is something that enriches our mental life. In other words, it is a
tool to make us think deeper and be able to gain rational insights into the experience of man presented in a literary work.
Between a comic book and a classical novel, for example, which do you think will make you think more or deeply? That
which requires more complex mental activity and makes you gain more knowledge and wisdom is a better piece of literature.
A literary work that stimulates thought. These should enrich our mental life by making us realize about the fundamental
truths towards life and human nature. -Intellectual value is determined by the novel's relevance to society and its ability to
stimulate thought.
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3.
Spiritual Value – great literature inspires us. It strengthens our will to live by enabling us to see the
brighter side of life. It makes us aware of the true meaning of life. It also heightens our awareness of our relationship with
God, thus, giving us more positive enlightenment. Elevates the spirit by bringing out the moral values of a person or situation
into the realm of the physical world. It should present moral values necessary for us to reflect and eventually inspire us to
become a better person.
4.
Permanence – the products of literature that we can consider great are those that transcend time.
Their effect, value, or relevance is lasting. Like a multi-faceted gem that can be viewed in different angles, a good piece of
literature can be read in many ways, thus, every new reading gives the reader fresh insights. A great literary work endures
and can be read again as each readings gives fresh delights and new insights. It should not be ephemeral or merely a
passing hype to the audience; it should be long-lasting. -Is determined by how well a novel endures through the ages. There
are many novels that were popular in their time but gradually faded into obscurity and irrelevance.
5.
Suggestiveness – a good literary piece is one that enables the reader to experience something or
moves the reader to feel. This is the emotional power of literature. Its greatness can be viewed in terms of how effective it
is to touch the readers’ emotion and draw out the proper emotional response. Associated with the emotion power of a
literary piece to make us feel deeply and stir our imagination. It should trigger and evoke visions above and beyond the
plane of ordinary life experiences.
-Is the novel's ability to appeal to the reader's emotions and imagination and to open them up to new possibilities.
6.
Universality – a good piece of literature has wide-reaching effect; not only in terms of place or locality
buy even of time. It possesses the quality of being timeless and timely. It is timeless, in the sense that it appeals to the
people in the past, present and future. It is timely because it is relevant to all people, regardless of race, creed, religion, or
status in life. Some of the elements of literature that makes it universal are fundamental truths it presents or discusses,
universal human conditions it portrays, and expresses elemental feelings. A great literary work is timeless and timely. It is
forever relevant, it appeals to one and all, anytime, and anywhere because it deals with an array of individual's perceptions
as well as orientations toward fundamental truths and universal conditions. -Universality is defined as a work of art that can
appeal to a great number of people, regardless of gender, race, nationality or income. Works that appeal to a person's heart
or describe the condition of human nature are considered universal texts.
7.
Style – the peculiar or unique way by which an author formulates his ideas about life and presents them
is called style. It is a personal and distinct quality that identifies a literary work with its author’s, as it is reflective of his
ideas, beliefs, conviction and personality.
It is peculiar way in which a writer
sees life, form his or her ideas expresses them.
Great works are marked as much by their memorable substances as by their distinctive style.
-is the author's unique way of expressing his or her thoughts
In summary, we can say that these standards apply to two important components of literature: its content and
form. For a literary work to be truly great, it must be good both in content and structure. Contents refers to what it wants
to say, what it is all about, its subject and message. Form on the other hand refers to its structure or craftsmanship, or how
it says what it wants to say or the manner of expressing content. A good piece of literature, therefore, it one which
expresses a noble or admirable idea or ideas and in a manner that is artistic and admirable.
Literary approaches
When we read a literary piece, some of the more striking elements featured stand out above the rest. The tendency is, these
linger in our minds a bit longer compared to others. In studying a literary piece, the same situation occurs in which we tend
to question things over other supposed to be in the same light against the other. That is where literary approach come in.
We use these approaches similar to a lens in order to view a particular insight we want to fully explore.
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The more common literary approaches being used include:
1.
Formalist or Literary Approach. Literature is viewed intrinsically, independent of the author, age, or any other
extrinsic factor. The study of the selection is more or less based on the so-called “literary elements.”
2.
Moral or
Humanistic Approach. Literature is viewed to discuss man and its nature. It presents man as essentially
rational; that is, endowed with intellect and free will; or that the piece does not misinterpret the true nature of
man.The approach is close to the “morality” of literature, to questions of ethical goodness or badness.
3.
Historical Approach. Literature is seen both as a reflection and product of the times and circumstances in which
it was written. It operates on the premise that the history of a nation has telling effects on its literature and that
the piece can be better understood and appreciated if one knows the times surrounding its creation.
4.
Sociological Approach. Literature is viewed as the expression of man within a given social situation or social
event or social phenomena. The sociological approach stresses on social “relevance”, social “commitment,”
contemporaneity, and it deems communication with the reader important.
5.
Cultural Approach. Literature is seen as one of the manifestations and vehicles of a nation’s or race’s culture
and tradition. It includes the entire compels of what goes under “culture” – the technological, artistic, sociological,
ideological aspects; and considers the literary piece in the total cultural milieu in which it was born.
6.
Psychological Approach. Literature is viewed as the expression of “personality,” of “inner drives” or “neurosis”.
It includes the psychology of the author, of the characters, and even the psychology of creation. It has resulted in
an almost exhausting and exhaustive “psychological analysis” of characters, of symbols and images, of recurrent
themes, and others.
7.
Biographical Approach. Literature is viewed from the life story of the author or any of the characters presented
in the story. Since literature is all about reflection of life, any literary piece, henceforth can be examined using
biographical approach.
8.
Marxist Approach. For Karl Marx, a German-Jewish social philosopher, literature is viewed as a conflict of social
classes: The Ruling Class (Bourgeoisie) vs.
The Working Class (Proletariat). Stories highlighting social conflict, class struggles and ideologies not compatible to
each other are basically examples of this approach.
9.
Feminist Approach. This approach speaks of highlighting the role of women depicted in the story. Struggles,
plight and conditions of female characters or heroine are being scrutinized.
10. Deconstructionist
Approach. Popularized by Jacques Derrida, this approach speaks of examining closely the individual elements
comprising the story and then studying how these parts complement and work together to come up with the
whole masterpiece.
Module 2: Prose and Poetry
Have you ever written a poem? What made you write it? Can you consider your poem a piece of poetry? Did you follow
certain pattern in writing your poem? If you were able to answer these questions affirmatively, I should say you are a poet
in your own way.
CONGRATULATIONS!
Let us find out what poetry is, in this lesson.
Poetry is a type of literature that conveys a thought, describes a scene or tells a story in a concentrated, lyrical arrangement
of words.
Poems can be structured, with rhyming lines and meter, the rhythm and emphasis of a line based on syllabic beats. Poems
can also be free form, which follows no formal structure.Poetry, on the other hand, is a form of writing that is based on
musicality and rhythm. It is often characterized by its use of figurative languages, such as metaphors and similes. Poetry is
often used for poems and some of its devices are also used in songwriting. On the other hand let us find out what is Prose?
In writing, prose refers to any written work that follows a basic grammatical structure (think words and phrases arranged
into sentences and paragraphs). This stands out from works of poetry, which follow a metrical structure (think lines and
stanzas). Prose simply means language that follows the natural patterns found in everyday speech.
Now that you have understand poetry, let us have a look at Prose.
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Prose is verbal or written language that follows the natural flow of speech. It is the most common form of writing, used in
both fiction and non-fiction. Prose comes from the
Latin “prosa oratio,” meaning “straightforward.”
Now that we are able to identify Prose and Poetry let us proceed to their distinction.
Lesson 1: Distinctions Between Prose and
Poetry
By looking at the structure of a literary work, one will know whether it is prose or poetry. By their structure, we
identify a poem as being written in lines or verses and stanzas. On the other hand, prose writings come in sentences and
paragraphs.
The difference between the two does not end there. In terms of style, poetry is more elaborate and stylized as it
expresses a strong emotion or a lofty thought in a compressed and intense utterance. On the other hand, prose uses simple
and a more direct style since it is generally concerned with the presentation of an idea, point of view in a more ordinary and
leisurely manner. In terms of purpose, poetry aims more to give pleasure or delight while prose aims to provide the readers
with information, instruction, and enlightenment. The appeal, therefore, of poetry is more to the emotion and imagination
while that of prose to man's intellect and reason.
Let us focus on meanings. Meanings may be denotative or connotative. Denotation is the literal or dictionary
meaning of the word. Connotation, on the contrary, is the figurative or associative meaning of the word. For example, star,
in the literal sense, is a heavenly body that shines or twinkles during nighttime. But to refer to star as a guide, or symbol of
direction, hope or salvation, then we are using its figurative meaning.
This knowledge of meaning is important in understanding literary works. Most often, the literal meaning is used in
understanding prose, although at time it may also use figurative language. In poetry, on the other hand, the interpretation
of the lines require more than just the understanding of the literal meaning of the words. It involves the understanding of
the figures if speech which can only be interpreted symbolically, or by reference to what we associate it with. In other
words, its associative meaning.
Comparison Chart of Prose and Poetry
BASIS FOR
PROSE COMPARISON
Meaning
POETRY
Prose is a
Poetry is that form of literature in which the poet
straight forward form of
uses a unique style
literature, and rhythm, to wherein the express intense author experience.
expresses his thoughts and feelings
BASIS FOR
PROSE
POETRY COMPARISON
in a lucid way
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Language
Straight
Expressive or
Forward
Nature
Decorated
Pragmatic Imaginative
Essence
Message or Experience information
Purpose
To provide To delight or information amuse.
or to convey a message.
Ideas
BASIS FOR
Ideas can
Ideas can be found
be found in in lines, which are sentences, arranged in which are stanzas.
PROSE
POETRY COMPARISON
arranged in paragraph.
Line break
Paraphrasing
No
Yes
Possible
Exact paraphrasing
is not possible.
How to remember the difference
The best trick to remember the difference between these two is to understand their writing style, i.e. while prose is written
ordinarily, poetry has aesthetic features, and so it has a distinctive writing pattern.
Further, the prose is that form of language which expansively conveys a message or meaning by way of a narrative
structure. On the contrary, poetry is such a form of literature, with a unique writing format, i.e. it has a pattern, rhyme and
rhythm.
In addition to this, prose appears like big blocks of words, whereas the size of poetry may vary as per the line length and the
poet’s intention
Key Differences Between Prose and
Poetry
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The difference between prose and poetry can be drawn clearly on the following grounds:
1.
Prose refers to a form of literature, having ordinary language and sentence structure. Poetry is that form of
literature, which is aesthetic by nature, i.e. it has a sound, cadence, rhyme, metre, etc., that adds to its meaning.
2.
The language of prose is quite direct or straightforward. On the other hand, in poetry, we use an expressive or
creative language, which includes comparisons, rhyme and rhythm that give it a unique cadence and feel.
3.
4.
While the prose is pragmatic, i.e. realistic, poetry is figurative.
5.
The prose is utilitarian, which conveys a hidden moral, lesson or idea. Conversely, poetry aims to delight or amuse
the reader.
6.
The most important thing in prose is the message or information. In contrast, the poet shares his/her experience
or feelings with the reader, which plays a crucial role in poetry.
7.
In prose, there are no line breaks, whereas when it comes to poetry, there are a number of line breaks, which is
just to follow the beat or to stress on an idea.
Prose contains paragraphs, which includes a number of sentences, that has an implied message or idea. As
against, poetry is written in verses, which are covered in stanzas. These verses leave a lot of unsaid things, and its
interpretation depends upon the imagination of the reader.
8.
When it comes to paraphrasing or summarizing, both prose and poetry can be paraphrased, but the paraphrase of
the poem is not the poem, because the essence of the poem lies in the style of writing, i.e. the way in which the
poet has expressed his/her experience in verses and stanzas. So, this writing pattern and cadence is the beauty of
poetry, which cannot be summarized.
Learning Insight 2: This time let me shaken up the poetical side of your brain by doing this activity.
I want you two create 10 sentences which you will convert into a prose and a 2-stanza poem. You may use separate sheet of
paper to scribble your work but your final output should be written below the perforated line.
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Lesson 2 and 3: Division Of Literature and
Different Literary Genre
Divisions of Literature
As we have earlier identified in terms of structure, the two divisions of literature are prose and poetry. Under each
division are the different literary types or genres.
PROSE. Prose is a discourse which uses sentences usually forming paragraphs to express ideas, feelings, and actions. The
three most common types of prose are fiction, nonfiction, and drama.
1. Fiction.
Fiction is "a series of imagined facts which illustrates truth about human life." In other words, works written
as products of man's imagination are works of fiction. However, it does not mean that they are false, untrue or
opposed to truth. Rather, it is opposed to the actual and to the historically true. It is not contrary to truth at all since
incidents may not have actually happened but there are possibilities that they may and can happen, as long as the laws
of probability and necessity are not violated.
The principal types of fictions are short stories and novels. We can add one
classification which may include myths,
legends, fables, parables, and minor narratives
like anecdotes and exemplum.
A.
The Short Story. This is a brief artistic form of prose fiction which is centered on a single main
incident and is intended to produce a single dominant impression. Such impression may be one of sadness, surprise,
sympathy, terror, or other reactions. Among the notable short story writers are Edgar Allan Poe who gave us the first
detective stories,
Guy de Maupassant, O. Henry, Anton Checkov, William Faulkner, D.H. Lawrence, Ernest Hemmingway, and thousands more.
B.
The Novel. The novel is an extensive prose narrative. It is much longer than the short story and is
divided into chapters. It has a greater number and variety of characters, a more complicated plot, a more elaborate use of
setting, a greater complexity of theme than the short story.
The novel may be classified according to different bases:
1. The author’s vision of life. This involves the author’s attitude towards experiences which may be
romantic, realistic, naturalistic, etc.
a. romantic – The romantic view
chooses the remote in time and place, the adventurous and daring in action, the heroic and dashing in the case
of characters. The interpretation of life is optimistic and usually idealistic. The preference is for the happy
ending.
b. Realistic – It prefers the familiar
and common place in setting, characters who are ordinary men and women like those we meet daily, though
according to theme and other feature, they may rise to the level of heroism. The action itself is limited to facts of
daily experience which are observed thoroughly and recorded faithfully.
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c.
naturalistic – It is exaggerated
and of extreme realism dominated by materialism, pessimism and determinism. Characters are portrayed as having
little or no free will, the environment is hostile; men’s efforts are doomed to failure and sometimes, death.
Observation and recording of the dismal and cruel aspects of life are carried out with more accuracy and persistence.
2. The writer’s choice of material. This may be historical, psychological, social, etc.
a. historical
– a historical novel chooses an age or era in the past. It recaptures the spirit and atmosphere of
that period and chooses historical events and characters to give authenticity to the narration. But the
novelist usually creates characters and situations of his own devising to fulfill his particular objectives.
b. psychological – It focuses of what is in the mind of the character; its
insights are on the motives behind the yearnings and impulses of the characters. The stream of consciousness is
the term applied to the method of externalizing the thoughts, sensation, memories, and impressions that rush
through the mind without order or coherence.
c. social – This novel deals with the
mores and customs of a distinct social group and the problems faced by those in this society, be these problems be
political, economic, racial, etc. – often without presenting a solution. Noli and Fili are example of this.
When the novel favors or advocates a theory or doctrine it is called the novel of propaganda. When it
deals sympathetically with the problems of the working class, the novel is called a proletarian novel.
2. The structure of the novel.
a.
b.
According to structure, the novel may be panoramic or dramatic.
the panoramic novel – follows a linear development of a loosely constructed plot and portrays a
broad section of life. It gives relatively little importance to character and action as motivating forces,
hence, they so not greatly influence the leisurely development of the narrative. The
chronicle is of this type.
the dramatic - emphasizes the interaction of character and action. This type of novel employs the
principle of causality in the unfolding
of plot, in the relationship of characters and action, in the influence of environment and heredity both
in the growth of characters and its relation to action. Some of the greatest novels belong to this
category, like War and Peace by Tolstoy; The Red and Black by
Stendhal; The Magic Mountain by Thomas Mann.
3. other
forms. There are many other forms of fiction, most of these were the forerunners or precursor of the modern
literary genre of short story. Some of these were written in verses or poetry. Among these are:
a.
Myth – a symbolic narrative, usually of unknown origin and at least partly traditional, that ostensibly
relates actual events and that is especially associated with religious belief. It is distinguished from symbolic
behavior (cult, ritual) and symbolic places or objects (temples, icons). Myths are specific accounts of gods or
superhuman beings involved in extraordinary events or circumstances in a time that is unspecified but which is
understood as existing apart from ordinary human experience. The term mythology denotes both the study of
myth and the body of myths belonging to a particular religious tradition. It usually served to explain some natural
phenomenon.
b. Parable - short fictitious narrative
that illustrates a moral attitude, a doctrine, a standard of conduct, or a religious principle. The term originally
referred to a Greek rhetorical figure, a kind of extended simile, involving the use of a literary illustration. The
parable differs from the fable in the inherent plausibility of its story and in the exclusion of anthropomorphic
animals or inanimate creatures, but it resembles the fable in the essential qualities of brevity and simplicity. The
storytelling aspect of a parable is usually subordinated to the analogy it draws between a particular instance of
human behavior and human conduct at large. The simple narratives of parables give them a mysterious,
suggestive tone and make them especially useful for the teaching of moral and spiritual truths. Parables can often
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be fully understood only by an informed elite, who can discern the meaning within their brief, enigmatic
structures.
To a Western audience, some of the most famous parables are in the New Testament; in them, Jesus uses
the form to illustrate his message to his followers by telling a fictitious story that is nevertheless true-to-life. There
are also parables in the Hebrew Bible (notably those of II Samuel 12:1-9 and II Samuel 14:1-13), but they have
suffered in popularity by comparison with the New Testament parables.
c. Fable - The word fable derives from
the Latin word fabula, which originally meant about the same as the Greek mythos; like mythos, it came to mean a
fictitious or untrue story. Myths, in contrast, are not presented as fictitious or untrue.
Fables, like some myths, feature personified animals or natural objects as characters. Unlike myths, however,
fables almost always end with an explicit moral message, and this highlights the characteristic feature of fables-namely, that they are instructive tales that teach morals about human social behavior. Myths, by contrast, tend to
lack this directly didactic aspect, and the sacred narratives that they embody are often hard to translate into direct
prescriptions for action in everyday human terms. Another difference between fables and myths relates to a
feature of the narratives that they present. The context of a typical fable will be unspecific as to time and space;
e.g., "A fox and a goose met at a pool." A typical myth, on the other hand, will be likely to identify by name the
god or hero concerned in a given exploit and to specify details of geography and genealogy; e.g., "Oedipus was
the son of Laius, the king of Thebes."
d. Legend - Legends are traditional
stories or groups of stories told about a particular person or place. Formerly the term legend meant a tale about a
saint. Legends resemble folktales in content; they may include supernatural beings, elements of mythology, or
explanations of natural phenomena, but they are associated with a particular locality or person and are told as a
matter of history.
In common usage the word legend usually characterizes a traditional tale thought to have a historical basis,
as in the legends of King Arthur or Robin Hood. In this view, a distinction may be drawn between myth (which
refers to the supernatural and the sacred) and legend (which is grounded in historical fact).
Exemplum - from Latin "example," (plural EXEMPLA), an exemplum is a short tale originally incorporated by
a medieval preacher into his sermon to emphasize a moral lesson or illustrate a point of doctrine. Fables, folktales,
and legends were gathered into collections, such as Exempla (c. 1200) by Jacques de Vitry, for the use of
preachers. Such exempla often provided the germ or plot for medieval secular tales in verse or prose.
b. Non-fiction
1.
The Essay. The essay is a prose composition of moderate length, usually expository in
nature, which aims to explain or elucidate an idea, a theory, an impression of a point of view. It is conveniently
classified as formal (impersonal) and informal (personal or familiar).
a.
The formal essay deals with a
serious and important topic, usually derived from philosophy, theology, science, politics, morality, etc. It is
authoritative and scholarly in treatment, and reveals the writer’s mastery of his subject. Its interest is in the
intellectual.
The tone is objective and impersonal.
The style is clear and straightforward.
Its main purpose is to teach or to instruct.
b.
The informal or familiar essay
may deal with any subject, even the commonplace and ordinary, which it raises to the level of the literary
through technique and style. Hence where the formal is objective, the familiar is subjective in the handling
of the topic. hristopher Morley.
2.
Oration – Often contrasted to the essay by its structure and purpose, the oration represents
another form of prose. Its language is carefully chosen to convey ideas clearly and forcefully. It is usually inspired
by a significant event or an important issue. Its language is meticulously chosen to produce the desired impact on
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the audience. It is intended to be delivered orally, thus its style is eloquent and forceful with a purpose to
convince and persuade.
3.
Biography – A biography is a record of human life, an account written by someone else, of
an individual’s significance experiences, their effects on him, and his personal reactions and response to them.
Holman and Harmon define biography as “the accurate presentation of the life history from birth to death of an
individual, along with an honest effort to interpret the life so as to offer a unified expression of the character,
mind, and personality of the subjects.”
2. Personal Writings. This group of literary works includes the author’s personal documents, in other
words, writings about the author which he himself has written.
a.
b.
c.
d.
Autobiography – it is an account of a person’s life written by the person himself. It is usually more
revealing of the person’s interior self.
Memoirs – a form of autobiography but more specifically take into account significant events in which
the author was a witness or participant, and other noted personages involved.
Journals & diaries – daily records of events and experiences in the author’s life. They tend to reflect
the private personality of the writer, the diary more intimately than the journal. They may or may not
be written for publication. Note again that not all diaries and journals are literary. Literary standards
must be the basis of its literary merits.
Letters and Epistles. In literature, these are private and personal correspondence between notable
figures and convey ideas and feelings of the writer . Epistles are letters but are more formally written
and are generally address to and mean to be read by a group of persons.
c. Drama - Drama is a type of literature
usually written to be performed. People often make a distinction between drama, which concerns the written text, or script,
for the performance, and theater, which concerns the performance of this script. Many of the most honored and influential
works of literature around the world have been dramas.
The two major kinds of drama are tragedy and comedy.
1.
Tragedy. Traditionally, a tragedy is dominated by a serious tone, concerns kings
and princes, deals with profound issues, and usually concludes with the death of the leading
character, or the tragic hero. This tragic hero is a man of high estate. The struggle of the
protagonist or hero against the conflict is such that it affirms his capacity for greatness.
a.
Serious Drama - drama which may
have tragic overtones or details, and a general tone of seriousness, but which may not end in catastrophe for the hero. The
conclusion may even be hopeful with main characters who are ordinary men and women, as contrasted with the tragic
heroes of classical or pure tragedy.
b.
Tragicomedy - has similar
characteristics to serious drama but is more of a combination of the tragic and the comic.
c.
Melodrama - it is serious in tome but
characterized by the sensational and the theatrical. Characters and situations are somewhat exaggerated to produce an
excessive appeal to the emotions of the audience. Characterization is usually superficial: the heroes are very good and the
villains, very bad.
2.
Comedy. A comedy typically deals with common people, is dominated by a light
tone that encourages laughter (or at least amusement or entertainment), and ends happily, often
with the uniting of a pair of young lovers. It portrays the lighter and brighter side of life and is
meant to evoke laughter.
a. comedy of humors or comedy of
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character - originate from the specific traits of a character
b. comedy of situation - originate from the situation of plot
c. comedy
of manners - originate from the manners, customs, and lifestyle of a particular class of society or
community
d. farce
- "farce is to comedy what melodrama is to tragedy." It is characterized by exaggeration where
character types are placed in ridiculous and improbable situations intended to produce laughter. If it focuses
on predominance of physical action like sliding on the banana peelings, or
falling from the carabao into its dung, it is called slapstick.
Learning Insight 3:
Look for a group and choose one division of literature and its literary genre and use it for a presentation next meeting. You
may opt to work alone. Please update from our chat group if you have clarification regarding this activity.
Lesson 4: Elements of Poetry
Poetry and its Elements
Poetry is a kind of imaginative literary _expression that produces its effect by the sound and imagery of its
language. Poetry is essentially rhythmic or possessing musical quality or beat and is usually metrical. It is frequently
structured in stanzas. Poetry generally projects emotionally and sensuously charged human experience in metrical
language.
Poetry consists of three elements that distinctly characterize it from the rest of imaginative writings. These are
rhythm, imagery, and sense or meaning.
A. RHYTHM. It is the pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables, long or short, or lowpitched or high-pitched
sounds. It determines the rising and falling of the voice. It is the element that marks the musical quality of the poem and
makes it pleasing to the ears.
The word rhythm comes from the Greek word “rhein”, which means "to flow". Rhythm in poetry is the flow of
sound produced by language, by the stress we put on words or specific syllables, on the rising and falling of our voice when
we read it.
Rhythm has two essential elements- meter and rhyme.
1. Meter or organized rhythm. It is the measured pattern or grouping of syllables, called metric foot, according
to accent and length. A group of metric feet forms a poetic line or verse. A group of poetic lines or verses is called a stanza.
There are for most common variants of patterns or feet:
a. the
iamb - (Iambic foot) which consists of an unaccented syllable followed by an accented syllable. (x / ) It
is, made up of divisions, or feet, that alternate an unstressed and a stressed syllable (sometimes designated
by x and /, respectively) in rising rhythm (unstressed followed by stressed).
"The curfew tolls the knell of parting day."
("Elegy in a Country Churchyard," Thomas Gray)
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b. anapest - (anapestic foot) consists of two unaccented syllable followed by an accented syllable.
(x x / )
Did you fail in the race
Did you faint in the spurt? ("The
Best, Robins)
c.
trochus- (trochaic foot) - consists of an
accented syllable followed by an unaccented syllable.(/ x)
Up the airy mountain
Down the rushy glen. ("The
Fairies," Allingham)
d. dactyl - (dactylic foot) - consists of an
accented syllable followed by two unaccented syllables. (/ xx )
This is the forest primeval, the murmuring pines and the hemlocks.
According to the number of feet in a poetic line, the principal verse lengths are: monometer - consisting of one
foot, dimeter (two feet), trimeter (three feet) , tetrameter (four feet), pentameter (five feet), hexameter
(six feet), heptameter (seven feet), octameter (eight feet), nonameter (nine feet), and decameter (ten feet )
If a line is predominantly iambic and contains five feet, then it is described as iambic pentameter. In the case of
the first example, there are three iambs or combination of unstressed and stressed syllables, thus we label it as iambic
trimeter.
Free verses are those that do not follow a specific meter or pattern of accented and unaccented syllables. It is also
called cadenced poetry. It should be understood that not all poems have meter. Their musical quality depends on the use of
fresh combinations of words, sound devices, or even simply on the natural cadence of words, its balance, or rhythmic flow.
Other devices used are parallelism, repetition, repeated phrasing, and particular rhythmic patterns.
The process of labeling lines or verses based on verse length and stress pattern is called scansion.
2. Rhyme and other sound devices. The regular recurrence of similar sounds usually at the end of lines (end
rhyme) or also within one line (internal line) is called rhyme. The pattern or sequence in which the rhyme words occur in a
stanza or poem is called the rhyme scheme. To find the rhyme scheme, the same letter of the alphabet is usually assigned to
each similar sound in the stanza.
For example,
It matters not how straight the gate, a
How charged with punishment
the scroll, b
I am the master of my fate:
a
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I am the captain of my soul.
d
(Invictus, William Ernest Henley)
common:
In terms of stanza length, (number of lines in the stanza or the rhyming pattern) the following are the most
a. Octave - eight rhyming lines
c.
Quatrain - four rhyming lines
b. Sestet - six rhyming lines
d.
Couplet - two rhyming lines
Not all poems have rhymes. Those that do not have are called blank verses.
Aside from rhyme, there are other systems by which the poem may attain its musical quality. These are sound
devices or sound echoes. Sometimes they are also referred to as rhetorical devices.
1.
alliteration - the repetition of initial identical consonant sounds in a series of words. Some good
examples of this are our tongue-twisters like:
She sells sea shells at the sea shore.
Peter Piper picked a pack of pickled pepper.
Full fathom five thy father lies. (The Tempest, William Shakespeare)
2.
onomatopoeia - a devise whereby the sound of the words used by the poet suggests the thing itself.
Examples: Bang, hiss, screech, hoot, buzz, splash
Note that the words above are also the sound which suggests the meaning, like the hooting of the owl also sounds
hoot, and the sound of the snake is also hiss.
3.
assonance - the rhyming of accented vowel sounds but not of consonants. Used in poetry and prose,
assonance is a phonetic device in which writers repeat similar vowel sounds without a corresponding repetition of
consonants. Assonance helps to provide rhythmic structure in informal metrical schemes. The assonant i (ay) sounds in the
lines below function as vowel rhymes.
Examples:
Thou still unravish’d bride of quietness;
Thou foster child of silence and slow time. ("Ode on a Grecian Urn," John Keats)
The boy with a new toy is full of joy.
4.
consonance - This is an irregular form of rhyme. Consonance occurs when similar consonant sounds are
repeated within a line of verse. This selection from "The Kind Ghosts" by English poet Wilfred Owen demonstrates the
technique with the repetition of the s, l, and t sounds.
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She sleeps on soft, last breaths; but no ghost looms
Out of the stillness of her palace wall,
Her wall of boys on boys and dooms and dooms.
5.
Anaphora - the repetition of words or phrase in the beginning of several successive verses, clauses or
sentences.
Love is real, real is love.
Love is wanting, to be loved.
Love is searching, searching love.
The American poet Theodore Roethke used no rhyme scheme and no meter in "Root
Cellar" (1943). The unpredictable form of Roethke's poem echoes the unexpected behavior of the things in the cellar:
Nothing would sleep in that cellar, dank as a ditch,
Bulbs broke out of boxes hunting for chinks in the dark,
Shoots dangled and drooped, Lolling obscenely from mildewed crates,
Hung down long yellow evil necks, like tropical snakes.
And what a congress of stinks!
Roots ripe as old bait,
Pulpy stems, rank, silo-rich, Leaf-mould, manure, lime, piled against slippery planks.
Nothing would give up life: Even the dirt kept breathing a small breath.
Lesson 5: Elements of Prose
Prose and its Elements
Prose is the ordinary form of spoken or written language. It is plain language not arranged in verses or poetic
lines. Most often prose writing is characterized by narration, description, and exposition, like those used in novels, plays, and
articles. To Samuel Taylor
Coleridge, and English writer, a good prose is-proper words in their proper places. To distinguish the form and style of prose
then we must think of it as the kind of writing we use in short stories, novels, diaries, journals, letters, and essay while that
of poetry are those in our poems.
Elements of fiction. Fiction is “a series of imagined facts which illustrates truths about human life.” In other
words it is a story created from an author's imagination. Although it may also be written in verse, our focus here are the
fiction written in prose like novels and short stories.
Fiction is best understood if we contrast it with non-fiction. Biographies, histories, journals and diaries are
nonfiction works since they are based entirely on facts or they are historically true. That means that is the name of the
person is used, there really is that person. That is not the case with fiction.
Names are not necessarily names of people who existed or events of incidents which really took place.
A. Characters - the persons involved in the story or affected by actions and ideas. In fables and parables,
characters may also be objects.
Motivation means the reasons for a character's actions. Writers try to ensure that the motives of their characters
make sense. In literature, as in life, character determines action.
The characters in the story may be the following:
1.
Protagonist - the main character or the hero. The female protagonist is called a heroine.
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2.
Antagonist - the anti-hero or the villain. He is the “contra-bida,” a person who fights, struggles, or contends
against the hero.
The female antagonist is called a villainess.
Other characters may be identified as the confidant (male) or confidante (female), a close friend of the
hero/heroine with whom he/she share her/his secrets.
Characterization may be dynamic or developing character. This is the type of character that changes as the story
or novel progresses. On the other hand, there is also the flat or stereotype character which show only one type of
personality; he is either too good to be true or too evil to be accepted. According to Aristotle, there are three main traits
expected of characters:
1. consistency ( in goodness or evil), even in their changes or inconsistencies;
2. believable or probable, that is they are life-like or realistic in their actuations or actions, in their thoughts
and in their feelings;
3.
properly motivated, meaning, they act according to certain behavioral laws or reasons.
There are certain ways by which we can identify characters and how they characterize themselves. The ways of
revealing characters are the following:
1.
By the direct or dramatic way, a character reveals himself by the outright description of his physical look,
his age, gender, even his traits.
2.
Indirectly or analytically, a character may be known through:
a.
b.
dialogue or what he/she says;
revealing his secret thoughts and
feelings including interior monologue, unheard speech or unspoken thoughts;
c.
juxtaposition with other characters placing him side by side with other characters and comparing them;
him;
d.
what other characters say about
e.
what his name implies (e.g. Leon
has to be “fierce” while Rosa may be charming.)
B.
Setting - the place in which a character's story occurs. Literary characters, like the people who read
about them, do not exist alone in space. They act and react with one another. They also respond to the world in which they
live, a world imagined or described by the author.
In addition to place, setting also includes time and the social milieu in which the story happened. The Manila of
1800’s, for example, is different from the Manila of today, not only in terms of the physical environment like the buildings,
parks and other landmarks but also the social and political atmosphere shown in the customs, traditions, costumes, and even
values of the characters.
Atmosphere is related to setting. Atmosphere is largely, but not wholly an effect of setting. Actually, it is the
emotional climate produces or evoked in the story, as a result of various elements- setting, imagery, diction or choice of
words, tempo of action, degree or clarity or logic, even use of details. To illustrate, the atmosphere of a detective story or
novel is usually tense, suspenseful or at times even horrifying.
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C.
Plot and Conflict. Plot usually refers to a summary of a story. More properly, it means the overall
structure of the play, the arrangement of events. On the bigger sense, it is not just the sequence of events but refers to the
causal relationship of events in the story, identifying the cause of events and how they are interrelated to each other.
In this sense, it is the most important element of drama. In terms of structure, we identify them as the following:
1.
Exposition - or the beginning of a story, which gives the audience information about earlier events, the
present situation, or the characters. In some stories, the author focuses on a question or a potential conflict. The author
brings out this question or conflict through the second event, the inciting incident.
In some stories, this may not be included.
2.
Rising action- also known as the inciting moment, sets the action in motion. The inciting incident
makes the audience aware of a major dramatic question, the thread that holds the events of the play together.
3.
Conflict- or complications, are the problems that the hero faces. These are incidents, discoveries and
decisions that change the course of action.
4.
Climax- The complication leads to a crisis, or climax. This is the turning point when previously
concealed information is at least partly revealed and the major dramatic question may be answered. This is the highest peak
of the reader’s interest; the most exciting part of the story.
5.
Resolution or denouement- (pronounced as dey-nu-man) is the final part of the story. It is also
known as the falling action. It is the outcome of the series of events. The resolution often extends from the crisis to the final
curtain. It pulls together the various strands of action and brings the situation to a new balance, thus satisfying the
expectations of the audience.
Plot tells what happens to the characters in a story. A plot is built around a series of events that take place within
a definite period of time. No rules exist for the order in which the events are presented. Some may be told chronologically or
from the beginning to the end, based on the order according to time in which they took place. Some writers used the device
called flashback, where action starts at the middle, returns to the beginning, moves back to the middle and proceeds to the
ending.
The conflict in the story may be the following:
1.
Man vs. man - also known as man on the road. Man here is in conflict with another man or a group of
people. A variation of this is man vs. society.
2.
Man vs. nature - man contends with the forces of nature. Stories of this type of conflict tells us how
man struggles against natural phenomena like floods, volcanic eruptions, fire, lightning, snow, cold mountains, hot dessert,
typhoons, landslides and others.
3.
Man vs. himself - man’s enemy is himself in the sense that he undergoes an inner conflict, especially
on his decisions, or choices between good and evil, right or wrong. He battles with his conscience of what course of action to
take.
D. Theme - is a statement or the basic idea expressed by a work of literature. It develops from the interplay of
character and plot. A theme may warn the reader to lead a better life or a different kind of life. It may convey the author's
moral or political beliefs. It is a universal truth embodied in a literary work. It is the conclusion the reader may make about
life after reading the story or any literary work.
Theme is the world-view of the author which he may explicitly or implicitly share with the reader to have a better
understanding of life. It is a universal philosophy; an insight into human conditions. The theme usually deals with four
general areas of human experience:
1.
2.
3.
4.
the nature of humanity, that is who we really are;
the nature of society, or how we relate with each other;
the nature of man’s relationship to the cosmos/ universe or even God;
the nature of our ethical/moral responsibilities.
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Theme may be suggested by the title, by the dialogue of the characters, through the use of symbols or imagery
that hint it. Most importantly, the theme is revealed by the total impact of the story, on the insights and reflects you get after
considering the ways and thoughts of the character, their actions and the effects or results of their actions.
E. Mood &Tone - manner of speaking or writing; state of mind or feelings conveyed in the stories. Tone is the
narrator’s predominant attitude toward the subject, whether that may be a definite locale or setting, situation or event, a
character or set of characters, idea or theme.
Module 3: Rhetorical Devices and
Figurative Language
WHAT ARE LITERARY DEVICES?
Literary devices take writing beyond its literal meaning. They help guide the reader in how to read the piece.
Literary devices are ways of taking writing beyond its straightforward, literal meaning. In that sense, they are techniques
for helping guide the reader in how to read the piece.
Central to all literary devices is a quality of connection: by establishing or examining relationships between things, literary
devices encourage the reader to perceive and interpret the world in new ways.
One common form of connection in literary devices is comparison. Metaphors and similes are the most obvious examples of
comparison. A metaphor is a direct comparison of two things—“the tree is a giant,” for example. A simile is an indirect
comparison—“the tree is like a giant.” In both instances, the tree is compared to—and thus connected with— something (a
giant) beyond what it literally is (a tree).
Other literary devices forge connections in different ways. For example, imagery, vivid description, connects writing richly to
the worlds of the senses. Alliteration uses the sound of words itself to forge new literary connections (“alligators and
apples”).
By enabling new connections that go beyond straightforward details and meanings, literary devices give
literature its power.
What all these literary devices have in common is that they create new connections: rich layers of sound, sense, emotion,
narrative, and ultimately meaning that surpass the literal details being recounted. They are what sets literature apart, and what
makes it uniquely powerful.
Read on for an in-depth look and analysis at 112 common literary devices.
Lesson 1: Types of Rhetorical Devices
A rhetorical device is a linguistic tool that employs a particular type of sentence structure, sound, or pattern of meaning in
order to evoke a particular reaction from an audience. Each rhetorical device is a distinct tool that can be used to construct
an argument or make an existing argument more compelling.
Types of Rhetorical Devices
Rhetorical devices are loosely organized into the following four categories:
1.
Logos. Devices in this category seek to convince and persuade via logic and reason, and will usually make use of
statistics, cited facts, and statements by authorities to make their point and persuade the listener.
2.
Pathos. These rhetorical devices base their appeal in emotion. This could mean invoking sympathy or pity in the
listener, or making the audience angry in the service of inspiring action or changing their mind about something.
3.
Ethos. Ethical appeals try to convince the audience that the speaker is a credible source, that their words have
weight and must be taken seriously because they are serious and have the experience and judgment necessary to
decide what’s right.
4.
Kairos. This is one of the most difficult concepts in rhetoric; devices in this category are dependent on the idea
that the time has come for a particular idea or action. The very timeliness of the idea is part of the argument.
Top Rhetorical Devices
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Since rhetoric dates back to ancient times, much of the terminology used to discuss it comes from the original Greek.
Despite its ancient origins, however, rhetoric is as vital as ever. The following list contains some of the most important
rhetorical devices to understand:
1.
Alliteration, a sonic device, is the repetition of the initial sound of each word (e.g. Alan the antelope ate
asparagus).
2.
3.
Cacophony, a sonic device, is the combination of consonant sounds to create a displeasing effect.
4.
Humor creates connection and identification with audience members, thus increasing the likelihood that they will
agree with the speaker. Humor can also be used to deflate counter-arguments and make opposing points of view
appear ridiculous.
5.
Anaphora is the repetition of certain words or phrases at the beginning of sentences to increase the power of a
sentiment. Perhaps the best-known example of anaphora is Martin Luther King Jr.'s repetition of the phrase "I have
a dream."
6.
Meiosis is a type of euphemism that intentionally understates the size or importance of its subject. It can be used
to dismiss or diminish a debate opponent's argument.
7.
Hyperbole is an exaggerated statement that conveys emotion and raises the bar for other speakers. Once you
make a hyperbolic statement like “My idea is going to change the world," other speakers will have to respond in
kind or their more measured words may seem dull and uninspiring in comparison.
8.
Apophasis is the verbal strategy of bringing up a subject by denying that that very subject should be brought up
at all.
9.
Anacoluthon is a sudden swerve into a seemingly unrelated idea in the middle of a sentence. It can seem like a
grammatical mistake if handled poorly, but
it can also put powerful stress onto the idea being expressed.
Onomatopoeia, a sonic device, refers to a word that emulates the real-life sound it signifies (e.g. using the word
"bang" to signify an explosion).
10. Chiasmus is a technique wherein the speaker inverts the order of a phrase in order to create a pretty and
powerful sentence. The best example comes from President John F. Kennedy's inaugural address: "Ask not what
your country can do for you— ask what you can do for your country."
11. Anadiplosis is the use of the same word at the end of one sentence and at the beginning of the subsequent
sentence, forming a chain of thought that carries your audience to the point you’ve chosen.
12. Dialogismus refers to moments when the speaker imagines what someone else is thinking, or speaks in the voice
of someone else, in order to explain and then subvert or undermine counterpoints to the original argument.
13. Eutrepismus, one of the most common rhetorical devices, is simply the act of stating points in the form of a
numbered list. Why is it useful? First off, this devices makes information seem official and authoritative. Second, it
gives speech a sense of order and clarity. And third, it helps the listener keep track of the speaker's points.
14. Hypophora is the trick of posing a question and then immediately supplying the answer. Do you know why
hypophora is useful? It's useful because it stimulates listener interest and creates a clear transition point in the
speech.
15. Expeditio is the trick of listing a series of possibilities and then explaining why all but one of those possibilities
are nonstarters. This device makes it seem as though all choices have been considered, when in fact you've been
steering your audience towards the one choice you desired all along.
16. Antiphrasis is another word for irony. Antiphrasis refers to a statement whose actual meaning is the opposite of
the literal meaning of the words within it.
17. Asterismos. Look, this is the technique of inserting a useless but attention-grabbing word in front of your
sentence in order to grab the audience’s attention. It's useful if you think your listeners are getting a bit bored and
restless.
Examples of Rhetorical Devices
Rhetoric isn’t just for debates and arguments. These devices are used in everyday speech, fiction and screenwriting, legal
arguments, and more. Consider these famous examples and their impact on their audience.
1.
“Fear leads to anger. Anger leads to hate. Hate leads to suffering.” –Star Wars: The Empire Strikes Back.
Rhetorical Device: Anadiplosis. The pairs of words at the beginning and ending of each sentence give the
impression that the logic invoked is unassailable and perfectly assembled.
2.
“Ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country.” —President John F.
Kennedy. Rhetorical Device: Chiasmus. The inversion of the phrase can do and the word country creates a
sense of balance in the sentence that reinforces the sense of correctness.
3.
"I will not make age an issue of this campaign. I am not going to exploit, for political purposes, my
opponent’s youth and inexperience." –President
Ronald Reagan
Rhetorical Device: Apophasis. In this quip from a presidential debate, Reagan expresses mock reluctance to
comment on his opponent's age, which ultimately does the job of raising the point of his opponent's age.
4.
“But in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate, we cannot consecrate, we cannot hallow this ground.” —
Abraham Lincoln, Gettysburg Address. Rhetorical Device: Anaphora. Lincoln’s use of repetition gives his words a
sense of rhythm that emphasizes his message. This is also an example of kairos: Lincoln senses that the public
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has a need to justify the slaughter of the Civil War, and thus decides to make this statement appealing to the
higher purpose of abolishing slavery.
“Ladies and gentlemen, I've been to
Vietnam, Iraq, and Afghanistan, and I can say without hyperbole that this is a million times worse
than all of them put together.” –The Simpsons.
Lesson 2: Figurative Language
Figurative language serves as an excellent communication tool and is something we encounter daily that helps us convey
complex descriptions or emotions quickly and effectively. Also referred to as "figures of speech," figurative language can be
utilized to persuade, engage and connect with an audience and amplify your intended message.
Implementing figurative language takes some careful thought and close observations to successfully convey your intended
meaning.
Figurative language is the use of descriptive words, phrases and sentences to convey a message that means something
without directly saying it. Its creative wording is used to build imagery to deepen the audience's understanding and help
provide power to words by using different emotional, visual and sensory connections.
1. Simile
A simile is a comparison between two unlike things using the words "like," "as" or "than." Often used to highlight a
characteristic of one of the items, similes rely on the comparison and the audience's ability to create connections and make
inferences about the two objects being discussed and understand the one similarity they share.
Examples:
My mother is as busy as a bee.
They fought like cats and dogs.
My dog has a bark as loud as thunder. Her love for her children is as constant as the passing of time.
Related: 12 Common Presentation Styles Used in the Workplace
2. Metaphor
A metaphor is a direct comparison without using the comparative words "like" or "as." Metaphors equate the two things
being compared to elicit a stronger connection and deepen the meaning of the comparison. Some metaphors, which
continue for several lines or an entire piece, are called extended metaphors.
Examples:
Her smile is the sunrise.
Your son was a shining star in my classroom. The tall trees were curtains that surrounded us during our picnic.
The ants soldiered on to steal our dessert.
Related: Simile vs. Metaphor: What's the
Difference? (With Examples)
3. Personification
Personification is attributing human characteristics to nonhuman things. This personifies objects and makes them more
relatable.
Examples:
The chair squealed in pain when the hammer smashed it.
The tree's limb cracked and groaned when lightning hit it.
My heart jumped when my daughter entered the room in her wedding dress.
The computer argued with me and refused to work.
Related: 26 Narrative Techniques for Writers
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(With Examples)
4. Onomatopoeia
Onomatopoeia is the use of descriptive words that sound or mimic the noise they are describing.
Examples:
The water splashed all over the top of the car. Owls screech through the night and keep us awake when we are camping.
My stomach grumbled in hunger as we entered the restaurant.
Thumping and booming in excitement, my heart pounded to hear the results of the lottery.
5. Oxymoron
An oxymoron is a description using two opposite ideas to create an effective description. The format is often an adjective
proceeded by a noun.
Examples:
My father's thoughtless idea landed him in the middle of the lake without a life jacket.
The jumbo shrimp is a favorite of customers.
The loud silence of night keeps him awake. An ever-flowing stillness of water, the river cuts through the woods.
Related: 22 Types of Nonfiction Writing and
Their Features
6. Hyperbole
A hyperbole is an over-exaggeration used to emphasize an emotion or description. Sometimes hyperbole also implements the
use of simile and comparative words.
Examples:
I am so hungry I would eat dirt right now.
My brother is taller than a skyscraper. The concert was so loud the drums echoed in space.
Racing through the day was a marathon run for me.
Related: 7 Satire Techniques With Tips
7. Litotes
Litotes are figures of speech that use understatement to make a point. It is often sarcastic in tone. The statement is affirmed
by negating the opposite.
Examples:
I can't say I disagree with what you're saying.
My dog is not the friendliest.
He's not even a little tired after staying up all night watching television.
She's not unkind.
Related: 5 Persuasive Techniques To Improve
Your Writing
8. Idiom
An idiom is a commonly used expression that has acquired a meaning different from its literal meaning. Idiomatic phrases
vary by culture and language. They are often difficult to grasp for language learners because the expression's true meaning
is so different than what is being expressed.
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Examples:
My grandmother's garden is flourishing because of her green thumb.
The children could not play baseball because it was raining cats and dogs outside. You must play your cards right to win at
the game of life.
Some people throw in the towel before they should and never learn the value of working hard for success.
Related: 8 Types of Symbolism
9. Alliteration
Alliteration is the repetition of the same consonant sound at the start of one or more words near one another. It is often
used to emphasize an emotion or reveal a stronger description.
Examples:
The pitter-patter of paws echoed down the hallway and woke me from my slumber. The clamoring clash of dished
cracking on the concrete burned my ears.
Old creaking crates carry ages of dust within them and are about to burst open.
The babble of babies brings joy to my ears.
10. Allusion
An allusion is a reference to a well-known person, place, thing or event of historical, cultural or literary merit. It requires the
audience to use their background knowledge to understand the meaning.
Examples:
You stole the forbidden fruit when you took his candy.
He didn't do anything as bad as chopping down a cherry tree.
She was Helen of Troy of the class and made all the boys fight.
My little girl ran faster than a speeding bullet when she grabbed my lipstick.
Related: Writing Styles: A Comprehensive
Guide
11. Synecdoche
Synecdoche is a figure of speech that uses a part of something to refer to its whole. Less commonly, synecdoche can be
used when a whole is used to refer to a part. The most common types of wholes and parts include a physical structure and
its parts, an object and the material it is made out of, a container and what it holds, and a category and the items in those
categories.
Examples:
She's got an awesome set of wheels! The company needs more hands on deck to get complete this project in time.
The White House issued a statement today.
The captain commands 70 sails.