RESEARCH METHODOLOGY FACILITATOR: PROF. E CHINOMONA Research Onion Deductive and Inductive RESEARCH IN PRACTICE! • • • • • • • • • • General Structure of a Good Research RESEARCH BACKGROUND – Introduction – Problem statement – Purpose of the study – Research Objectives • Theoretical • Empirical – Justifcation of the study – Signifcance of the study LITERATURE REVIEW, CONCEPTUAL MODEL & HYPOTHSIS STATEMENT – Theoretical grounding (Theory) – Empirical review (Research variables) – Conceptual model – Hypothesis statement RESEARCH DESIGN & METHODOLOGY – Target population – Sampling frame – Sample size – Sampling method – Measurement instruments DATA ANALYSIS APPROACH – Data analysis procedure – Statistical soft wares to be used – Checking measurement instrument reliability and validity – Checking model ft – Testing the hypothesis DISCUSSION OF RESULTS, CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATIONS LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS OUTLINE OF THE STUDY DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS REFERENCES The Process of Starting a Research • • • • • • • • It is often best not to start a Research project with a TITLE. A Research Title can change at any stage of your research. Rather, start your Research Project with a Research Idea. Review and consult the literature on your Research Idea Identify Research Variables of interest Then conceptualise a Research Model Decide on a possible Research Topic Decide on the purpose, theoretical and empirical objectives RESEARCH IDEA GENERATION Does the Research Idea elicit interest and curiosity in you? • The frst decision you should make regards how you actually feel about the Research Idea. • It is very important that the topic you choose is of interest to you and that it also elicits curiosity within you. • Your interest and curiosity should manifest themselves by adding to Using the Research Literature to Generate Ideas • Ideas for your research project often come out of the research literature. • You could select a small number of topics within your discipline which are of interest to you, and investigate them in depth. • Another strategy is to acquaint yourself with research at the cutting edge of your discipline. This can be achieved by keeping yourself up to date with top journals dedicated to your area of interest. • A fnal strategy is to check the limitations identifed by some Researchers in current studies in good journals. Generate a Observations & Practical Problems • A Research Idea can emerge from everyday observations – e.g. a problem noticed at workplace or in a community • The Researcher might desire to fnd out the causes of the problem or the Researcher might be intrigued to investigate the consequences of the identifed problem - with the view of fnding solutions to the problem. RESEARCH WORTHNESS Is the Research Idea worthwhile? • It is very important that you pick a Research Idea that is worthwhile. • A worthwhile Research Idea is ethical, likelihood of Research Model/framework conceptualisation, possible good research design and is likely to yield or produce meaningful results that further scientifc knowledge. • If your topic is not worthwhile, not only is it unethical, but you are also failing to satisfy the requirements of meaningful results with theoretical and practical implications. • It is important to note that it is your RESEARCH FEASIBILITY Is the topic do-able? • It is of paramount importance that the Research Idea for your project is feasible. • You must make critical decisions regarding whether you will be capable of collecting primary data to answer your potential research question – in order to avoid losing your precious time. • It is also important to decide whether you would have enough resources and time to gather the information and carry out your analyses. CONCEPTUALISING A RESEACH MODEL CAUSAL RELATIONSHIP CONCEPTUAL RESEARCH MODEL • DIRECT CAUSAL RELATIONSHIPS – Predictor(s) Variable(s) – Outcome(s) Variable(s) • INDIRECT CAUSAL RELATIONSHIPS – Predictor(s) Variable(s) – Mediator(s) Variable(s) EXAMPLES OF DIRECT CAUSAL RELATIONSHIPS EXAMPLES OF DIRECT CAUSAL RELATIONSHIPS EXAMPLES OF INDIRECT CAUSAL RELATIONSHIPS EXAMPLES OF INDIRECT CAUSAL RELATIONSHIPS EXAMPLES OF INDIRECT CAUSAL RELATIONSHIPS Antecedents of frm performance. A case of Eskom Effect of supplier trust on supplier selection, communication and frm performance Impact of suppliers on frm performance in Small and medium Enterprises RESEARCH TITLE DECISION • A good Research Title should attempt to capture the Research Variables in the Model or their summary. • A good Research Title should consider the focus or positioning of the study • A good Research Topic should be short, precise and to the point • As a rule of the thumb – a good Research Topic REFINING A RESEARCH TITLE • • • • • • The title should give the reader a succinct indication of what the research is about. This must include reference to the feld of research and an indication of what the research question is. The title should be concise and descriptive. For example, the phrase, "An investigation of . . ." could be omitted. Often titles are stated in terms of a functional relationship, because such titles clearly indicate the independent and dependent variables. However, if possible, think of an informative but catchy title. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY • Your study purpose is a summative of Empirical Questions in Statement form • It is as good as your Research Topic - indicating the Relationships that you seek to explore. • Study purpose be brief and indicative of the direction of Research Project RESEARCH OBJECTIVES • Often divided as theoretical and empirical objectives • It is advisable to draw your Theoretical and Empirical Objectives directly from your Conceptual Research Model • Theoretical Objectives: Make reference to the important research constructs that you ought to review literature on • Empirical Objectives: Refer to the • RESEARCH QUESTIONS The research question plays a vital role throughout the research process. • It is vital that you present a clear statement of the specifc purposes of your study. The research question simply comprises of this specifc purpose as a question. In writing the introduction section of your research project, your review of the literature must be defned by your research question which acts as the guiding concept. • Careful conceptualisation and phrasing of the research question is of paramount importance, because everything done in the remainder of the research process is aimed at answering your research question. • The question that you develop might involve highlyspecifc and precisely-defned hypotheses typical of Research Questions • To what extent does employee perception of organisational politics (POP) infuence their organisational commitment in Zimbabwe’s SMEs sector? • To what extent does employee perception of equity (POE) infuence their organisational commitment in Zimbabwe’s SMEs sector? • To what extent does employee perception of organisational politics infuence their turnover intention in Zimbabwe’s SMEs sector? • To what extent does employee perception of equity (POE) infuence their turnover intention in Zimbabwe’s SMEs sector? • To what extent does employee organisational RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS • HYPOTHESIS STATEMENT • Adopt one style and be consistent • State the causal relationships between the research variables or linkages • E.g. – There is a positive (negative) relationship between “A” and “B” – “A” is positively (negatively) related to “B” INTRODUCTION The introduction provides the reader with sufficient information on the feld of study to allow for an appreciation of the proposed research. Introduction places the project in context with what is known. This section can also form the basis for the introduction of the dissertation/thesis. Therefore you need to: Refect on the research context Highlight the importance of the importance of your study in view of PROBLEM STATEMENT Problem statement is important because it directs the rest of the research project or study. Reveal the known and the unknown. Done through reading a lot. Future Directions Refect on the (background to problem) and situate the problem. Highlight the importance of investigating the problem in the context Use statistical backing if possible or references to indicate the magnitude of the problem Precisely and clearly formulate the study problem, taking into account, in particular, the meaning of the central concepts posed in the conceptual research model. PROBLEM STATEMENT (CONT.) • It is vital that you present a clear statement of the specifc purposes of your study. • The research question simply comprises of this specifc purpose as a question. • It is important that you also explain, very clearly, why this question is worth answering. • What do you hope to learn from it? What will this new knowledge add to the existing feld? What new perspective will PROBLEM STATEMENT & JUSTIFICATION OR SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY • If you can not justify your study and prove its signifcance to the practice and the body of knowledge then they might no reason for you to undertake the research • Why is the Research project worth your effort, time and resources. • What new knowledge will the study contribute to the existing body of literature • What possible practical relevance of implications will your study have. • Clearly justify and state the signifcance of What to include in Chapter 1 • 1.1 Introduction • 1.2 Problem statement • 1.3 Purpose of the study • 1.4 Research Model • 1.5 Research Objective • • • • • • • 1.5.1 Theoretical Objectives 1.5.2 Empirical Objectives 1.6 Research Questions 1.7 Justification of the study 1.8 The scope of the study 1.9 Ethical considerations 1.10 Outline of the study • 1.11 Definition of key terms • 1.12 Summary LITERATURE REVIEW Different search engines • • • • • • • Science direct Google scholar EBSCO Pro-quest Emerald JSTOR Use the library frequently REASONS FOR REVIEWING LITERATURE • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Reviewing the literature critically will provide the foundation on which your research is built. The main purpose is to help you to develop a good understanding and insight into relevant previous research and the trends that have emerged. The purpose of your literature review is not to provide a summary of everything that has been written on your research topic, but to review the most relevant and signifcant research on your topic. To help you to refne further your research questions and objectives To highlight research possibilities that have been overlooked implicitly in research to date To discover explicit recommendations for further research To help you avoid simply repeating work that has been done already To sample current opinions in newspapers, professional and trade journals, thereby gaining insights into the aspects of your research questions and objectives that are considered newsworthy Integral part of the logic of the research process Integral part of the logic of the research design Triggers creative thinking Becoming familiar with the subject area of interest Finding evidence in the academic discourse to establish a need for the proposed research Helps to ascertain the nature of previous researches Helps to identify gaps in knowledge Helps to develop the context for a proper research problem/question Helps identify the issues surrounding the research question (what is already known about the problem) Helps to identify issues and variables related to the research topic Helps to identify appropriate research methodologies and techniques Can serve as a chapter in the thesis Helps to establish a theoretical framework upon which to base the research Justifes the need for the research Keeping abreast of on going work in the area of interest Indicates that the researcher is knowledgeable about the topic To discover and provide an insight into research approaches, strategies and techniques that may be appropriate to your own research questions and objectives THEORETICAL GROUNDING • Why do you need a theory to ground your study? • How do you identify an appropriate theory to ground your study? • Can you use more than one theory to ground your study? • How do you relate a theory (theories) to your study Empirical Review of Research Variables Literature • What information do you need to include when reviewing literature on your research constructs? – Importance of the variables – Defnitions of the variables Vs operational defnition – Dimensions of the variables if any CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW • 2.1 INTRODUCTION • 2.2 THEORETICAL REVIEW • 2.2.1 Justice Judgement Theory • 2.3 LITERATURE REVIEW OF RESEARCH VARIABLES • • • • • • 2.3.1 Customer Satisfaction 2.3.1.1 Antecedents of Customer satisfaction 2.3.1.2 Outcomes of Customer satisfaction 2.3.1.3 Measurement of Customer satisfaction 2.3.2 Brand love 2.4 RESEARCH MODEL • 2.5 HYPOTHESES STATING • 2.6 CHAPTER TWO SUMMARY What is Research Design • Research design refers to a detailed outline of how an investigation will take place. • A research design encompasses the methodology and procedures employed to conduct scientifc research. • A research design will typically include: – how data is to be collected (Sampling design), – what instruments will be employed (Measurement Items, Source & Measurement Scale), – how the instruments will be used (Data RESEARCH DESIGN: QUANTITATIVE STUDY • Quantitative research focuses on analysis of numerical data from quantitative variables. • The approach often follows the scientifc method of data collection by using designs that permit various levels of confdence in making causal inferences. • Research design in a quantitative study often comprise of: – Sampling design SAMPLING DESIGN Sampling Design • Sample design covers all aspects of how the samples in the survey is specifed and selected. • The design of samples is a particularly important aspect of survey methodology, and provides a basis for the sound measurement of economic and social phenomena from surveys of businesses and households. Sampling design covers: – Target Population What is a Target Population? • Target population is the aggregation of elements (members of the population) from which the sample is actually selected. • The target population for a survey is the entire set of units for which the survey data are to be used to make inferences. • Target population defnes those units for which the fndings of the survey are meant to generalize. • Target population refers to the entire What is a Sampling Frame? • Sampling frame is the list of elements from which the sample is actually drawn – a complete and correct list of the population members only. • In statistics, a sampling frame is the source material or device from which a sample is drawn. • Sampling frame is a list of all those within a population who can be sampled, and may include individuals, households or What is Sample Size? • Sample size is the actual number or size of the sample • There are no fxed rules in determining the size of a sample needed. • But for a greater accuracy and reliability of results, a larger sample is desirable. • The narrower or smaller the error range, the larger the sample must be. • However, there are guidelines to be observed in determining the size of a sample, i.e.: – When the population is more or less homogeneous and only the typical, normal, or average is desired to be known, a smaller sample is enough. However, if the differences are desired to be known, then a larger sample is needed. – When a population is more or less heterogeneous and only the typical, normal or average is desired to be known, then a larger sample is needed. However, if only their differences are desired to be known, a smaller sample is sufficient. – The Statistical software to be used to analyse the data is another guiding indicator of the sample size needed. E.g. – What is a Sampling Method? • The sampling method is the scientifc procedure of selecting those sampling units which would provide the required estimates with associated margins of uncertainty, arising from examining only a part and not the whole. • There are two sampling Methods: – Probability sampling – Non-probability sampling • However, for Quantitative studies Sampling Method: Probability Sampling • A sample is a proportion of the population and such sample is selected from the population by means of some systematic way in which every element of the population has a chance of being included in the sample • Types of Probability Sampling: – Pure/Simple random probability sampling – Systematic probability sampling Pure/Simple Random Probability Sampling • This type of sampling is one in which • • • • every one in the population of the inquiry has an equal chance of being selected to be included in the sample Also called the lottery or rafe type of sampling This may be used if the population has no differentiated levels, sections or classes. It is done with or without replacement The main advantage of this technique of sampling is that, it is easy to understand and it is easy to apply. Systematic Probability • Sampling Systematic probability sampling is a technique • • • • of sampling in which every Nth name in a list may be selected to be included in a sample It is also called interval sampling, there should be a gap or interval, between each selected unit in the sample It is used when the subjects or respondents in the study are arrayed or arranged in some systematic or logical manner such as alphabetical arrangement The main advantage is that it is more convenient, faster and more economic The disadvantage is that the sample becomes biased if the persons in the list belong to a class • Stratifed Probability Sampling Stratifed probability sampling is a process of selecting randomly, samples from the different strata of the population used in the study. • A sample here is selected based on some known characteristics of the population, a characteristic which will have an impact on the research. Using stratifed sampling the researcher divides or stratifes the sample selected for use in the research using the characteristics which he or she will have an impact on the research. • The advantage is that it contributes much to the representative of the sample Cluster Probability Sampling • Cluster probability sampling is also called Multistage cluster sampling • It is used when the population is so big or the geographical area of the research is so large • The advantage of cluster probability sampling is that, of efficiency • The disadvantage is that it has reduced accuracy or • • • • • • Non-Probability Sampling Is any sample in which little or no attempt is made to get a representative cross-section of the population. Is an arbitrary or subjective procedure where each population element does not have a known non zero chance of being included. No attempt is made to generate a statistically representative sample. Sampling process where the probability of selecting each sampling unit is unknown. It allows considerable researcher discretion in choosing members of the sample Quota Sampling- non –probability sampling technique in which participants are selected according to pre-specifed quotas that are thought to have major impacts on the fndings of the survey. The proportion of sample elements with certain characteristics is about the same as the proportion of the elements with the characteristics in the target population. Is normally used for interview surveys. Convenience Sampling- or haphazard sampling involves selecting haphazardly those cases that are easiest to obtain for your sample such as the person interviewed at random in a shopping center for a television programme Using this technique the researcher engages conveniently located participants. The rationale is that it enables a large number of respondents to be interviewed in a relatively short time. Purposive or Judgemental Sampling- enables you to use your judgement to select cases that will best enable you to answer to your research questions and to meet your objectives. This form of sample is • • • continued Snowball sampling- Selection of additional respondents is made on the basis of referrals from the initial respondents. This is used when a desired type of respondents is hard to fnd for example people who are working while claiming unemployment beneft. The researcher fnds a suitable participant and asks them to recommend another participant. This technique employs the old adage “Birds of the same feather fock together”. Subsequent participants are referred by current sample elements because they might have the same characteristics, experiences, attitudes similar to each other. A researcher locate an initial set of respondents with the desired characteristics. In this technique the respondents are members who are small, hard to reach, uniquely defned target populations. QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN Research Measurement •Instruments A measurement instrument is a measure which • • • • combines the values of several items or variables (also called indicators, observations, events, questions) into a composite measure in order to predict or gauge some underlying continuum which can only be partially measured by single item or variable. In an exploratory study a Researcher has to develop the measurement instrument However, a Researcher can adopt and adapt measurement instruments from prior studies. If measurement instruments are adapted from previous studies, the source aught to be provided and the number of items used for each variable The Research also need to provide the measurement scale, e.g. Is it a “5 point likert scale” or a “7-point likert scale” and the anchors, i.e. - strongly disagree; DATA COLLECTION METHOD/TECHNIQUE Data Collection Method & Procedure • Distribution and collection of questionnaire – Select the method you will use to distribute and collect your questionnaire – Use of research assistance if possible for distribution and collection of questionnaire OR – Mailing questionnaire (posting or emailing) OR – Use of telephone – Please note that each chosen method has its merits and demerits • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • CHAPTER 3: Research Methodology 3.1 Introduction 3.1.1 Qualitative Research 3.1.2 Quantitative Research 3.2 Target population 3.3 Sample frame 3.4 Sample size 3.5 Sampling techniques 3.5.1 Probability sampling Techniques 3.5.1.1 Simple random sampling 3.5.2 Non-probability sampling techniques 3.5.2.1 Snowball sampling 3.6 Measurement instruments 3.6.1 Descriptive statistics 3.6.2 Customer Satisfaction 3.7 Data collection 3.8 Summary 3.9 References 4.1 Questionnaire DATA ANALYSIS APPROACH & PROCEDURE DATA ANALYSIS APPROACH& STATISTICAL APPROACH • Coding data in Excel Spreadsheet and data cleansing • Transforming data and descriptive statistics (Profle data frequency tables e.t.c. using SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences) 24.0 Statistical software. • Can use ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) or Manova, Canonical correlation analysis, Multiple regression analysis. • Checking research model ft to data using AMOS 24.0 Statistical software . • Performing Confrmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) using AMOS 24.0 Statistical software. DATA ANALYSIS: RELIABILITY & VALIDITY OF MEASUREMENT INSTRUMENTS Measurement Instrument Reliability •& Reliability (Consistency ) Validity • • • • • • • • • • Reliability refers to the quality of a measurement procedure that provides repeatability and accuracy. Reliability estimates are used to evaluate (1) the stability of measures administered at different times to the same individuals or using the same standard (test–retest reliability)or (2) the equivalence of sets of items from the same test (internal consistency) or of different observers scoring a behavior or event using the same instrument. Reliability coefficients range from 0.00 to 1.00, with higher coefficients indicating higher levels of reliability. A good measure of some entity is expected to produce consistent scores. A procedures' reliability is estimated using a coefficient (i.e., a numerical summary). The major types of coefficients include: – Cronbach's Alpha value – Composite reliability value Validity (Meaningfulness ) A valid measurement tool or procedure does a good job of measuring the concept that it purports to measure. Validity means that correct procedures have been applied to fnd answers to a question. Validity is often defned as the extent to which an instrument measures what it purports to measure. Validity requires that an instrument is reliable, but an instrument can be reliable without being valid Below are three main classes of validity, each having several subtypes – Convergent validity DATA ANALYSIS: MODEL FIT Checking Research Model Fit • Checking the model fit for CFA & Path Model – Chi-square value (<3). – Comparative fit index (CFI): - (> 0.900) – Goodness of fit index (GFI): (> 0.900) – Incremental fit index (IFI): (> 0.900) – Normed fit index (NFI): (> 0.900) – Tucker Lewis index (TLI): (> 0.900) – Random measure of standard error approximation (RMSEA): (< 0.08) CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATION S Discussion of Results, Implications, Conclusion & Recommendations • Indicate that you will: – Discuss the research fndings – Provide the research implications – Provide recommendations – Provide the limitations of your study and – Suggest future research – Finally, Conclusion ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS • • • • • • • • A recognized ethical committee needs to give ethical clearance for the research. Most universities have representative committees at different levels. Departmental research will thus receive consideration and recommendations at that level, whereas the Faculty Academic Ethics Committee will review each proposal based on the following ethical issues: – Scientifc design and conduct of the study – Recruitment of research participants – Care and protection of research participants (confdentiality / consent) – Community considerations Outside agencies may request that ethical clearance be obtained from a tertiary institution or recognized body. By considering the proposal, they may have an in-house ethical committee in place that will assess this aspect of the proposal. Special consideration will be given to the right to privacy, confdentiality and anonymity of research participants. The right to equality, justice, human dignity/life and protection against harm must be ensured. DEFINITION OF MAJOR CONCEPTS • All research variables are important concepts and therefore the operational defnitions need to be provided. • Defne other key concepts e.g. the research context - SMEs REFERENCES • Harvard Referencing style Research Process Summary CLASS PRACTICE • Based on your Research idea decide on whether you what to investigate the predictors or consequences • Using the research papers (articles) you downloaded on your Research idea, identify the Research Variable of your interest • Using the chosen Research Variables Conceptualise your Research Model • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • What to include in Chapter 4 CHAPTER 4: DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS. 4.1 INTRODUCTION 4.2 DATA ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES 4.2.1 Descriptive statistics 4.2.2 Reliability and Validity Analysis 4.3 CORNFIRMATORY FACTOR ANALYSIS (CFA) 4.3.1 CFA Model 4.3.2 Model Fit Results 4.3.3 Factor Loadings 4.4 STRUCTURAL EQUATION MODELING (SEM) 4.4.1 SEM Model 4.4.2 Model Fit Results 4.4.3. Path Modelling Results 4.4.4 Standardised Regression Weights 4.5 OVERALL RESULTS OF SEM HYPOTHESIS TESTING CONTINUED • • • 4.6 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS 4.7 SUMMARY 4.8 REFERENCES • TUTORS WILL TELL YOU THE FLESH AND BLOOD TO ADD UNDER THE HEADINGS. Will invite Prof Chinomona. • Chapter 5 • • • • • • • • Conclusion and Recommendations 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Contributions 5.3 Recommendations 5.4 Limitations 5.5 Suggestions for future research 5.6 Summary 5.7 References Final Thesis • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • PORTFOLIO OF LEARNING EVIDENCE Include the cover page where you write the title, your name and student number, year ,name of the supervisor and co-supervisor. Acknowledgements Abstract, importance of the study, target population and number of respondents, Hs supported & rejected. Table of contents Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 References Appendix 1 Questionnaire. Appendix 2 Marked Chapter 4 Appendix 3 Marked Chapter 5 Appendix 4 Marked PPT • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Presentation (13/10/2014) Introduction Research Objectives Problem Statement Research Gap Literature Review Model Hypotheses Descriptive Statistics Reliability and Validity CFA SEM Discussion of results Conclusion Contributions Recommendations Limitations Future Research Direction References (Few of them). SENT TO ME EXCEL FILE DATA, SPSS FILE, COMPLETE THESIS, QUESTIONNAIRE BEFORE YOU COME TO MY OFFICE TO SUBMIT. THANK YOU!!!
