Philippine Politics and Governance – Grade 11
Alternative Delivery Mode
Quarter 1 – Module 1: Introduction: The Concepts of Politics and Governance
First Edition, 2020
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Philippine Politics and Governance
Quarter 1 – Module 1:
Introduction: The Concepts of
Politics and Governance
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Overview
Module Contents
What I Need to Know
General Instructions
What I Know (Pre-test)
What I Need to Know ……………………………………………………………. 11
Objectives ………………………………………………………………… 21
General Instructions……………………………………………………… 22
Lesson 1: Introduction: The Concepts of Politics and Governance .. 55
Lesson 2: Political Ideologies ………………………………………….. 17
7
Lesson 3: Power, States, Nations, and Globalization ………………. 29
9
Engagement and Youth Empowerment ………………….
What I Have Learned ……………………………………………………………. 38
38
Assessment ………………………………………………………………………. 40
40
References ……………………………………………………………………….. 52
47
MODULE 1
Introduction: The Concepts of
Politics and Governance
Overview: What this module is all about
Hello dear Learner! How are you today? Are you aware of the current events
happening in your community? Do you know about what is happening in your
country as well? Do you think it is important to know about what is going on around
you?
This is the first of the modules that will introduce you to Philippine Politics and
Governance. In this module, you will be introduced to various interpretations,
definitions and views on politics. In each lesson, you will find learning activities,
concept notes, exercises, and drills. Critical analytical thinking skills, research skills,
library skills, technology skills, proper documentation, and globalization will help build
your competencies among others.
This module also builds the knowledge based on governance that you will
eventually apply in the later part of this course. It will also prepare and develop you
to be better citizens, leaders, managers, and administrators possibly in the near
future.
Module Contents
This module has three lessons:
 Lesson 1 – Politics, Political Science and Governance
 Lesson 2 – Political Ideologies
 Lesson 3 – Power, States, Nations, and Globalization
1
Module Objectives
After going through this module, you are expected to:
1. Articulate definitions of politics (HUMSS_pg12-1a-1);
2. Differentiate the various views on politics (HUMSS_pg12-1a-2);
3. Explore the connection between the phenomenon (politics) and the method of
inquiry (Political Science) (HUMSS_pg12-1a-3);
4. Recognize the value of politics (HUMSS_pg12-1a-4);
5. Differentiate governance from government (HUMSS_pg12-1a-5);
6. Identify the basic tenets of major political ideologies (i.e. liberalism, socialism,
conservatism, etc.) (HUMSS_pg12-1b-c-6)6
7. Differentiate the political ideologies (HUMSS_pg12-1b-c -7);
8. Examine the relationship between political ideologies and configurations of
political communities (HUMSS_pg12-1b-c-8);
9. Critique ideas that have a direct impact on how we try to manage ourselves
as a political community (HUMSS_pg12-1b-c-9);66
10. Analyze how political ideologies impact on the social and political life of
Filipino (HUMSS_pg12-1b-c-10);
11. Define power (HUMSS_pg12-1d-11);
12. Recognize the nature, dimensions, types, and consequences of power
(HUMSS_pg12-1d-12);
13. Analyze the nature, dimensions, types, and consequences of power
(HUMSS_pg12-1d-13);
14. Assess how power is exercised in different situations (HUMSS_pg12-1d-14);
15. Define nation and state (HUMSS_pg12-1e-15);
16. Differentiate nation and state (HUMSS_pg12-1e-16);
17. Explain meanings of globalization (HUMSS_pg12-1e-17); and
18. Evaluate how globalization influences nation-states (HUMSS_pg12-1e-18).
General Instructions
To achieve the objectives of this module, do the following:
 Take your time reading the lessons carefully.
 Follow the directions and/or instructions in the activities and exercises
diligently.
 Answer all the given tests and exercises.
2
What I Know
Instruction: To test your previously learned knowledge of history, politics, and
governance, answer the pre-test below.
A. Fill in the missing letters.
Read carefully each clue and fill in the missing letters inside the box.
1. It is derived from the Greek word ‘Polis’ which means city-state
P
L
T
I
S
2. It deals with past events, movements, revolutions, national struggles, etc. and give
information about the origin and development of political institutions and thought
H
I
O
Y
3. Greek Philosopher who popularized the lines “Man is a political animal.”
R
S
T
T
L
B. Multiple Choice.
Read carefully each item and encircle the letter of your correct answer.
1. Power is derived from which Old French word?
A. Poeir
B. Potere
C. Powe
D. Porete
2. Who among the following authors defines power as the ability to achieve a result?
A. Max Weber
B. Leslie Lipson
C. Alvin Genldner
D. Anthony Giddens
3. What Type of power comes from experience or knowledge?
A. Expert
B. Legitimate
C. Reward D. Coercive
4. Which of the following is not an element of state?
A. People
B. Territory
C. Government
D. School
5. Which of the following refers to an individual's right to use power by making
decisions, giving a directive and demanding compliance?
A. Sovereignty B. Legitimacy
C. Authority
D. Power
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6. Which ideology has the absence of a government, but has the presence of laws?
A. Anarchism
C. Liberalism
B. Conservatism
D. Socialism
7. Which of the following ideologies maintain traditional values but also accept the
current political structure of societies?
A. Anarchism
C. Liberalism
B. Conservatism
D. Socialism
8. The quality present in liberalism but not in any other political ideology
A. collectivism
C. democratic election
B. emphasis on individualism
D. nihilism
C. True or False.
Read the following statement and write TRUE if the statement is correct and write
FALSE if it is wrong. Write your answer in the space provided.
_______________1. Power is the ability to make people do what you would have
them do even if they don’t want to.
_______________ 2. According to Alvin Genldner power has three faces or
dimensions.
_______________3. The focus of analysis of a two dimensional view is the formal
arena
_______________4. In order for a country to be a state, all the elements of the state
must be present.
_______________5. Kurdistan is an example of a stateless nation.
Answer Key Page 50
4
Lesson
POLITICS, POLITICAL
1
SCIENCE AND GOVERNANCE
Let us find out the meaning of politics and how is it different from governance.
What is the definition of political science and the relevance on the study of politics
and governance? Do the following activities and learn along the way.
Are you ready?
As you go on, please be guided by this Lesson Outline
a. Articulate definitions of politics
b. Differentiate the various views on politics
c. Explore the connection between the phenomenon (politics) and the method of
inquiry (Political Science)
d. Recognize the value of politics
e. Differentiate governance from government
What can I do
Activity 1:
Instruction: Examine the titles of the headline stories of broad sheet
newspapers. Then answer the following questions in the next page.
World Health Organization
declares global emergency over
new coronavirus outbreak
Plants are magic and what’s next in
Netflix channel
Provincial Jail inmate tagged in
P50-M ‘shabu’ delivery
Filipinos wins in ML challenge in
the USA
Meats delivered in Misamis
Oriental market positive for
African Swine Fever
Avon releases new shade of
lipstick
5
Questions:
1. Which of the stories do you think portrays politics? Why?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
2. Which of the stories do you think do not describe politics? Why?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
3. Choosing one news story identified as depicting politics, what is the issue or
problem identified?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
4. Why do you think it is an issue or problem?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
5. Is it important to solve or address the problem? Why or why not?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
6. Whose responsibility do you think it is to solve the problem? Why?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
7. Who will likely benefit once a problem is solved? Why?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
Congratulations for writing your thoughts on the questions above!
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Learning concepts 1.1
What you have written is your opinion, claim, conclusion or conjecture about
the topic we are about to discuss: politics and governance. Politics can be exciting!
People oftentimes disagree. They disagree about how they should live, how power
and resources should be distributed, how society shoud be run, and so on. Go over
the readings and perform the activities situated in every lesson. Happy learning!
POLITICS
The great Greek philosopher Aristotle once said, Man by nature is a political
animal. For Aristotle, this made politics the ‘master science’: that is, nothing less than
the activity through which human beings attempt to improve their lives and create the
Good Society. Politics is, above all, a social activity. It is always a dialogue, and
never a monologue.
To study politics is in essence to study government or more broadly, to study
the exercise of authority. Politics is the art of government, the exercise of control
within the society through the making and enforcement of collective decisions
(Heywood, 1997).
Politics came from the word polis meaning “of or pertaining to state” in Greek.
It is also the root word for polites meaning people or citizens and politikos meaning
“of, for, or relating to citizens” which also translates to “affairs of the state.” It involves
decision-making, law-making, and governance. It is the study of practice and
distribution of powers.
The word moved into the Latin language as politicus, with additional meanings
of "city" and "civics." As with much Latin, the word made its way into modern English
through French derivations. The first use of the singular politic showed up in English
in the 1400s, coming from the Middle French politique.
In ancient times, city-states like Athens and Sparta were relatively small and
cohesive units, in which political, religious, and cultural concerns were intertwined.
The Greek philosopher Aristotle's word for ‘politics’ is politikê, which is short for
politikê epistêmê or ‘political science.' Politics is a practical science since it is
concerned with the noble action or happiness of the citizens (although it resembles a
productive science in that it seeks to create, preserve, and reform political systems).
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ACTIVITY 1.2
1. Label below the etymology of the word politics:
Greek word for politics
The Latin word for politics
Meaning
Interpretation
2. Give your own interpretation or meaning of politics:
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
Learning Concepts 1.2
DIFFERENT POLITICAL VIEWS
According to the International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral
Sciences (2001), a political ideology is a set of ideas, beliefs, values, and opinions,
exhibiting a recurring pattern, that competes deliberately as well as unintentionally
over providing plans of action for public policy making, in an attempt to justify,
explain, contest, or change the social and political arrangements and processes of a
political community. Political ideologies, may more or less provide basis for coherent
ideas for organized political action whether these ideas intend to preserve, modify or
overthrow an existing government or power structure. Below are some of the
different ideologies.
Political Ideology
Conservatism
Definition and Perspectives on the State
Conservatism is the belief that traditional institutions work
best and that society should avoid radical change. Some
conservatives seek to preserve things as they are,
emphasizing stability and continuity, while others oppose
modernism and seek a return to the way things were.
Links the state to the need to provide authority and discipline
and to protect society from chaos and disorder, hence, their
traditional preference for a strong state.
Liberalism
Liberalism is the belief in the importance of liberty and
equality. Most liberals support such fundamental ideas as
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constitutions, liberal democracy, free and fair elections,
human rights, free trade, secularism, and the market
economy.
Socialism
Liberalism sees the state as a neutral arbiter among
competing interests and groups in society, a vital guarantee
of social order. While classical liberals treat the state as a
necessary evil and extol the virtues of a minimal or custodian
state, modern liberals recognize the state’s positive role in
widening freedom and promoting equal opportunities
Socialism refers to the various theories of economic
organization which advocate either public or direct worker
ownership and administration of the means of production and
allocation of resources. Socialists generally share the view
that capitalism unfairly concentrates power and wealth
among a small segment of society that controls capital and
derives its wealth through a system of exploitation. This in
turn creates an unequal society, that fails to provide equal
opportunities for everyone to maximize their potential, and
does not utilize technology and resources to their maximum
potential nor in the interests of the public.
Socialists believe in utopian visions of a better society where
individuals can achieve genuine emancipation and fulfilment
as members of society. It believes in social equality as it
upholds justice or fairness, underpins community and
cooperation, and enlarges freedom in a positive sense as it
likewise believes that human fulfilment and realization is
based on need-satisfaction.
ACTIVITY 1.2
Modified True or False. Write TRUE if the given statement is correct. If
incorrect, replace the underlined word/s to make the statement correct.
____________ 1. A political ideology is a set of ideas, beliefs, values, and opinions,
exhibiting a recurring pattern, that competes deliberately as well as unintentionally
over providing plans of action for public policy making.
____________ 2. Socialism is the belief that traditional institutions work best and
that society should avoid radical change.
____________ 3. Liberalism is the belief in the importance of liberty and equality.
9
____________4. Conservatism refers to the various theories of economic
organization which advocate either public or direct worker ownership and
administration of the means of production and allocation of resources.
____________ 5. Liberals believe in utopian visions of a better society where
individuals can achieve genuine emancipation and fulfilment as members of society.
Learning Concepts 1.3
POLITICS AND POLITICAL SCIENCE
Political Science is the study of the phenomena of the state and government;
it is derived from two Greek words, “polis” or “city” which today would mean a
sovereign state; and “scire” meaning “science.”
Aristotle (324-322 B.C.) a Greek philosopher, is credited with the observation
that “man by nature is a political animal.” By this statement, Aristotle meant that the
basic underlying substance of human existence is politics, that is, that man is
predisposed to be involved in politics. He added that the only way to optimize the
potentials and capabilities of an individual and to achieve the highest form of social
existence was through interaction with others in a state (Rodee, et al., 1983).
Political Science as defined by Rodee (1980) is “a branch of social science
that deals with the theory, organization, government, and practice of the state.”
Political Science also deals with those relations among men and groups,
which are subject to control by the state, and with the relations of the state to other
states.
Montesquieu (1689-1755), expounded the concept. He posited that all the
functions of government could be encompassed within the categories of legislation,
execution, and the adjudication of law. He assumed that liberty could best be
assured by the distribution of these functions – referring to legislation, execution, and
adjudication – among separate branches of the government namely: the legislative,
the executive department, and the judiciary of the courts of law. The preceding
modules will discuss further the three branches of the government.
10
Jean Bodin (1530 - 1596) a French political philosopher coined the term
“Political Science.” Political Science is a discipline in social science that is
concerned with political institutions and with the principles and conduct of
government. It deals with the theory and practice of politics; description and
analysis of political systems and political behavior. It may be defined as the
study of the activities of the government (Laswell, 1935) in determining who
gets what and how.
Aristotle (384 - 322 B.C.), the father of Political Science considered
Political Science as the master of all sciences. He was the first thinker to use
the term ‘politics.' The term "Politics" is derived from the Greek word ‘Polis"
which means city-state, a small independent self-contained political society.
Greeks did not make any distinction between politics and society. Greek citystate of ancient times provides an ideal point for the beginning of a systematic
study of political science.
What are the Methods of Political Sciences?
Several methods are available to political phenomena. These methods are available
to political phenomena. These methods are discussed below:
1. Deductive Method – this method employs the drawing up of specific
conclusions from premises presumed to be infallible.
2. Inductive Method – this method proceeds to establish general truths upon the
basis of known facts are to be used as premises for a specific application.
Observational Method – this method allows the political scientist to observe
the workings of political systems and political processes. Every change in
governmental structure, law, or public has significance.
3. Historical Method – present and probable political phenomenon are
interpreted by the political scientist based on his knowledge and observation
of the past serving as a backdrop.
Comparative Method – this method allows the political scientist to correlate
economic, geographical, psychological, sociological data, and other scientific
phenomena.
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ACTIVITY 1.3
If you were the City Mayor of Cagayan de Oro during the onslaught
of Sendong, how will you restore or recover from the destruction created by
the typhoon and address the many concerns of the people affected?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
Learning Concepts 1.4
VALUE OF POLITICS
Why should you care about politics?
One reason you should care about politics is that you should always know
what is going on around you. For example, if a new law is made is made in your area,
you might want to make sure that you and the people around you know that a new
law has been made so that no one breaks the law without even knowing it. Also, if
something dangerous is happening around you or someone you know, you want to
be aware if someone is breaking the law. It is very important to know what is
happening around you.
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Another reason you should care about politics is that you should have a say in
what will happen. Everyone should have a say in what will happen, because we all
live side by side with each other, and it would not be fair if someone was left out.
Also, each vote makes a difference in the ways that we live. It is always important to
share your opinion. The way you vote will affect many people and their everyday life.
Finally, you should care about politics because the decisions people make will
affect many lives. For example, if someone wanted to build on the land, it might be
good for the people who worked in the area, but residents who lived nearby and
loved the land and relied on the land for water and food might be devastated.
Sometimes things that sound like good ideas might be very devastating later.
Learning Concepts 1.5
GOVERNANCE AND GOVERNMENT
MEANING OF GOVERNANCE
Governance in General
The word “governance” came from the Latin verb “gubernare,” or more
originally from the Greek word “kubernaein,” which means “to steer.” Basing on its
etymology, governance refers to the manner of steering or governing, or of directing
and controlling, a group of people or a state.
Definition of Governance
Governance is commonly defined as the exercise of power or authority by
political leaders for the well-being of their country’s citizens or subjects. It is the
complex process whereby some sectors of the society wield power and enact and
promulgate public policies which directly affect human and institutional interactions
and economic and social development. The power exercised by the participating
sectors of the society is always for the common good, as it is essential for
demanding respect and cooperation from the citizens and the state. As such, a great
deal about governance is the proper and effective utilization of resources.
Governance and Government
1. Governance is traditionally associated with the government. In works of
literature, they are often used interchangeably. But in the 1980s, political
scientists broadened the meaning of governance as including, not just
government actors, but also civil-society actors. Today, governance includes
three sectors: the public sector (state actors and institutions), the private
sector (households and companies), and the civil society (non-governmental
organizations). These three sectors are said to work hand in hand in the
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process of governance. This new use of the term focuses on the role of
“networks” in the achievement of the common good, whether these networks
are intergovernmental, transnational, or international. In other words,
governance is broader than government in that other sectors are included in it.
2. Many authors also distinguish the two by associating government with "control
and domination," and governance with "decentralization and relational
management." On the one hand, the government refers to a central institution
which wields power over its subjects. It is the instrument patterned after the
model of "command and control," the government being in command over the
affairs of the people. On the other hand, governance is closely associated
with the concept of decentralization of power and the need for inter-sectoral
management. Governance is based on the realization that the government
cannot do everything for the people so that in order to survive the state should
not only rely on government but also on the other sectors of the society.
3. Thus, under the current trend, there is a need to move from the "traditional
hierarchical exercise of power by the government" to the new notion of a
"dispersed and relational power in governance" – from the government to
governance. To govern should now mean to facilitate or regulate, not to
dominate or command.
GOVERNANCE HAS THREE LEGS:
1. Economic governance includes decision-making processes that affect a
country's economic activities and its relationships with other economies. It
clearly has major implications for equity, poverty, and quality of life.
2. Political governance is the process of decision-making to formulate policy.
3. Administrative governance is the system of policy implementation.
CURRENT STATE OF GOVERNANCE IN THE PHILIPPINES
1. The Philippines is plagued by bad governance. Based on the six dimensions
of governance in the Worldwide Governance Indicators (WGI), it ranks in the
lower half of the percentile. In 2010-2011, the Philippines ranked only 85th in
the Global Competitive Index (GCI), lagging behind most of its Southeast
Asian neighbors. The decline of trust on the actors of governance and the
consequential poor economic condition were brought about by the systemic
corruption among and between public officials and private organizations. In
2013, it ranked 94th among 177 countries in the Corruption Perception Index.
Among the key institutions in the Philippines perceived to be most corrupt
based on the Global Corruption Index are “political parties,” “judiciary,” “police,”
“public officials and civil servants,” and “legislature.” This means all branches
of the Philippine government are now challenged.
2. As perceived and experienced by the common Filipino masses, the foremost
indicators of bad governance in the Philippines are the unending cycle of
poverty, the huge gap between the rich and the poor, the deep-seated
tradition of corruption, mistrust on formal government institutions, yawning
cynicism on the true motive of political actions, instability of the economic
14
environment, constant threats to the authority of the established government,
and questions on accountability and transparency. These are the usual
content of everyday broadcast media, so common that there perceived to be
the normal state of affairs in the Philippines.
3. Bad governance is the root cause of all evils. It is what prevents the
Philippines from achieving its Millennium Development Goals. Rising above
such state of governance is a political imperative and the ideal solution to a
wide range of politico-economic problems. While the Philippines has already
created “islands of good governance” in some national agencies and local
government units, its overall state is still miserable.
APPLICATION
In the text box below, write down your thoughts on the following
questions:
1. Who are the actors in the process of governance? How do they interact in
coming up with, and in implementing decisions?
2. How are the indicators of good governance related to each other? Give a
concrete example of your answer.
3. How does governance transform into bad governance? Give concrete
examples.
4. What is the status of governance here in the Philippines? Support your
answer.
15
5. Give your recommendations on how to improve Philippine governance.
16
Lesson
2
POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES
In this lesson, you are going to learn about political ideologies. Andrew
Heywood (2202, 12) would define an ideology as a more or less coherent set of
ideas that provides the basis for organized political action, whether this is intended to
preserve, modify, or overthrow the existing system of power.
As you go on, please be guided by this Lesson Outline
a. Identify the basic tenets of major political ideologies (i.e. liberalism, socialism,
conservatism, etc.)
b. Differentiate the political ideologies
c. Examine the relationship between political ideologies and configurations of
political communities
d. Critique ideas that have a direct impact on how we try to manage ourselves
as a political community
e. Analyze how political ideologies impact on the social and political life of
Filipino
17
Learning Concepts 2.1
Governments are established guided by certain principles. These principles
are gathered together to form ideologies. There are five ideologies that we are going
to discuss in this lesson
18
Now, let us discuss each ideology to identify the basic tenets which are embedded in
them.
1. ANARCHISM
Anarchy is a political ideology which treats any fixed system of government as
repressing. In this political ideology, the government is unnecessary and is the cause
of harm because it controls people. Ownership of production should be common to
everyone, with both economic and political freedom as its goals.
Key Concepts:
I.
Freedom from Governing Authority- any form of state or
government is rejected
2. ABSOLUTISM
Absolutism is an ideology that centralizes control to one individual, may it be by
heredity or by divine right. This may lead to societies treating their leaders as leader
of both governmental and religious affairs.
Key Concepts:
I.
Adherence to Order- societies are carefully designed to
establish a stable structure.
II.
Compelling Natural/Divine Law- Law is supreme, and natural
or divine right states that there are certain people which are
meant to rule
III.
Obsession to Tradition- New ideas are considered dangerous
to the order of things
IV.
3. LIBERALISM
The ideology that focuses on equality and liberty. Liberalism advocates that every
individual should enjoy freedom. Government and States are created to ensure that
people can enjoy their rights. In such ideology, everybody is provided with basic
rights- no person is born with more rights than others. Thus, liberalism replaces
19
previous ideas of hereditary privilege, state religion, and other social structures
which create different social classes.
Key Concepts:
I.
Individualism- focuses on the importance of the ‘self’ over
society
II.
Liberty- Every individual has the right to do anything it wants
to, as long as it is not illegal
III.
Rationalism- the idea that humans are capable of thinking
rationally and reasonably
IV.
Openness to Novelty- New ideas are accepted and treated
as stepping stones towards progress
V.
Free Market- a byproduct of individualism. Individuals may
own property, control means of production, and set a market
value for their goods
4. CONSERVATISM
As a reaction to the liberalism, conservatism seeks to avoid the former's
unstable tendencies. It holds that certain traditions must be kept to maintain social
stability. Human reason is insufficient in trying to solve the problems of governance.
In this sense, we must concede to the traditional methods of governance, which is
a collection of wisdom for many years past.
Key Concepts:
I.
Return to Tradition- Stability is an important concept of a
government thus emphasizing the need for traditional methods
of having a hierarchy of power
II.
Human fallibility- human beings are not perfect. Human
rationality is limited and therefore, prone to mistakes
20
Key Concepts:
III.
Specific- concepts such as freedom are too general to be
applied to a functional society
IV.
Unique Circumstances- societal problems do not come with
universal solutions. Different cultures will react differently to
different problems
5. SOCIALISM
Unlike other ideologies, socialism emphasizes social consciousness. Socialism
emphasizes that society should collectively own means of production; private
ownership is discouraged. In such cases, only the public owns a property, there is
no free market as prices will be set by the authority. Economic equality is strictly
observed thus, there will be no rich nor poor. The state provides everyone their
necessities.
Key Concepts:
I.
Collectivism- as opposed to individualism, collectivism
emphasizes collective good or ‘the good of everyone’ over the
self
II.
Public Ownership- everyone owns the means of production, no
private individual may own or dispose of property
III.
Centralized Economy- The government (public) plans the
economy, thus there is no free trade
IV.
Economic Equality- all citizens enjoy the same level of
prosperity
21
Activity 2.1
Identification: Read the descriptions provided below. Write the ideology
that best describes the descriptions in the spaces provided.
1. In Camelot, the King is the highest authority.
He decides for the ordinance, tax, religion,
and controls the might of the military. Ever
since there was no citizen who ever dared
question the throne's right to rule.
2. For years, Somalia has been divided into
many smaller feudal territories led by
warlords. In such a scenario, there is no
public spending, piracy is prevalent, there is
the absence of their own currency, and no
courts may intervene in any legal dispute.
3. In our country, profit generated by public
markets are used to repair or improve them;
funds are used for wages of employees or
saved for public use. Profit in this sense is
not for personal or private gain, but for the
welfare of the general public.
4. The center of progress is freedom. Every
individual is capable of rationalization, which
makes them active participants in thinking
for solutions to recurring problems. Thus,
individuals are given specific freedoms as a
testament to their individuality.
5. Although freedom is a fundamental human
experience, good governance demands that
control should also be considered. Freedom
is not an antagonist to control, but specific
methods must be employed to maintain
control. The wisdom of many is too diverse
and primitive to accommodate.
22
Answer Key Page
Application
Using what you have learned from our lesson, describe the
keywords presented in your own words. Write the first thing that
comes to your mind when reading the keywords presented below.
23
Learning Concepts 2.1
In our last lesson, we discussed different political ideologies and their key
concepts to illustrate their key ideas and make differentiating much easier. However,
in this lesson, we will focus more on settling the confusing differences among
political ideologies.
24
Learning Concepts 2.3
Let’s begin, look at the table presented below. The table shows the presence
of government and laws of the different political ideologies.
Political Ideology
Existence of Laws
The existence of
a Government
Anarchism
No
Yes
Absolutism
Yes
Yes
Liberalism
Yes
Yes
Conservatism
Yes
Yes
Socialism
Yes
Yes
The common misconception is that anarchism is the absence of order, but
such is not the case. There are countries in the world which practice anarchism and
are operating efficiently.
Anarchism is not the absence of laws, it is the absence of any form of
authority in the form of a centralized government. Other ideologies do not reject the
existence of a government and laws.
Political Ideology
Individuality
Openness to Change
of Leadership
Anarchism
Anarchic societies are Anarchy is open to
individualistic by nature
change, they may agree
to adopt new laws, but
what they lack is a
central government
Absolutism
Absolutist societies rely
on the wisdom of the few,
especially the kings and
the nobles
25
Change is rare in an
absolutist society. Kings
and
nobles
have
established
strong
authority
Liberalism
Liberal societies embrace Liberal
societies
individualism. It relies on embrace changes in
individual
opinion
to leadership
come up with solutions to
problems
Conservatism
Conservatism
characterizes the wisdom
of the few. As opposed to
liberalism, conservatism
is balancing liberal and
absolutist views. Thus,
exercising more control
than liberalism
Conservative societies
allow changes in the
leadership system, often
found in democratic
societies
Socialism
Socialism
does
not
acknowledge
individuality; it advocates
group
mentality
or
collectivism
Leadership change in
socialist societies is not
entirely free. There are
ruling
classes
that
dictate the transfer of
political power
Learning Concepts 2.4
Individuality is a central tenet of liberalism. In such an ideal, all liberals allow
the free transfer of ideas from individuals. Freedom is embraced as necessary to
push society towards progress.
Now we move towards differentiating two related political ideologies;
conservatism and absolutism. Among the two ideologies, absolutism has more
presence in past societies than conservatism. Absolutism is older and rarely
practiced in current times. To simplify the differences, observe the table presented
on the next page.
26
Political Ideology
Similarities
Differences
Conservatism
Conservatism
Conservatism
accepts
emphasizes the need for democratic
notions,
control
especially elections in
current democracies
Absolutism
Absolutist societies rely Absolutist societies want
on the wisdom of the few, the
power
to
be
which also keeps control maintained
by
a
controlled number of
individuals, not through
elections.
Learning Concepts 4.5
Political ideologies have their own specific configurations established in the
country that they are practiced. Even if they have similar ideals they do not translate
to similar practices in their constitutional law or local ordinance.
In the first lesson, you are asked to identify the different political ideologies. In
this activity, write the key differences of each political ideology that we have
discussed on the spaces provided in the pentagon.
Application
To apply what you have learned in this lesson, you must be able to employ your
learning when differentiating closely related political ideologies. Using a Venn
diagram, write the differences between two closely related ideologies inside the
circle on the next page. Write the similarities on areas where the circles intersect and
their differences outside the intersecting circles.
27
Conservatism
Liberalism
Absolutism
28
Anarchism
Lesson POWER, STATES, NATIONS,
3
AND GLOBALIZATION
Do you understand power? Do you know why it matters? In our daily life, we
live through systems of power that people create! Power exists in all types of social
relations. This is true to all aspects of life from the family, workplace and even
relationships. Power determines who gets to control the rules of the game that is why
it is important to learn how power operates in order to be effective, to be taken
seriously and not to be taken advantage of.
Let start with the basic definition of power. Power is from the French word "poveir”
and “poveir” is derived from Latin word “potere” which means “to be able”. According
to the Merriam Webster dictionary, power is the ability to control or influence people.
In other words, power is the ability to make others do what you would have them do
even if they don't want to.
As you go on, please be guided by this Lesson Outline
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
Define power
Recognize the nature, dimensions, types, and consequences of power
Analyze the nature, dimensions, types, and consequences of power
Assess how power is exercised in different situations
Define nation and state
Differentiate nation and state
Explain meanings of globalization
Evaluate how globalization influences nation-states
Learning concepts 3.1
Definition of Power
There is no single definition of power different authority has its own definition of
power. Let us read some of the definitions
Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics- defines the term in the following words:
The power or rights to give orders and enforce obedience, the power to influence
others based on recognized knowledge or expertise.
29
Robert Alan Dahl, an American political scientist, and educator defines power
and analyzed its various aspects. In his A Preface to Democratic Theory Dahl
Calls power as a type of relationship in respect of capability and control. Example:
There are two men – A and B if Individual A has power over individual B to the
extent that he can get individual B to do something that individual B would not
otherwise do.
Leslie Lipson (The Great Issues of Politics) thinks that power is nothing but the
ability to achieve results through concerted action.
Max Weber (1947), power is the chance of a man or a number of men to realize
their own will in a communal action even against the resistance of others who are
participating in the action.
Alvin Genldner (1970) noted that power is the ability to enforce one’s moral
claims. The powerful can conventionalize their moral defaults.
Anthony Giddens (1997) A celebrated sociologist, sees power as the ability to
make a difference, to change things from what they could have been, as he puts it
“transformative” capacity.
Steven Lukes (2005), Power has three dimensions or faces (1) decision-making,
(2) non-decision making (3) shaping desires.
Activity 3.1-A I have the Power
Task: Examine the pictures carefully and identify which depiction
shows power. If you think the picture portray power write your explanation on the box
mark with a check and if it does not write your explanation on the box mark with X.
Image Courtesy
https://preview.tinyurl.com/ybz28blq
https://preview.tinyurl.com/ybz28blq
30
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:IEC5009_Standby_Symbol.svg
Photo by Pete Reyes
http://50years.tni.org/story/1986-people-power-uprising/
https://tinyurl.com/yb3c3ljs
https://tinyurl.com/yb3c3lj
Answer Key Page
Activity 3.1-B
Now that you have read the different point of view of different authors
about power I guess you already have a clear concept of what power
is. And so I want you to write your own definition of Power in the box provided.
31
For me power is
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Learning concepts 3.2
Dimensions of Power
Stephen Lukes in his book, Power: A Radical View (1974) explains the nature
and definition of power through the “three dimensions of power or faces of power” He
based his works from the notions other scholars and claimed that power is exercised
in three dimensions or faces, namely (1) decision making (2) agenda setting (3)
preference shaping.
The first dimension of power: Decision- Making
The first face of power as proposed by Dahl who viewed power as a relation
among people, A has power over B to the extent that A can get B to do something
that he would not do. (Dahl 1957,201 cited in Hay 2002,172). It is the ability of a
person to succeed in convincing others to comply even if they don’t want to.
In governmental power, this can be observed when the government makes a
decision through a law that requires the obedience of the people. It is clear who is
making the decision and why they are making it.
The second dimension of power: Agenda Setting
The second face of power originates from the work of Bachrach and Baratz
(1962,1963,1970) Bachrach and Baratz coined their theory based on their criticism
on the work of Dahl, they claimed that a single dimension of power only focus on the
power to select from the list of choices but fails to explain what is on the list so they
proposed the second face of power, which is the ability to manipulate the agenda.
They argue that in addition to dahls claim that power is a choice indirectly making
32
decisions, to indirectly manipulate the decisions is also a realm of power. They
believed that power is not only about decision making but also setting the agenda
that leads to decisions.
In government power, this can be perceived in decisions made behind closed doors
and corridors of power where power is held not only by elected officials but also by
agenda setters like a lobbyist, corporate sponsors, politicians and other interest
groups who influence decision making for personal gains.
The third dimension of power: Preference shaping
The third face of power is Ideological power. Lukes argues that Ideological
power is an indirect way of manipulating the mindset of anyone affected. People tend
to believed that the decisions they made are from their own free will but in reality,
they made the decision due to the constraint of society and they can't fathom of any
other options but to accept biased decisions without question.
In government power, this appears in propaganda, creating speeches that are
designed to change minds before the decision is announced. For example, if the
legislation is against a certain bill, Congress or even senate will deliberately publicize
how this bill is put into law will negatively impact the lives of the people. Ideological
power is dangerous because in order to shape the preference or belief of the society
trickery and psychological methods are used to persuade society to shift their values
or change what they considered important.
Political Power in
Three Dimensions
One –
dimensional
view
Proponents
Dahl
Twodimensional
view
Bachrach &
Baratz
Polssby
Classic pluralist
Neo-Elitists
Threedimensional
view
Lukes
Marxists
Radical Elitists
Radical
Pluralists
Conception of power
Power as
decision making
33
Power as
decision
making &
agenda setting
Power as
decision
making,
agenda setting
& preference
shaping
Focus of analysis
The formal political
arena
Nature of power
The formal
political arena
The formal
political arena
& the informal
processes
surrounding it
(the power
corridors)
Civil society
more generally,
especially the
public sphere
(in which
preferences
are shaped)
Counting of votes
and decisionmaking forums
Ethnography of
the corridors of
power to
elucidate the
informal
processes
through which
agenda is set
Ideology
critique- to
demonstrate
how actors
come to
misperceived
their own
material
interest
Visible,
transparent and
easily measured
Both visible
and
invisible(visible
only to agendasetters), but
can be
rendered
visible through
gaining inside
information
Largely
invisible- power
distorts
perceptions
and shapes
preference; It
must be
demystified
Source: Adapted from Hay, C
2002, "Divided by a Common
Language?
Conceptualizing Power,’
Political Analysis: A Critical
Introduction, Hampshire,
Palgrave, p.180
TYPES OF POWER
The inherent powers of the state are police power, the power of eminent
domain, and the power of taxation.
34
POLICE POWER
As to the subject
As to who
exercises
As to property
taken
As to
compensation
Regulates both
liberty and property
Exercised only by
the government
Property taken is
often harmful to the
public (noxious) or
intended for a
harmful purpose
and may thus
destroyed.
Compensation is
intangible, an
altruistic feeling
that the individual
has contributed to
the public good.
POWER OF
EMINENT
DOMAIN
Affects only
property rights
Exercised by the
national
government, local
government units,
and governmentowned or controlled
corporations
pursuant to their
charters.
Property is
wholesome or not
harmful to the
public but is being
taken for public use
or purpose.
Compensation is th
full and fair
equivalent of the
property taken.
POWER OF
TAXATION
Affects only
property rights
Exercised only by
the government
Property is
wholesome but is
being taken as a
means of
sustaining the
operations of
government
Compensation is
the protection given
and public
improvements
instituted by
government for the
taxes paid
Further discussion of these powers can also be found in the Bill of Rights
(Article 3) of the 1987 Philippine Constitution.
35
Learning concepts 3.3
Types and consequences of Power
FRENCH AND RAVEN 1959 DESCRIBED 5 TYPES OF POWER
1. Coercive Power comes from the ability to punish someone for noncompliance. It is
based upon the idea of coercion or to force someone to do something against their
will.
Coercive power, in general, has negative consequences. It decreases morale
and instils fear and mistrust.
2. Reward
Power comes from the ability to issue rewards it allows people to exert
influence by giving rewards. If a reward is expected there is a high possibility of a
positive outcome but when rewards don't have enough perceived value, the power
weakens.
3. Legitimate
Power stems from formal right to command because of their position. This
type of power depends on the position held by a person exercising it. Legitimate
power may be derived from prevailing cultural values that assign legitimate power.
This type of power is unpredictable and unstable because if the individual
loses the title or position, legitimate power instantly disappear since the origin of
power is from the position and not from the person.
4. Expert
Power comes from experience or knowledge. Power is derived from the
member's assumptions that the leader possesses superior skills, knowledge, and
abilities. However, expertise is only a source of power if others are dependent upon
the experts.
5. Referent
Power comes from being trusted or respected. The power is based upon the
ability of an individual to attract others and to build loyalty within.
Referent power can be easily abused. If the individual who rises to power lacks
integrity and honesty, can use that power to hurt and alienate people and can also
use power to gain personal advantage.
36
Activity 3.3 Self-Test
Cross Word Puzzle. Complete the puzzle
C
P
E
P
L
E
Across
5. The indirect way of manipulating the mindset of everyone affected.
7. The power that comes from experience or knowledge.
8. Power comes from being trusted or respected.
Down
1. The power that comes from the ability to punish someone for non-compliance.
2. The ability to control or influence other people.
3. Ability to issue a reward.
4. A Latin word which the word power originates.
6. The origin of power is the position.
Answer Key Page
37
Learning concepts 3.4
CATEGORIES OF POWER
Power is categorized into formal and personal. Formal power is a position
within the organization. Personal power is defined by a person's follower.
www. Expertprogrammanagement.com
Learning concepts 3.5
Nation and State
The words nation and state are often times used interchangeably. Do you
know that nations and state have their own identities? Let us examine the difference
between nation and state.
State
A state is a group of people who lived together in a defined area we call this a
territory under one government generally this is what we think of as a country but the
proper name states.
38
Elements of State
People
There must be people residing in a state to be
governed and to perform the leadership role.
https://tinyurl.com/ha8zglj
Government
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File
:Lots_of_people_(4566212904).jpg
A state requires a functioning government with
permanent institutions, defined governmental
functions, and centralized enforceable authority.
Autonomy is the ability of leaders to pursue goals
https://tinyurl.com/y7acjzuy without outside pressures while capacity refers to the
means of disposal of the state to implement the goals.
Territory
A state must have a definite territory on which the
people can reside. It does not only consist of land but
also water and air.
https://tinyurl.com/y9hjs7e3
Sovereignty
It is the inherent power of the state to impose its will
on people free from outside control.
https://tinyurl.com/ybkzdtnf y
Nation
A Nation is a large group of people who believed that they belong together
because they share common identities such as race, language, religion a common
culture or all of the above. They do not necessarily share a government or lived in
one defined place or territory they are more of a group of people who shares
important similarities.
Nations are born out of a confluence of two factors (1) A group of people have
cohesion in order that community continues to exist as a distinct entity. (2) Individual
members aspire to belong to a homogenous community to have security and
meaning.
39
Classification of Nation
Ethnic Nations
An entity that is united on the basis of
ethnicity. Populated by a single ethnic
group.
https://tinyurl.com/ybcvy5w5
Territorial Nations
An entity that is populated by various
groups that have been assimilated into
a nation.
https://tinyurl.com/yald7kh9
40
EXAMPLE OF A NATION
EXAMPLE OF A STATELESS NATION
41
Activity 3.5 Complete the Venn diagram by differentiating nation from
state
Learning concepts 3.7
Globalization
Globalization is a process of growing exchange, Interaction between people,
government and private organizations across the globe. International trade, capital
flows, migration, technological transfer, and cultural exchanges are some of the
typical manifestations of globalization.
Political Globalization
Political globalization is one of the three main dimensions of globalization
along with economic and cultural globalization. The political dimension is a newer
feature of globalization.
William R. Thompson has defined political globalization "as the expansion of
a global political system, and its institution, in which inter-regional transaction are
managed". Valentine M. Moghandam defines political globalization as "an
increasing trend towards multilateralism in which UN plays an important role,
towards an emerging transnational state apparatus and towards the emergence of
42
national and international nongovernmental organizations that act as watchdogs over
governments and have increased their activities and influence."
Manfred B. Steger, in turn, wrote that political globalization refers to the
intensification and expansion of political interrelations across the globe"
Colin Crouch defines political globalization as the growing power of institutions of
global governance such as European Union, Organization for Economic Cooperation
and Development, United Nations, World Trade Organization, Association of
Southeast Asian Nation, International Monetary Fund. The spread of its influence
and transactional advocacy networks operating across borders and constituting a
kind of global society.'
Gerald Delanty and Chris Rumford defined political globalization as "tension
between three processes which interacts to produce the complex field of global
politics: global geopolitics, global normative culture, and polycentric networks.
Learning concepts 3.8
How globalization influences nation-states
43
Activity 3.8 Draw an Arrow
Instruction: Draw an arrow pointing down if the situation described is a
negative effect of globalization and an arrow pointing up if the situation
described is a positive impact of globalization.
1. Countries can easily ask for global support through financial aid.
2. Powerful countries can influence poor country on their policy
making.
3. International organization help with issues such as human rights
and discrimination
4. Political conflict can be resolved through diplomatic cooperation
thus avoiding war.
5. Coordinating with other countries is expensive and difficult.
Answer Key Page 51
Let’s Summarize
 Political Science is the study of the phenomena of the state and government;
it is derived from two Greek words, “polis” or “city” which today would mean a
sovereign state; and “scire” meaning “science.”
 Aristotle (384 - 322 B.C.), the father of Political Science considered Political
Science as the master of all sciences.
 Political Theory deals with the entire body of doctrines relating to the origin,
behavior, and purpose of the state.
 Public Law deals with the:
 Organization of the governments
 Limitations upon government authority
 Powers and duties of government offices and officers
 Obligations of one state to another
o Subdivisions of Public Law:
 Constitutional Law – is the fundamental law of the land, which defines the
powers of government
44
Administration Law – fixes the organization and determines the
competence of the administrative authorities which regulates the methods
by which the functions of the government performed.
 International Law – is the body of rules, which regulates the community of
nations.
Public administration focuses upon the methods and techniques used in the
actual management of state affairs by the three branches of the government:
Executive, Legislative and Judiciary including all governmental offices whose
function is to deliver services to its people.
Deductive method employs the drawing up of specific conclusions from
premises presumed to be infallible.
Inductive method proceeds to establish general truths upon the basis of
known facts are to be used as premises for a specific application.
Observational method allows the political scientist to observe the workings of
political systems and political processes. Every change in governmental
structure, law, or public has significance.
Historical Method present and probable political phenomenon are interpreted
by the political scientist based on his knowledge and observation of the past
serving as a backdrop.
Comparative method allows the political scientist to correlate economic,
geographical, psychological, sociological data, and other scientific
phenomena.
The word “governance” came from the Latin verb “gubernare,” or more
originally from the Greek word “kubernaein,” which means “to steer.” Basing
on its etymology, governance refers to the manner of steering or governing, or
of directing and controlling, a group of people or a state.
Anarchy is a political ideology which treats any fixed system of government as
repressing. In this political ideology, government is unnecessary and is the
cause of harm because it controls people.
Anarchism is not the absence of laws; it is the absence of any form of
authority in the form of a centralized government.
Absolutism is an ideology that centralizes control to one individual, may it be
by heredity or by divine right. This may lead to societies treating their leaders
as leader of both governmental and religious affairs.
Liberalism advocates that every individual should enjoy freedom. Government
and States are created to ensure that people can enjoy their rights.
Conservatism holds that, certain traditions must be kept to maintain social
stability. Human reason is insufficient in trying to solve the problems of
governance.
Socialism emphasizes that society should collectively own means of
production; private ownership is discouraged.














45
POST-TEST.
A. Multiple Choice
Instruction: Read carefully each item and encircle the letter of your correct answer.
1. Power is derived from which French word?
A. Power
B. Potere
C. Powe
D. Porete
2. Who among the following authors defines power as the ability to achieved a result?
A. Max Weber
B. Leslie Lipson
C. Alvin Genldner
D. Anthony Giddens
3. What Type of power comes from experience or knowledge?
A. Expert
B. Legitimate
C. Reward D. Coercive
4. Which of the Following is not an element of state?
A. People
B. Territory
C. Government
D. School
5. Which of the following refers to an individual's right to use power by making
decisions, giving a directive and demanding compliance?
A. Sovereignty
B. Legitimacy
C. Authority
D. Power
6. Which ideology has the absence of a government, but has the presence of laws?
A. Anarchism
C. Liberalism
B. Conservatism
D. Socialism
7. Which of the following ideologies maintain traditional values but also accept the
current political structure of societies?
A. Anarchism
C. Liberalism
B. Conservatism
D. Socialism
8. The quality present in liberalism but not in any other political ideology
A. collectivism
C. democratic election
B. emphasis on individualism
D. nihilism
B. True or False
Instruction: Read the following statement and write TRUE if the statement is true and
write FALSE if the statement is false. Write your answer in the space provided.
_______________1. Power is the ability to make people do what you would have
them do even if they don’t want to.
46
_______________ 2. According to Alvin Genldner power has three faces or
dimensions.
_______________3. The focus of analysis of a two dimensional view is the formal
arena
_______________4. In order for a country to be a state, all the elements of the state
must be present.
_______________5. Kurdistan is an example of a stateless nation.
-
End of Post-test –
47
Answer Key
From Page 2
PRETEST
A. FILL IN THE MISSING
LETTER/S
1. Politics
2. History
3. Aristotle
A. FILL IN THE MISSING
LETTER/S
1. Politics
2. History
3. Aristotle
A. FILL IN THE MISSING LETTER/S
1. Politics
2. History
3. Aristotle
From Page 3
B. MULTIPLE CHOICE
1. A
2. B
3. A
4. D
5. B
6. A
7. C
8. B
From Page 3
C. TRUE OR FALSE
1. TRUE
2. FALSE
3. TRUE
48
4. TRUE
5. TRUE
From page 4 Activity 1.1 (Answers may vary)
From page 6 Activity 1.2
The Greek
politics
The Latin
politics
Meaning
word
for Polis
word
for Politicus
Interpretation
Of or pertaining to state
City, civics
From page 8 Activity 1.3 (Answers may vary)
From page 22 Activity 1.5 (Answers may vary)
From Page 27 Activity 2.1
IDENTIFICATION
1. ABSOLUTISM
2. ANARCHISM
3. SOCIALISM
4. LIBERALISM
5. CONSERVATISM
From Page 33 Activity 3.1 (Answers may vary)
From Page 34 Activity 3.2 (Answers may vary)
From Page 38 Activity 3.3 Self Test
CROSSWORD PUZZLE
Down:
1. Coercive
2. Power
3. Reward
4. Potere
6. Legitimate
Across
5. Ideological
7. Expert
8. Referent
From Page 43 Activity 3.4 Venn Diagram (Answers may vary)
From page 44 – 45 Activity 3.5
Activity 4
1.
2.
3.
4.
49
5.
POST TEST
From Page 48
A. MULTIPLE CHOICE
1. A
2. B
3. A
4. D
5. B
6. A
7. C
8. B
B. TRUE OR FALSE
1. TRUE
2. FALSE
3. TRUE
4. TRUE
5. TRUE
-
50
GLOSSARY
authority
Citizen
Term
citizenship
Conservatism
Governance
Government
Ideology
Liberalism
Nationalism
Politics
Political science
Socialism
Definition
The exercise of legitimate power.
Refers to the administrative machinery of the
state.
May be defined as (a) identification of an
individual based on a formal-legal status
coterminous with the emergence of states, or
(b) shared membership of a political
community in which [the] conception [of]
citizens [is that of] political actors constituting
political spaces.
Commitment to traditional values and ideas
with opposition to change or innovation.
Refers to the various ways through which
social life is coordinated.
One of the institutions involved in
governance.
Usually refers to a system of beliefs about
how society should function, behave, and
operate.
A set of political beliefs emphasizing
individual rights and liberties.
Identification with one’s own nation and
support for its interests, especially to the
exclusion or detriment of the interests of
other nations.
May be defined as the art of government,
public affairs, compromise and consensus,
and power.
Deals with the study of power in society,
politics, and government.
A political and economic theory of social
organization which advocates that the means
of production, distribution, and exchange
should be owned or regulated by the
community as a whole.
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