978-3-658-39476-9

Stefan Hoffmann Payam Akbar Consumer Behavior Understanding Consumers– Designing Marketing Activities Consumer Behavior Stefan Hoffmann • Payam Akbar Consumer Behavior Understanding Consumers– Designing Marketing Activities Stefan Hoffmann Institut für Betriebswirtschaftslehre Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel Kiel, Schleswig-Holstein, Germany Payam Akbar Institut für Betriebswirtschaftslehre Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel Kiel, Schleswig-Holstein, Germany ISBN 978-3-658-39475-2 ISBN 978-3-658-39476-9 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-39476-9 (eBook) © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2023 This book is a translation of the original German edition “Konsumentenverhalten” by Hoffmann, Stefan, published by Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH in 2019. The translation was done with the help of artificial intelligence (machine translation by the service DeepL.com). A subsequent human revision was done primarily in terms of content, so that the book will read stylistically differently from a conventional translation. Springer Nature works continuously to further the development of tools for the production of books and on the related technologies to support the authors. Translation from the German language edition: “Konsumentenverhalten” by Stefan Hoffmann and Payam Akbar, © Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, ein Teil von Springer Nature 2019. Published by Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden. All Rights Reserved. This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature. The registered company address is: Abraham-Lincoln-Str. 46, 65189 Wiesbaden, Germany Preface to the Second Edition Consumer behavior is a topic that everyone finds exciting. After all, even those who don’t work in marketing and sales or consumer protection are usually personally interested in the topic. Why is the shopping cart at the checkout fuller than originally planned? Can advertising influence you? Why do you want the new iPhone so badly? Why does it annoy you that your neighbor has a bigger front yard than you do? The empirically well- researched discipline of consumer behavior is close to everyday life and relevant to business practice. Suitable theories and countless empirical findings are available for all facets of consumer behavior – from the habitual purchase of one’s favorite yogurt to the well- thought-out and long-term planned decision to buy a home, and also from the willingness to pay a price when appealing for donations to the use of the Like button on Facebook. The 12 chapters of this book shed light on the main areas of consumer behavior research. We begin with an understanding of the term and briefly outline the theoretical and methodological approach. We then discuss influences on consumer behavior that take place first and foremost within us: motivation, emotion, and cognition as well as attitude and decision. We then broaden our view and show that behavior differs systematically between different consumer groups, and we consider influences from the social, physical, and media environment. At the end of the book, we illustrate how consumer behavior is embedded in general social developments and thus constantly changes over time. This book is intended for students in the fields of business administration, psychology, communication sciences, and related disciplines. It is intended to serve as a follow-up to lectures on the subject of consumer behavior and as preparation for the examination. Therefore, at the end of each chapter, the reader will find self-check questions and recommended reading. The theories and models presented are acted out using the example of two fictitious consumers, Lea and Ben, and are thus presented in a lively way that is close to everyday life. In addition, we include online content in the form of videos and websites to illustrate content using examples. Simply scan the QR code at the appropriate point. Of course, we would like to thank everyone who supported us in the production of this book. Our special thanks go to Angela Meffert from Springer-Verlag, who approached us with the idea of a textbook on consumer behavior and supported us at all stages. A big thank you goes to our team in the Department of Marketing at CAU Kiel, who proofread v vi Preface to the Second Edition the texts and supported us with ideas, discussions, and expertise: Dr. Robert Mai, Tom Joerß and Wassili Lasarov. Our special thanks go to Ms. Almut Hahn-Mieth for her extremely conscientious checking of the manuscript and suggestions regarding content. Furthermore, we thank Prof. Dr. Katharina Klug for her support in the initial phase of the book. We would also like to thank all student assistants who supported us with literature research and formatting as well as with feedback. In particular, we would like to mention Mr. Philip Hutchinson and Mr. Nils Hoffmann. Ms. Jacqueline Galow, our former student assistant in the marketing chair, made a great contribution as a photo model for the process of classical conditioning – as she did in the book Professional Guerilla Marketing. To the StoryTelling trainer Johannes Büchs, we owe a brilliant idea for the motor metaphor of the mediator/moderator distinction. We would also like to thank the numerous students whose feedback on the first edition of the book contributed to substantial further development in the second edition. In particular, we would like to thank Prof. Dr. Susanne Liebermann and Dr. Katrin Liethmann. They were valuable sparring partners for us in all phases of the project. Kiel, Germany Summer 2018 Stefan Hoffmann Payam Akbar Contents 1 Consumer and Behavior 1 1.1What Is Consumer Behavior? �� 2 1.2Why Is Knowledge About Consumer Behavior Important? �� 5 1.3Explanatory Models of Consumer Behavior�� 6 1.3.1Total Models of Consumer Behavior�� 6 1.3.2Partial Models of Consumer Behavior�� 8 1.4Overview of Consumer Behavior Topics�� 10 1.5Learning Aid �� 11 Further Reading �� 12 References�� 12 2 Consumer Behavior Research 2.1Object and Tasks of Consumer Behavior Research�� 2.2Basic Research Approaches�� 2.2.1Quantitative Research Methods�� 2.2.2Qualitative Research Methods�� 2.2.3Mixed Methods as a Link Between Research Approaches�� 2.3Primary vs. Secondary Research�� 2.4Forms of Information Retrieval�� 2.4.1Surveys and Operationalization of Constructs�� 2.4.2Observation of Subjects�� 2.4.3Instrument-Based Procedures and Consumer Neuroscience�� 2.4.4Experiments and the Proof of Causality �� 2.5Learning Aid �� Further Reading �� References�� 15 16 18 18 19 20 21 22 22 23 24 25 28 29 29 3 Motivation 3.1Characteristics of Motivated Action�� 3.1.1Motives and Motivation�� 3.1.2Pursuit of Effectivity�� 3.1.3Goal Engagement and Goal Disengagement�� 31 32 32 33 34 vii viii Contents 3.2Motivation as a Product of Person and Situation�� 3.2.1Personal Factors�� 3.2.2Situational Factors�� 3.3Explaining Consumer Behavior Through Motivational Theories�� 3.3.1Content Theories of Motivation�� 3.3.2Process Theories of Motivation: The VIE Theory�� 3.3.3Regulatory Focus Theory�� 3.3.4Lewin’s Field Theory�� 3.4Motives of Consumer Behavior�� 3.4.1Cross-Behavioral Consumer Motives �� 3.4.2Behavior-Specific Consumer Motives�� 3.5Measurement of Motives�� 3.6Learning Aid �� Further Reading �� References�� 34 34 35 36 36 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 47 48 48 4 Emotion 4.1Characteristics of Emotions�� 4.1.1Features of Emotions�� 4.1.2Components of an Emotion�� 4.1.3From Consumer Emotion to Consumer Motivation �� 4.2Emotion Theories to Explain Consumer Behavior �� 4.2.1Biological Approaches�� 4.2.2Cognitive Approaches �� 4.3Making Consumer Emotions Measurable�� 4.3.1Verbal Procedures �� 4.3.2Instrument-Based Procedures �� 4.4Learning Aid �� Further Reading �� References�� 51 52 52 53 55 55 56 58 61 62 63 63 64 64 5 Cognition 5.1Attention and Information Selection�� 5.1.1Attention as a Serial Bottleneck�� 5.1.2Attention-Getting Stimuli �� 5.1.3Processing Without Attention �� 5.2Controlling Consumer Perception�� 5.2.1Top-Down and Bottom-Up Perception �� 5.2.2Gestalt Principles�� 5.3Learning Consumer Behavior �� 5.3.1Conditioning of Consumer Behavior�� 5.3.2Model Learning: Learning from Other Consumers�� 5.4Representation of Consumer Knowledge in Memory�� 5.4.1The Classical Multi-store Model of Memory �� 67 68 68 70 72 73 73 74 75 76 77 78 78 Contents ix 5.4.2Knowledge Representation �� 5.5Learning Aid �� Further Reading �� References�� 79 80 81 82 6 Attitude 6.1Attitude and Behavior �� 6.1.1Three-Component Model of Attitude�� 6.1.2Attitude-Behavior Gap�� 6.1.3Compatibility�� 6.1.4Theory of Planned Behavior �� 6.2Measurement of Attitudes �� 6.3Attitude Change�� 6.4Implicit Attitudes�� 6.4.1Improving Behavioral Prediction Through Implicit Attitudes�� 6.4.2Measurement of Implicit Attitudes �� 6.5Learning Aid �� Further Reading �� References�� 85 86 86 87 87 88 89 90 92 92 94 95 96 96 7 Decision 99 7.1Fundamentals of Consumer Decision Making�� 100 7.1.1Components of Decision Problems�� 101 7.1.2Characteristics of the Decision-Making Situations�� 102 7.1.3Models of Consumer Decision Making�� 102 7.2Decision Theories �� 104 7.2.1Normative Decision Theories: The Rational Choice Theory�� 104 7.2.2Background Info: Mr. Spock vs. Homer Simpson. Or: What Is Bounded Rationality?�� 105 7.2.3Descriptive Decision Theories: The Prospect Theory�� 106 7.2.4Background Info: Uncertainty or Risk?�� 106 7.2.5Evaluation Phase�� 107 7.3Heuristics�� 110 7.3.1Availability Heuristic�� 110 7.3.2Representativeness Heuristic�� 111 7.3.3Anchor Heuristics �� 112 7.4Framing and Context Effects�� 112 7.5How to Influence Consumer Decisions�� 113 7.5.1Priming�� 113 7.5.2Nudging�� 113 7.6Learning Aid �� 114 Further Reading �� 115 References�� 115 x Contents 8 Interindividual Differences 117 8.1Market Segmentation�� 118 8.2Socio-Demographic Characteristics�� 119 8.2.1Age as an Example of a Demographic Variable�� 119 8.2.2Social Status as an Example of a Socio-Economic Variable�� 121 8.3Psychographic Variables �� 122 8.3.1Lifestyles�� 122 8.3.2Value Orientations�� 123 8.3.3Cross-Cultural Differences �� 125 8.4Learning Aid �� 127 Further Reading �� 128 References�� 128 9 Social Environment 131 9.1Reference Groups�� 132 9.1.1Forms of Reference Groups�� 132 9.1.2Influence of Reference Groups �� 133 9.1.3Social Comparisons�� 134 9.2Consumer Socialization�� 136 9.3Standards and Conformity�� 137 9.4Word-of-Mouth and Opinion Leaders�� 139 9.5Social Dilemma: The Flip Side of Reference Group Influence�� 140 9.6Learning Aid �� 141 Further Reading �� 142 References�� 142 10 Physical Environment 145 10.1Interactions Between Consumers and the Physical Environment�� 146 10.2The Environmental Psychological Model�� 146 10.2.1Stimulus�� 148 10.2.2Personality �� 148 10.2.3Intervening Variable�� 148 10.2.4Behavioral Response �� 149 10.3The Purchase Channel as a Physical Environment �� 149 10.3.1Atmosphere of the Purchasing Channel�� 149 10.3.2Spatial Breakdown of the Purchasing Channel �� 152 10.4The Product as Part of the Physical Environment�� 156 10.5Salespersons and Other Persons at the Point of Sale�� 157 10.5.1Characteristics of the Seller�� 157 10.5.2Presence and Absence of Other Consumers�� 158 10.6Learning Aid �� 160 Further Reading �� 160 References�� 161 Contents xi 11 Media Environment 163 11.1How Media Mediate Between Consumers and Their Environment �� 164 11.1.1Systematization of the Media Environment�� 165 11.1.2Media of Individual and Mass Communication�� 165 11.2Explanatory Approaches to Media Choice and Use �� 166 11.2.1Rational Media Use �� 166 11.2.2Habitualized Media Use�� 169 11.2.3Emotionally Motivated Media Use�� 169 11.3The Effect of the Media Environment on the Consumer�� 170 11.3.1Knowledge Gap and Knowledge Illusion�� 170 11.3.2Flow Experience�� 170 11.3.3Social Media�� 172 11.4Learning Aid �� 172 Further Reading �� 173 References�� 173 12 Changing Consumer Behavior 175 12.1Megatrends Influencing Consumer Behavior �� 176 12.2Post-materialism Hypothesis�� 177 12.3Health-Conscious Consumer Behavior�� 178 12.4Environmentally Conscious Consumer Behavior �� 179 12.5Anti-consumption �� 181 12.6Sharing�� 182 12.7Learning Aid �� 184 Further Reading �� 185 References�� 185 1 Consumer and Behavior cc Do You Know Lea? Lea is one of more than 2.6 million students enrolled at a German university and, at 25, the same age as the average student in Germany. The alarm on her smartphone goes off at 7:30 a.m. on the dot, and 1 h later she’s sitting in a business administration lecture. A quick glance at the university app reveals that the cafeteria offerings are meager today. And since Lea has recently given up animal products, she arranges on Facebook to meet her boyfriend Ben for dinner at the new vegan café she read about in the city magazine. On the way to her date, she quickly stops by the Green Youth party headquarters to clear up some organizational points for tomorrow’s meeting. As she leans over to lock her bike, the mishap happens. Her smartphone falls out of her coat pocket, hits the hard asphalt and disintegrates into its component parts. Now she needs a new smartphone. Surely Ben can advise her on the purchase. In this book we will observe Lea and Ben in numerous consumption situations. In doing so, we will learn about models and theories to understand and explain Lea and Ben’s behavior in their role as consumers. These models are also used by marketing managers, market researchers, and consumer advocates to predict and influence consumer behavior. But first, what is consumer behavior anyway? © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2023 S. Hoffmann, P. Akbar, Consumer Behavior, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-39476-9_1 1 2 1 Consumer and Behavior Learning Objectives In this chapter, you will learn … • • • • what is meant by consumer behavior (Sect. 1.1), why knowledge about consumer behavior is important (Sect. 1.2), how to represent complex consumer behavior in models (Sect. 1.3) and which topics are covered by consumer behavior (Sect. 1.4), … by looking at consumer behavior through the following models: • Structural models, • Process models, and • Partial models. 1.1What Is Consumer Behavior? Many people have an interest in better understanding consumer behavior. Marketeers want to understand their actual and potential customers and, if possible, persuade them to buy their products and services. But also policy-makers, non-governmental organizations and others are interested in how they can persuade consumers to behave in a certain way, such as making a donation or driving less aggressively. And last but not least, consumers also want to learn more about themselves in order to make more conscious consumption decisions. In the introductory example, we have already learned some things about Lea that can help us understand and predict her behavior as a consumer. We know that Lea is 25 years old, a business student and in a committed relationship. We thus know various socio- demographic characteristics of Lea, i.e. characteristics that are also used in demography (i.e. the science that deals with the development of populations and their structures) to describe populations. Using these characteristics, marketing managers can already roughly narrow down the target group of their campaigns. However, behavioral prediction becomes much more accurate when supplemented by so-called psychographic factors (such as values, motives, attitudes, etc.). For example, we also know that Lea is characterized by her green political views and a vegan lifestyle. Both of these influence her consumption behaviors, such as choosing the café where she meets with her boyfriend Ben. We also know many of Lea’s behavioral characteristics, such as her media consumption behavior. For example, she found out about the new vegan hotspot in the city magazine and she uses her smartphone intensively. This mobile device is the first thing she picks up in the morning to turn off the alarm clock function, she uses it to plan her everyday life, such as the date with Ben she arranged via Facebook, and it is precisely this device that she now has 1.1 What Is Consumer Behavior? 3 to dispose of and replace. How do you think she will make this decision? Findings from consumer behavior research help to make a prediction. According to MacInnis and Folkes (2010, p. 905), the object of investigation of consumer behavior research is the person in his or her role as a consumer in the acquisition, use or consumption and disposal of goods and services. Thus, we understand the consumer, the first part of the term consumer behavior, to mean, in general terms, the human being in a particular role. This is precisely what makes the academic discipline discussed in this book so exciting: it is concerned with ourselves. It should be noted that the role of the consumer in this context is defined in a much broader and more complex way than that of a buyer (Foscht et al., 2017). It also includes the phase that precedes the purchase, in which we, for example, discover products in the store or from other consumers, become interested in them, inform ourselves about them, etc. (Blackwell et al., 2001; Solomon et al., 2013). In the same way, we continue to be consumers after a purchase has been made, when we use, display, dispose of, or complain about the poor functionality of the product. Let’s take a closer look at consumer behavior over time. cc Keep in mind: We speak of consumer behavior when people take on the role of consumers in their experience and behavior and purchase, consume or dispose of goods and services. Acquisition refers to all actions of the consumer that are aimed at the purchase of a product, such as researching information on product characteristics or evaluating product alternatives. Furthermore, it includes the choice of the distribution channel (e.g. offline in a store or online in a web shop), the actual purchase as well as the decision on the payment method (cash, installment, Paypal, etc.) (Blackwell et al., 2001). In order to replace her defective smartphone, Lea must, among other things, gather information about the product features that are relevant to her, such as processor speed, display resolution, and price. She then has to decide whether to order the smartphone on the Internet, where it may be 20 EUR cheaper, or whether she would prefer to buy it in a shop where she can test it in advance. By use or consumption is meant all the behaviors of the consumer associated with the use of the product (Blackwell et al., 2001). This, of course, places different demands on the product. For example, Lea might use her new smartphone for surfing, skyping and streaming as well as for mobile shopping and banking. Then a fast processor is particularly relevant. If she uses it for taking pictures, the resolution of the camera is important. She may also want to enjoy the look and feel of the smartphone, or use it to position herself in her social circle. Then the brand and the design play a special role. The product is disposed of when it becomes obsolete, i.e. as soon as it is worn out, too old or out of fashion or has lost its reputation or value. Consumers have various disposal strategies at their disposal. They can throw the product away or send it for recycling (Blackwell et al., 2001). They can also offer it for resale on the second-hand market. The online retailer Amazon, for example, offers its customers the opportunity to sell products via its marketplace. 4 1 Consumer and Behavior The term consumer is traditionally based on the distinction between production and consumption. However, this clear separation is breaking down more and more as consumers are also increasingly involved in the production and product development process. The buzzwords customer participation and co-creation mean that products are developed jointly by companies and customers. The role of the consumer is thus being expanded and there is already talk of prosumers as an artificial word made up of producer and consumer. This is particularly evident in the area of Web 2.0 and social media, where users create content themselves and, for example, record video clips and upload them to YouTube. At the social commerce company Spreadshirt, too, customers take over steps of the value creation. They not only design their own T-shirts themselves. They can even act as designers and other customers can purchase the garment they have created. It should also be noted that the role of the consumer in different settings has specific characteristics. In the business-to-business sector, decisions are often made jointly by several people who perform certain functions and behave in accordance with their function. Business-to-business researchers model consumer behavior in terms of buying centers (Webster & Wind, 1972). In this book, we focus on the final consumer, i.e. the private consumer and thus the business-to-consumer sector. The second part of the term consumer behavior is behavior (Fig. 1.1). Consequently, consumer behavior research has many overlaps with those scientific disciplines that are referred to as behavioral science (Trommsdorff & Teichert, 2011, p. 23). Particularly relevant are psychology, (behavioral) economics, sociology, biology, and physiology. We will discuss the commonalities in more detail in the chapter on consumer behavior research (Chap. 2). Significant here is first of all that the demarcation is that for consumer potential customer demander user developer prosumer fan passerby buyer informing browsing comparing customer client visitor Role as Consumer brand ambassador complaint leader communicator disposer former customer Fig. 1.1 The role of the consumer trying paying shopping Consumer Behavior using Behavior sharing recommending complaining boycotting repairing liking showing off disposing exchanging 1.2 Why Is Knowledge About Consumer Behavior Important? 5 researchers the focus is always on the consumer role (MacInnis & Folkes, 2010, p. 905). An experiment in which subjects are asked to recall brand names in order to explore the capacity of human memory is not consumer behavior research, but cognitive psychology research. If, on the other hand, the researcher wants to test which elements should be paid attention to when designing a brand logo so that consumers can recognize it more easily, this is a question of consumer behavior research. If the term consumer behavior is taken too literally, it initially refers only to the externally observable behavior of the consumer (Kroeber-Riel & Gröppel-Klein, 2013, p. 3). This understanding is in line with psychological behaviorism and it can be represented as an S-R model, i.e. a stimulus-response model. A possible stimulus would be an advertising poster announcing that a new generation iPhone is on sale. The observable response in this example would be whether or not a person who saw the poster buys the advertised product. It is difficult to comprehensively explain and understand consumer behavior with this purely “external” approach. For this reason, the term consumer behavior has long been used in a much broader sense to include the consumer’s experience. Thus, consumer researchers also consider internal processes such as the perception and storage of the message of the advertising poster or emotional reactions to it. The S-O-R model, also borrowed from psychology, serves as a framework model which, in addition to stimulus (e.g. advertising poster) and response (purchase), also considers the organism, i.e. the mediating processes taking place in the consumer. This should open the “black box” between stimulus and response and explain “why” and “how” consumers behave (Kroeber-Riel & Gröppel-Klein, 2013, p. 3). In this book we want to take a look into this black box together. 1.2Why Is Knowledge About Consumer Behavior Important? New Coke, Toshiba HD-DVD, VW Phaeton or Microsoft Zune: even large corporations regularly fail when launching new products. About 60% to 80% of the articles introduced for the first time are no longer offered in stores one year later (Müller & Schroiff, 2013). One reason for this is the companies’ lack of consumer orientation. Yet the positive impact of consumer orientation on sales and earnings has been amply demonstrated in numerous studies (Srinivasan & Hanssens, 2009; Steiner, 2009). The strategic orientation of the business model to the needs of the customer should therefore be a central managerial goal. But why is consumer orientation so important for corporate success? This is mainly because many markets have evolved from seller’s markets to buyer’s markets over the last decades. After World War II, the critical bottleneck was the production of goods and services. Sellers’ markets, where demand exceeded supply, were the norm and suppliers were able to sell their products without marketing them to specific target groups. In today’s mostly prevailing buyers’ markets, consumers can choose from a variety of equivalent offerings (Trommsdorff & Teichert, 2011). The reasons for this change include strong technological progress, market saturation in various industries, and the market entry of new foreign competitors in the wake of globalization. While marketing mainly followed a 6 1 Consumer and Behavior distribution orientation in the early 1950s, the focus gradually changed to a production and sales orientation and finally to a customer orientation (Gelbrich et al., 2018; Meffert et al., 2018). In order to operate successfully in buyers’ markets, companies need to differentiate themselves from their competitors and give their products features that appeal to a specific target group. To do this, they need to know and understand their target group and therefore the consumer. The advantages that knowledge of consumer behavior brings to marketing can be demonstrated by the so-called “4Ps,” i.e. the four classic marketing policies (Trommsdorff & Teichert, 2011): for example, knowledge of consumer behavior enables, among other things product development and design adapted to the needs of the target group (product policy), the exploitation of the consumer’s maximum willingness to pay (price policy), the distribution of the product adapted to the consumer’s preferences (place policy) and the targeted addressing of consumer needs via various communication channels, such as TV advertising, online advertising, sponsoring, etc. (promotion policy). 1.3Explanatory Models of Consumer Behavior Numerous models exist in the literature that are intended to explain the behavior of consumers. A model is understood to be a simplified representation of reality (Stachowiak, 1973). Models of consumer behavior also reduce the complex reality to a systematic selection of relevant variables that are set in relation to each other. Two types of explanatory models can be distinguished, which have different degrees of abstraction (Meffert et al., 2018): total models (high degree of abstraction) and partial models (low degree of abstraction). 1.3.1Total Models of Consumer Behavior Total models attempt to represent as many conceivable factors influencing consumer behavior as possible. They are therefore inevitably very complex and characterized by a high degree of abstraction. Total models can be divided into structural and process models. Structural models explain the relationship between the variables that play a role in consumer behavior and provide a bird’s eye view. Process models divide consumer behavior over time into several phases. 1.3.1.1Structural Models The total model of Blackwell et al. (2001) is one of the most common structural models of consumer behavior. As shown in Fig. 1.2, the model includes the decision-making process, information behavior and various influencing variables. Let us consider Lea’s current situation from the point of view of this model. According to this model, the consumption decision starts with the problem recognition as a discrepancy of the status quo from the ideal state as perceived by the consumer. According to the total model, the extent of this 1.3 Explanatory Models of Consumer Behavior 7 Need recognition Exposure Stimuli (marketer dominated, nonmarketer dominated) Internal search Attention Comprehension Search Evaluation of alternatives Memory Acceptance Purchase Consumption Retention Post-consumption evaluation External search Dissatisfaction Divestment Environmental influences • culture • social class • personal influences • family • situation Individual differences • consumer resources • motivation and involvement • knowledge • attitudes • personality, values, and lifestyle Satisfaction Fig. 1.2 Total model of consumer behavior. (Adapted from Blackwell et al., 2001) discrepancy depends on environmental influences, memories of past (consumption) experiences and the individual characteristics of the consumer. This might look like the following in Lea’s case: After Lea’s smartphone broke (status quo), she needs a new mobile device to organize her daily life (ideal state). A fellow student recently bought the latest iPhone and raved about its usability and feel (environmental impact). At the time, Lea listened to his descriptions, since – unlike her parents – she has a soft spot for fancy devices and Apple products (individual differences). In addition, she always listens to music on her old iPod when she goes jogging, which is why she has already had positive experiences with the use of Apple products (memory). In this way, one could further explore the entire total model of Blackwell et al. (2001) and would come to the following conclusion: Structural models provide good guidance and show the multiple variables that play a role in consumer behavior. They help to identify relationships between variables and to view consumer behavior holistically. At the same time, however, they are very complex. As a result, they are not empirically verifiable and therefore they do not leave the conceptual level. They also make it practically impossible to predict behavior in concrete terms. 1.3.1.2Process Models Process models divide consumer behavior into several phases. Many process models are primarily dedicated to purchasing behavior and usually distinguish between three phases (Solomon et al., 2013): 8 1 Consumer and Behavior • Pre-sales phase: In the pre-purchase phase, the consumer recognizes his/her “problem” and s/he starts looking for products and services that help him solve it. Thus, s/he might gather information about the product, test different models in the store or read test reports. • Sales phase: In the purchase phase, the consumer makes a purchase decision, puts together his/her shopping cart and pays for the purchase. • After-sales phase: In the after-sales phase, the focus is on product use. The consumer evaluates his/her decision made in the purchase phase. Depending on the degree of satisfaction, the product may be returned (dissatisfied) or used again (satisfied). Some process models combine the purchase phases with the distribution channels of retailers. These models take into account the fact that consumers engage in channel hopping when making their purchase decisions, i.e. they switch between different distribution channels (retail store, online shop, mobile shop, etc.) of one or more retailers. Channel switching can be sequential (e.g., researching first in a retail store and later from home on the Internet) or parallel (e.g., researching online in a retail store). More recently, marketing has been talking not only about distribution channels but also about touchpoints, i.e. points of contact between consumers and companies. Figure 1.3 illustrates how consumers come into contact with different touchpoints along their so-called customer journey (Schüller, 2013). The customer journey is understood to be the path along the contact points that a potential customer passes through before making a purchase. 1.3.2Partial Models of Consumer Behavior As a reminder, total models try to cover all relevant aspects of consumer behavior. They provide a good overview of how consumers generally behave and help to present the Touchpoints Pre-Sales Sales After-Sales Store Print/catalogue TV/radio Email Social media Online shop Potential touchpoint Fig. 1.3 Example of a customer journey Potential path of the customer journey 1.3 Explanatory Models of Consumer Behavior 9 complex behavior of the consumer clearly and in a logical context. Partial models, on the other hand, look at specific, more narrowly defined consumer behaviors (Trommsdorff & Teichert, 2011). As a result, they are empirically testable and the influence of some independent variables (IV) on the dependent variable (DV) is quantifiable. Current research is primarily devoted to partial models. All the models we consider in the remainder of this book are also partial models. An exemplary partial model of the effect of humorous advertising (Schwarz & Hoffmann, 2012) shows how viewing a humorous commercial (IV) affects the consumer’s attitude towards the brand (DV). The main effect of IV on DV is described in more detail by intervening variables in most partial models. Two types of intervening variables are central to this (Baron & Kenny, 1986): • Mediator variable: The mediator variable mediates the influence of the IV on the DV. It explains how the IV indirectly affects the DV. In our example, after viewing the humorous advertisement (IV), the recipient would first develop a positive attitude towards this advertisement (mediator variable) and this in turn causes a positive attitude towards the brand (DV) to form. • Moderator variable: The moderator variable influences the strength and form of the relationship between IV and DV. In our example, the product category could also be a moderator variable: Thus, humorous advertising (IV) in the product category lifestyle (moderator variable) could have a positive effect on the attitude towards the brand (DV), whereas it could have a negative effect in the case of financial products. The Motor Metaphor for the Mediator/Moderator Distinction The distinction between mediator and moderator variables is fundamental for understanding the partial models of consumer behavior. However, when dealing with it for the first time, the distinction causes difficulties even when thinking hard. So let’s try to be playful and let Manni, the engine, speak: As a driver, you know that the harder you step on the gas pedal, the faster the wheels turn. That’s because of me. I’m Manni, the engine. I mediate between the gas pedal and the wheels. The harder the driver steps on the gas pedal, the faster I turn. And the faster I turn, the faster the wheels turn. I pride myself on being very reliable. Still, the gearing doesn’t always work out the same. Sometimes the wheels turn particularly fast compared to me, sometimes they don’t turn at all and sometimes they even turn backwards. That annoys me a lot, because I make a point of being reliable. You know who’s to blame? It’s Gabi, the gearshift. She determines the strength and form in which my rotation is translated to the wheels. If you equate the gas pedal with the IV, the wheels with the DV, the engine with the mediator variable and the gear shift with the moderator variable in this story and read the text again, you will have understood the difference between mediator and moderator variables forever! ◄ 10 1 Consumer and Behavior Desire for unique consumer products Materialism Sharing intention Sharing participation Fig. 1.4 Partial model of sharing intention. (Adapted from Akbar et al., 2016) To deepen the difference between mediator and moderator variables, let us look at a typical example of a partial model (Fig. 1.4): Materialistic consumers attach importance to owning products themselves. Consequently, the more materialistic a consumer is (IV), the lower is his/her intention to participate in sharing programs (Sect. 12.6) (mediator), and the lower is this intention, the lower is the probability that s/he actually participates in a given sharing program (DV). In this partial model of Akbar et al. (2016), sharing intention is the mediator variable. It mediates between materialism and sharing participation. However, the study now shows that materialistic consumers also participate in sharing programs under certain circumstances. Namely, when they feel a strong desire for unique products (moderator). They then view sharing as a way to use unique products. The desire for unique products thus moderates the connection between the materialistic attitude and the sharing intention. 1.4Overview of Consumer Behavior Topics This book is divided into 12 independent chapters that highlight the central facets of consumer behavior (Fig. 1.5). In the next chapter, we outline the scientific-theoretical and methodological approach. The subsequent chapters are then devoted to specific influencing variables and present the relevant partial models for these. We first deal with influences on consumer behavior that primarily take place “inside” the consumer. These include motivation, emotion and cognition as well as attitude and decision. We then broaden our view and show that behavior differs systematically between different consumer groups. We discuss influences from outside – from the social, physical and media environment. At the end of the book, we explain how consumer behavior is embedded in general social developments and thus constantly changes over time. 1.5 Learning Aid 11 Interindividual Differences and Environmental Influences Intraindividual Processes Interindividual Differences (Chap. 8) Motivation (Chap. 3) Emotion Decision Consumer Behavior (Chap. 1) (Chap. 4) (Chap. 7) Attitude (Chap. 6) Media Environment (Chap. 11) Changing Consumer Behavior (Chap. 12) Cognition (Chap. 5) Social Environment (Chap. 9) Physical Environment (Chap. 10) Consumer Behavior Research (Chap. 2) Fig. 1.5 Overview of consumer behavior themes 1.5Learning Aid Quintessence We speak of consumer behavior when people take on the role of consumers in their experience and behavior and purchase, consume or dispose of goods and services. Research on consumer behavior is not only concerned with externally observable behavior, but also with the consumer’s experience, in order to be able to answer the “how” and “why” of consumer behavior. Total models represent all facets of consumer behavior together and provide a good overview. However, they are not empirically testable, which is why research focuses on partial models. ◄ 12 1 Consumer and Behavior Exercise Questions and Tasks Complete the following sentence: We speak of consumer behavior when the person in his/her experience and behavior takes on the ____________ of the consumer and goods and services ____________, ____________ or __________. Right or wrong? In recent decades, most markets have become buyers’ markets. Supply exceeds demand. Orienting supply to the needs of the customer is therefore no longer necessary. Tick the correct answer(s). O Research on consumer behavior examines the purchasing behavior of individuals. The object of study is limited to purchases actually made. O Research on consumer behavior is based on the S-R model and analyzes only externally observable behavior. O Research on consumer behavior is based on the S-O-R model and also analyzes the inner life of the consumer, which cannot be observed from the outside. Cross-Linking Question In the introductory example, various things were reported about Lea. Which aspects of this can be attributed to consumer behavior? Look at Fig. 1.5 and consider in which of the following chapters you are likely to learn more background knowledge and theoretical explanations in order to better understand Lea in her role as a consumer. Further Reading Hoyer, W. D., MacInnis, D. J., & Pieters, R. (2012). Consumer behavior (6th ed.). Cengage Learning Emea. Kroeber-Riel, W., & Gröppel-Klein, A. (2013). Konsumentenverhalten (10th ed.). Vahlen. MacInnis, D. J., & Folkes, V. S. (2010). The disciplinary status of consumer behavior: A sociology of science perspective on key controversies. Journal of Consumer Research, 36(6), 899–914. References Akbar, P., Hoffmann, S., & Mai, R. (2016). When do materialistic consumers join commercial sharing systems? Journal of Business Research, 69(10), 4215–4224. Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(6), 1173–1182. Blackwell, R. D., Miniard, P. W., & Engel, J. F. (2001). Consumer behavior (9th ed.). Harcourt. References 13 Foscht, T., Swoboda, B., & Schramm-Klein, H. (2017). Käuferverhalten. Grundlagen – Perspektiven – Anwendungen (6th ed.). Springer Gabler. Gelbrich, K., Wünschmann, S., & Müller, S. (2018). Erfolgsfaktoren des Marketing (2nd ed.). Vahlen. Kroeber-Riel, W., & Gröppel-Klein, A. (2013). Konsumentenverhalten (10th ed.). Vahlen. MacInnis, D. J., & Folkes, V. S. (2010). The disciplinary status of consumer behavior: A sociology of science perspective on key controversies. Journal of Consumer Research, 36(6), 899–914. Meffert, H., Burmann, C., Kirchgeorg, M., & Eisenbeiß, M. (2018). Marketing. Grundlagen marktorientierter Unternehmensführung. Konzepte – Instrumente – Praxisbeispiele (13th ed.). Springer Gabler. Müller, T., & Schroiff, H. W. (2013). Warum Produkte floppen: Die 10 Todsünden des Marketings. Haufe-Lexware. Schüller, A. M. (2013). Touchpoints. Auf Tuchfühlung mit dem Kunden von heute (3rd ed.). Gabal. Schwarz, U., & Hoffmann, S. (2012). Unter welchen Bedingungen ist humorvolle Werbung erfolgreich? Ein Überblick zu den Moderatoren der Humorwirkung. Wirtschaftswissenschaftliches Studium, 41(7), 344–349. Solomon, M. R., Bamossy, G. J., Askegaard, S. T., & Hogg, M. K. (2013). Consumer behaviour. A European perspective (5th ed.). Pearson. Srinivasan, S., & Hanssens, D. M. (2009). Marketing and firm value. Metrics, methods, findings, and future directions. Journal of Marketing Research, 46(3), 293–312. Stachowiak, H. (1973). Allgemeine Modelltheorie. Springer. Steiner, V. (2009). Modellierung des Kundenwertes: Ein Branchenübergreifender Ansatz. Gabler. Trommsdorff, V., & Teichert, T. (2011). Konsumentenverhalten (8th ed.). Kohlhammer. Webster, F., & Wind, Y. (1972). A general model for understanding organizational buying behavior. Journal of Marketing, 36(2), 12–19. 2 Consumer Behavior Research cc Ben Wants to Go to the Robot Hotel “That’s where I want to go,” Ben suddenly exclaims. He’s just been reading through an article on his news app and discovered that on July 17, 2015, the Henn-na Hotel opened in Japan near Nagasaki. It is the world’s first hotel with robots as staff. For example, there is a robot lady at the front desk. She is polite, friendly and neatly made up and coiffed. Robots also take care of other services, such as bringing the suitcase to the room or cleaning the rooms. “But the hotel is closing soon,” Lea retorts. “No one goes there voluntarily.” Undoubtedly, it is a risky venture to open such an unusual hotel. Which guests will this hotel attract? Will they be satisfied, return and recommend the hotel to others? What prices will they be willing to pay? Consumer behavior research can help to provide an answer to this. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2023 S. Hoffmann, P. Akbar, Consumer Behavior, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-39476-9_2 15 16 2 Consumer Behavior Research Learning Objectives In this chapter, you will learn … • what consumer behavior research is investigating (Sect. 2.1), • which research approaches are used (Sect. 2.2), • when researchers collect data themselves and when they use existing data (Sect. 2.3), and • how to obtain empirical data (Sect. 2.4), … by viewing consumer behavior research through the following paradigms: • qualitative and quantitative approaches, • primary and secondary research, and • classical test theory. 2.1Object and Tasks of Consumer Behavior Research The purpose of consumer behavior research is to investigate the behavior of people in their role as consumers. As described in Sect. 1.1, it is not only the externally observable behavior that is of interest, but also the internal processes, in order to be able to answer the “how” and “why” of consumer behavior (Kroeber-Riel & Gröppel-Klein, 2013, p. 3). Consumer behavior research is a sub-discipline of marketing research. It aims to provide information on consumer behavior that serves as a basis for marketing decisions (MacInnis & Folkes, 2010). However, it also develops models that are useful for a wide variety of other decision makers, such as policymakers or non-governmental and non-profit organizations concerned with consumer protection. Under the rubric of “transformative consumer research,” current research is putting the consumer at the center (Mick et al., 2011; Chap. 12). As a result, it is developing into a discipline in its own right. It is a challenge to understand, explain, predict or even change consumer behavior. As we show in the various chapters of this book, consumer behavior varies between different personalities and lifestyles and according to cultural conditioning, but also depending on situational circumstances such as the occasion of a purchase or the time available. The packaging of the product, the image of the supplier and much more factors also influence consumer behavior. How can the complex behavior of consumers be researched under these complex conditions? No doubt, to take all this into account, consumer behavior research also needs to be very diverse. Drawing on the insights and methods of different research disciplines can help to fathom the complex behavior of consumers (Solomon et al., 2013, p. 25; MacInnis & Folkes, 2010). Therefore, consumer behavior research is interdisciplinary. Strong influences come from psychology, esp. emotion, motivation and cognitive psychology, as well 2.1 Object and Tasks of Consumer Behavior Research 17 as social and experimental psychology. Research methods and theories are also adapted from sociology, economics or philosophy as well as from biological behavioral research. Each of these disciplines helps in researching certain facets of consumer behavior. (General) psychology focuses on the individual. Social psychology also looks at social interactions and sociology provides theories and methods to analyze consumer group behavior. (Behavioral) economics provides models of decision-making behavior, among other things. But also various branches of research in the humanities, such as semiotics or anthropology, offer clues to consumer behavior. Let us take up our introductory example again and look at the contribution of some neighboring disciplines (Solomon et al., 2013, p. 25; MacInnis & Folkes, 2010): • Cognitive psychology studies processes of perception, learning and memory, among other things. Its methods could, for example, help to find out which aspects of the report about the robot hotel caught Ben’s attention. • Social psychology considers, among other things, the behavior of individuals as members of social groups. Whether Ben and Lea will visit the robot hotel together depends on a joint decision process and on how their social environment, which includes their family and friends, evaluates this decision. • Sociology, for example, looks at differences in consumer behavior between social classes or between so-called social milieus. It could help to understand which social groups are interested in such an avant-garde offer as a robot hotel. • Microeconomics looks at the allocation of financial resources in households, among other things. For example, the question arises whether Lea and Ben will spend their joint budget on the expensive robot hotel or rather on two new bicycles. Which offer will be of greater benefit to them? • Semiotics deals, among other things, with the verbal and visual communication of content. What deeper meaning does it have for Ben to be operated by a robot? Does Lea, as an ecologically thinking woman, have the same interpretation of this process? Background Info: Where to Find the Latest Consumer Studies Research results on consumer behavior are published in professional journals. Relevant marketing journals contain a large part of the studies on consumer behavior. Since the field is interdisciplinary, current findings are also published in the journals of psychology, sociology or microeconomics. The major journals that publish consumer behavior studies exclusively are the Journal of Consumer Research (JCR), the Journal of Consumer Psychology (JCP), and the Journal of Consumer Behaviour (JCB). The Jourqual ranking system rates these journals from A+ to D. Here, the JCR, the flagship of consumer behavior research, is rated “A+,” which is the highest grade. Scan the QR code to go to the JCR’s website. 18 2 Consumer Behavior Research 2.2Basic Research Approaches The strong interdisciplinary character of consumer behavior research also affects the basic scientific approach. Thus, several orientations are applied in parallel (Balderjahn & Scholderer, 2007, p. 3 f.). In the microeconomic approach, general rules are applied to individual cases, with the “homo economicus” (Sect. 7.2.1), i.e. the utility-maximizing and rationally decisive consumer who has full market transparency, originally being the fundamental conception of human. Most consumer behavior researchers currently follow the positivist approach, the aim of which is to obtain generally valid statements with the help of empirical observations. As a rule, hypotheses are formulated, quantitative data are collected and these are evaluated using statistical methods of analysis. More and more researchers also use the interpretative approach. According to this scientific orientation, the aim is not to explain consumer behavior in general terms, but to understand it in depth. The analyzes are often based on individual cases or smaller samples, which are usually explored in an open-ended manner. In the following, we mainly address quantitative research methods that are linked to the positivist approach and that clearly dominated consumer behavior research for a long time. However, we also provide a brief insight into qualitative research methods that follow the interpretive approach and that have gained in importance in recent years. 2.2.1Quantitative Research Methods Quantitative research methods usually aim to test previously established hypotheses using empirical data (Hoffmann et al., 2018). For example, a hypothesis could be as follows: The more satisfied guests were with their last stay at the robot hotel, the more likely they are to return. To quantify the constructs included in hypotheses (in this case, satisfaction and likelihood of return), researchers develop operationalization’s, i.e., measurement specifications. In this way, the constructs can be expressed in numerical data. For this purpose, for example, closed questions are used in surveys in which respondents can select from predefined answer alternatives (e.g. seven-level from very dissatisfied to very satisfied, Fig. 2.1). These are in turn assigned to specific numbers How satisfied are you with ... very dissatisfied very satisfied Value … the friendliness of the employees. 6 … the room service. 5 … etc. … Fig. 2.1 Example of a quantitative survey 2.2 Basic Research Approaches 19 (e.g., “very dissatisfied”: 1; “very satisfied”: 7). The researcher evaluates this numerical data using statistical analysis methods. In order to be able to make generalizable statements, it is necessary to collect relatively large samples. A typical result of a quantitative research approach would be, for example, that there is a statistically significant relationship between satisfaction with a service and the probability of returning to the service provider. The result is stochastic, meaning that consumers who are satisfied are more likely to revisit the hotel. However, the relationship is not deterministic (unlike some scientific findings). This means that one cannot predict with certainty that every satisfied consumer will also return. 2.2.2Qualitative Research Methods Qualitative research methods are often used to uncover unknown causes, motives and ideas, to understand facts and to develop hypotheses (e.g. Berekoven et al., 2009; Döring & Bortz, 2016, p. 184 ff.; Buber & Holzmüller, 2009). Related to the robot hotel example, one research question could be why so few guests visit the hotel a second time. Often, the researcher cannot yet formulate any precisely formulated hypotheses at the beginning of the investigation. Rather, the analysis is usually open-ended and the insights that are drawn from certain documents, or the answers that the respondent can give, are not predefined. In interviews, for example, the researcher can react flexibly to statements made by the respondent and expand on spontaneous thoughts that the respondent introduces and that can lead to new insights. Possibly, an interviewee who has already visited the hotel would express here that the handshake of the reception robot felt very cold and that from that moment on he or she found the stay uncomfortable. The data collected in this way are non- numerical. Therefore, the researcher cannot simply summarize them, but must first process them in an appropriate manner and then interpret them. The goal of the study is not to statistically validate and quantify the strength of a relationship, but to understand the cause of the relationship. Smaller samples (often as few as 20–30 interviews) are often sufficient for this purpose. A typical result of a qualitative research approach would be, for example, that a hypothesis is established or even a theory is developed as to how the authenticity of the haptic experience (here: the authenticity of the robot’s handshake) influences the consumer’s perception. Table 2.1 lists selected qualitative methods (for more detail, see, among others, Buber & Holzmüller, 2009; Kepper, 2008; Kozinets, 2015; Mayring, 2016). Here, interviews and group discussions are to be understood as data collection forms, while projective procedures represent techniques that can be embedded in both data collection forms. Content analysis, on the other hand, is a form of data evaluation and interpretation. 20 2 Consumer Behavior Research Table 2.1 Selected qualitative research methods Research method Interview Explanation Usually an interviewer conducts a personal interview with a respondent. Possible variants are the focused interview (the conversation revolves around a pre-selected topic), the explorative interview (the interviewee reports experiences and describes his or her motives) and the psychological in-depth interview (the interviewer attempts to uncover hidden, difficult-to-grasp motives and attitudes of the respondent). An important method used in interviews is the laddering technique, which we discuss in Sect. 3.5 Group In a group discussion, a moderator controls the communication of several discussion participants. This creates an intensive dynamic, and the fact that the participants pick up on statements made by others means that different content can be revealed than in individual interviews. Special forms are guided creative groups (the moderator uses selected creativity techniques) or Delphi surveys (questioning of experts in initially several parallel individual interviews and later discussion of the results among all interview participants) Projective Projective methods are mostly used in the context of group discussions and methods interviews. In projective or indirect procedures, the participants are usually unaware of the purpose of the procedure in order to achieve the most free and uncontrolled results possible. Projective procedures are often used when subjects are unwilling or unable to make certain statements. Possible procedures are word associations, sentence completion tests or third-person techniques; but also interpretations of ambiguous pictures, such as the classic “Rorschach test” (“inkblot test”) or the thematic apperception test Content In the context of a content analysis, existing data material is processed and analysis interpreted in a rule-guided process. Text documents, the transcripts of in-depth interviews or group discussion, internet postings etc. can serve as data material. A distinction is made between purely qualitative and quantitative content analysis. In the latter, the data material is categorized and the categories are statistically evaluated Netnography Netnography is a blend word made up of “net” (for internet) and ethnography. Researchers observe and analyze the behavior of consumers on the internet and in the context of social media (such as Facebook, twitter, blogs, etc.). The method helps to obtain relatively fast and often inexpensive unbiased data 2.2.3Mixed Methods as a Link Between Research Approaches The comparison of the quantitative and the qualitative approach makes clear that not only the methods differ, but that there are big differences in the objectives, the expected results and the quality of the data. Qualitative methods are particularly suitable for discovering something new or for understanding phenomena in depth. Quantitative methods, on the other hand, are better suited to confirming the strength of relationships. Quantitative methods should have a high degree of objectivity, i.e. they should result in the same conclusions independently of the persons conducting the research. Qualitative methods require some 2.3 Primary vs. Secondary Research 21 interpretation of the data. In the meantime, it is becoming increasingly accepted that both approaches have their justification and should be chosen depending on the application. It is often advisable to combine the two approaches in mixed-methods approaches (Srnka, 2007). Among others, the following designs are possible: • Pre-study design: The researcher first uses qualitative methods to understand phenomena and develop hypotheses, which he or she then validates quantitatively. For example, the researcher would first conduct a focus group on the service quality of the robot hotel and then analyze identified problem areas in detail in a quantitative survey. • Triangulation design: the researcher conducts parallel qualitative and quantitative studies on the same research subject to fully understand the topic. • Generalization design: For example, in a so-called quantitative content analysis, qualitative data are transformed into quantitative data through categorization processes and then statistically evaluated. 2.3Primary vs. Secondary Research In principle, researchers can obtain information in two different ways: Through primary and through secondary research (Meffert et al., 2018; Homburg, 2017). • In primary research, the need for information is met by collecting original new data. The researcher can proceed on the basis of hypotheses and tailor the data to be obtained to the purposes of the study. The informative value of the data for the research question to be investigated is thus particularly high. For example, a researcher could specifically develop a questionnaire on service quality in robot hotels. • Secondary research, also known as desk research, uses existing data material. This data was originally collected for other purposes and the “desk researcher” now re- evaluates it for the question to be answered. For example, data from the Federal Statistical Office, annual reports, customer statistics from companies or surveys from market research institutes come into question. Both forms of data collection have certain advantages and disadvantages (Döring & Bortz, 2016; Meffert et al., 2018). Secondary research usually incurs lower costs. If the available data do not need to be processed further, the analyzes can also be carried out relatively quickly. However, the data are often not up-to-date and the quality is often difficult to assess. The biggest problem for consumer behavior research, however, is that the data is not tailored to the research question. For example, it will be difficult to find secondary data that helps answer the question of whether satisfaction with service staff in a robot hotel has a different impact on the likelihood of return than in a conventional hotel. Primary research, which is often more complex and costly, can better address pressing questions in a targeted manner. However, it requires appropriate methodological expertise and cost expenditure. 22 2 Consumer Behavior Research The findings presented in this book are based primarily on studies that made use of primary surveys, since in the case of questions about the “how” and “why” of consumers’ behavior, data already available are often too unspecific for the question of interest. For this reason, we will also focus more on primary research strategies in the following. 2.4Forms of Information Retrieval In the context of primary research, the following forms of data collection can be distinguished (e.g. Hoffmann et al., 2018; Meffert et al., 2018): interviews, observation, equipment-based methods and experiments. In addition, there are numerous special forms such as computer-assisted surveys (e.g. reaction time measurements such as the Implicit Association Test), web analytics (including Big Data), panel surveys, test markets and psychological test procedures. 2.4.1Surveys and Operationalization of Constructs Surveys ask respondents to provide information on specific issues (Meffert et al., 2018). Surveys are undoubtedly the most frequently used form of information gathering in consumer behavior research. With verbal, telephone, written and online surveys, different survey forms can be distinguished, which have different advantages and disadvantages (see Homburg, 2017; Meffert et al., 2018). A survey should include different groups of questions (cf. Meffert et al., 2018). The questioning usually begins with contact or icebreaker questions that are intended to break up a possibly negative basic attitude on the part of the respondent (e.g., in a survey about the robot hotel: “The vacation session will soon begin. Have you planned a trip yet?”). The main part of the interview consists of the substantial questions that relate to the actual subject of the research. Each survey should contain several control questions to check whether biases could reduce the validity of the survey. As an example, consider the tendency to give socially desirable answers. In this case, the respondent would not answer truthfully, but according to social norms. Socially desirable answering behavior is a problem especially with sensitive topics such as environmental protection. To control for tendencies towards socially desirable response behavior, scales are used that consist of statements describing socially desirable behavior (e.g. “I never cover up my mistakes”) or socially undesirable behavior (e.g. “When I was young, I sometimes stole things”) (Steenkamp et al., 2010). The statements are constructed in such a way that it is unlikely that subjects fully agree with the socially desirable statements and fully disagree with the undesirable ones. Surveys usually end with questions about the socio-demographic and socio-economic characteristics of the respondents. A central point of the questionnaire construction is the operationalization, i.e. the “measurability” of latent constructs. A latent construct is a phenomenon that is assumed to 2.4 Forms of Information Retrieval 23 exist but cannot be observed directly. This includes intelligence as well as brand images, attitudes, customer satisfaction and almost all other constructs discussed in marketing and consumer research. Operationalization requires indicators, i.e. observable variables, such as the response on a five-point response scale in a survey. In the case of latent constructs, multi-item scales should be used in most cases, as the interaction of several indicators is required to reliably capture the construct in its full breadth. How well this operationalization succeeds is judged primarily by the three quality criteria of objectivity, reliability, and validity (Churchill, 1979; Homburg & Giering, 1996). The development of a meaningful questionnaire requires a great deal of expertise in test-theoretical principles (Moosbrugger & Kelava, 2011). Bühner (2010) provides a good introduction to test and questionnaire construction. Background Information: The Quality Criteria of Classical Test Theory Constructs in questionnaires must satisfy the three main quality criteria of classical test theory. Objectivity is present if the same result would be obtained regardless of the person of the researcher or interviewer. Reliability refers to the reliability or formal accuracy, i.e. the question of whether the measuring instrument (the multi-item scale) always measures the same thing in every situation (regardless of what the measuring instrument measures or should measure in terms of content). Reliability thus captures whether the measurement is free of random error. Finally, validity is the validity of the measurement, i.e. it assesses whether the measurement is free of systematic errors. It is therefore a question of whether a measuring instrument actually measures what it purports to measure. 2.4.2Observation of Subjects Sensually perceptible facts can be recorded through observation (Kepper, 2008; Meffert et al., 2018). Observations can be differentiated according to who or what registers the data and how transparent the observation situation is for the subject. • Who or what registers the data? In most cases, third-party observations are carried out by a third party, i.e. an observer, or by equipment (e.g. video cameras). Technical support for obtaining objective data will be discussed in more detail in Sect. 2.4.3. In principle, the method of self-observation would also be available; however, it is rarely used in consumer behavior research. • How transparent is the observation situation for the subject? In non-biotic observational studies, the subject knows that he or she is being observed and also what the purpose of the study is. However, it is often necessary in consumer behavior studies that the subject does not have complete transparency about the observation situation. The aim is to avoid an “observation effect,” i.e. to prevent the subject from consciously adapting or even falsifying his or her behavior. If the subject knows that he or she is a participant in an investigation, but does not know the subject of the investigation, this is referred to as a quasi-biotic situation. For example, the researcher could inform the 24 2 Consumer Behavior Research subject that he or she is observing the subject’s behavior during the first visit to the robot hotel; however, the researcher does not the subject disclose the fact that he or she would like to record the subject’s reactions to the handshake of the robot. If, on the other hand, the subject is not even aware that he or she is part of the investigation, this is referred to as a biotic situation. Observations can be carried out as part of laboratory experiments (see Sect. 2.4.4). However, they are also used in field studies. One example is customer flow analysis, which aim to determine how consumers behave in a retail store and by which elements (such as shelf placement) they are influenced (Chap. 10). A special form of observation is web analytics, i.e. the analysis of user behavior on the Internet, based primarily on the evaluation of log files. 2.4.3Instrument-Based Procedures and Consumer Neuroscience Objective measurements can be carried out using equipment, i.e. technical aids. A wide variety of procedures help to collect physiological indicators or to record muscle movements and facial expressions (Rampl et al., 2011). With this information, the researcher attempts to draw conclusions about the subject’s internal processes. Eye tracking, for example, records eye movement and thus provides an indicator of attentional and perceptual processes. The electrocardiogram (ECG) records the heart rate and is an indicator of the subject’s activation. Skin resistance measurement is based on the idea that the skin conducts electrical currents with lower resistance when we sweat. Even minimal changes in the conductivity of the skin are registered and provide information about the degree of physiological activation. The electromyogram (EMG) is used to measure muscle tension, which can be used to draw conclusions about emotions, for example. A special form of electromyography is facial electromyography, which records changes in the electrical activity of the facial musculature, in which emotions are very directly reflected. In connection with these instrument-based procedures, the term neuromarketing or consumer neuroscience is currently being discussed intensively (Kenning, 2014). Findings, theories and methods from the field of neuropsychology are increasingly being used to penetrate various problems in consumer behavior research. Previous studies have dealt, for example, with the emotionalization of purchase decisions (Deppe et al., 2005) or the effect of payment methods on consumers’ product perceptions (Chatterjee & Rose, 2012). Researchers in the field of consumer neuroscience make use of numerous methods of cognitive neuroscience, with the help of which it is possible to study specific activities in the human nervous system and in certain brain regions under the influence of certain stimuli. Important measuring devices that record the activities in the brain are electroencephalography (EEG), magnetoencephalography (MEG), positron emission tomography (PET) and functional transcranial Doppler sonography (fTCD). Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is the most advanced and popular imaging technique in use. 2.4 Forms of Information Retrieval 25 It measures changes in blood oxygenation, allowing active brain areas to be identified. Areas of the brain that are particularly stressed have an increased demand for oxygen, resulting in increased oxygenation within a fraction of a second. Oxygen-rich blood has different magnetic properties compared to oxygen-depleted blood, which cause the signal picked up by the MRI scanner. Compared to other imaging techniques, fMRI has high spatial resolution even without the administration of contrast agents or radioactive substances. Likewise, temporally accurate information about the sequence and timing of brain activities can be determined. Example: When the Brain Is Happy About Higher Prices Behavioral psychology studies have shown that – contrary to traditional economic assumptions – a higher price can increase purchase intention under certain conditions, as consumers attribute higher quality to high-priced products. A study by Hilke Plassmann et al. (2008) deals with the question to what extent a price increases change the consumption experience and to what extent this is reflected in neuronal representations. In the experiment, subjects tasted small amounts of Cabernet Sauvignon while the researchers recorded their brain activity using fMRI. They also showed the subjects the prices of the red wines. What the subjects did not know: Two of the wines were offered twice; once at a high and once at a low price. The study confirms that consumers infer the quality of a product from the price and that this influences their taste experience and the pleasure they experience. This is reflected in activities in the medial orbitofrontal cortex; a brain region that, according to the authors, processes how pleasant the consumer experiences the situation. Instrument-based methods are very suitable for measuring information on even minimal changes in the consumer’s experience and behavior. However, it should be noted that the samples are usually very small and the generalizability is therefore limited (Plassmann et al., 2015). The studies usually take place under laboratory conditions. How much, for example, the measured brain activities during the consumption of wine are influenced by the fact that the subjects are in a medical environment and are fed wine through a tube within a noisy fMRI is unclear. In addition, there is the problem of “reverse inference”: from certain signals in the brain, the processing of individual mental processes is inferred. However, stimuli are processed in several brain areas and, conversely, one brain area is not exclusively responsible for processing individual emotions and cognitions. Consumer neuroscience cannot yet fully reveal the consumer’s experience and cannot, for example, answer whether a stimulus is perceived as positive or negative by the consumer. This requires additional surveys, which brings us back to the advantages of triangulation (cf. Sect. 2.2.3). 2.4.4Experiments and the Proof of Causality A central task of consumer behavior research is the search for causality, i.e. for cause- effect relationships. The ideal way to prove causality is the experiment. In an experiment, the previously hypothetically defined cause is intentionally varied under controlled and 26 2 Consumer Behavior Research repeatable conditions. The researcher then observes whether the expected effect occurs (Berekoven et al., 2009, p. 146 ff.; Döring & Bortz, 2016; Shadish et al., 2001). In order to be able to make statements about cause-effect relationships, social science experiments must be planned in such a way that confounding factors and thus alternative explanations can be excluded. Thus, we must first ask ourselves under what conditions we can infer causality. The following conditions must be fulfilled simultaneously (Shadish et al., 2001): 1. There should be a correlation (i.e. a covariation) between the hypothesized cause and the hypothesized effect. The cause is also called the independent variable (IV) and the assumed effect the dependent variable (DV). In our example, placing an advertisement could be the IV and booking a night at the robot hotel could be the DV. In social science studies, one never finds deterministic, but always statistical relationships. In the example, this would mean that test persons who know the advertisement for the robot hotel should also have booked a trip to the robot hotel with a higher probability. 2. There must be no interfering influences that can also affect the effect (i.e. the DV). That is, there should be no other cause of the effect that happens to be related to the imagined cause. It may be that, by chance, during the week when the ads were placed, an accident took place in some robot-powered factory that was heavily reported in the media. This may have led consumers to negatively interpret the advertisement, which was positive in itself, and consciously refrain from visiting the robot hotel. 3. The cause must occur temporally before the effect. If the test persons had already visited the hotel before they perceived the advertising measure, the visit cannot be attributed to the advertising measure. Experiments must be planned so that all the necessary conditions of causality are met. The investigation should begin with theoretical preliminary considerations and the derivation of hypotheses to be tested. For example, the researcher might assume that the depiction of humanoid robots on the advertising posters will increase the acceptance of potential visitors. The researcher now also manipulates the temporal sequence of cause and effect itself by triggering the cause (treatment) itself. In the simplest case, this involves comparing a group of subjects who are exposed to the treatment (here: a poster with a human-looking robot) (the experimental group) with a group of subjects who are not exposed to the treatment (the control group). The influence of confounding variables can be reduced, for example, by conducting the experiment under controlled conditions (“in the laboratory”) and by randomly assigning subjects to the experimental and control groups. The underlying assumption is that uncontrollable differences between subjects (e.g. different affinities for technology) are distributed by randomization in such a way that they have no influence on the outcome of the experiment. If statistical analysis methods now reveal a relationship (an empirical correlation) between the experimental conditions and the dependent variable, causality can be inferred. If, in the example, the group that has seen the advertisement with the humanoid robots shows a higher willingness to stay in this hotel than the control group, then the researcher can conclude that the advertisement has a causal influence on the willingness to stay. 2.4 Forms of Information Retrieval 27 There are also various quality criteria for experiments. The most important are the following: • Internal validity indicates whether the causal inference is actually valid, i.e. whether there really is a cause-effect relationship between the treatment and the dependent variable. Internal validity is high if all potential confounders can be excluded (see Shadish et al., 2001 for an overview of the threats to internal validity). • External validity indicates whether the correlations found can be transferred to other people and situations. For example, experiments are often conducted by researchers at universities with students. Humanoid robots on the advertising poster may have a positive effect on young, technology-savvy students. Whether this finding can also be transferred to well-off, older consumers who could in principle afford a longer, expensive stay in a robot hotel is not certain. • Ecological validity: This indicates whether the result of the experiment can be transferred to a setting that is natural or realistic for the consumer. Ecological validity can thus be understood as a special form of external validity. An assessment of an advertisement in the researcher’s laboratory does not have to correspond to a situation in the consumer’s real life (e.g. when surfing with a smartphone). In view of these quality criteria, two basic forms of experiments can be distinguished: A laboratory experiment is conducted in an artificial environment. The researcher has the possibility to set all conditions himself to reduce or control confounding factors. This setting helps to achieve high internal validity. Field experiments are conducted in a setting that is natural or normal for the subject (e.g., a department store). This means that the researcher cannot exclude all confounding factors. On the other hand, field experiments are characterized by a high degree of realism, i.e. they have a high ecological validity. Furthermore, a distinction can be made between real and quasi-experimental designs. While in real experiments the subjects are randomly assigned to the different manipulations (treatments), in quasi-experimental designs this randomization of group membership is missing (Shadish et al., 2001). In particular, this is not possible in field experiments. Finally, experiments can be structured quite differently. These variations are referred to as experimental designs. The first distinction is between between-subject and within- subject designs. Between-subject designs assign exactly one treatment to each subject, whereas within-subject designs allow several treatments for each subject, i.e. the subject is tested several times over the course of time. Both designs have strengths and weaknesses in terms of their ability to eliminate threats to internal validity. Between-subject designs meet a higher methodological standard, as spill-over effects between different treatments are excluded (Shadish et al., 2001). Furthermore, a distinction is made between single- and multi-factorial designs. In single-factor experiments, only one variable is manipulated (e.g., the advertisement for the robot hotel). In multi-factorial experiments, several variables are manipulated jointly and systematically (e.g., the content and presentation form of the advertisement). This allows the researcher to identify interaction effects, i.e. 28 2 Consumer Behavior Research interactions, between variables. For example, the researcher could test whether certain ads for robot hotels have a better effect when they are communicated via social media than when a classic print ad is placed. 2.5Learning Aid Quintessence Empirical consumer behavior research investigates not only the externally observable behavior, but also the internal processes in order to be able to answer the “how” and “why” of consumer behavior. It uses methods and theories from a variety of other disciplines and is thus very interdisciplinary. A distinction is made between quantitative and qualitative research approaches. The most important methods of data acquisition are observation, surveys, instrument-based procedures and experiments. ◄ Exercise Questions and Tasks Complete the following sentence: __________________ research methods are often used to uncover unknown causes, motives and ideas, to understand facts and to develop hypotheses. The investigation is often open-ended and “soft” data are interpreted. _________________ research methods, on the other hand, use numerical data and usually serve the purpose of testing previously established hypotheses against empirical data. Right or wrong? Consumer behavior research is a subfield of marketing research. Tick the correct answer(s). Which of the following conditions must be met in order to infer causality in an experimental investigation? O There must be covariation between the independent and dependent variables. O The cause must occur before the effect. O Subjects need to know what the purpose of the study is. O It must be possible to exclude the influence of confounding variables. O At least three different experimental groups must be compared. Cross-Linking Question Ben is very excited about the fact that there is a hotel where the service “staff” is provided by robots. He assumes that most people see it the same way, and he dares to predict that in a few years there will be almost only robot hotels. Lea, on the other hand, thinks the idea of the robot hotel is terrible, and she can’t imagine many humans visiting it. The two begin to have heated discussions about whether the hotel can sustain itself in the market in the long run. They both want to back up their assumptions with References 29 facts. Consider what data could be obtained in terms of secondary research to estimate whether or not the robot hotel will be accepted by consumers. Be creative and consider as many different data sources as possible. Remember that not only quantitative but also qualitative data can be useful, and seek data for as many influencing factors as possible, which we discuss in the various chapters of this book. Actually search for this data. Now what do you think, is Ben right or is Lea more right? Further Reading Döring, N., & Bortz, J. (2016). Forschungsmethoden und Evaluation in den Sozial- und Humanwissenschaften (5th ed.). Springer. Hoffmann, S., Franck, A., Schwarz, U., Soyez, K., & Wünschmann, S. (2018). Marketing-Forschung. Grundlagen der Datenerhebung und Datenauswertung. Vahlen. Shadish, W. R., Cook, T. D., & Campbell, D. T. (2001). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for generalized causal inference (2nd ed.). Cengage. References Balderjahn, I., & Scholderer, J. (2007). Konsumentenverhalten und Marketing. Grundlagen für Strategien und Maßnahmen. Schäffer-Poeschel. Berekoven, L., Eckert, W., & Ellenrieder, P. (2009). Marktforschung. Methodische Grundlagen und praktische Anwendungen (12th ed.). Springer Gabler. Buber, R., & Holzmüller, H. H. (2009). Qualitative Marktforschung. Konzepte, Methoden, Analysen (2nd ed.). Springer Gabler. Bühner, M. (2010). Einführung in die Test- und Fragebogenkonstruktion (3rd ed.). Pearson. Chatterjee, P., & Rose, R. L. (2012). Do payment mechanisms change the way consumers perceive products? Journal of Consumer Research, 38(6), 1129–1139. Churchill, G. (1979). A paradigm for developing better measures of marketing constructs. Journal of Marketing Research, 16(1), 64–73. Deppe, M., Schwindt, W., Kugel, H., Plassmann, H., & Kenning, P. (2005). Nonlinear responses within the medial prefrontal cortex reveal when specific implicit information influences economic decision making. Journal of Neuroimaging, 15(2), 171–182. Döring, N., & Bortz, J. (2016). Forschungsmethoden und Evaluation in den Sozial- und Humanwissenschaften (5th ed.). Springer. Hoffmann, S., Franck, A., Schwarz, U., Soyez, K., & Wünschmann, S. (2018). Marketing-Forschung. Grundlagen der Datenerhebung und Datenauswertung. Vahlen. Homburg, C. (2017). Marketingmanagement. Strategie – Instrumente – Umsetzung – Unternehmensführung (6th ed.). Springer Gabler. Homburg, C., & Giering, A. (1996). Konzeptualisierung und Operationalisierung komplexer Konstrukte: Ein Leitfaden für die Marketingforschung. Marketing ZFP, 18(1), 5–24. Kenning, P. (2014). Consumer Neuroscience: Ein transdisziplinäres Lehrbuch. Kohlhammer. Kepper, G. (2008). Methoden der qualitativen Marktforschung. In A. Herrmann, C. Homburg, & M. Klarmann (Eds.), Handbuch Marktforschung: Methoden – Anwendungen – Praxisbeispiele (3rd ed., pp. 175–212). Springer Gabler. 30 2 Consumer Behavior Research Kozinets, R. V. (2015). Netnography: Doing ethnographic research online. Sage. Kroeber-Riel, W., & Gröppel-Klein, A. (2013). Konsumentenverhalten (10th ed.). Vahlen. MacInnis, D. J., & Folkes, V. S. (2010). The disciplinary status of consumer behavior: A sociology of science perspective on key controversies. Journal of Consumer Research, 36(6), 899–914. Mayring, P. (2016). Einführung in die qualitative Sozialforschung (6th ed.). Beltz. Meffert, H., Burmann, C., Kirchgeorg, M., & Eisenbeiß, M. (2018). Marketing. Grundlagen marktorientierter Unternehmensführung. Konzepte – Instrumente – Praxisbeispiele (13th ed.). Springer Gabler. Mick, D. G., Pettigrew, S., Pechmann, C., & Ozanne, J. L. (2011). Transformative consumer research for personal and collective well-being. Routledge. Moosbrugger, H., & Kelava, A. (2011). Testtheorie und Fragebogenkonstruktion (2nd ed.). Springer. Plassmann, H., O’Doherty, J., Shiv, B., & Rangel, A. (2008). Marketing actions can modulate neural representations of experienced pleasantness. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 105(3), 1050–1054. Plassmann, H., Venkatraman, V., Huettel, S., & Yoon, C. (2015). Consumer neuroscience: Applications, challenges, and possible solutions. Journal of Marketing Research, 52(4), 427–435. Rampl, L. V., Plassmann, H., & Kenning, P. (2011). Worauf Praktiker achten sollten. Absatzwirtschaft, 5, 32–35. Shadish, W. R., Cook, T. D., & Campbell, D. T. (2001). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for generalized causal inference (2nd ed.). Cengage. Solomon, M. R., Bamossy, G. J., Askegaard, S. T., & Hogg, M. K. (2013). Consumer behaviour. A European perspective (5th ed.). Pearson. Srnka, K. J. (2007). Integration qualitativer und quantitativer Forschungsmethoden. Der Einsatz kombinierter Forschungsdesigns als Möglichkeit zur Förderung der Theorieentwicklung in der Marketingforschung als betriebswirtschaftliche Disziplin. Marketing ZFP, 29(4), 247–260. Steenkamp, J.-B. E. M., de Jong, M. G., & Baumgartner, H. (2010). Socially desirable tendencies in survey research. Journal of Marketing Research, 47(2), 199–214. 3 Motivation cc Capsule or Filter? Is It Just a Question of Taste? Lea and Ben agree: a good breakfast starts with a good coffee. However, they disagree about the method of preparation. While Lea prefers to brew her coffee the classic way in a porcelain filter, Ben wants to buy a coffee capsule machine for their shared apartment. “Think about it, Lea, how often you can’t bring yourself to put on coffee in the morning. In the future, all you have to do is press a button and the coffee is ready. Besides, Anna and Tim are coming over for breakfast tomorrow. Imagine how surprised they will look when they see our new coffee maker.” “Maybe so,” Lea interjects unenthusiastically, “but I don’t think it’s right to produce a capsule of waste for every coffee. Besides, I did the math. A small capsule costs up to 39 cents, making the coffee-per-kilo price about seven times that of roasted coffee.” “Anyway, I want one of those capsule machines.” Ben and Lea prefer different ways of making coffee. Ben desperately wants a capsule machine, but he finds it difficult to motivate Lea to buy one. But what exactly is motivation and how does it influence consumer behavior? © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2023 S. Hoffmann, P. Akbar, Consumer Behavior, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-39476-9_3 31 32 3 Motivation Learning Objectives In this chapter you will learn … • the key characteristics of consumer motivation (Sect. 3.1), • how to interpret motivation as a product of personal and situational factors (Sect. 3.2), • to explain consumer behavior through content and process theories (Sect. 3.3), • which consumption-specific motives can be distinguished (Sect. 3.4), and • how to measure consumers’ motives (Sect. 3.5), … by looking at consumer motivation through the following concepts and theories: • • • • Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, VIE Theory, Lewin’s Field Theory, and Ultimate Consumer Motives. 3.1Characteristics of Motivated Action As a reminder, consumer behavior refers to those activities that one engages in when acquiring, consuming, and disposing of products and services (Blackwell et al., 2001; Solomon et al., 2013). The consumers’ motives and motivation influence all these activities quite significantly. We first delineate these two concepts before looking at the characteristics of motivation. 3.1.1Motives and Motivation The terms motive and motivation derive from the Latin verb “movere,” which means “to move.” Consequently, they capture what sets the consumer in motion. A motive is a specific value disposition. As a vegan, Lea, for example, is not only concerned with a diet free of animal products. Rather, she follows the motive of protecting the dignity and life of animals. She weighs her actions on the basis of this specific value disposition. Thus, cosmetics tested on animals are just as taboo for her as visiting zoos, where, in her opinion, animals are only locked up for the amusement of the visitors. Motives belong to the “traits” that remain stable as latent personality variables over large parts of the lifespan (Heckhausen & Heckhausen, 2018). They are not always “active,” but are activated by suitable situational cues. 3.1 Characteristics of Motivated Action 33 Motivation relates more strongly than motives to specific situations and it prepares very specific actions (Rudolph, 2013). Motivation thus belongs to the “states.” In interaction with Lea’s motive to protect the dignity and life of animals, the motivation to buy vegan products arises in the shopping situation, even if they are partly more expensive than conventional products. The following features characterize the motivation: • • • • Activation: Motivation sets behavior in motion. Direction: Motivation steers activity toward a goal. Intensity: Motivation determines how intensively an activity is performed. Persistence: Motivation influences the extent to which the activity is maintained, even when difficulties arise. The construct of motivation thus encompasses all processes that trigger, control and maintain physical and mental activities (Gerrig, 2014). In motivational psychology, intended behavior is also referred to as action (Rudolph, 2013). Individuals decide to perform an action willingly and they perform it intentionally. All involuntary behaviors are not actions, but automated or biologically controlled processes, such as reflexes. Two characteristics determine motivated action (Heckhausen & Heckhausen, 2018): the pursuit of efficacy and the organization of goal engagement and goal disengagement, which are explained in the following section. cc Keep in mind: Motives are traits that remain stable as latent personality variables over large parts of the lifespan. Motivation is one of the “states.” It prepares an action and relates to specific situations. 3.1.2Pursuit of Effectivity The pursuit of effectivity refers to the individual’s desire to bring about a particular effect or outcome in their physical and social environment. In this context, motivational psychology speaks of producing and seeking out behavioral outcome contingencies (Heckhausen & Heckhausen, 2018). Ben is considering with buying a coffee capsule machine because he expects it to produce a certain outcome. This outcome could be the smell of fresh coffee in the morning (physical environment) or the recognition of the new device among friends (social environment). If purchasing the capsule machine (behavior) leads to fresh smelling coffee before university and a positive feedback from the circle of friends (outcome), then a behavior-outcome contingency has been established. 34 3 Motivation 3.1.3Goal Engagement and Goal Disengagement Goal engagement and goal disengagement are two motivational modes. They ensure that a motivated person efficiently pools his or her resources to either achieve an action goal or turn away from an unattainable or non-rewarding goal (Heckhausen & Heckhausen, 2018). Goal engagement (“Go Mode”) highlights important things and hides unimportant ones. Before buying the coffee capsule machine, Ben was faced with the decision of whether to continue using Lea’s porcelain filter or to buy an automatic coffee machine for just under 200 EUR. Let’s assume that Ben decided to buy the automatic capsule machine. In the goal engagement mode, he highlights the advantages of his decision to buy the coffee machine. This could be, for example, the fast preparation of coffee. At the same time, he ignores any disadvantages of his purchase decision, such as the additional waste produced in the form of used aluminum capsules. In goal disengagement (“stop mode”), an originally pursued action goal is deactivated in favor of an alternative goal. In Ben’s case, let us imagine that he briefly thought about the further use of Lea’s porcelain filter. Once his decision was made to purchase the machine, he did not simply reduce his willingness to continue using the porcelain filter, i.e., his engagement for the original action goal. Rather, goal disengaging is an active process that counteracts the engagement for the previous goal. This means that Ben devalues the original intention to use the porcelain filter (“filter coffee just doesn’t taste good”) and alternative goals such as buying a coffee machine gain value (“the taste justifies the price”). 3.2Motivation as a Product of Person and Situation What shapes Ben’s motivation to buy a coffee capsule machine and even pay seven times as much for a cup of coffee? Motivational psychologists assume that person-related and situation-related factors trigger goal-directed and thus motivated action (Heckhausen & Heckhausen, 2018). Figure 3.1 provides an overview of this causal relationship. 3.2.1Personal Factors Motivation research distinguishes between three personal factors: • Needs result from the current state of an organism. Basic physiological needs, such as thirst or sleep, are equally expressed in all people (all people feel thirst). They vary according to the state of deprivation (i.e. state of being kept from something) and they thus influence an individual’s motivation to act in a certain direction. If Ben and Lea feel thirsty, they might quench their thirst with a glass of water. If, however, they are not only thirsty but also tired, for example because they had to study for an exam in the evening, they are more likely to opt for a large cup of coffee and satisfy two needs with one action. 3.2 Motivation as a Product of Person and Situation 35 Person needs, dispositions, goals Person X Situation Interaction Action Result Consequences Situation opportunities, incentives Fig. 3.1 Overview model of the course of motivated behavior. (Adapted from Heckhausen & Heckhausen, 2018) • Motivational dispositions explain why two people react differently in one and the same situation. Motivational dispositions are stable over time and in a given situation. Differences in action are attributed to individual dispositions (traits), i.e. to characteristics of the person, in short: to personality. How does Ben, the coffee capsule fan, differ from Lea, the filter coffee advocate? If we take motivational dispositions into consideration, Ben’s disposition to want to act uniquely and exclusively could be particularly strong. Lea’s environmental consciousness, on the other hand, does not allow her to produce waste in the form of used capsules for each cup of coffee. As a result, they satisfy the same need, namely that for caffeine, differently due to individual motivational dispositions. • Objectives (also called explicit motives) are linguistically represented self-images, values, or goals that a person ascribes to himself or herself. As we know, Lea is active in the Green Youth party. One of Lea’s linguistically represented self-images could therefore be to act sustainably and ecologically. For this goal, she is also willing to do without some things, such as the coffee capsule machine, since the capsules are not considered particularly environmentally friendly, even if using the machine would mean saving time in the morning. 3.2.2Situational Factors Personal factors alone cannot fully explain motivated behavior. After all, individuals do not act in the same way in every situation, despite having stable personalities over time. Rather, intraindividual differences in behavior are often observable. Motivation researchers attribute these behavioral variations to situational factors, i.e. to influencing factors that result from the respective situation. Such situational factors include incentives. Everything 36 3 Motivation positive and negative about a situation that affects an individual is referred to as an incentive (Heckhausen & Heckhausen, 2018). Inherent in an incentive is a call to act in a certain way. Situational incentives can thus also be understood as a link between an individual’s motive and motivation (Schmalt & Langens, 2009). A distinction is made between intrinsic and extrinsic incentives (Heckhausen & Heckhausen, 2018). • Intrinsic incentives stem from the result or the activity itself. The beverage manufacturer Red Bull, for example, organizes the so-called Red Bull Flugtage (Red Bull Flying Days) every year and thereby inspires fans and potential customers of the brand. Participants glide with self-built flying machines from a ramp over the water below. The flight distance and the originality of the aircraft are judged. The participants’ focus is on fun and experience orientation, i.e. on the activity itself (intrinsic incentive). The material prize – among other things, one’s own body weight weighed out in Red Bull cans – is likely to be an incentive for only a few to take part. • Extrinsic incentives lie in an expected external benefit of the action. The Payback bonus system, for example, rewards consumers for every purchase with so-called Payback points (extrinsic incentive), which they can later exchange for material goods (expected benefit of action). If a participant of the Red Bull Flugtage is really after the cans of the organizer and therefore participates, they would also be an extrinsic incentive. 3.3Explaining Consumer Behavior Through Motivational Theories Motivational psychologists developed various theories to describe, explain, and predict volitionally chosen actions (Rudolph, 2013). These theories can be divided into content theories (e.g. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory) and process theories (e.g. VIE theory) (Rothermund & Eder, 2011). In addition, there are theories of motivation that cannot be clearly assorted to either approach (e.g., regulatory focus theory, Lewin’s field theory). Background Info: Clear-Cut Terminology The characteristics of motivated action delineated in Sect. 3.1 are not always clearly distinguishable between the theories. Maslow and Heckhausen/Heckhausen, for example, define needs differently; Vroom and Lewin define valence in nuances differently. This is partly due to the fact that the researchers represent different schools of theory. 3.3.1Content Theories of Motivation What motivates people? Content theories of motivation research attempt to systematize the seemingly unlimited number of human motives, needs, and goals and to summarize them into a manageable set of basic driving forces of action. Earlier work in motivation 3.3 Explaining Consumer Behavior Through Motivational Theories 37 research attempted to compile overall overviews of human motives (Rothermund & Eder, 2011). Today’s work is primarily concerned with the following motives (Brandstätter et al., 2018; McClelland, 1987): • Power: Controlling and influencing others and avoiding loss of control. • Achievement: Success in achieving goals and avoiding failure. • Affiliation: Establish mutually positive relationship and avoid rejection. The combination of a strong achievement motive and a strong affiliation motive could explain, for example, why some consumers share their product experiences with others via social media channels such as YouTube or Facebook. The challenge to shoot and edit a video (achievement motive) and to get in touch with others through it (affiliation motive) leads to social media behavior. In the last two decades, individual goals and goal hierarchies have also become the focus of motivation research. They provide insight into the individual’s ideas of how they want to be and shape their lives; which in turn also influences their behavior as a consumer. Those who aim to be rich and famous in the future will already adorn themselves with the corresponding status symbols today. In the following, we focus on the most common content theories in consumer research. 3.3.1.1Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Abraham Maslow’s theory of motivation puts the needs of individuals into a hierarchical structure using a five-level pyramid (Fig. 3.2). According to Maslow (1970), the next higher level can only be reached when the needs on the level below have been satisfied. Individuals satisfy their basic needs first. For example, someone who wanders through the desert for days and suddenly comes across an oasis wants to quench his thirst directly Selfactualization Self-esteem needs Social needs Safety needs Physiological needs Fig. 3.2 Maslow’s pyramid of needs. (Based on Maslow, 1970) 38 3 Motivation (physiological need). Only then does the thought arise as to whether the water is at all germ-free and drinkable (safety need). Once these lower needs are satisfied, motivational forces move the individual to the next higher levels and the need, for example, for affiliation and self-actualization guides action. The first four levels of the pyramid are so-called deficiency needs, i.e. the non-satisfaction of these needs can lead to physical and psychological disorders (underweight, depression, etc.). Maslow calls the top level the growth needs. It cannot be completely satisfied, since it grows along with advancing need satisfaction. Maslow’s pyramid of needs is the best-known classification of needs. However, current research criticizes its lack of theoretical foundation and empirical verifiability. Nevertheless, it is significant for consumer behavior research for two reasons: Firstly, due to its reductionist perspective, it brings a certain overview and order to the motivational experience of consumers. Second, it raises awareness to the fact that consumers set different priorities at different points in time (Solomon et al., 2013). Depending on the level in the hierarchy of needs, other motivational forces influence consumer behavior. 3.3.1.2Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory Frederick Herzberg’s two-factor theory is originally a content theory of work motivation. We present the theory in its basic features in the first step and show its relevance for consumer behavior in the second step. Herzberg et al. (1993) distinguish two independent influencing factors: • Hygiene factors prevent job dissatisfaction. However, they do not lead to satisfaction. This is because people take these factors for granted. Therefore, their absence is negatively noticeable, but their presence is not positively noticeable. According to Herzberg, salary and relationships with executives and colleagues are typical hygiene factors. • Motivators influence the motivation to perform. Recognition or the transfer of responsibility – as examples of motivators – motivate people and lead to an increase in performance. According to Herzberg, motivators generate satisfaction; their absence, however, does not automatically lead to dissatisfaction. The basis of the two-factor theory is the desire for self-fulfillment (Herzberg et al., 1993), which is also relevant for the motivation and behavior of consumers. For example, many consumers buy products for self-actualization. Those products that are useful for this goal are very popular. Why, for example, is Apple’s iPhone still so successful? Is it because of the high-resolution display or the high battery performance? According to Herzberg’s two- factor theory, the answer is no. After all, almost all smartphones on the market are now characterized by these and similar attributes, so they can at best be described as hygiene factors. In other words: a weak battery makes people dissatisfied; but a strong battery does not generate satisfaction and thus purchase intention. It is Apple’s motivators, such as the unique design or the cult around Steve Jobs and the community, that generate satisfaction and turn customers into fans. 3.3 Explaining Consumer Behavior Through Motivational Theories Action 39 Reward a-c Performance a A PA b c Expectancy E, that A leads to PA Instrumentality I between PA u. RA a-c Fig. 3.3 VIE theory. (Based on Nerdinger et al., 2013) 3.3.2Process Theories of Motivation: The VIE Theory While content theories answer the question of what drives human behavior (e.g. the power motive, striving for status), process theories show how mental processes transform people’s intention to act into behavior and according to which rules motivational processes take place. The best known process theory of motivation is the valence-instrumentality- expectancy theory (VIE theory) by Victor Vroom. An individual’s goal setting plays an important role in motivated action. The process of how people choose and implement actions to achieve a goal is explained by Vroom (1964) using the VIE theory he developed (Fig. 3.3). According to this theory, two consequences result from an action (A). • Performance (PA) are direct results of an action or non-action. • Rewards (RA) are effects (a–c) that the action outcome has on other areas of life. With the help of three variables, the VIE theory makes a statement as to whether the consumer performs a motivational action (A) – such as buying a product. • Valence (V) expresses the subjective value (i.e. attractiveness) that the goal of an action has for the consumer. • Instrumentality (I) defines the relationship between the performance of the action and reward of the action; it can be positive or negative. • The expectation (E) describes the subjectively assessed probability of achieving the action result. The probability takes a value from 0 to 1. Expectancy depends strongly on the characteristics of the person (Nerdinger et al., 2013). 40 3 Motivation The interaction of these variables can be illustrated by the opening example: Will Ben decide to buy (action A) a coffee capsule machine despite Lea’s misgivings, so that the result of the action (PA) is a new appliance in the shared kitchen? • The rewards of the action (RA) would be, for example, the time saved in the morning (a), the recognition among friends (b), but also the possible relationship stress caused by Lea’s displeasure about the purchase (c). • Instrumentality (I) would be positive in terms of saving time (Ia) as well as recognition among friends (Ib) and negative in terms of his relationship with Lea (Ic). • The valence of the action outcome (coffee machine in the kitchen) is the sum of the products of the rewards of the action and instrumentality (RA × I). Sounds complicated, but it is not. The products of the rewards of the action and instrumentality, simplified, are twice positive (time saving: Va = RAa × Ia = +1; recognition: Vb = RAb × Ib = +1) and once negative (relationship stress: Vc = RAc × Ic = −1). The sum of the products gives a positive valence (Vsum = Va + Vb + Vc = 1 + 1–1 = +1). • Ben estimates the expectation (E) that there will be a coffee capsule machine in the kitchen in the future as high (e.g., subjectively estimated probability of 0.8) because he trusts in his persuasiveness (characteristics of the person) and thus he will finally convince Lea to buy the machine. The consumer’s decision whether to choose and implement an action results from the product of his expectation and the valence of the action outcome, i.e. decision = valence (Vsum) × expectation (E). The action alternative with the highest total value is chosen, in the example +1 × 0.8. According to VIE theory, it can be assumed that Ben and Lea will soon upgrade their shared apartment with a coffee capsule machine. 3.3.3Regulatory Focus Theory The starting point of the regulatory focus theory (RFT) developed by Tory Higgins is the hedonic principle. According to this principle, people strive for well-being and they try to avoid unpleasant states. RFT explains the ways in which individuals achieve certain goals and the different strategies they use to do so (Higgins, 1997). In this context, self-regulation is understood as the conscious use of strategies for goal setting, pursuit, and achievement (Holler et al., 2005). Higgins (1997) distinguishes between two self-regulatory systems, the promotion focus and the prevention focus, which explain the basic motivational attitude of an individual when pursuing and achieving goals. • Individuals with a promotion focus try with great zeal to achieve positive results. They trust in their own abilities and strive to achieve ideal states. In doing so, they choose the best possible action from many different alternatives and do not shy away from risk. 3.3 Explaining Consumer Behavior Through Motivational Theories 41 • The actions of individuals with a prevention focus are motivated by avoiding losses and fulfilling obligations. The need for security and protection is particularly strong compared to individuals with a promotion focus. When choosing courses of action, they consider only a limited number of alternatives. In this way, they try to reduce action errors. Both systems, promotional and preventive focus, can lead to goal attainment. According to theory, the tendency towards one type of regulatory focus is formed at a young age and develops further in adulthood. It is therefore also considered a personality trait as it remains relatively constant throughout life (Higgins, 2000). The RFT helps to explain various consumer behaviors, as illustrated by the following example (Higgins & Scholer, 2009). Example: Which Toothpaste Would You Like? Product features can also help achieve promotional or prevention goals. Let’s imagine two different types of toothpaste. Toothpaste A advertises with the slogan: “For a brilliant white,” toothpaste B with “100% protection against caries.” Consumers with a promotional focus would probably rather choose toothpaste A (ideal state of white teeth), consumers with a prevention focus would probably rather choose toothpaste B (protection against caries). ◄ 3.3.4Lewin’s Field Theory According to Kurt Lewin’s field theory, an object can have either a positive or a negative value for the individual (Brandstätter et al., 2018). The value of the object for the individual is also called valence. Valence depends on the needs of the individual. Objects that are conducive to need satisfaction take on positive valence. Objects that are not conducive to need satisfaction take on negative valence. Needs create a tension in the person. After the need is satisfied, the tension decreases and the positive valence of the object is extinguished. The valence of the object creates a force field in the consumer. Consumers turn to the object for which the resulting force is greatest at a given time. The strength of the valence and the distance to the target object influence the strength of this force. Let’s now take a look at an example: For many consumers, a good movie includes a corresponding snack, and this is also the case for Lea. Since she has a craving for something sweet (physiological need for sugar), she opts for a jumbo portion of caramelized popcorn (positive valence) and against the salty nachos (negative valence). After the first few bites (need satisfaction), her appetite decreases (decrease in tension) and she thinks to herself, “Maybe a small portion would have been enough,” (positive valence extinguished). After the movie, Lea plans to end the evening with a cocktail. Two bars (A and B) are in close proximity. Which cocktail bar will Lea go to? Analysis of the force field in which Lea finds herself provides the answer: the distance to the target object (cocktail bar A and B) is roughly the same for both alternatives. However, a glance at the smartphone reveals 3 42 Motivation to Lea that only bar A has her favorite cocktail Cosmopolitan (stronger positive valence compared to bar A). The force pulling Lea to Bar A is stronger than the force emanating from Bar B, and thus the decision is made in favor of Bar A. Often, several forces act on the consumer at the same time. When these forces are in conflict with each other, conflict occurs. Lewin distinguishes three types of conflict: • Approach-approach conflicts: At least two objects have a positive valence. Why do consumers sometimes have such a hard time making a decision in a restaurant? Lewin would argue that several dishes have positive valence and therefore the consumers are an approach-approach conflict. • Avoidance-avoidance conflicts: Two action alternatives with negative valence. Finish the seminar paper first or study for the exam already? Both alternatives have a negative valence. No wonder, then, that students often find themselves in an avoidance-avoidance conflict. • Approach-avoidance conflicts: An object assumes both positive and negative valence. A delicious piece of cake has both a positive valence (“I feel like something sweet.”) and a negative valence (“Cake makes me fat, but I want to be thin.”). Example: Lewin’s Field Theory in the Marketing Practice Consumers often find themselves in approach-avoidance conflicts. Marketing attempts to resolve these conflicts through appropriate product and communication policy measures. On the one hand, many consumers want to have a slim figure. Chocolate is therefore taboo (negative valence). On the other hand, it tastes so good (positive valence). In Germany, the company Ferrero solves this approach-avoidance conflict and positions Yogurette not as a chocolate bar, but with the slogan “Taste of strawberries and yogurt” as a snack for figure-conscious people. Scan the QR code to watch the commercial. ◄ 3.4Motives of Consumer Behavior Why do some consumers buy a Porsche, while others consciously forgo the purchase of a sports car and drive a small electric car instead? In order to answer these and similar questions, independent motivational classifications developed in consumer behavior research that are similar in logic to the content theories of motivational psychology. These classifications can be divided into two groups: Cross-behavioral and Behavior-specific consumer motives. 3.4 Motives of Consumer Behavior 43 3.4.1Cross-Behavioral Consumer Motives Cross-behavioral classifications aim to reduce the diverse behavior of consumers to a few central consumption-relevant motives. One example is Griskevicius and Kenrick’s (2013) classification of fundamental motives. Based on evolutionary biology and psychology, the researchers hypothesize that a set of motives evolved throughout human history that gave humans an advantage in reproduction and survival (survival of the fittest). Again, as a reminder, motivation research examines the causes and reasons for human behavior. Griskevicius and Kenrick (2013) distinguish ultimate and proximate motives of human behavior. • Proximate reasons are the immediate reasons and causes for a particular behavior. • Ultimate reasons are deeper reasons and causes that give people an evolutionary advantage. So why is Ben buying a coffee capsule machine? If we could ask him, he would probably answer that he only really wakes up in the morning after drinking a cup of coffee. This sounds plausible because, after all, his behavior – the purchase of the coffee capsule machine – and the reason – the source of caffeine – are right next to each other. This would be a proximate reason. But is it actually the trigger for the purchase of the capsule machine? Identifying ultimate reason of the behavior goes a step further. In addition to the caffeine kick (proximate reason), the status motive (ultimate reason) described below could also have motivated Ben to buy the capsule coffee machine (“Look, I can afford to spend seven times as much on a cup of coffee”). Griskevicius and Kenrick’s (2013) classification identifies seven of these ultimate reasons and causes that influence consumer behavior: • Self-protection: The self-protection motive drives consumers to establish security and make safe decisions. When it is activated, consumers take fewer risks, try to avoid losses and prefer the status quo. Self-protection-motivated consumers are more likely to reach for established brands or brands that are particularly associated with safety. • Disease avoidance: Consumers want to counteract diseases and avoid infections. The choice of food, for example, can be influenced by the disease avoidance motive; for example, when consumers buy organic products because they assume that they are less contaminated with harmful substances and therefore do not endanger their health. • Affiliation: The affiliation motive activates behavior to deepen existing friendships and to initiate new friendships. The success of social media services such as Facebook is an expression of the affiliation motive. The affiliation motive also explains the purchase of certain clothing (e.g. gothic look) as a symbol of identification with a certain social group. • Status: Consumers want to achieve status within the group to which they feel they belong, for example by wearing brand-name clothing or buying luxury and prestige products. In the case of an active status motive, consumers do not necessarily act 44 3 Motivation selfishly, but display behaviors such as competitive altruism (“Did you also donate to the flood victims?”) or environmental awareness (“I drive an electric car.”) in order to improve their own reputation. • Mate acquisition: The activation of the mate acquisition system leads to behavior that is intended to attract the attention of the counterpart. Attention-grabbing behavior is, for example, wearing flashy and high-priced brands as well as generosity and willingness to spend. Cosmetics and care products are also intended to attract the attention of the counterpart by emphasizing one’s own beauty and youthfulness. • Mate retention: People maintain partnerships by, for example, spending time and effort in managing potential conflicts in the use of shared resources. Or they invest time and money in anniversary gifts to intensify partnerships. And even the purchase of products for oneself is determined – consciously and unconsciously – by the relationship with the partner. • Kin care: Consumers invest time, energy and financial resources for the well-being of their families. The kin care motive encourages behavior that ensures that those in need of help, for example, receive adequate care (care of children, care of the elderly). The motive refers not only to members of one’s own family, but also to roommates, people with similar goals, or work colleagues. 3.4.2Behavior-Specific Consumer Motives There is a variety of behavior-specific consumer motives. Many empirical studies that explore consumption-related motives are devoted to specific consumption domains. As a result, various classifications of motives have been proposed that relate to specific domains. One example is environmentally conscious consumption behavior. Let us take as an illustrative object the fact that more and more consumers consciously decide not to use an internal combustion engine and drive an electric car in order to protect the environment. But why is environmental protection important to these consumers? Soyez et al. (2009) name three motives that can explain environmentally protective behavior (Fig. 3.4): • Egocentrically motivated consumers protect the environment because they draw strength and energy from nature and enjoy spending their leisure time in nature. • Ecocentrically motivated consumers feel a deep connection to nature. For them, environmentally protective behavior fulfils an end in itself. • Anthropocentrically motivated people understand nature as a vital resource that must be protected for future generations through environmentally protective consumer behavior (Thompson & Barton, 1994). The purchase of an electric car in order to protect the environment can therefore be egocentric, ecocentric or anthropocentric. 3.5 Measurement of Motives Motive Egocentric Ecocentric Anthropocentric 45 Indicators Being out in nature is a great stress reducer for me. I need time in nature to be happy. Nature is valuable for its own sake. I makes me sad to see natural environments destroyed. We need to preserve resources to maintain a high quality of life. Nature is important because of what it can contribute to the pleasure and welfare of humans. Fig. 3.4 Motives for environmentally protective behavior. (Adapted from Soyez et al., 2009) There are numerous other behavior-specific consumer motives. Why, for example, are some people really attracted to unique or rare products? The so-called “Desire for Unique Consumer Products” motive (DUCP) explains this specific consumer behavior (Lynn & Harris, 1997). However, it does not explain – as do the egocentric, ecocentric and anthropocentric motives – why some people are concerned about environmental protection, so that here too we are talking about a behavior-specific motive. 3.5Measurement of Motives In most cases, consumer motives are measured using rating scales in a questionnaire. The Handbook of Marketing Scales (Bearden et al., 2011) provides a very good overview of a variety of scales for measuring consumer motives. However, rating scales in questionnaires only capture motives that the respondent is aware of. In order to measure unconscious motives that are difficult to verbalize, so-called projective procedures are used (Sect. 2.2.2), such as the thematic apperception test (TAT) and the means-end chain. In the TAT, subjects are asked to tell stories about pictures. The interviewer asks questions to stimulate the flow of speech (e.g. “What is happening right now?,” “Who is the person?,” “What is he or she feeling and thinking?,” “What are his or her intentions?,” “What happens next?”). The basic idea of the test is that respondents verbalize their thoughts associated with and projected into the image, revealing their unconscious desires, needs, and motives (Brandstätter et al., 2018). Means-end chain theory assumes that knowledge is organized in a hierarchical structure according to the bottom-up principle (Gutman, 1997). According to this, the meaning that consumers associate with certain products, services or brands is hierarchically 46 3 Motivation represented in six levels (Woodside, 2004). At the lowest level are functional and abstract object attributes, followed by functional and psychosocial consequences that result from the object attributes. At the top level are the instrumental and terminal values for which the object stands (Gutman, 1997). Terminal values indicate what a person wants to achieve in life (wisdom, friendship, inner harmony, etc.). Instrumental values are linguistically represented preferred behaviors that a person exhibits to achieve the terminal values (Rokeach, 1973). For breakfast, for example, Lea likes to treat herself to a low-fat (functional object attribute) and thus low-calorie (abstract object attribute) yogurt. Both are important to Lea because she wants to be slim (functional consequence of the object attributes). For Lea, being slim means being attractive (psychosocial consequence), and she pays attention to this; not least because of Ben. In order to stay slim, she sometimes has to practice self- control (instrumental value) and not eat chocolate too often. The slim figure she achieves boosts her self-confidence (terminal benefit). The so-called laddering technique is a well-established method of eliciting the consumer’s association of meaning with certain products, services or brands in the context of qualitative interviews and thereby developing a means-end chain (Reynolds & Gutman, 1988). By means of “why” questions one gets consumers to express their means-end- ideas. For example, one could use the laddering technique as illustrated below to elicit the meaning of a coffee capsule machine for Ben. Figure 3.5 shows the result of this fictitious survey as a means-end chain. • Interviewer: Why is it important to you to have a coffee capsule machine, which is quite expensive compared to Lea’s porcelain filter? • Ben: Because expensive products are usually of higher quality. Chain link Means-End-Chain Terminal Selfenhancement Instrumental Status Psychosocial Admiration Functional Fancy Abstract High-quality Functional Expensive Values Consequences Attributes Fig. 3.5 Example of a means-end chain 3.6 Learning Aid • • • • • • 47 Interviewer: Why is high quality important to you? Ben: Well, high quality comes from high quality materials and they always look fancy. Interviewer: Why do things have to be fancy? Ben: The admiring glances from friends feel kind of good. Interviewer: Why is admiration important? Ben: Well, you want to achieve something in life and when you do, people look up to you. 3.6Learning Aid Quintessence The motives and motivation of consumers influence their behavior in the procurement, consumption and disposal of products and services. Their motivation depends on both personal factors and situational factors. Motivated behavior can be explained with the help of content theories, such as Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, and process theories, such as the VIE theory. Cross-behavioral consumer motives attribute the diverse behavior of consumers to a few central consumption-relevant motives. Behavior-specific consumer motives are dedicated to specific areas of consumption, such as environmentally conscious consumption. ◄ Exercise Questions and Tasks Complete the following sentence: Heckhausen and Heckhausen (2018) postulate that ____________ and ____________ factors explain goal-directed and thus motivated action. Right or wrong? Motives are “traits” and relate to a specific situation. Tick the correct answer(s). Which of these motives can be assigned to Griskevicius and Kenrick’s (2013) classification of “fundamental motives”? O Self-protection O Affiliation O Status O Ecocentrism O Family welfare 48 3 Motivation Cross-Linking Question Develop an exemplary Means-End Chain that represents Lea’s meaning association with the topic coffee capsule machine. Further Reading Griskevicius, V., & Kenrick, D. T. (2013). Fundamental motives: How evolutionary needs influence consumer behavior. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 23(3), 372–386. Gutman, J. (1997). Means-end chains as goal hierarchies. Psychology & Marketing, 14(6), 545–560. Heckhausen, H., & Heckhausen, J. (2018). Motivation und Handeln (5th ed.). Springer. References Bearden, W. O., Netemeyer, R. G., & Haws, K. L. (2011). Handbook of marketing scales: Multi-item measures for marketing and consumer behavior research. Sage. Blackwell, R. D., Miniard, P. W., & Engel, J. F. (2001). Consumer behavior (9th ed.). Harcourt. Brandstätter, V., Schüler, J., Puca, R. M., & Lozo, L. (2018). Motivation und Emotion: Allgemeine Psychologie für Bachelor (2nd ed.). Springer. Gerrig, R. J. (2014). Psychologie (20th ed.). Pearson. Griskevicius, V., & Kenrick, D. T. (2013). Fundamental motives: How evolutionary needs influence consumer behavior. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 23(3), 372–386. Gutman, J. (1997). Means-end chains as goal hierarchies. Psychology & Marketing, 14(6), 545–560. Heckhausen, H., & Heckhausen, J. (2018). Motivation und Handeln (5th ed.). Springer. Herzberg, F., Mausner, B., & Snyderman, B. B. (1993). The motivation to work. Transaction Publishers. Higgins, E. T. (1997). Beyond pleasure and pain. American Psychologist, 52(12), 1280–1300. Higgins, E. T. (2000). Making a good decision: Value from fit. American Psychologist, 55(11), 1217–1230. Higgins, E. T., & Scholer, A. (2009). Engaging the consumer: The science and art of the value creation process. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 19(2), 100–114. Holler, M., Fellner, B., & Kirchler, E. (2005). Selbstregulation Regulationsfokus und Arbeitsmotivation. Journal für Betriebswirtschaft, 55(2), 145–168. Lynn, M., & Harris, J. (1997). The desire for unique consumer products: A new individual differences scale. Psychology & Marketing, 14(6), 601–616. Maslow, A. H. (1970). Motivation and personality (Vol. 2). Harper & Row. McClelland, D. (1987). Human motivation. Cambridge University Press. Nerdinger, F. W., Blickle, G., & Schaper, N. (2013). Arbeits-und Organisationspsychologie (3rd ed.). Springer. Reynolds, R., & Gutman, J. (1988). Laddering theory. Method, analysis, and interpretation. Journal of Advertising Research, 28(1), 11–31. Rokeach, M. (1973). The nature of human values. Free Press. Rothermund, K., & Eder, A. (2011). Allgemeine Psychologie: Motivation und Emotion. Springer. Rudolph, U. (2013). Motivationspsychologie kompakt (3rd ed.). Beltz. Schmalt, H. D., & Langens, T. A. (2009). Motivation (4th ed.). Kohlhammer. References 49 Solomon, M. R., Bamossy, G. J., Askegaard, S. T., & Hogg, M. K. (2013). Consumer behaviour: A European perspective (5th ed.). Pearson. Soyez, K., Hoffmann, S., Wünschmann, S., & Gelbrich, K. (2009). Proenvironmental value orientation across cultures: Development of a German and Russian scale. Social Psychology, 40(4), 222–233. Thompson, S. C. G., & Barton, M. A. (1994). Ecocentric and anthropocentric attitudes toward the environment. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 14(2), 149–157. Vroom, V. H. (1964). Work and motivation. Jossey-Bass. Woodside, A. G. (2004). Advancing means-end chains by incorporating Heider’s balance theory and Fournier’s consumer-brand relationship typology. Psychology & Marketing, 21(4), 279–294. 4 Emotion cc Brand Love: Waiting for the Brand New iPhone “Ben reacts skeptically when Lea suggests they camp out together in front of the Apple store for the release of the new iPhone. It is true that he is also looking forward to the new model. But his anticipation is not so intense that he would queue for hours for a new smartphone. Lea tries to motivate Ben to come along after all”. “Imagine the great feeling when we finally get to try out the new iPhone for ourselves. I’m already getting jittery with joy. And I’m sure the atmosphere outside the store will be great again.” Teasingly, she adds, “If you don’t want to come, I’ll just go by myself.” Both Ben and Lea are looking forward to the new iPhone. But while Lea is eagerly awaiting the release of the new model, Ben reacts rather calmly. It seems that their emotions influence their behavior differently. But what exactly are emotions and why do they influence consumer behavior? © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2023 S. Hoffmann, P. Akbar, Consumer Behavior, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-39476-9_4 51 52 4 Emotion Learning Objectives In this chapter, you will learn … • how to describe and identify emotions (Sect. 4.1), • how emotions influence consumer behavior (Sect. 4.2) and • how to measure emotions using verbal and instrument-based methods (Sect. 4.3), … by looking at consumer emotions through the following concepts and theories: • Biological and cognitive theories of emotion, • Two Factor Theory, and • Protection Motivation Theory. 4.1Characteristics of Emotions Virtually everyone knows what an emotion is – until asked to define it. This is how Fehr and Russell (1984) aptly described the problem of defining emotions. While in everyday life we can intuitively feel, recognize, and name emotions such as joy, surprise, or fear, research has not yet succeeded in developing a unified understanding of the concept of emotion. Already 25 years ago Plutchik (1991) identified more than 150 different definitions of the term emotion. As varied as the attempts at definitions are the theories proposed to explain how emotions arise and operate (Izard, 2010). Many of these approaches attribute certain characteristics to emotions, which we will address in the following section. 4.1.1Features of Emotions Meyer et al. (2001) identify seven key characteristics of emotions. These can be illustrated by the introductory example. Camping in front of the Apple store for the sales launch of a new iPhone is cult among fans. Days before the release, numerous consumers wait for the coveted device. This is also the case for Lea in the introductory example. Table 4.1 demonstrates the extent to which emotions are partly responsible for this behavior. The following working definition takes up the seven characteristics of emotions. Working definitions are preliminary explanations of an issue and a working basis for further research. However, they do not claim to be an exhaustive definition of an issue. cc Working Definition Emotions are current mental states of a person, which are characterized by a certain quality, intensity and duration and are object-directed. Each 4.1 Characteristics of Emotions 53 Table 4.1 Feature of emotions in the consumption context Feature Quality Intensity Duration Object directionality Characteristic experience Physiological change Behavioral aspect Explanation Type of emotion (e.g. joy, anger, etc.) Strength of the expression of the mental state Duration of mental state, usually short to medium term (longer term states are moods) Object that triggers the emotion (e.g., one is afraid of something, happy about something, etc.) Subjective component or feeling associated with the emotion Measurable physical change Emotion-specific, goal-directed behavior Example: Apple Fan Lea “I’m excited” “I’m very excited” “I’ve been very excited since I arrived 5 min ago” “I’ve been very excited about the iPhone since I arrived 5 min ago” “I’ve been very excited about the iPhone since I arrived 5 min ago. It feels really great” “I’ve been very excited about (…). Look, I’m already shaking all over” “I’ve been very excited about (…). That’s why I’m camped out in front of the Apple Store” emotion is accompanied by a characteristic experience, a specific physiological change and typical behaviors (Meyer et al., 2001). The terms emotion, mood, affect, and feeling describe related constructs. The difference lies in the details (Atzert et al., 2014). With the help of the working definition, they can be distinguished from each other: • Mood: Compared to emotions, longer lasting, less intense and less object-related – and therefore often diffusely positive or negative. • Affect: Very intense, beyond cognitive control and seemingly automatic. • Feeling: Cognitive interpretation of a mental experience. Refers to the subjective experience of an emotion that can also be verbalized (“I feel good”). 4.1.2Components of an Emotion Emotions are always associated with a change in consumer experience and behavior. For example, Lea is usually annoyed when she has to wait in line for more than 5 min. Due to the anticipation of the new iPhone, however, she experiences the hour-long wait in front of the Apple store as positive. This positive experience leads to a change in behavior: whereas she would otherwise leave the queue annoyed, she now continues to wait patiently. Changes in experience and behavior are the subject of many consumer behavior studies that focus on emotions. In order to capture these changes, it proves helpful to understand 54 4 Emotion emotions as a multidimensional, i.e. multi-layered construct (Rothermund & Eder, 2011), which triggers reactions in several components. Each component can be measured by a specific procedure (e.g. surveys, observation or instrument-based procedures) (Sect. 4.3). • Experiential component: Emotions such as anger, joy or sadness are accompanied by a change in subjective experience and therefore feel different. • Cognitive component: The experience of emotions is shaped by evaluations, thoughts and cognitions. Depending on whether the consumer evaluates an experience as positive or negative, different emotions arise. • Neurophysiological component: An emotional state is also expressed in a change triggered by the autonomic nervous system, such as an increased heartbeat, sweating or accelerated breathing. Imaging techniques (e.g. fMRI; Sect. 2.4.3) show that emotions span large parts of the brain like a network. • Expressive component: Every emotion is expressed in a certain facial expression, posture and voice. A person’s facial expression alone is enough to tell whether he or she feels disgust (tightened upper lip, wrinkled nose and slightly narrowed eyes) or joy (upturned cheeks, smile) (Ekman, 2016). • Motivational component: An emotion can set in motion a specific, goal-oriented action. Fear, for example, motivates people to avoid a situation and, in extreme cases, leads to flight. In the introductory example, Lea camps out in front of the Apple store for the purchase of the current iPhone. She evaluates the joy (experiential component) about the upcoming purchase positively (cognitive component). Five minutes before the store opens, her joy is at its highest and her heart is pounding (neurophysiological component). The laughter on her face (expressive component) as she rushes into the store to finally hold the new iPhone in her hands (motivational component). Emotion research has produced yet another concept to describe emotion: the emotion triad (Lazarus et al., 1970). It is similar to the component model of emotion. It assumes that emotions are expressed through behavioral (behavior-based), physiological (physical), and subjective aspects, and that these three aspects are also each measurable by different methods. Let’s look at the conception using the example of the emotion pleasure that arises when attending a concert. • The behavioral aspect of joy can be a laugh or a concertgoer dancing because they like the music. • The physiological aspect describes physical reactions such as the heart beating much more intensely. Especially here, music can have a very direct effect, for example, when the beat determines the frequency of the heartbeat. • The subjective aspect of the emotion joy during the concert is the positive feeling that can last long after the concert. 4.2 Emotion Theories to Explain Consumer Behavior 55 Background Info: Characteristics, Components and Aspects of an Emotion The different conceptualizations of the characteristics of emotions – whether through seven traits, five components or the three aspects of the triad – are not entirely clear-cut. The fact that there are several, overlapping approaches can be attributed to the fact that there has not yet been a uniform definition of the concept of emotion and that various theoretical approaches have become established in emotion research. 4.1.3From Consumer Emotion to Consumer Motivation Consumer motivations and emotions are closely linked and it is difficult to conceptually distinguish between them (Atzert et al., 2014). The working definition of emotion helps to better understand the relationship between emotion and motivation and to elaborate its importance for consumer behavior. Both emotions and motives energize and organize consumer behavior (Frijda & Parrott, 2011). In the entry-level example, Lea’s joy over the iPhone release (emotion joy) and her desire to establish and maintain positive relationships with others (affiliate motive) resulted in camping out with others in front of the Apple store (behavior). Emotions also accompany motivational states. They signal progress toward goal attainment and assist consumers in performing and mastering a particular behavior (Oatley & Jenkins, 1992). Positive emotions, for example, motivate pursuit, while negative emotions motivate quitting a current behavior. The joy of soon owning the new smartphone motivates Lea to continue waiting in line even after several hours and not to go home annoyed. Example: How Companies Create Emotional Experiences with Event Marketing Companies use event marketing to reach consumers directly and touch them emotionally (Meffert et al., 2018). The beverage manufacturer Coca-Cola, for example, sends its Christmas trucks on tour every year. The special experience is intended to trigger positive emotions (e.g. joy) in consumers, which should motivate them to buy a Coke (behavior) the next time they visit the beverage retailer. ◄ 4.2Emotion Theories to Explain Consumer Behavior Emotion theories describe and explain the development of different emotions. The theories can be assigned to three approaches or families of theories: The biological, the cognitive as well as the constructivist approaches. In the following two sections, we will focus on the biological and the cognitive approach, both of which contribute to the explanation of consumer behavior. We do not delve into the constructivist approach, as it plays only a minor role in consumer behavior. 56 4 Emotion 4.2.1Biological Approaches According to biological emotion theories, different emotions and their specific expressions have evolved evolutionarily (Rothermund & Eder, 2011). According to these theories, emotions are innate, genetically anchored and run the same course in all people. However, as described in Sect. 4.2.2, other approaches assume that the same situations lead to different emotional reactions in different people due to cognitive and social factors. If we follow biological theories of emotion, the emotion of fear, for example, triggers flight behavior in the face of a life-threatening situation, as this behavioral response ensured the survival of our ancestors. Our emotions today have evolved as a result of natural selection in the course of human history. Thus, referring to Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution, biological approaches assume that environmental events (e.g., physical danger due to a thunderstorm) lead to the development of certain emotions (e.g., fear) that trigger specific behaviors (e.g., avoidance) and ensure survival (Rothermund & Eder, 2011). According to the biological approach, the behavioral response to environmental events due to emotions is similar in all people and can therefore be predicted well, so that advertisers address emotions specifically. Example: What Do Lightning Bolts Have to Do with Toothpaste? Biological Approaches in Advertising Efficacy Advertising often uses archaic images of threatening environmental events and positions its own product as a coping strategy to encourage consumers to buy. The company GlaxoSmithKline, for example, advertises its toothpaste Sensodyne by firing lightning bolts at the teeth of the advertising figure. From the perspective of biological emotion theory, the effect of advertising on consumers could be explained as follows: Lightning and thunder are environmental events that pose a threat and accordingly trigger the emotion of fear. By buying and using the toothpaste, the consumer can – at least following the logic of the theory – banish the danger of the environmental event to the tooth and thus protect himself. Scan the QR code to watch the commercial. ◄ Two important biological emotion theories are the approaches of Robert Plutchik (1991, 2003) and Paul Ekman and Wally Friesen (1971). Plutchik’s model is based on eight basic or primary emotions (Fig. 4.1). They form the middle ring of his model. The arrangement of the emotions in the model provides information about the relationship of the emotions to each other. Emotions that are adjacent to each other are similar. Opposing emotions are very opposite: joy vs. sadness, trust vs. disgust, anticipation vs. surprise, fear vs. anger. The intensity of an emotion gradually decreases from the inner ring (e.g. ecstasy) to the middle ring (e.g. joy) to the outer ring (e.g. serenity). Between the basic emotions 4.2 Emotion Theories to Explain Consumer Behavior 57 Awe Aggressiveness Love Remorse Fig. 4.1 Wheel of emotions. (Adapted from Plutchik, 1991) lie the secondary emotions, which according to the model result from a dyad, i.e. from a two-way relationship of basic emotions. The emotion love, for example, is a dyad of joy and trust. Example: Are You Loyal? Monogamous Brand Relationships Desired “Loyalty is not only important for couples. Marketing is also concerned with loyalty. Empirical studies show that satisfaction with the product alone is not enough for customers to remain loyal to a brand. It is only when they feel “brand love” that they do not have an “affair” with a competitor brand, even after a long time. Consumers who actually “love” their favorite brand in this sense exhibit, among other things, passionate behavior toward the brand and feel emotionally attached to it (Batra et al., 2012). Why else would people stand in the cold for hours waiting for the latest Apple product if not for love? When consumers love their brand, they also overcome crises together. Using Nutella as a case study, consumer researchers Cova and D’Antone (2016) illustrate that French consumers continue to eat their favorite brand despite negative headlines on the irresponsible use of palm oil and justify this behavior with various argumentative strategies. ◄ Paul Ekman is one of the leading researchers in the field of nonverbal communication and the physiological classification of emotional facial expressions. He identified six basic 4 58 Emotion emotions – partly consistent with Plutchik’s work: Joy, surprise, anger, disgust, fear, and sadness. Ekman concludes that people around the world express basic emotions in virtually the same way through facial expressions. Similarly, the same basic emotions can be identified all over the world; and regardless of gender and upbringing, as well as cultural background and ethnicity (Ekman & Friesen, 1971). Example: Is Laughter Contagious? Why Advertising Likes to Show Happy People Paul Ekman’s research on the universality of facial expressions points to the fact that emotions can also be conveyed without words through gestures and facial expressions. Studies also show that observed emotions are literally contagious. It is therefore not surprising that advertising designers like to use images of people who show strong emotions in the context of product use and also express these facially in order to emotionally charge their own product. If you scan the QR code, you will see an advertising film by Coca-Cola that specifically uses this effect. Similar to the protagonists in the commercial, the viewer is automatically forced to laugh along, which gives the brand a positive emotional charge. ◄ 4.2.2Cognitive Approaches Cognitive emotion theories assume that an emotion is the result of the cognitive evaluation and appraisal of a situation (Gerrig, 2014; Chap. 5). Someone who is about to take an exam may evaluate the situation as dangerous in the first step (“If I fail, I am in danger of not making it to graduation.”), so that the emotion fear arises in the second step. However, the appraisal always takes place subjectively, taking into account one’s own experiences, values, goals, and norms. Therefore, people react subjectively differently to objectively similar situations (exam). While a student in the fifth semester may only feel apprehension (weak expression of the emotion fear) due to his or her experience, someone who has just started studying feels downright panic (strong expression of the emotion fear). The premise for the development of emotions is therefore cognitive appraisal, which is why these theories are also called appraisal theories. Appraisal theories explain emotions as the result of a cognitive interpretation of a subjective experience (Lazarus, 1991). Only when the individual evaluates and interprets a certain event do emotions arise. For example, what does the sight of a fur coat in a retailer’s window trigger in the consumer (subjective experience)? It is important to remember that the consumer’s personal values, norms and beliefs color the process of cognitive evaluation and interpretation as well as his or her subjective experience. Fashion- savvy consumers may evaluate the event as positive and the emotion joy arises (“What a 4.2 Emotion Theories to Explain Consumer Behavior 59 great coat. I absolutely must have that.”). Particularly environmentally conscious consumers evaluate the event as negative and anger arises (“Innocent animals had to die for this coat. How can you buy something like that?”). 4.2.2.1Two-Factor Theory of Emotion Stanley Schachter postulates in his two-factor theory that a person’s emotional reaction does not depend directly on the event (stimulus), but on how the person evaluates the event. Emotions arise from the interaction of a physiological factor and a cognitive factor (hence the name two-factor theory). The cognitive factor is the result of seeking an explanation for the perceived physiological change (Schachter, 1964). Accordingly, the experience of an emotion is a joint response of physiological arousal and cognitive appraisal (Gerrig, 2014, p. 466). Example: Earth’s Gravitational Pull or Female Attraction? The highly regarded experiment by Dutton and Aron (1974) amusingly illustrates the interplay of the physiological and cognitive factors described in the two-factor theory. The researchers asked several men to walk across one of two bridges. One bridge was unsafe and wobbly, the other safe and stable. At the other end of the bridge stood either a young man or a young woman who were insiders of the experimenter. Both pretended to be conducting a study and asked the men to participate in a survey. They provided the men with their telephone number for any queries. Following the experiment, the researchers measured the frequency with which the participants contacted the man or woman. The result: while the participants rarely contacted the young man, many contacted the young woman. The subjects who most frequently sought contact were those who had previously crossed the wobbly, precarious bridge. Dutton and Aron, referring to the two-factor theory, explained the participants’ behavior as follows: Crossing the adventurous bridge produced a physiological arousal state. Depending on who the participants encountered on the other side, they attributed this arousal state – as summarized in Fig. 4.2 – to their fear of heights or the attractiveness of the woman. ◄ The two-factor theory shows that people explain a physiological state differently depending on the situation and that different emotional reactions follow as a function of this attribution process (i.e. the process of attributing causes). This process is also important for understanding consumer behavior. For example, what emotions do consumers feel when they visit an amusement park? Just before the roller coaster speeds down (stimulus), the heart beats very fast (physiological factor). Depending on the cognitive interpretation, the following emotions can arise. • Joy: If the visitor assumes that the security personnel have checked everything, his or her attribution of the highly excited physiological state could be as follows: “My heart is racing because I can hardly wait for the great ride.” This may cause the emotion to intensify and joy to become ecstasy. 60 4 Male Female Bridge wobbly & unsteady „No wonder my heart is pounding, ... ... the bridge is quite wobbly.“ … considering the attractive woman.“ Bridge stable & safe „My heart beats normally, … … it‘s quite boring here.“ … this woman is quite nice.“ Emotion Number of expresses the relative frequencies of establishing contacts. Fig. 4.2 The bridge experiment of Dutton and Aron (1974) • Fear: If, on the other hand, the visitor wonders whether the roller coaster is safe at all, he or she interprets the same physiological state as follows: “My heart is racing because the ride is dangerous.” This, too, can lead to the emotion being intensified and, in this case, to fear becoming panic. In the consumption process, misattributions can also occur, which some resourceful sellers take advantage of. At so-called Tupperware parties, it is customary for the hostess to serve a glass of champagne before the product presentation. For some guests, the following process might now take place: The alcohol in the sparkling wine leads to a stronger blood circulation in the body and an increased pulse (physiological factor). Depending on what the guests attribute their physiological state of arousal to, it is possible that they are subject to a misattribution (“I’m all excited because I think Tupper products are so great. I should buy some cans.”). 4.2.2.2Protection Motivation Theory “Smoking can be deadly. Smoking causes cancer. Smoking ages your skin.” Since 2003, these and similar warnings have appeared on all cigarette packets sold in the EU. Researchers refer to this as fear appeals. The aim of a fear appeal is to change the consumer’s attitudes or behavior. The appeal conveys that relevant values of the consumer – such as his or her life or health – are threatened by a certain behavior (smoking). Fear appeals are mostly found in social marketing, especially in health marketing (Hoffmann et al., 2012). Rogers’ (1975, 1983) theory of protection motivation helps to understand the effect of fear appeals on consumers. The goal of the theory is not to explain the origin of the emotion fear, but to describe when attitudinal or behavioral changes occur. Two concurrent processes determine whether a change occurs: threat appraisal and coping appraisal. In the context of threat appraisal, the consumer evaluates the costs and benefits of engaging in and continuing a risky behavior. • The costs are expressed in terms of the severity of the health threat and the perceived vulnerability. The severity is usually assessed similarly by many people. For example, 4.3 Making Consumer Emotions Measurable 61 the vast majority of people certainly agree that cancer due to smoking is a serious threat. Perceived vulnerability indicates how at risk a person considers themselves to be from a risk behavior. People who smoke only one cigarette a day probably rate themselves as less at risk than chain smokers. • The benefits of engaging in or continuing a risky behavior result from intrinsic and extrinsic rewards. In the case of smoking, the onset of relaxation could be an intrinsic reward. An extrinsic reward – especially for adolescents – would be the hoped-for recognition in the peer group. The threat appraisal of a risk behavior is the result of the difference between health threat and vulnerability on the one hand (costs) and intrinsic and extrinsic reward on the other hand (benefits). Parallel to the threat assessment, consumers carry out a coping-appraisal process. This depends on the response efficacy, the self-efficacy expectation and the anticipated response costs. • Response efficacy indicates the extent to which a person believes that a certain behavior can mitigate the threat. For example, whether a person quits smoking depends on whether he or she believes that quitting will reduce the risk of developing cancer (“I don’t think quitting will do any good. After all, there are enough people who die of cancer without ever having smoked a cigarette”). • Self-efficacy expectancy indicates the extent to which a person assumes that he or she is capable of performing this behavior (“Besides, I don’t think I could go more than a week without cigarettes.”). • The response costs are negative effects as a result of the change in behavior (“A friend of mine stopped smoking and then gained 10 kg. I have no desire to do that.”). The relationship between threat and coping appraisals is negatively proportional. This means that the higher a person’s threat rating, the lower his or her coping rating. Preventive health marketing measures often attempt to positively influence the consumer’s coping appraisal through advertising messages. 4.3Making Consumer Emotions Measurable How emotions are measured depends largely on the theoretical lens through which they are viewed. Measurement should always depend on the theory of emotion on which the researcher is basing it. A combination of different measurement methods may be useful or even necessary. In the following, we discuss common measurement methods in emotion research and name their advantages and disadvantages. 62 4 Emotion 4.3.1Verbal Procedures The measurement of emotions using verbal procedures is the dominant method within consumer behavior research. Verbal measurement procedures differ depending on whether a quantitative (Sect. 2.2.1) or qualitative (Sect. 2.2.2) research approach is pursued. Quantitative methods make up the majority of research and are part of the repertoire of every consumer behavior researcher. Usually, quantitative research uses questionnaires with standardized rating scales to measure emotions verbally. Normally, consumers are asked to rate statements on a mostly five- or seven-point scale (Raab et al., 2018). In addition to quantitative methods, consumer behavior research also uses qualitative methods. Diaries and protocols of thinking aloud are frequently used. • In diaries, consumers record their subjective experience with the object of study. Typically, they are asked to use a specific product, such as a new running shoe, and record their experiences with the product in the diary. Researchers use the information written down by the consumer to infer their emotions. Unlike traditional paper diaries, online diaries allow consumers to write diary entries on the go using their smartphone or tablet. This allows them to provide feedback directly from the reality of their lives in which they use the research object and send the data to the researcher in real time (Naderer & Balzer, 2011). • In thinking aloud protocols, consumers verbalize their emotions about the object of investigation in the presence of an interviewer. By asking specific questions, latent emotions, i.e. emotions that are not immediately apparent, can also be recorded. The method of thinking aloud is used, for example, in the so-called usability testing of apps. Consumers verbalize their emotions while using the app. This allows benefits (e.g. joy: “Wow, the app is really fun!”) and barriers (e.g. annoyance: “Oh man, where is the back button?”) to be identified and incorporated to optimize the app (Naderer & Balzer, 2011). Verbal methods of emotion measurement are usually based on a cognitive theory of emotion. After all, consumers are supposed to assess and evaluate a situation relevant to them and verbalize the resulting emotions freely (qualitative approach) or use pre-formulated verbal scales to indicate their emotion (quantitative approach). Advantages of verbal procedures are the high range of established scales and measurement procedures. Disadvantages are that one can only measure consumer emotions that are accessible via cognitive processes. Any unconscious emotions remain unexplored. Furthermore, there is a risk with these measurement methods that socially desirable response behavior will distort the results. 4.4 Learning Aid 63 4.3.2Instrument-Based Procedures In the chapter on consumer behavior research (Sect. 2.4.3), we have already learned a number of instrument-based procedures for measuring emotions, such as skin resistance measurement, fMRI and EEG. Instrument-based methods are suitable for identifying physiological changes, the duration of these changes and their intensity. However, in order to make a statement regarding quality and object directionality, additional verbal procedures and observations are necessary. If a researcher uses only instrument-based procedures to measure emotion, his or her preliminary considerations are probably based on biological theories of emotion. He or she assumes that the emotional response to an environmental stimulus is expressed in the physiology of the individual, which he can measure via instrument-based procedures. An advantage of instrument-based procedures is the possibility of validating verbal procedures, i.e., to secure them, and to improve them by means of physiological measured variables. A disadvantage is the high cost involved. In addition, the measured values can often only be collected under laboratory conditions. 4.4Learning Aid Quintessence Consumer behavior and emotions have an interdependent, i.e. reciprocal, relationship. On the one hand, the acquisition, use, consumption and disposal of products are often associated with emotions. On the other hand, emotions also influence consumer behavior. Emotions can be described as current mental states that are characterized by a certain quality, intensity and duration, are object-directed, are accompanied by a characteristic experience and a physiological change, and are expressed in an emotion- specific behavior. The manifold emotion theories can be assigned to a biological, a cognitive and a constructivist approach. For consumer behavior research, the two-factor theory by Schachter and the protection motivation theory by Rogers play an important role. ◄ Exercise Questions and Tasks Complete the following sentence: According to Lazarus’ emotion triad, emotions are expressed in a ___________, a ___________, and a ___________ aspect. Right or wrong? 64 4 Emotion The protection motivation theory is one of the establiwshed theories that explain consumer emotions using a biological approach. Tick the correct answer(s): O Moods are more intense and therefore longer lasting than emotions. O According to Plutchik’s wheel of emotions, the intensity of an emotion increases successively from the inner ring to the outer ring. O The coping appraisal of protection motivation theory includes response efficacy, self- efficacy, and perceived vulnerability. O Thinking aloud protocols are recommended for usability testing of an app. O Instrument-based procedures are mostly easy to perform and inexpensive. Cross-Linking Question Based on the findings of the two-factor theory, develop an advertising slogan that motivates consumers to quit smoking. Further Reading Batra, R., Ahuvia, A., & Bagozzi, R. P. (2012). Brand love. Journal of Marketing, 76(2), 1–16. Ekman, P. (2016). Gefühle lesen. Wie Sie Emotionen erkennen und richtig interpretieren (2nd ed.). Spektrum. Meyer, W. U., Reisenzein, R., & Schützwohl, A. (2001). Einführung in die Emotionspsychologie. Band I: Die Emotionstheorien von Watson, James und Schachter (5th ed.). Huber. References Atzert, L. S., Peper, M., & Stemmler, G. (2014). Emotionspsychologie (2nd ed.). Kohlhammer. Batra, R., Ahuvia, A., & Bagozzi, R. P. (2012). Brand love. Journal of Marketing, 76(2), 1–16. Cova, B., & D’Antone, S. (2016). Brand iconicity vs. anti-consumption well-being concerns: The Nutella palm oil conflict. Journal of Consumer Affairs, 50(1), 166–192. Dutton, D. G., & Aron, A. P. (1974). Some evidence for heightened sexual attraction under conditions of high anxiety. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 30(4), 510. Ekman, P. (2016). Gefühle lesen. Wie Sie Emotionen erkennen und richtig interpretieren (2nd ed.). Spektrum. Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. V. (1971). Constants across cultures in the face and emotion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 17(2), 124–129. Fehr, B., & Russell, J. A. (1984). Concept of emotion viewed from a prototype perspective. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 113(3), 464–486. Frijda, N. H., & Parrott, W. G. (2011). Basic emotions or ur-emotions. Emotion Review, 3(4), 406–415. Gerrig, R. J. (2014). Psychologie (20th ed.). Pearson. Hoffmann, S., Schwarz, U., & Mai, R. (2012). Angewandtes Gesundheitsmarketing. Springer Gabler. References 65 Izard, C. E. (2010). The many meanings/aspects of emotion: Definitions, functions, activation, and regulation. Emotion Review, 2(4), 363–370. Lazarus, R. S. (1991). Progress on a cognitive-motivational-relational theory of emotion. American Psychologist, 46(8), 819–834. Lazarus, R. S., Averill, J. R., & Opton, E. M. (1970). Toward a cognitive theory of emotion. In M. B. Arnold (Ed.), Feelings and emotions (pp. 207–232). Academic. Meffert, H., Burmann, C., Kirchgeorg, M., & Eisenbeiß, M. (2018). Marketing. Grundlagen marktorientierter Unternehmensführung. Konzepte – Instrumente – Praxisbeispiele (13th ed.). Springer Gabler. Meyer, W. U., Reisenzein, R., & Schützwohl, A. (2001). Einführung in die Emotionspsychologie. Band I: Die Emotionstheorien von Watson, James und Schachter (2nd ed.). Huber. Naderer, G., & Balzer, E. (2011). Qualitative Marktforschung in Theorie und Praxis: Grundlagen. Methoden und Anwendungen (2nd ed.). Springer. Oatley, K., & Jenkins, J. M. (1992). Human emotions: Function and dysfunction. Annual Review of Psychology, 43(1), 55–85. Plutchik, R. (1991). The emotions. University Press of America. Plutchik, R. (2003). Emotions and life: Perspectives from psychology, biology, and evolution. American Psychological Association. Raab, G., Unger, A., & Unger, F. (2018). Methoden der Marketing-Forschung. Grundlagen und Praxisbeispiele (3rd ed.). Springer. Rogers, R. W. (1975). A protection motivation theory of fear appeals and attitude change. The Journal of Psychology, 91(1), 93–114. Rogers, R. W. (1983). Cognitive and physiological processes in fear appeals and attitude change: A revised theory of protection motivation. In J. T. Cacioppo & R. E. Petty (Eds.), Social psychophysiology: A source book (pp. 153–176). Guilford Press. Rothermund, K., & Eder, A. (2011). Allgemeine Psychologie: Motivation und Emotion. VS Verlag. Schachter, S. (1964). The interaction of cognitive and physiological determinants of emotional state. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 1, 49–80. 5 Cognition cc I Spy with My Little Eye Something That You Don’t See! “Look at that! That’s a hot model,” Ben grins as he and Lea pass a city light poster on the tram. “Jeez Ben, don’t always look at other women. But we definitely have to go to that new clothing store that opened downtown,” Lea retorts. “What new clothing store?” wonders Ben. “Well, we were just talking about the advertising.” “What commercial?” “The one with the model, Ben! You just pointed it out to me, didn’t you?” “Oh, I see. I didn’t know that was an ad for a clothing store.” Clearly, Lea and Ben perceive different things and they remember different details, even though they were looking at the same poster. What does this depend on? What influences attention and perception and how can they be controlled? If we want to answer these questions, we have to deal with the process of information processing, i.e. with cognition. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2023 S. Hoffmann, P. Akbar, Consumer Behavior, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-39476-9_5 67 68 5 Cognition Learning Objectives In this chapter, you will learn … • • • • how attention controls information processing (Sect. 5.1), how to control how consumers perceive incoming stimuli (Sect. 5.2), how consumer behavior is learned (Sect. 5.3), and how consumption knowledge is organized and stored (Sect. 5.4), … by looking at consumer cognitions through the following theories and models: • • • • • AIDA model, Gestalt psychology, Conditioning, Multi-Store Model, and Schema theory. The term cognition subsumes all forms of knowledge and thinking (Gerrig, 2014, p. 286). Cognitive processes refer to information processing or, simply put, thought processes. In the introductory example, a clothing store advertised opening deals on a city-light poster to attract more customers to the store. Before this behavioral response occurs, numerous cognitive processes take place in the consumer. Passers-by like Lea and Ben have to pay attention to the poster. They have to process the information depicted on it, find it interesting and judge it positively. They also have to remember the name of the store, its location and its special offers. And they also need to recall it later when they plan to go into town to buy new clothes. So in this chapter we talk about functions such as attention (Sect. 5.1), perception (Sect. 5.2), learning (Sect. 5.3), and remembering (Sect. 5.4). Cognitive psychology and cognitive neuroscience analyze these processes, which is why their findings are a central building block of consumer behavior research. In this chapter, we repeatedly make reference to advertising effectiveness research, as it is an important field of application of these findings in the context of marketing. 5.1Attention and Information Selection 5.1.1Attention as a Serial Bottleneck In the introductory example, Lea only looked at the poster after Ben had pointed it out to her. Because not all stimuli from the environment reach the consumer’s consciousness, cognitive psychologists speak metaphorically of the serial bottleneck, since at a certain 5.1 Attention and Information Selection 69 point information is not processed in parallel but sequentially (Anderson, 2013, p. 54 ff.): Attention has a filtering function; it is responsible for selecting the information to be processed. It selects certain stimuli and discards others that are not paid attention to. We consciously process only those stimuli to which we pay attention (Simons & Chabris, 1999). Example: Neither a Gorilla Nor a Banner in Sight Inattentional blindness is when individuals fail to notice stimuli that are occurring directly in front of their eyes because their attention is focused on something else. Simons and Chabris (1999) were able to show in their research that many subjects who were focused on counting the ball contacts of basketball players while watching a video clip did not notice that a person in a gorilla costume appeared in the middle of the picture. A similar phenomenon is banner blindness, which occurs, for example, when advertising banners are displayed on the right-hand side of websites (Hoffmann & Schwarz, 2008). Many users have learned that this is where advertising is placed and deliberately ignore this area of the screen. Advertisers are therefore interested in varying the placement and format of advertising banners. Scan the QR code to watch the video clip.◄ On their way to the city center by tram, Lea and Ben chat, their smartphones ring and text messages arrive, their seatmates chat, announcements sound through the loudspeakers, cars, bicycles and buses pass by outside and countless passers-by stroll along the pavements, numerous letterings and posters can be seen on the walls of the houses and advertising pillars. No wonder Lea initially overlooked the poster of the new clothing store. When too many stimuli flood in on the consumer, he or she is cognitively overloaded. Like a filter, he unconsciously blocks out superfluous stimuli. This is a very useful (information economic) function to be able to deal efficiently with all the stimuli. For advertisers, however, the challenge arises that consumers only process those stimuli to which they actually pay attention. After all, advertising is expensive and if a measure does not attract attention, it cannot be effective. This is at least the conclusion suggested by the AIDA model, one of the best-known models of advertising effectiveness research. It postulates that consumers must pass through the following four stages in their reaction to an advertising stimulus: • • • • Attention (attention to the advertising measure) Interest (interest in the product) Desire (desire to buy the product) Action (purchase of the product) In the introductory example, the advertising poster was undoubtedly able to capture Ben’s attention. However, the transition to the second stage, which involved arousing interest in 70 5 Cognition the advertised clothing store, was not successful here. Lea did not pay attention to the poster at first; but after it was pointed out to her by Ben, at least the desire to visit the advertised store arose in her. Critics of the AIDA model rightly argue that it is too simplistic. Numerous subsequent models have refined and/or adapted various aspects. However, the central message of the AIDA model still holds true: first, the consumer’s attention must be captured. Only then can one move to the next higher stages, i.e., only then can the consumer show interest in the advertised product, develop the desire to own the product, and finally buy it. The central question is therefore how to attract attention (Hutter & Hoffmann, 2014a). 5.1.2Attention-Getting Stimuli There are some stimuli that activate us with a relatively high degree of certainty and to which we pay attention. Marketing and advertising in particular intentionally make use of this effect. Consumer behavior research distinguishes between the following three categories (Berlyne, 1974; Kroeber-Riel & Gröppel-Klein, 2013, p. 81 ff.): • Intense stimuli: Certain stimuli can attract attention because of their physical nature. These intense stimuli include loud sounds as well as strong smells. With regard to visual stimuli, signal colors, for example, have a stronger activating effect and several colors also activate more strongly than individual ones. Examples are the color combinations of Microsoft Windows or Google. In the introductory example, the clothing store could have taken advantage of this effect by using a large, bright poster with strong colors. When a person suddenly and almost reflexively turns to a newly occurring stimulus, this is known as an orientation response (Posner, 1980). This is also expressed in observable behavior. For example, the head is turned towards this stimulus. It is also expressed in physiological parameters, such as the widening of the pupils. Finally, the orientation response also affects experience. The person becomes sensitized to the processing of the stimulus. They pay more attention to the stimulus and process it more deeply. • Affective stimuli: Some stimuli inevitably evoke intense emotions that are experienced as pleasant or unpleasant. These affective stimuli are suitable for attracting the consumer’s attention. Often these reactions are biologically pre-programmed (Sect. 4.2.1) or based on conditioning (Sect. 5.3). One of the stimuli that inevitably evoke positive emotions and are difficult to avoid is the so-called childlike schema. Childlike proportions are characterized by a comparatively large head, a high forehead, large eyes and a small nose. Reactions to the child schema can be predicted with relative certainty and it is not surprising that advertisers therefore often use babies, small children or small animals as motives. Erotic stimuli can also trigger a biologically determined program, which is why the advertising industry speaks of “sex sells.” However, if advertisers overdo it and the use of these stimuli is too crude, this can also lead to rejection 5.1 Attention and Information Selection 71 reactions, so-called reactance. Likewise, the attention-grabbing stimulus may distract the viewer’s attention from the actual message. This is exactly what happened to Ben in the opening example. In the advertising industry, we speak of a vampire effect (or, scientifically, an overshadowing effect; Erfgen et al., 2015) when the recipient pays attention to an advertising measure but directs it to those elements of the measure that are the wrong ones from the advertiser’s point of view. This typically occurs in the case of erotic advertising, where the recipient, for example, looks intensively at the lightly dressed model, but afterwards does not know whether the poster advertises a clothing store, a shower gel or an electric toothbrush. • Collative stimuli: Collative stimuli attract attention because the recipient has difficulty classifying and processing the message. An inconsistency arises, i.e. the stimulus does not fit into the recipient’s usual schema (e.g. an advertisement showing a blue banana). A possible collative stimulus in our entry-level example would be if the clothing store’s advertising poster depicted a model holding a large magnet in her hand, with the slogan: “Our clothes will improve your attraction.” In particular, the consumer is cognitively challenged by novel, surprising and contradictory stimuli. Contradictory stimuli are specifically used in absurd (Arias-Bolzmann et al., 2000) or humorous advertisements (Schwarz et al., 2015). Usually, the viewer feels a strong desire to resolve the inconsistency, which is why he or she engages intensively with the stimulus. Consequently, the advertiser has achieved his or her goal: the recipient thinks about his or her message. Guerrilla marketing (Hutter & Hoffmann, 2014a) is also based on the fact that inconsistencies surprise consumers and consequently they give the advertising measure their full attention. Here, it is often not the message that is cognitively challenging but, for example in ambient marketing, the placement. A typical example is the manhole cover painted with a coffee cup by The Folgers Coffee Company in New York in 2007, where the rising steam symbolized the smell of coffee. Example: Why Are the Shoes Standing There? A study on guerrilla marketing tested whether a shoe store could increase its daily sales in a simple and cost-effective way by setting up a path made of shoes on the sidewalk (Hutter & Hoffmann, 2014b). The assumption was that this unusual action would initially trigger an orientation response and thus attract passers-by who would otherwise walk by to the store. Over 80% of passers-by showed an orientation response. 43.4% then showed a deeper interest in the shoe trail and as many as 5.3% entered the shoe store. As a point of comparison, the proportion of passers-by who entered the store on ordinary days (i.e. without a shoe trail) was observed to be only 2.7%. The higher number of customers was also reflected in sales, which were 23% higher than in the same period last year. ◄ 72 5 Cognition 5.1.3Processing Without Attention So far, we have assumed that marketing measures (e.g. an advertising message) only work if the consumer pays attention to them. If Ben had not pointed out the poster to Lea in the introductory example, Lea would probably not have gone to the new clothing store that afternoon. Nevertheless, it should be stressed that many processes can also run without or with very little attention. A distinction is therefore made between controlled and automated processes (Shriffin & Schneider, 1977). Automated processes include, for example, driving a car (after a little practice, drivers operate the clutch and gearshift without conscious cognitive control). But also in buying behavior many processes are spontaneous and automated. For example, many consumers often automatically reach for their preferred brands in the supermarket. In the literature, one repeatedly finds the statement that advertising messages have an effect on the recipient even if they do not pay attention to the ad or if they do not consciously perceive the ad. For many consumers this is a frightening idea, because they fear to be influenced by marketing imperceptibly. Kroeber-Riel and Gröppel-Klein (2013, p. 184) distinguish two forms in this unconscious stimulus processing. • Conscious perception is possible in principle: Unconscious perception can occur if the stimulus could be perceived, but the consumer focuses on other aspects due to the filter function of attention. However, many stimuli that are only casually perceived have a behavioral effect. Examples are visual stimuli in the peripheral field of vision or acoustic impressions such as radio advertising that plays in the background. The advertising industry takes advantage of this in product placement, where certain brands (e.g. the Apple logo on the opened laptop) are featured in the latest Hollywood blockbuster, or in in-game advertising in a video game. • Conscious perception is not possible: Stimuli can also be processed automatically if the recipient cannot consciously perceive the stimulus – even with full attention. This is the case, for example, when the recipient is exposed to the stimulus for too short a time. Lea, for example, only sees the advertising poster for a very short time when driving past, because an oncoming vehicle obscures the poster. Numerous studies (see Janiszewski & Wyer, 2014; Veltkamp et al., 2011) deal with this phenomenon, called “subliminal priming,” and find discernible effects on behavior. How can this be explained? Interpreting a stimulus involves associating that stimulus with a schema (Sect. 5.4.2). Someone who sees a yellow, red or green roundish object the size of a tennis ball with a deepening at the bottom as well as a deepening and a stem at the top will assign this object to the schema apple. Priming is the activation and sensitization to a particular schema so that a stimulus is more easily identified and associated with that schema. In social psychology experiments, a study group is often exposed to a prime, i.e., a priming stimulus (e.g., a picture of an apple), and tested to see if it shows up in the consumer’s behavior or preferences (e.g., for an iPhone). In subliminal 5.2 Controlling Consumer Perception 73 priming, subjects do not consciously perceive the priming stimulus because it lasts only a few milliseconds (Bargh & Chartrand, 2000). It turns out that this priming can nevertheless influence their behavior. 5.2Controlling Consumer Perception Perception refers to conscious sensory experiences (Goldstein, 2014). It includes all five senses (sight, hearing, touch, smell and taste). The impressions received via the sensory organs are ordered and interpreted as part of the perception process. 5.2.1Top-Down and Bottom-Up Perception As we have already discussed, the recipient cannot process all the impressions that flow into him. The so-called selective perception protects against stimulus overload. Stimuli from the environment that do not fit the current need are faded out and one pays attention to those environmental stimuli that are relevant at the moment. If, like Lea, you are planning to buy a new smartphone, you will pay more attention to an advertising poster from an electronics retailer than you normally would. In the same way, personal factors can also lead to certain stimuli not being noticed. Information that is not relevant at the moment is faded out. If Ben had planned to buy a new pair of jeans, he would have noticed that the poster advertised a new clothing store. But as it was, he blanked out this information. Whether a consumer perceives a stimulus also depends on how often and intensively he or she has paid attention to this stimulus before. Adaptation means that recipients get used to a stimulus and then no longer pay much attention to it because it is familiar to them. This is how one initially notices a new billboard on the daily commute to work. The same could happen to Ben in the introductory example. The model on the poster caught his attention and he initially looked at the poster intensively. After a few days, however, this motive is no longer anything special and the poster no longer stands out from the “background.” According to Solomon et al. (2013, p. 136), how quickly this habituation takes place depends on the following factors. People get used more quickly to those stimuli, which • • • • • are less intense (e.g. subtle colors), had to be dealt with for a longer period of time before they were processed, are simply designed and can be easily distinguished, they have seen more often, and are less relevant to them personally. 74 5 Cognition In advertising effectiveness research, this is referred to as a wear-out effect. The advertising measure then loses its effectiveness because the consumer has become accustomed to it and it offers no new information. From the foregoing, we can already guess that two processes are involved in how attention is controlled and, consequently, how intensively stimuli are processed (Egeth & Yantis, 1997). The bottom-up process begins with the properties of the stimulus; it is stimulus-induced. For a visual stimulus, these include size, color, shape, etc. We have already discussed stimulus-induced processes in Sect. 5.1.1 (keyword: intense, affective and collative stimuli). In this case, the cognitive processing of the advertising poster for the clothing store would depend only on the design features of the poster. At the same time, however, there is also a top-down process going on in which the viewer’s prior knowledge and experiences are incorporated into the processing of the stimulus, i.e., the process is goal-directed. The two processes work together and it becomes clear that perception does not result from properties of the stimulus alone. The cognitive processing of the poster thus also depends on the prior knowledge and attitude of the viewer. If Lea rejects in principle that models are depicted lightly dressed on posters, this controls the way she perceives and processes the poster. 5.2.2Gestalt Principles Gestalt psychology provides additional explanations on the influence of top-down processes related to visual perception, which are also relevant for marketing communication. It is based on the insight already expressed by the classical Greek philosopher Aristotle: “The whole is more than the sum of its parts.” It is therefore necessary to consider perceptual objects holistically, since, according to the principle of supersummativity, they also possess properties that are not contained in any of their elements. A holistic view includes not only the individual elements but also the structure. Gestalt psychology has identified a variety of principles that guide our perception (Goldstein, 2014, p. 95 ff.). These principles are important for the design of advertisements, websites or brand logos, among others, in order to simplify and guide perception. Some important ones are shown in Fig. 5.1: Principle of closure Principle of similarity Principle of proximity Fig. 5.1 Gestalt principles. (Adapted from Goldstein, 2014; Rubin, 1921) Principle of figure / ground 5.3 Learning Consumer Behavior 75 • Principle of closure: Following the law of supersummativity, recipients perceive elements as a unity if they appear cohesive. The viewer also adds elements that are not depicted according to his imagination in order to complete the elements into a whole. Due to this principle, one “sees” a triangle on the left representation in Fig. 5.1 that is actually not drawn in at all. • Principle of similarity: Recipients also combine several similar elements into a larger whole in their imagination. This can be done on the basis of size, color, shape, etc. In the second illustration from the left in Fig. 5.1, viewers think they see four columns, since they arrange the triangles and diamonds into groups in each case. In fact, however, the 16 elements are shown at the same distance from each other. • Principle of proximity: Following the same logic, viewers also assign elements that are close to each other to groups and delimits elements that are further away. This is illustrated in Fig. 5.1 in the second representation from the right. • Principle of figure and ground: In the case of optical sensory impressions, a categorization is made into figure and ground. The figure is the (usually smaller and central) object that is the focus of perception. The ground, which is perceived as a diffuse background, is distinguished from the figure. Rubin’s vase, the representation on the right side of Fig. 5.1, is a particularly fine and frequently cited example of information being processed simultaneously top-down and bottom-up (Rubin, 1921). The properties of this tilt picture are ambivalent. Depending on the top-down explanation, the viewer perceives a different figure: a vase (white area = figure) or two faces facing each other (black areas = figure). A stable relation of figure and ground offers the advantage that the figure clearly stands out, that more attention is paid to it and that it is thus better memorized. 5.3Learning Consumer Behavior Like other behavior, consumer behavior is learned. Many learning theories are based on behaviorism, where learning is understood to be a change in behavior based on experience. Behaviorism is based on the S-R model (the stimulus-response model; Sect. 1.1) and looks at observable stimuli and observable changes in behavior. That is, in behaviorist learning theories, the organism variable (the “O” in the S-O-R model) is not modeled, or in other words, the “black box” remains closed. The two main approaches are classical conditioning and operant conditioning, which we present here. Another learning theory that is also very influential and that contains cognitive components is model learning. 76 5 Cognition 5.3.1Conditioning of Consumer Behavior The principle of classical conditioning goes back to Ivan Pavlov (1928). The Russian physiologist discovered this principle by chance during experiments with dogs. Figure 5.2 illustrates the ideal-typical sequence of classical conditioning, which involves “charging” an initially neutral stimulus. In Pavlov’s classical experiment, this neutral stimulus is a bell. In the marketing context, it could be the brand logo. In addition, there exists an unconditioned stimulus that elicits a positive response. In the classic experiment, this was the food bowl that triggered the dog’s salivation. In consumer behavior, this could be, for example, watching one’s favorite television program, which triggers a pleasant feeling of security. Now the initially neutral stimulus is repeatedly presented together with the unconditioned stimulus. What is important here is contiguity, i.e. spatial and temporal proximity of the two stimuli. In the classical experiment, the researcher always rang the bell when he put the food bowl in front of the dog. In our example, the brand logo fades in while the consumer is watching TV. After a certain time, the initially neutral stimulus is sufficient to trigger the response. The stimulus is now conditioned. In this way, brands can be emotionally charged. Erdinger wheat beer is perceived by consumers as quaint and cozy etc. due to the typical Bavarian advertising, while the almost identical Schöfferhofer product is associated with eroticism due to the advertising with a woman’s flat belly and the French accent of the advertising spokeswoman. Stimulus 1 Unconditioned stimulus Response favorite TV series Unconditioned response 2 Neutral stimulus 3 Unconditioned stimulus + brand logo No specific response favorite TV series Neutral stimulus brand logo Unconditioned response Conditioned stimulus brand logo Conditioned response 4 Fig. 5.2 Classical conditioning 5.3 Learning Consumer Behavior 77 Operant conditioning can be traced back to the US psychologist Burrhus Skinner (1965). The basic idea is to perform behaviors with positive consequences more often and to avoid those behaviors that have negative consequences. Skinner was able to demonstrate experimentally that animals were more likely to perform a behavior again if they were rewarded or reinforced with food after performing the behavior. In contrast, animals are less likely to perform the behavior again if they have been punished. This is known as the reinforcement principle: The probability of occurrence depends on the consequences of the behavior. US-based Shopkick uses an app to reinforce consumer behavior. Those who own the shopping app and stroll through certain participating stores receive so-called kicks from small Bluetooth transmitters in the entrance area as a reward for entering the store, which they can later exchange for vouchers. 5.3.2Model Learning: Learning from Other Consumers Classical and operant conditioning are behaviorist learning theories. Learning occurs through repeated stimulus-response patterns that become automatisms. These behaviorist theories alone are not sufficient to explain a typical acquisition of knowledge, such as that which occurs when we study for an exam. Cognitive learning theories also consider mental activities during the learning process. They understand individuals as problem solvers and therefore do not only focus on how often they process stimulus-response models. Rather, they also focus on the depth of processing, i.e., elaboration, as well as insights during the learning process. These theories can explain that in some cases even single exposures to information are sufficient to acquire new knowledge. Building on these cognitive learning theories is a third important form of learning that we will consider here: model learning or imitation learning, which is based on Bandura’s (1977) social cognitive learning theory. Here it is assumed that consumers do not necessarily have to gain experience themselves or have to be rewarded or punished for their behaviors. They can also learn by observing another consumer (i.e. the model) and seeing what reinforcement he or she receives for his or her behavior. As a prerequisite for this form of learning, individuals must first memorize their observations and recall this knowledge at a later time. In the marketing context, so-called reference customers are relevant. These customers have already tested the product and report positively about it or they serve as role models in product use. For example, if you observe that someone else always knows good “locations” because they use the right app, they will also want to use this app themselves in order to enjoy the same social recognition. This principle is also specifically exploited in advertising, where the advertising characters point to certain products and report what positive experiences they had after using the product. Many young girls literally learn from the model by watching the casting show “Germany’s Next Topmodel” and subsequently want to wear the same look as the contestants. Product testers on YouTube or Instagram, some of whom are paid by companies, can also serve as models for consumers. Bloggers and social media influencers like Bianca Heinicke from BibisBeautyPalace are typical models for many young people today. 78 5 Cognition 5.4Representation of Consumer Knowledge in Memory Knowledge plays a central role in consumer behavior. It influences, for example, how consumers can weigh up different product alternatives. But how is knowledge about products and services and how are previous consumption experiences stored? 5.4.1The Classical Multi-store Model of Memory A well-known model of memory is the “multi-store model” (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968). The simplistic three-way division is now considered outdated; nevertheless, the model offers a good first approach to understanding the complex memory capacity of the human brain. Ideally, it distinguishes between three different memory systems that interact with each other: • Sensory register: This is also referred to as ultra-short-term memory and maps sensory impressions, i.e. for example what the person sees or hears. Although this sensory information is retained with a very high capacity, it is very limited in time (Gerrig, 2014, p. 243 ff.). Visual impressions fade in less than a second and even acoustic impressions only last a few seconds. Only those stimuli to which the recipient pays attention are further processed and interpreted. • Short-term store: In analogy to computers, short-term memory can also be understood as working memory (Baddeley, 1992). Short-term memory can retrieve information from long-term memory. Stimuli from sensory memory are also processed in short- term memory. To prevent the information from being forgotten, it must be transferred to long-term memory. Anyone who remembers studying for the last exam knows that this is not always an easy task and that the rate of forgetting is high. This is because the capacity of short-term memory is very limited: According to George Miller’s (1956) chunking hypothesis, only about seven (plus/minus two) units of information can be processed at a time. A simple word or digit, but also larger entities such as names of people, countries or brands can form a chunk, i.e. a meaningful unit of information. To increase capacity, information should therefore be bundled into chunks. Remembering the following shopping list will be difficult for most people: Eggs, limes, peanuts, rum, milk, Star Wars DVD, Coke, applesauce, beer, butter, chips, and sugar. On the other hand, if you form two chunks and memorize that you need ingredients to make pancakes and the usual stuff for a guys’ night out, you won’t have to write a grocery list. • Long-term store: Since its capacity is practically unlimited, all information, be it experiences, knowledge, emotions, etc., is permanently stored in the long-term memory. What is colloquially referred to as forgetting often describes the problem of no longer being able to recall information. It is as if one no longer knows under which folder of the hard disk one has saved a certain file. A loss of memory that occurs when 5.4 Representation of Consumer Knowledge in Memory 79 newly acquired information overwrites earlier information is referred to as interference (Anderson, 2013, p. 142 ff.). 5.4.2Knowledge Representation Two forms of stored knowledge can be distinguished (Rolls, 2000; Schacter & Tulving, 1994). • Declarative knowledge comprises knowledge about facts and events (Gerrig, 2014, p. 240 ff.), whereby two subgroups can be distinguished. Semantic memory refers to facts (e.g., Lea’s knowledge about the Apple brand and products). Episodic memory, on the other hand, involves personal experiences (e.g., how friendly the salesperson was to Lea on her last visit to the Apple store). Evolutionarily, humans are often better at memorizing stories than abstract concepts. Marketing practice has also recognized this and is currently trying to anchor brands in the consumer’s memory with stories as part of trends such as content marketing and the method of storytelling – similar to our ancestors around the campfire (Sammer, 2014). This book aims to strengthen memory with the help of Lea and Ben’s case studies. • Procedural knowledge, on the other hand, contains the mental mapping of actions, such as shifting gears while driving a car or swiping a smartphone. It is often assumed that knowledge stored in long-term memory can be represented as an associative network (Collins & Loftus, 1975). Associative networks are characterized by nodes and edges. The nodes represent a unit of information. They can represent, among other things, a product (e.g., sports shoes), a property (e.g., durability), or even – particularly relevant for the marketing context – a brand (e.g., Nike) (cf. Krishnan, 1996). The connections or edges between the nodes represent the associations between the information units (Anderson, 2013, p. 100 f.). How strong these connections are depends on how often these two pieces of information are retrieved together or how much effort a person needed to store the information together. Everyone knows this from learning vocabulary. Now, when one node is activated later, the associative link will also activate the other node. This is relevant in marketing science especially to map brand knowledge (Keller, 1993). Marketers of course want to know the associative networks of consumers and, if possible, to help shape these networks through marketing communication. Figure 5.3 shows an associative network of the Nike brand. People represent semantic (i.e. meaningful) knowledge about both concrete objects (e.g. a mobile phone) and abstract concepts (e.g. mobility) in the form of schemata (Rumelhart, 1980). Schemata serve to structure and categorize knowledge. They contain assumptions about which attributes are usually assigned to an object and how these attributes are usually expressed (Anderson, 2013, p. 106 ff.). New objects are categorized based on this. For example, a person might have stored in their smartphone schema that 80 5 Cognition Exercise Durability Running Athletic shoes Swoosh Nike Michael Jordan Reebok Expensive Aerobic shoes Greek Godness Fig. 5.3 Associative networks. (Adapted from Krishnan, 1996) they vary between 3.5 and 6.3 inches for the attribute display size. An object with a screen diagonal of 10 inches would therefore not be assigned to the smartphone schema, but to the tablet PC schema. Once a schema is activated, even incomplete information can be interpreted. If one has identified the object tablet, one assumes that operation by swiping is possible – even if one has not yet received this information. Brands are also stored as a schema. A script (or event concept) is a specific schema that represents procedural knowledge, i.e. stereotypical sequences of actions (e.g. paying by debit card, placing orders with online retailers, etc.). Schemata are more concerned with the “what” and scripts with the “how.” 5.5Learning Aid Quintessence Cognitive processes include attention, perception, learning and knowledge representation. Attention is considered an important prerequisite for the further processing of information. It can be enhanced by affective, collative, and intense stimuli. Perception is a selective process. Learning occurs through classical and operant conditioning or model learning, among other methods. The three-memory model distinguishes sensory, short-term, and long-term memory. The knowledge stored in long-term memory can be represented by associative networks and schemata. ◄ Further Reading 81 Exercise Questions and Tasks Complete the following sentence: We speak of ____________ when consumers do not notice stimuli that are happening right in front of their eyes because their attention is focused on something else. Right or wrong? People can only process a fraction of the stimuli that flow into them. In accordance with the principle of selective perception, we protect ourselves from stimulus overload by focusing on those environmental stimuli that are relevant to us at the moment and blocking out those stimuli from the environment that do not fit our current needs. Tick the correct answer(s). The process of perception … O … is limited to a maximum of four chunks. O … is controlled both bottom-up (starting from the stimulus) and top-down (starting from the individual). O … follows the law of supersummativity according to Gestalt psychology. O … is controlled by operant conditioning. Cross-Linking Question Lea and Ben perceived different facets of the same promotional activity in the introductory example. On the basis of the knowledge conveyed in this chapter, think about what this could be due to. Over the next few days, take a critical look at all the advertising measures you come across. Pay attention to measures from different manufacturers and for different product categories. Look at measures in different media and advertising media such as on television, on YouTube, on the radio, in the cinema, on posters, in newspapers, on Facebook etc. Think about which of these measures can attract the attention of the viewer. What elements of the promotional activities will achieve this? Which elements of the advertising measures are the recipients likely to remember later? Through which learning mechanism is this achieved? Further Reading Anderson, J. R. (2013). Kognitive Psychologie (7th ed.). Springer. Goldstein, E. B. (2014). Wahrnehmungspsychologie. Der Grundkurs (9th ed.). Springer. Kroeber-Riel, W., & Gröppel-Klein, A. (2013). Konsumentenverhalten (10th ed.). Vahlen. 82 5 Cognition References Anderson, J. R. (2013). Kognitive Psychologie (7th ed.). Springer. Arias-Bolzmann, L., Chakraborty, G., & Mowen, J. C. (2000). Effects of absurdity in advertising: The moderating role of product category attitude and the mediating role of cognitive responses. Journal of Advertising, 29(1), 35–49. Atkinson, R. C., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1968). Human memory: A proposed system and its control processes. In K. Spence & J. Spence (Eds.), The psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 2, pp. 89–195). Academic. Baddeley, A. (1992). Working memory. Science, 255(5044), 556–559. Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Prentice Hall. Bargh, J. A., & Chartrand, T. L. (2000). The mind in the middle: A practical guide to priming and automaticity research. In H. T. Reis & C. M. Judd (Eds.), Handbook of research methods in social and personality psychology (pp. 253–285). Cambridge University Press. Berlyne, D. E. (1974). Konflikt, Erregung Neugier. Zur Psychologie der kognitiven Motivation. Klett. Collins, A. M., & Loftus, E. F. (1975). A spreading-activation theory of semantic processing. Psychological Review, 82(6), 407–428. Egeth, H. E., & Yantis, S. (1997). Visual attention: Control, representation, and time course. Annual Review of Psychology, 48, 269–297. Erfgen, C., Zenker, S., & Satter, H. (2015). The Vampire effect: When do celebrities endorsers harm brand recall? International Journal of Research in Marketing, 32(2), 155–163. Gerrig, R. J. (2014). Psychologie (20th ed.). Pearson. Goldstein, E. B. (2014). Wahrnehmungspsychologie. Der Grundkurs (9th ed.). Springer. Hoffmann, S., & Schwarz, U. (2008). Struktur der Webseite als Erfolgsfaktor. In S. Wünschmann, U. Schwarz, & S. Müller (Eds.), Webseiten-Gestaltung: Erfolgsfaktoren und Kontrolle (pp. 77–102). Mitp. Hutter, K., & Hoffmann, S. (2014a). Professionelles Guerilla-Marketing. Springer Gabler. Hutter, K., & Hoffmann, S. (2014b). Surprise, surprise. Ambient media as promotion tool for retailers. Journal of Retailing, 90(1), 93–110. Janiszewski, C., & Wyer, R. S., Jr. (2014). Content and process priming: A review. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 24(1), 96–118. Keller, K. L. (1993). Conceptualizing, measuring, and managing customer-based brand equity. Journal of Marketing, 57(1), 1–22. Krishnan, H. S. (1996). Characteristics of memory associations: A consumer-based brand equity perspective. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 13(4), 389–405. Kroeber-Riel, W., & Gröppel-Klein, A. (2013). Konsumentenverhalten (10th ed.). Vahlen. Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 63(2), 81–97. Pavlov, I. P. (1928). Lectures on conditioned reflexes: Twenty-five years of objective study of the higher nervous activity (behaviour) of animals. International Publishers. Posner, M. I. (1980). Orienting of attention. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 32(1), 3–25. Rolls, E. T. (2000). Memory systems in the brain. Annual Review of Psychology, 51, 599–630. Rubin, E. (1921). Visuell wahrgenommene Figuren. Universitas. Rumelhart, D. E. (1980). Schemata: The building blocks of cognition. In R. J. Spiro, B. C. Bruce, & W. F. Brewer (Eds.), Theoretical issues in reading comprehension (pp. 33–58). Erlbaum. Sammer, P. (2014). Storytelling. Die Zukunft von PR und Marketing. O’Reilly. Schacter, D. L., & Tulving, E. (1994). Memory systems. MIT Press. References 83 Schwarz, U., Hoffmann, S., & Hutter, K. (2015). Do men and women laugh about different types of humor? A comparison of satire, sentimental comedy, and comic wit in print ads. Journal of Current Issues & Research in Advertising, 36(1), 70–87. Shriffin, R. M., & Schneider, W. (1977). Controlled and automatic human information processing: II. Perceptual learning, automatic attending and a general theory. Psychological Review, 84(2), 127–190. Simons, D. J., & Chabris, C. F. (1999). Gorillas in our midst: Substained inattentional blindness for dynamic events. Perception, 28(9), 1059–1074. Skinner, B. F. (1965). Science and human behavior. Free Press. Solomon, M. R., Bamossy, G. J., Askegaard, S. T., & Hogg, M. K. (2013). Consumer behaviour. A European perspective (5th ed.). Pearson. Veltkamp, M., Custers, R., & Aarts, H. (2011). Motivating consumer behavior by subliminal conditioning in the absence of basic needs: Striking even while the iron is cold. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 21(1), 49–56. 6 Attitude cc My Favorite Car Is a Bicycle “Luckily, I can get everywhere by bike and train,” Lea answers when asked about her favorite car. “But if I were ever to buy a car, it would be an electric one. They emit less CO2 than petrol cars. And that’s important to me.” “So I think driving electric cars is pretty uncool. Almost everyone thinks so, by the way,” Ben retorts. “They’re way too lame. You can’t get very far because you have to keep charging the battery. And then that takes time, too. Plus, they’re too expensive.” “For the moment, maybe. But that’s changing. The spread of charging stations is expanding and I recently read in the paper that the federal government wants to pay a premium of several thousand euros when you buy an electric car.” How will Lea behave when she actually has to buy her own car? What influence will her attitude have on her buying behavior? How does the opinion of her social environment, especially that of Ben, affect her? And what other factors should one consider when trying to predict how Lea will behave? © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2023 S. Hoffmann, P. Akbar, Consumer Behavior, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-39476-9_6 85 86 6 Attitude Learning Objectives In this chapter, you will learn … • • • • the relationship between attitudes and behavior (Sect. 6.1), how to measure attitudes (Sect. 6.2), how to change attitudes (Sect. 6.3), and what implicit attitudes are and how to measure them (Sect. 6.4), … by looking at consumer attitudes through the following theories and models: • • • • • Three-Component Model, Theory of Planned Behavior, Fishbein Model, Elaboration Likelihood Model, and MODE Model. 6.1Attitude and Behavior Attitude is a central construct in marketing and consumer behavior research, as attitudes are believed to have a strong influence on (consumer) behavior. However, the relationship between attitudes and behavior is not entirely simple and clear-cut, as we will see. But first: What are attitudes actually? 6.1.1Three-Component Model of Attitude An attitude can be described as a psychological tendency to evaluate objects, persons, ideas, brands, companies or behaviors more or less positively or negatively (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993, p. 1). Consequently, an attitude is evaluative and (unlike values) always related to an object or behavior. Moreover, attitudes are learned (i.e. not innate) and relatively permanent (Trommsdorff & Teichert, 2011, p. 126). cc Keep in mind: Attitudes are evaluative, object-based, learned, and relatively permanent. A widely used approach to conceptualize attitudes is the three-component model (Rosenberg & Hovland, 1960). It consists of the following components: • The cognitive component includes knowledge about the attitude object and thoughts about the attitude object. For example, a consumer might know that electric cars are comparatively good for the environment because they emit less CO2 than conventional cars with internal combustion engines. 6.1 Attitude and Behavior 87 • The affective component refers to how the consumer emotionally evaluates the attitude object, i.e. to what extent he or she likes electric cars, for example. • Finally, the conative component concerns the actions associated with this object. Particularly relevant in the context of consumer behavior is the willingness to buy. The conative component results from the interaction of the closely linked cognitive and affective components. In our example, this could mean that the person knows that electric cars have comparatively low CO2 emissions and that he or she likes this and therefore plans to purchase and use an electric car. 6.1.2Attitude-Behavior Gap According to the attitude-behavior hypothesis, the attitude toward an object is a reliable predictor of what behavior the person will exhibit toward the object. However, we all know from our everyday lives that we do not always act in accordance with attitudes. Those who have a positive attitude towards ecological products nevertheless do not always choose ecological products at the point of sale. In addition to this everyday observation, numerous empirical studies also show that the attitude-behavior hypothesis, which is plausible in itself, must be put into perspective. Although there is often a statistically significant relationship between attitude or behavioral intention and actual behavior, this relationship is relatively weak and attitudes explain behavior only to a certain extent (Armitage & Conner, 2001; Webb & Sheeran, 2006). Attitude research is still concerned about the question that arises: What other factors should attitude researchers consider in order to improve the behavioral predictions based on attitudes. 6.1.3Compatibility An important principle for improving the predictive validity of attitudes is that of compatibility (Ajzen, 1988; Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975). Accordingly, the level of measurement of attitudes and behavior should be compatible. Both attitudes and behaviors can be specified using the criteria of target object, action, context, and time. The higher the level of agreement, the more accurately behavior can be predicted based on attitudes. A relatively unspecific statement about environmental protection would be, for example: “I would like to see pollution reduced.” Someone who generally agrees with this statement may not behave ecologically in a specific context. Will this person, for example, be sure to avoid using his or her own car on the way to work in the morning? It is to be expected that someone who agrees with this non-specific statement will look less at the environmentally conscious alternative for the concrete target object “car” and the action “driving as the sole passenger” in the context “making it to work on time” at the time “shortly before 8 o’clock in the morning” than someone who expresses the following very specific attitude: “I think it is good to do without my own car every day on the way to work in the morning and to use local public transport instead.” 88 6 Attitude Attitude toward the behavior Subjective norm Intention Behavior Perceived behavioral control Fig. 6.1 Theory of planned behavior. (Adapted from Ajzen, 1991) 6.1.4Theory of Planned Behavior In addition to compatibility, however, other factors should be taken into account if one wishes to predict behavior on the basis of attitudes. In the following, we present what is probably the best-known theory for explaining the attitude-behavior relationship: the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB, Ajzen, 1991; Fig. 6.1). It postulates that behavioral intention as a mediator variable (Sect. 1.3.2) conveys the influence of attitude on behavior. That is, a positive attitude initially leads to a higher behavioral intention and this increases the likelihood that the person will actually perform the behavior at a later time. In addition to personal attitude, the influence of subjective norm and perceived behavioral control on behavioral intention should be considered: • Attitude toward the behavior is the product of two variables: First are the expected consequences of the behavior, i.e., what target state is likely to result from performing the behavior. For example, in our introductory example, Lea assumes that buying an electric car will reduce CO2 emissions per kilometer driven. Second is the evaluation of behavioral consequences, which captures whether one judges the expected target state to be desirable. Undoubtedly, Lea, as an ecologically-minded consumer, considers a reduction in CO2 emissions desirable. These two variables are combined in a so-called expectation-X-value product (cf. Sect. 6.2). This results in the attitude towards the behavior. If we look again at the three-component model (Sect. 6.1.1), we see that the expected behavioral consequences reflect the cognitive component and the evaluation the affective component (cf. Kroeber-Riel & Gröppel-Klein, 2013, p. 273). • The subjective norm can also be understood as the result of the product of two variables: Firstly, the individual assesses the expectations of important reference persons with regard to the behavior. How would friends or relatives judge it, for example, if Lea were to buy an electric car? In the initial example, Ben expressed a clearly negative attitude. But this alone does not necessarily lead to a change in Lea’s behavior. Secondly, it is also decisive whether one wants to meet the expectations of others at all. The subjective norm results from the product of these two components. 6.2 Measurement of Attitudes 89 • Perceived behavioral control involves the extent to which one feels able to act in the desired manner. Behavioral intention is weaker and actual behavior is less likely the more barriers are encountered. Possible barriers may include lack of time or financial resources. In our introductory example, Ben cited the fact that there are too few charging stations for electric cars so far as a barrier. Unlike personal attitudes and subjective norms, perceived behavioral control can also have a direct impact on behavior. For example, someone who does not have sufficient financial means cannot buy an electric car, even if they have a positive attitude towards electric cars. 6.2Measurement of Attitudes There are many ways to measure attitudes (see e.g. Trommsdorff & Teichert, 2011, p. 145 ff.). The simplest variant of attitude measurement are one-dimensional measurement methods that only ask for a summary evaluation. The question would therefore be, for example, whether a person generally rates electric cars as good or bad. Likert scales are often used, in which the respondent must rate several statements on a multi-level response scale (e.g. from −3 “disagree” to +3 “agree”). The researcher then adds up all the statements to an overall score. With multidimensional measurement methods, a more complex structure of the attitude is recorded. This is based on the assumption that the overall attitude can result from several evaluation dimensions. For example, electric cars could be evaluated in terms of functionality, design, social reputation, service life, battery range, CO2 emissions, etc. In the case of multidimensional measurement methods, a distinction can be made between composing and decomposing methods (Trommsdorff & Teichert, 2011, p. 147 ff.). In the composing methods, an overall judgment is formed from individual judgments. The Fishbein model (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975) has been particularly widely used. As described in the presentation of the theory of planned behavior (Sect. 6.1.4), it is based on expectancy-X-value products (cf. Figure 6.2). The subject rates several properties (i) of an attitude object separately. He or she rates each property twice. First, subjects outline their beliefs whether the attitude object has a certain property or whether the target behavior (e.g., driving an electric car) leads to a certain consequence (e.g., a reduction in CO2 emissions per kilometer driven) (component b, belief). In addition, the subjects indicate their subjective evaluations (e) of this behavioral outcome. The researcher multiplies these two components. Other attributes are captured in the same two-step manner. For example, the researcher might ask about the car’s design, sportiness, status value, and CO2 emissions. Fig. 6.2 Expectation X-value model A b e i - attitude - belief - evaluation - property 90 6 Attitude The researcher sums up the products of each property dimension to calculate an overall attitude score (A). Lea’s beliefs regarding an electric car could possibly be as follows on a scale of 0–5: bDesign = 3, bSportiness = 0, bStatus = 2, bCO2 emissions = 5. For a gasoline driven car from the lower mid-range, she might arrive at the following rating: bDesign = 4, bSportiness = 3, bStatus = 3, bCO2 emissions = 1. If we now consider their subjective evaluation of the four dimensions (eDesign = 1, eSportiness = 1, eStatus = 2, eCO2 emissions = 5), the result is a attitude of A = 3 + 0 + 4 + 25 = 32 for the electric car and A = 4 + 3 + 6 + 5 = 18 for the gasoline driven car. A clear decision in favor of the electric car for the ecologically minded Lea. In decomposing methods, attitude objects are assessed as a whole and an attempt is made to derive the evaluation and significance of individual properties via suitable methods. One example is conjoint analysis. Here, the subjects have to give preferences for entire objects (or products) that are described as bundles of properties. For example, subjects would have to decide whether they prefer a more expensive electric car with a long battery life to a cheap electric car with a short battery life. By systematically varying several such properties, it is then possible to derive which benefits subjects attribute to the individual product properties. 6.3Attitude Change Marketing communication, especially traditional advertising, aims to change attitudes. In Sect. 6.1 we described attitudes as relatively permanent; they cannot therefore be changed easily. Models of attitude change usually distinguish ideally between two ways of processing. The best known of these models is the Elaboration-Likelihood-Model (ELM) by Petty and Cacioppo (1986). According to this model, attitude change depends on how deeply the recipient processes a message (Fig. 6.3). A basic assumption of the model is that the depth of processing differs between different individuals and in different situations. Two pathways are described that can be characterized by different degrees of elaboration, i.e. depth of processing. These two paths are to be understood as ideal-typical extreme points of a continuum. • On the central route, the recipients process a message very deeply. Since they deal with it intensively and carefully, the message will only have a convincing effect and lead to a change in attitude if it is based on strong arguments. A consumer who processes an ad for electric cars on the central route will subsequently have a more positive attitude towards this product only if the benefits such as low CO2 emissions have been convincingly presented. If changes in attitude are actually achieved via the central route, these are usually relatively stable and lasting. 6.3 Attitude Change Central Route 91 Persuasive Message Motivation to process Peripheral Route low high high Ability to process Deep elaboration is likely, Quality of arguments important Attitude change is stable and permanent, high predictive power for behavior low Low elaboration is likely, peripheral cues decisive Attitude change is fragile and temporary, low predictive power for behavior Fig. 6.3 Elaboration likelihood model. (Adapted from Petty & Cacioppo, 1986) • On the peripheral route, the recipients process the message less deeply. More important than content are peripheral cues, i.e. information stimuli that are not directly related to the message. It can be important, for example, whether the recipients find the communicator of an advertising message likeable, whether he or she is a proven expert (“If the expert says so, it will be true.”) and what non-verbal messages he or she sends out. Since emotional aspects also have an effect, advertising measures that are intended to convince on the peripheral route often use humor, music, eroticism, etc.. Because consumers cannot give their full attention to the multitude of advertising measures streaming at them, many advertisers specifically choose the peripheral attitude change route (Bak, 2014, p. 70). In relation to our electric car example, what might an attempt to change consumer attitudes through peripheral means look like? For example, the advertising intervention could illustrate how an electric car with a sporty design dynamically drives along a road that passes through a beautiful and otherwise pristine landscape. Changes in attitude that are achieved via the peripheral route are usually rather fragile and temporary. The crucial question is when the probability (likelihood) is higher that the consumer processes a message centrally (i.e. elaborates) and when it is higher that he or she processes the message superficially and peripherally. According to the Elaboration Likelihood Model, this depends on two variables. First, there must be motivation to process the message. Motivation depends, among other things, on the consumer’s involvement, that is, on how important and interesting he or she finds the subject matter. For example, it may be 6 92 Attitude difficult to get people who are not tech-savvy to engage with information about electric cars. Secondly, the person must also have the ability to process the message. The extent to which the person is able to do this depends on cognitive abilities and prior knowledge, but also on whether the information is presented in a comprehensible way and whether the person is distracted or not. For example, information comparing electric cars based on technical details is incomprehensible to some consumers. According to the ELM, the following two conditions must necessarily be met for central processing: Motivation must be strong and the necessary skills must be present. Example: Sprinkled by the Commercials or Elaboration? Consumers usually do not process TV advertising along the central route, but allow themselves to be sprinkled. Commercials are often adapted to this processing mode in that they are intended to link the advertised product with positive associations, e.g. through the use of humor and celebrities or by showing beautiful landscapes. However, some spots are also specifically designed to capture the consumer’s attention and encourage them to think along with the product, i.e. to process it centrally. Scan the QR code and watch the following spot. Then think about what intention the advertisers are pursuing. ◄ 6.4Implicit Attitudes In the previous chapters we have dealt with explicit attitudes. These are judgments and evaluations of the attitude object that the respondent has thought about and is aware of. However, more recent research also considers implicit attitudes (Greenwald & Banaji, 1995). It should be noted here that some researchers reject the term “implicit attitudes” because, strictly speaking, they are “only” “implicit associations” between the object and evaluative categories. We first consider how implicit attitudes can affect our behavior, and then how they can be measured. 6.4.1Improving Behavioral Prediction Through Implicit Attitudes Implicit attitudes are (mostly) not conscious to the person. They are activated spontaneously, run automatically and cannot be controlled voluntarily. One cannot verbalize these implicit attitudes. However, it is important to consider implicit attitudes because they can explain behaviors that cannot be explained by explicit attitudes (Greenwald et al., 2009). 6.4 Implicit Attitudes 93 Explicit and implicit attitudes can exist simultaneously for an attitude object. For example, a person might explicitly rate Brussels sprouts as good because they are low in calories and rich in vitamins and minerals. Implicitly, he or she automatically associates the bitter winter vegetable with bad taste. An interesting question now is under which circumstances his or her behavior is driven more by implicit attitudes and when it is driven more by explicit attitudes. To explain this, so-called dual process theories have been proposed, which postulate that both components can be activated independently and that each component can affect behavior according to its activation. One example is the MODE model (Motivation and Opportunity as DEterminants; Fazio, 1990). According to this model, whether implicit or explicit attitudes have a significant effect on behavior depends on the consumer’s motivation and ability to think through the consequences of his or her behavior. The model is similar in structure to the ELM introduced in Sect. 6.3. The latter explains the process of attitude formation or change, whereas the MODE model explains how attitudes affect behavior. • A person switches into the deliberative mode, i.e. into the deliberative process mode, which means high cognitive effort if the motivation is high and also the necessary abilities and possibilities are given to process information. When the person is in this mode, it is mainly explicit attitudes that influence his or her behavior. The attitude-behavior models discussed in Sect. 6.1, such as the theory of planned behavior, can now be used to explain behavior. Whether a person chooses an apple or a chocolate bar thus depends, among other things, on his or her attitude to health and on the expectations of the social environment. • If, on the other hand, the person is not motivated or does not have the possibility to reflect, he or she is in the spontaneous mode. Now it is above all the implicit, i.e. the spontaneously and automatically evoked associations, that have an effect on behavior. Whether the person decides in favor of the apple or the chocolate bar, for example, depends on the spontaneous and automatically activated assessment of the pleasure gained from eating (Mai et al., 2015). Other models such as the Reflective-Impulsive-Model (RIM, Strack & Deutsch, 2004) or the Associative-Propositional-Evaluation-Model (APE, Gawronski & Bodenhausen, 2006) illustrate that implicit and explicit attitudes can also interact and thus jointly influence behavior. Example: I’ll Take the Unhealthy Food, It Tastes Better! There is no question that most people would like to eat healthier. However, it is all too often the case that consumers prefer schnitzel to salad. An explanation for this discrepancy was provided by the US consumer researchers Raghunathan et al. (2006). They revealed that many consumers implicitly, i.e. unconsciously, spontaneously and automatically, associate unhealthy foods with good taste. This “unhealthy = tasty” intuition can be traced back to evolution, among other factors. In order to survive, it was 94 6 Attitude important for our ancestors to consume as many calories as possible. Even though the food supply has changed in the meantime, a positive evaluation of calorie-rich food is still the automatic reaction. So if you don’t explicitly think about your food choices and are in spontaneous mode, you will reach for unhealthy foods even if you are explicitly positive about healthy foods. For a healthy diet, both should come together: a positive explicit association and also as positive as possible implicit association towards healthy foods (Mai et al., 2015). The good news for all health fans: recent studies from Europe show that many consumers also implicitly associate healthy foods with taste (Werle et al., 2013; Mai, 2016). ◄ 6.4.2Measurement of Implicit Attitudes In order to measure explicit attitudes, consumer researchers usually survey their subjects directly using self-rating scales. However, subjects are often not aware of implicit attitudes and are unable to verbalize them. Methods of implicit attitude measurement usually analyze association strengths, i.e. how strongly an attitude object is associated with evaluative categories. The most commonly used method is the Implicit Association Test (IAT) (Greenwald et al., 1998, 2009; see also Niemand et al., 2014). It is based on the organization of semantic knowledge as an associative network described in Sect. 5.4.2. The test measures reaction times because the more strongly an attitude object is linked to other relevant objects in a consumer’s associative network, the faster one category can be retrieved if the other was previously activated. Short reaction times serve as an indicator of a strong association, which in turn is interpreted as an implicit attitude (Brunel et al., 2004, p. 389 f.). The IAT is computer-based and runs as follows: Subjects are asked to assign a stimulus that appears in the middle of the screen to predefined categories as quickly as possible, several times in succession. In order to measure the “Unhealthy = Tasty” intuition described in Sect. 6.4.1, subjects are asked to match different foods (such as pizza, salad) and terms that express taste (such as delicious). The categories are displayed at the top left and right of the screen. The assignment is made with one key on the left side and one on the right side of the keyboard. The longer the subjects take to make this assignment, the lower the strength of the association. Implicit attitudes can be inferred from a well-planned sequence of the assignment tasks. The IAT is administered in several blocks, in each of which the respondent must solve several matching tasks. The type of assignment tasks changes between the blocks. In the two critical blocks, target concepts and attributes are simultaneously specified as categories at the top of the screen. Target concepts could be, for example, the categories “healthy food” and “unhealthy food.” The categories “tastes” and “does not taste” could be selected as attributes. The trick of the IAT, illustrated in this example, is that “unhealthy food” and “tastes” are positioned on one side of a block and “healthy food” and “tastes not” on the other. If you assume that unhealthy food tastes better than healthy food, it is easy to assign 6.5 Learning Aid 95 foods like pizza and also words like delicious. In the second critical block, the combination changes. Now “healthy foods” are paired with “tastes.” Those who think unhealthy foods are tastier now find the matching task a little harder. The reaction time increases by a few milliseconds. From the difference in the mean reaction time of the two critical blocks, the strength of the association and thus the implicit attitude can be read. Background Info: Test Your Implicit Associations Harvard University’s “Project Implicit” provides numerous ready-made IATs on the Internet. Anyone who wants to test their own implicit associations on topics such as foreigners, the disabled, gender issues, etc. can do so online here. The QR code will take you to the website. 6.5Learning Aid Quintessence Attitudes are evaluative and object-related. According to the three-component model, they consist of a cognitive, an affective and a conative component. The expectancy-xvalue model is often used to measure attitudes. According to the attitude-behavior hypothesis, attitudes have great influence on consumer buying behavior. However, according to the theory of planned behavior, subjective norm and perceived behavioral control should also be considered to improve behavioral prediction and explain the possible gap between attitude and actual behavior. Recent research shows that in addition to explicit attitudes, implicit associations are also relevant to consumer behavior. The latter can be captured with the help of the Implicit Association Test (IAT). ◄ Exercise Questions and Tasks Complete the following sentence: Compatibility is an important principle to improve the predictive validity of attitudes. If the specifications of attitudes and behavior match with respect to the criteria ____________, ____________, ____________, and ____________, then behavior can be predicted relatively well from attitudes. Right or wrong? Implicit associations are activated spontaneously and automatically. One is often not aware of these associations and cannot describe them. Nevertheless, they have an effect on (buying) behavior. 96 6 Attitude Tick the correct answer(s). Attitudes … O … are object related. O … are judgmental. O … depend on the situation. O … consist of an affective, a cognitive, and a conative component according to the three-component model. O … are always implicit. O … can be observed from the outside. Cross-Linking Question Classify the different aspects of the following dialogue between Lea and Ben into the theory of planned behavior: “Wow!” Ben exclaims, “Look, the XXL burger here only costs EUR 2.90. Besides, it looks super tasty and taste is the most important thing in a burger, after all. I think I’ll buy one when we’re done shopping.” “You better not buy that burger. There’s certainly no meat from happy cattle in an XXL burger for EUR 2.90,” Lea points out. “And anyway, beef is bad for the environment anyway.” “That’s your opinion. Why should I go by that? I buy what I like. – Oh no, I don’t have any money on me. Can you lend me some?” Use the theory of planned behavior to analyze five of your typical consumption patterns. For example, why do you buy organic cucumbers? Why don’t you subscribe to a newspaper? Why do you go to the gym? Why don’t you donate more money to charity? Why do you buy your mother flowers for Mother’s Day? Etc. Further Reading Eagly, A. H., & Chaiken, S. (1993). The psychology of attitudes. Harcourt. Mai, R., & Hoffmann, S. (2015). How to combat the unhealthy = tasty intuition: The influencing role of health consciousness. Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, 34(1), 63–83. Niemand, T., Hoffmann, S., & Mai, R. (2014). Einsatzpotenziale und Grenzen bei der Anwendung des Impliziten Assoziationstests (IAT) in der Marketing-Forschung. Marketing ZFP – Journal of Research and Management, 36(3), 187–202. References Ajzen, I. (1988). Attitudes, personality and behavior. Open University Press. Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179–211. Armitage, C. J., & Conner, M. (2001). Efficacy of the theory of planned behavior: A meta-analytic review. British Journal of Social Psychology, 40(4), 471–500. References 97 Bak, P. M. (2014). Werbe- und Konsumentenpsychologie. Eine Einführung. Schäffer Poeschel. Brunel, F. F., Tietje, B. C., & Greenwald, A. G. (2004). Is the implicit association test a valid and valuable measure of implicit consumer social cognition? Journal of Consumer Psychology, 14(4), 385–404. Eagly, A. H., & Chaiken, S. (1993). The psychology of attitudes. Harcourt. Fazio, R. H. (1990). Multiple processes by which attitudes guide behavior: The MODE model as an integrative framework. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (pp. 75–109). Academic. Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1975). Belief, attitude, intention, and behavior. Wiley. Gawronski, B., & Bodenhausen, G. V. (2006). Associative and propositional processes in evaluation: An integrative review of implicit and explicit attitude change. Psychological Bulletin, 132(5), 692–731. Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (1995). Implicit social cognition: Attitudes self-esteem and stereotypes. Psychological Review, 102(1), 4–27. Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., & Schwartz, J. L. K. (1998). Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The implicit association test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(1), 1464–1480. Greenwald, A. G., Poehlmann, A. T., Uhlmann, E. L., & Banaji, M. R. (2009). Understanding and using the implicit association test: III. Meta-analysis of predictive validity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97(1), 17–41. Kroeber-Riel, W., & Gröppel-Klein, A. (2013). Konsumentenverhalten (10th ed.). Vahlen. Mai, R. (2016). Unpublished manuscript on the unhealthy = tasty-intuition. Germany: Kiel, Kiel University. Mai, R., Hoffmann, S., Hoppert, K., Schwarz, P., & Rohm, H. (2015). The spirit is willing, but the flesh is weak: The moderating effect of implicit associations on healthy eating behaviors. Food Quality and Preference, 39(1), 62–72. Niemand, T., Hoffmann, S., & Mai, R. (2014). Einsatzpotenziale und Grenzen bei der Anwendung des Impliziten Assoziationstests (IAT) in der Marketing-Forschung. Marketing ZFP – Journal of Research and Management, 36(3), 187–202. Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1986). The elaboration likelihood model of persuasion. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 19, 123–205. Raghunathan, R., Walker, R., & Hoyer, W. D. (2006). The unhealthy = tasty intuition and its effects on taste inferences, enjoyment, and choice of food products. Journal of Marketing, 70(4), 170–184. Rosenberg, M. J., & Hovland, C. I. (1960). Cognitive, affective, and behavioural components of attitudes. In C. I. Hovland & M. J. Rosenberg (Eds.), Attitude organization and change: An analysis of consistency among attitude components (pp. 1–14). Yale University Press. Strack, F., & Deutsch, R. (2004). Reflective and impulsive determinants of social behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 8(3), 220–247. Trommsdorff, V., & Teichert, T. (2011). Konsumentenverhalten (8th ed.). Kohlhammer. Webb, T., & Sheeran, P. (2006). Does changing behavioral intentions engender behavior change? A meta-analysis of the experimental evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 132(2), 249–268. Werle, C. O. C., Trendel, O., & Ardito, G. (2013). Unhealthy food is not tastier for everybody: The “healthy = tasty” French intuition. Food Quality and Preference, 28(1), 116–121. 7 Decision cc The Root of All Evil Lea has been plagued by toothache for weeks. After the discomfort does not subside even with tablets, she dares to go to the dentist. There she finds out that the root of one of her molars is infected. The doctor explains to Lea that the health insurance only covers the costs of conventional root canal treatment. In her case – the inflammation is far advanced – he recommends a so-called microendodontics; a procedure in which the root treatment is performed with a surgical microscope. Lea would have to pay the costs of just under EUR 1000 herself. Although the dentist cannot give her any guarantee of success for either treatment alternative, the probability of healing is higher with the fee-based method. Lea is uncertain. How is she supposed to decide? Consumers often have to make decisions under uncertainty. In Lea’s case, the uncertainty arises because she cannot anticipate the necessity and likelihood of success of a treatment due to her lack of expertise. But how do consumers make decisions despite uncertainty and how can consumer decisions be influenced? © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2023 S. Hoffmann, P. Akbar, Consumer Behavior, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-39476-9_7 99 100 7 Decision Learning Objectives In this chapter, you will learn … • • • • • how decision-making situations can be described (Sect. 7.1), how to explain consumer decisions (Sect. 7.2), to know different heuristics (Sect. 7.3), how the context can influence the decision (Sect. 7.4), and how consumer decisions are influenced (Sect. 7.5), … by looking at the consumer’s decision through the following theories and models: • • • • • Rational Choice Theory, Bounded Rationality, Prospect Theory, Nudging, and Framing. 7.1Fundamentals of Consumer Decision Making Consumers make numerous decisions every day. A decision situation exists when one sees at least two options. The decision-making process comprises the following two phases (Jungermann et al., 2016): • Judging: Opinions are formed, conclusions are drawn and events, products or services are critically evaluated. • Select: An option is selected. The processes of judging and selecting are interconnected and together make up the decision-making process (Gerrig, 2014). If consumers want to buy a new smartphone, for example, they usually first evaluate several models. Let us assume, for example, that model A has a long battery life, while model B is characterized by a high display resolution. If a consumer considers the battery life to be more important than the display resolution, then this consumer will choose smartphone A. However, decision-making situations are usually much more complex. 7.1 Fundamentals of Consumer Decision Making 101 7.1.1Components of Decision Problems A consumer’s decision problem can be described in terms of the five components shown in Table 7.1. Options, consequences and events are external components of a decision problem. That is, they act on the consumer like a stimulus from outside and influence his decision process. Reasons and goals are internal components and control the consumer’s view of and approach to the decision problem (Jungermann et al., 2016). Let’s return to Lea and consider the components of her decision problem. Lea’s dentist gives her two options for root canal treatment: conventional root canal treatment and microendodontics (root canal treatment with a surgical microscope). The consequence of a non-treatment, which would be the possible third option, would be the loss of the tooth in any case. According to the dentist, the probability of this consequence occurring is lower with microendodontics than with the conventional root canal treatment (covered by health insurance). Lea cannot influence the event that the health insurance companies do not pay for microendodontic treatment. Nevertheless, it influences her decision. Lea’s goal of protecting her health – regardless of the cost – argues for the payable option. However, 1000 EUR is a lot of money and Lea would have to ask her parents for support, which she does not want. The reason: Since her parents already support her studies financially, she would feel remorseful if she were to become even more of a burden to them. Table 7.1 Components of the decision problem Component Explanation External components Options Products/services between which the consumer can choose Actions between which the consumer can choose Strategies between which the consumer can choose Consequences Anticipated states that may arise as a consequence of the choice of an option influence the choice Events Events and circumstances over which the consumer has no control, but which may influence the outcome of the decision Internal components Goals Limit the essentially infinite set of options that can be considered Reasons Steer a decision in a direction that is not apparent from the objectives and consequences of an option alone (e.g., moral concerns, justifiability to third parties) Consumer behavior “Do I buy a laptop or a tablet?” “Do I go to the cinema or do I watch Netflix?” “Am I saving or consuming?” “I buy organic vegetables to protect the environment” “Because all the flights are fully booked, I’m going by train” “I’m going to a vegan restaurant” “I broke the product while unpacking it. I could return it and claim that it was already delivered defective. For that I would have to lie, which I actually don’t like” 102 7 Decision 7.1.2Characteristics of the Decision-Making Situations Decision situations can be distinguished by three characteristics, among others: The set of options consumers have to choose from, the number of decision stages, and the decision frequency (Jungermann et al., 2016). • Set of options: The set of options available can be either open or predetermined. In many cases, consumers choose from predetermined sets of options. This can be the selection of a jam in the supermarket or the selection of a movie at the box office. In both cases the set of options is predefined by the provider and therefore known. The situation is different with the company Spreadshirt, for example. It offers its customers the opportunity to design their own T-shirt and then order it online. The number of possible designs is open and unknown at the beginning of the decision-making process. It changes in the course of the design and decision process. • Number of decision stages: Decisions can be single-step or multi-step. In single-stage decisions, consumers complete the decision in a single step. Considering whether to go to a particular concert in the evening is a single-step decision and is completed with the purchase of the ticket. In multi-stage decisions, each step depends on the outcome of the previous one. Lea’s decision to go to the dentist was a two-step process. First, she decided to wait and take medication. The consequence of this decision was more pain, so in the second step she made an appointment with the doctor. • Decision frequency: A distinction is made between decision situations that occur once or repeatedly. Taking out a life insurance policy is a one-time decision. Buying groceries in the supermarket, on the other hand, is a repeated decision. 7.1.3Models of Consumer Decision Making 7.1.3.1Purchase Decision Process In Chap. 2 we dealt with the total model of consumer behavior by Blackwell et al. (2001). According to this model, consumers go through several phases in the decision-making process for a product or service. The reality of the consumer is much more complex and various components of the decision problem as well as the characteristics of the decision situation influence this process. Nevertheless, it is useful to leave this out for a moment in order to consider the central path of the decision-making process according to Blackwell et al. (2001) in isolation. • Problem recognition: consumers recognize a problem or perceive a need when their actual state deviates from their ideal state. This deviation can have two reasons: Either the actual state decreases or the desired ideal state increases. A suddenly defective smartphone (actual state decreases) or the release of a new model (ideal state increases) can create the need for a new device. 7.1 Fundamentals of Consumer Decision Making 103 • Retrieval of Information: Consumers retrieve information relevant to the decision- making process either internally or externally. Knowledge and memories are internal sources of information. External sources of information include the media, the Internet, family or friends, and research in stores. Before buying a smartphone, for example, people read product reviews, ask friends about their experiences and have different devices shown and explained to them in retail stores. The result of the information research is a pre-selection of possible products to solve problems or satisfy needs. • Evaluation of alternatives: In this phase of decision making, consumers evaluate their pre-selection based on attributes relevant to their decision. Attributes to consider when buying a smartphone could be display size, battery life, camera resolution, and of course price. • Purchase: The purchase decision includes the selection of the product as well as the selection of the purchase channel. After the purchase, the consumer can use or avail the product or service. Now, post-purchase evaluation also takes place. According to the confirmation/disconfirmation paradigm (Anderson & Sullivan, 1993; Oliver, 1980), satisfaction occurs when the product or service meets (confirmation) or exceeds (positive disconfirmation) the consumer’s expectations (desired state). Dissatisfaction is the result of a failure to meet expectations (negative disconfirmation). 7.1.3.2Purchase Decision Typology The consumer’s decision-making behavior can also be structured according to his involvement (Fig. 7.1). In the case of extensive purchase decisions, consumers retrieve for information extensively and evaluate all options carefully. This type of purchase decision is found in particular in decision-making situations that are associated with a high social, functional or financial risk (e.g. when buying a car or a home). In the case of limited purchase decisions, the consumers do not go through all the phases of the purchase decision Depending on … Continuum of Purchase Decision Behavior Extensive Limited Habitualized Involvement high low Price high low Purchasing frequency low high Product/brand familarity low high Fig. 7.1 Types of purchase decisions. (Adapted from Solomon et al., 2013) 104 7 Decision process because they have already gained experience with the product. Their decisions are based on simple, uncomplicated decision rules (“I’ll buy the cheapest one.”) and often occur when motivation is low. Habitualized purchase decisions are routine and seemingly automated. For example, many consumers put their favorite yoghurt in the shopping trolley at the supermarket every week without thinking about it. This is usually distinguished from spontaneous or impulsive purchase decisions, which are triggered by situational stimuli. Especially in the checkout zone, customers should be stimulated to make unplanned purchases of items such as chewing gum or chocolate. 7.2Decision Theories Consumer behavior is often the result of decision-making processes. A visit to the cinema is preceded by the assessment of possible leisure options (cinema, theatre, bar) and the corresponding choice of an option (cinema). Decision theories describe, explain and predict how consumers make decisions. In this section, we address two subfields of decision theory that are important for consumer behavior research (Trommsdorff & Teichert, 2011): Normative decision theory specifies how consumers should ideally make their decisions, and descriptive decision theory describes how consumers actually make decisions. 7.2.1Normative Decision Theories: The Rational Choice Theory Normative decision theory is a system of axioms (Eisenführ et al., 2010). Axioms are statements or basic assumptions that are not proven but assumed without proof. More formally, an axiom is unprovable but true in itself and within a theory. Within mathematics, for example, we assume that 0 is a number. The big bang theory and the origin of our solar system, for example, are based on the axiom that the physical laws known today were already valid at the time of the big bang. Normative decision theory is based on the concept of homo economicus, i.e. a rational utility maximizer with full market transparency. According to the axioms of normative decision theory (Simon et al., 2007; Simon, 1982) • consumers always make decisions in line with their goals. • consumers always process all the information available to them correctly. • consumers make decisions that maximize their utility. In normative decision theory, utility is an economic construct. The higher the satisfaction of the consumer’s individual needs by a product or service, the higher its utility (Trommsdorff & Teichert, 2011). Within normative decision theory, so-called multi- attribute methods are important (Solomon et al., 2013). Here, utility is not evaluated as a 7.2 Decision Theories 105 Criteria Weight from 0 to 1 (Σ = 1) Evaluation from 0 to 100 Weighted evaluation A B A B Battery 0.2 80 70 16 14 Multimedia 0.1 90 100 9 10 Display 0.3 90 80 27 24 Design 0.4 80 85 32 34 84 82 Sum Fig. 7.2 Multi-attribute procedure in the selection of a smartphone whole. Rather, it results from the interaction of the characteristics of a product. For example, before deciding on a new smartphone, one informs oneself about the characteristics of the different models, such as battery life, display resolution and camera quality. Simple multi-attribute methods calculate the total utility of an alternative from the weighted sum of the individual utilities of the attributes. Figure 7.2 illustrates how consumers arrive at a decision between two smartphone models A and B using a multi-attribute method. Rational choice theory is assigned to normative decision theory (Simon et al., 2007). This is a collective term for theories of action that assume a rational decision maker. In economics, this line of thinking is widespread. However, consumer behavior research shows that consumers rarely act exclusively rationally. Rational choice theories therefore do not adequately reflect the reality of consumers’ lives. Nevertheless, they help in the analysis of consumer decisions. For only when one knows how consumers should behave from a rational point of view (normative decision theories) can one fathom why they do not do so in certain situations. Some of these predictable “irrational” decisions are presented in the section on heuristics (Sect. 7.3). 7.1.1 Background Info: Mr. Spock vs. Homer Simpson. Or: What Is Bounded Rationality? Consumers are often far from following the axioms of normative decision theory and thus making optimized decisions. Although many want to make rational decisions (like Mr. Spock), they regularly fail due to bounded attention, energy, motivation or information processing capacity (like Homer Simpson). Economists refer to this as bounded rationality (Simon, 1982), thereby increasingly relativizing the axioms of the rational choice approach (Göbel, 2014). According to bounded rationality, people often do not strive for optimization, but for satisficing; a blended word from satisfying and suffice. It describes the 106 7 Decision strategy of choosing not the optimal option, but the first-best option that satisfies the intended purpose. So when Homer Simpson wants a doughnut, he doesn’t compare all the available options. Mr. Spock would do this. Homer Simpson simply goes to the nearest supermarket. 7.2.3Descriptive Decision Theories: The Prospect Theory Descriptive decision theories explain how consumer decisions actually take place. They take into account that the consumer is not a homo economicus and that nobody always makes rational decisions. The most important descriptive theory for explaining and predicting decisions is the Nobel Prize-winning prospect theory (theory of expected utility) by Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky (1979). It focuses on the decision making of individuals under uncertainty. Prospect theory assumes that decisions under uncertainty take place in two phases: the editing phase and the evaluation phase. 7.1.2 Background Info: Uncertainty or Risk? As a reminder, consumers evaluate and select options in the decision-making process. In the case of safe decisions, each option is associated with a known consequence. In contrast, decisions are made under uncertainty if, after selecting an option, several possible consequences can occur. Most authors in economics (e.g. Bamberg et al., 2012; Laux et al., 2014) distinguish between risk and uncertainty (for a critical discussion see Eisenführ et al., 2010, p. 23). In a decision under risk, options, consequences, and probabilities of occurrence are known. In decisions under uncertainty, the decision maker also knows the options and their consequences. However, he does not know how high the respective probabilities of occurrence are. In the introductory example, Lea visited a competent doctor who is aware of current studies and can thus explain to Lea that, with the microendodontic option, there is a 70% probability that her tooth will be retained and a 30% probability that it will die. In this case, therefore, there is a risk. If the doctor had only told Lea that there were two treatment options, both of which might be successful, and had not given her any probabilities, it would be a decision under uncertainty. Some researchers in psychology take a different view of uncertainty and insecurity. They argue that even if the statistical risk is known, consumers can subjectively experience uncertainty, since statistics cannot make a prediction for the individual case (statistics make statements about groups). Accordingly, the experience of uncertainty is to be understood as purely subjective, such that person A may experience uncertainty in one situation, but person B may not in the same situation (Brashers, 2001). 7.2 Decision Theories 107 7.2.4.1Editing Phase In the editing phase, consumers structure and simplify the decision problem. Their goal is to facilitate the choice between the options by reducing the complexity of the decision problem. One of the ways consumers can reduce complexity is by the process of coding. The prospect theory assumes that individuals do not perceive the consequences of an option in absolute terms, but always code relative to a reference point, thus simplifying it. In coding, options are ranked according to their deviation from a reference point. Consequences that lie above the reference point are perceived as gains, consequences that lie below the reference point as losses. If, for example, a person expects a grade of C in an exam (reference point), then this person is very happy about the grade of B. This person “wins” a grade, so to speak. However, if another person has a very good feeling after the exam and expects an A (reference point), a B will dampen this person’s mood (loss). Besides coding, there are five other steps in the editing phase: combination, segregation, cancellation, simplification and detection of dominance. They all have the goal of reducing the complexity of the decision situation and thus simplifying the decision. 7.2.5Evaluation Phase In the evaluation phase, consumers evaluate and weight the previously edited options in order to subsequently select the option with the highest subjective value for them. The selection of an option is determined by the weighting function and the consumer’s value function. The weighting function refers to the fact that consumers overweight improbable outcomes and underweight medium- to high-probability outcomes in both the gain and loss domains. The value function is characterized by three properties: • Consumers evaluate options based on deviations from the reference point. The change as a function of the reference point is more important than the actual end state after the change. • Consumers classify outcomes above the reference point as gains; outcomes below as losses. In doing so, they assess the subjective value of an option – and the associated gain (“I get something”) and loss (“I have to give something”) – not linearly, but curved. The curvature is concave for gains, i.e. curved inwards, and convex for losses, i.e. curved outwards. • This curvature is steeper in the loss area than in the profit area. What do these properties of the value function mean for consumer behavior? Let us assume that the value function is not curved, but is a linear utility function (Fig. 7.3). At profit G1, utility (value) V1 arises for the consumer. If the profit increases (G2), the corresponding utility from the profit (V2) increases by the same factor as the profit (V2/V1 = G2/G1). Similarly, the loss L1 (which is as large in as G1 in absolute value) generates a negative utility V3, which is as large in amount as V1. If the loss increases (L2), the negative utility (V4) also increases in proportion to the loss (V4/V3 = L2/L1). 108 7 Decision Value (+) V2 V1 L2 Losses L1 Gains G1 G2 V3 V4 Value (-) Fig. 7.3 Gains and losses with linear utility function Subjective value (+) V2 V1 Relative losses L2 L1 G1 G2 Relative gains Reference point V3 V4 Subjective value (-) Fig. 7.4 Basic model of prospect theory According to prospect theory, on the other hand, the value function has the following properties (Fig. 7.4). The increase in value from V1 to V2 is not proportional to the increase in profit G1 to G2. The same is true in the loss domain. The value function is curved. This curved value function of prospect theory visualizes three typical decision patterns of the 7.2 Decision Theories 109 consumer, which are considered the mainstays of the theory (Kahneman & Tversky, 1979) and which we explain below. • Certainty effect: certain outcomes with a lower expected value are chosen more often than probable outcomes with a high expected value and are thus overvalued. The following thought experiment illustrates this: Which should one choose: (a) a certain profit of 3000 EUR or (b) a profit of 4000 EUR with a probability of 80%? Kahneman and Tversky (1979) show empirically that most people choose (a). However, the expected value of option (b) (4000 EUR * 0.8 = 3200 EUR) is higher and should rather be chosen from a normative point of view. • Loss aversion effect: People behave in a risk-avoiding manner when profits are expected and in a risk-seeking manner when losses are imminent. Which should one choose? (a) A gain of 6000 EUR with a probability of 45% or (b) A gain of 3000 EUR with a probability of 90%? Most people choose option (b), although the expected value is identical in both cases (6000 EUR * 0.45 = 2700 EUR vs. 3000 EUR * 0.90 = 2700 EUR). Thus, they behave in a risk-avoiding manner in the profit area. Another question: How should one decide? (a) For a loss of 6000 EUR with a probability of 45% or (b) for a loss of 3000 EUR with a probability of 90%? Here, most people vote for option (a), although the expected value is again identical (−2700 EUR). This example illustrates that consumers act in a risk-seeking manner in the loss area. • Isolation effect: In order to facilitate the decision, consumers focus on the differences between the options and ignore their similarities when choosing between several options. The decomposition into similarities and differences can lead to inconsistencies. To illustrate, let us imagine a one-stage gamble and a two-stage gamble. –– One-stage gamble: How should one decide? (a) For a win of 4000 EUR with a probability of 20% or (b) for a win of 3000 EUR with a probability of 25%. The majority chooses option (a) because the expected value is higher (4000 EUR * 0.20 = 800 EUR vs. 3000 EUR * 0.25 = 750 EUR). –– Two-stage game of chance: In stage 1, 75% of the game ends directly, and 25% continues to stage 2. Once you have reached stage 2, you can choose between (a) winning 4000 EUR with a probability of 80% or (b) winning 3000 EUR directly. If we combine the two levels, we get the following probabilities (EW level 1 * EW level 2) for (a) 0.25 * 0.80 = 0.20 and for (b) 0.25 * 1.0 = 0.25. The expected value for (a) is 4000 EUR * 0.20 = 800 EUR and for (b) 3000 EUR * 0.25 = 750 EUR. The decision problem is thus identical to the one-step gamble. But this time most subjects choose option (b) with the lower expected value. Obviously, they ignore the first stage of the decision, which is identical for both options. Marketing uses the insights of prospect theory to influence consumer behavior (Trommsdorff & Teichert, 2011). When buying a car, for example, consumers can add further options to a basic equipment or subtract options from a full equipment. Since 110 7 Decision losses (“Please take the xenon lights out of the offer”) are perceived more strongly than gains (“I choose to add xenon lights”), consumers spend more on subtractive offers (von Nitzsch, 1998), since the loss on a downgrade is more significant than the gain on an upgrade. Car dealers use this effect and like to show customers complete offers. 7.3Heuristics Only rarely do consumers have enough time and sufficient information to be able to comprehensively assess all options. Instead of a systematic decision-making process, they then apply so-called heuristics (Hertwig et al., 2008). These are simple, efficient rules of thumb that reduce the complexity of judgment and choice and thus enable quick solutions (Gerrig, 2014). They have been consolidated through evolutionary processes or learned through experience. Consumers permanently apply heuristics without being aware of it. The application of heuristics is often useful and efficient in the sense that a viable decision can be made with a reasonable use of resources (Gigerenzer & Gaissmaier, 2011). cc Keep in mind. Heuristics are informal rules of thumb that reduce the complexity of making a judgment and lead to a quick decision. Using them is not unreasonable, because detailed consideration often costs a disproportionate amount of time and energy. Under certain conditions, however, heuristics can lead to systematic misjudgements. This is then referred to as a bias. These – from the point of view of normative decision theory – irrational processes of decision-making are also referred to as decision anomalies. Prospect theory helps to understand these anomalies. They arise esp. through the application of heuristics in the editing phase. The term anomaly sounds much more negative than intended. Consumers make a large number of decisions every day. They do not do so strictly rationally according to the axioms of normative decision theory, and they still come to robust judgments in most cases (Gigerenzer & Gaissmaier, 2011). Studying these decision processes, however, involves studying when biased judgments occur. Only by addressing these decision anomalies can we better understand the processes involved in judgment (Gerrig, 2014). The availability heuristic, the representative heuristic and the anchor heuristic are particularly relevant for consumer behavior. 7.3.1Availability Heuristic The availability heuristic describes the tendency to base decisions on information that is readily available mentally. In most cases, this leads people to make good decisions. The implicit logic they use is, “If it’s easy for me to retrieve the information, then it will probably be right.” However, the availability heuristic also leads to erroneous judgments, as 7.3 Heuristics 111 experiments on decision anomalies show (Tversky & Kahneman, 1974). Here is an example: does the English language contain more words beginning with an “r” or more words with an “r” in the third position? Most respondents choose the first option. After all, words like rabbit, rock or rainbow come to mind much more quickly than the word strength with an “r” at the third place. In fact, however, the second answer is correct. The availability heuristic plays an important role in consumer behavior. For example, if you want to buy detergent quickly in the supermarket and have to choose from a large number of offers that are difficult to understand, you tend to take the product that is mentally readily available, i.e. a well-known brand. Marketing managers take advantage of this effect and place advertisements in the hope that consumers will remember their brand at the point of sale and make a decision in favor of their brand. 7.3.2Representativeness Heuristic When individuals use the representativeness heuristic, they estimate the subjective probability of an event according to whether the event has a property that is typical of the category to which the event belongs. For example, if one encounters a woman on the street wearing a briefcase and a pantsuit, one is more likely to think she is a businesswoman than a kindergarten teacher. This is due to the fact that the mental representation of a businesswoman stored in the memory of most people fits the appearance of the woman better than the mental representation of a kindergarten teacher. Representativeness heuristics often allow a quick and good decision, but occasionally they lead to wrong judgments. This is particularly the case when the decision maker • disregards the base rate. • overestimates the probabilities of conjunctions. The base rate is the frequency of a characteristic in the population. An example: On the university campus we meet a young man with Rasta braids. Does he study (a) business administration or (b) ethnology? Many would choose the second answer option as the supposedly correct one. However, the proportion of business administration students at universities is generally much higher than the proportion of ethnology students and therefore the probability of answer (a) is a priori higher. Conjunction refers to the linking of two statements. Let us imagine the following example. Linda is a young woman in her early 30s. She lives in a big city and is a strong advocate for women’s rights. Which is more likely: (a) Linda is an employee in a bank, or (b) Linda is an employee in a bank and a feminist? Most people choose answer (b), which is wrong (Tversky & Kahneman, 1983). After all, the probability of a conjunction – bank employee and feminist – cannot be greater than the probability of a single event, i.e. bank employee or feminist. 112 7 Decision 7.3.3Anchor Heuristics Scientists speak of an anchor heuristic when individuals allow themselves to be influenced by previously mentioned contextual information – usually another number – when naming a numerical value (Tversky & Kahneman, 1974). Marketing uses this anchor effect to persuade consumers to buy high-priced products. For example, if you want to sell a smartphone for over EUR 750, you can also offer another model with a slight modification (e.g. larger memory) for EUR 100 more, thereby raising the anchor to EUR 850, so that the smartphone suddenly seems comparatively cheap for EUR 750. 7.4Framing and Context Effects Prospect theory postulates, in addition to the assumptions already discussed, that the presentation of a decision problem shapes the mental representation of the problem. This mental representation of the decision problem is called the decision frame. This is formed by • the perception and processing of information from the decision maker’s environment. • through the activation of existing knowledge. Decision anomalies due to framing effects set in when two identical decision options affect consumer decision behavior differently due to differences in presentation or wording (Tversky & Kahneman, 1981). Example: Live and Let Die: The Asian Disease Problem Tversky and Kahneman (1981) examined the influence of different frames and presented subjects with the scenario shown in Table 7.2 with either a gain or a loss frame. The overwhelming majority of subjects chose the safe option A (72%) for the gain frame; for the loss frame, however, they chose the risky option B (78%). From the perspective of prospect theory, this finding is not surprising. After all, people behave in a risk-avoiding manner in the profit area and in a risk-seeking manner in the loss area. An Asian disease could cost the lives of 600 people. There are two programs available to combat the disease. They have different consequences. ◄ Table 7.2 The Asian disease problem Option A Option B Win frame 200 people are rescued Loss frame 400 people will die With a probability of 1/3, all 600 people are With a probability of 1/3, no one will die; saved; with a probability of 2/3, none are saved with a probability of 2/3, all 600 will die 7.5 How to Influence Consumer Decisions 113 Framings are also used in product descriptions. Levin and Gaeth (1988), for example, showed the influence of framing effects in food purchasing. Consumers were asked to evaluate two identical offers of ground beef: (a) 75% lean (positive frame) and (b) 25% fat content (negative frame). The results show that consumers evaluate the offer with the positive frame better. 7.5How to Influence Consumer Decisions Whether marketeers (“Buy my product!”), politicians (“Vote for me!”) or non-governmental and non-profit organizations (“Donate 50 euros for the rainforest!”): They all want to persuade the consumer to behave in a certain way. Typically, they use advertising banners, radio spots or the direct approach to influence the consumer’s decision-making behavior. In addition to these measures, which are consciously perceived by the consumer, there are also techniques for unconsciously influencing decisions: priming and nudging. 7.5.1Priming Priming means that the occurrence of a certain event increases the probability of the occurrence of a certain subsequent event (Gerrig, 2014; Sect. 5.1.3). For example, someone like Lea who has just come out of a painful root canal treatment has the concept of dental care activated. This person is more likely to choose a healthy roll at the bakery than a potentially caries-causing sweet pastry. In recent years, social psychologists have conducted a large number of experimental studies to determine whether they can use primes to trigger unconscious processes that then influence behavior in a certain direction (Bargh, 2002; Yi, 1990). Example: Can Buying Behavior Be Activated Unconsciously? The Sock Priming Chartrand et al. (2008) showed that different primes can activate different shopping goals in consumers. In a sentence construction task, they exposed subjects to synonyms of either prestige or frugality. This was priming. Subsequently, subjects were asked to make a hypothetical purchase decision between two offers: “Nike at $5.25 a pair and Hanes at $6 for two pairs.” Subjects in the prestige condition chose the Nike socks significantly more often than subjects in the frugality condition, who chose the Hanes socks more often. The results suggest that the activation of unconscious goal representations through priming can influence individual shopping behavior. ◄ 7.5.2Nudging Thaler and Sunstein (2008, p. 15) understand a nudge to be “any measure by which decision architects can change people’s behavior in a predictable way without eliminating any options or greatly altering economic incentives.” Those who use nudges shape the consumer’s decision-making situation according to the principle of libertarian paternalism. 114 7 Decision This means that the consumer is given all options for action (liberalism component), but is nudged in a certain direction by the decision architecture, which is intended to improve the welfare of the individual (paternalism component). Currywurst with chips is one of the most popular meals of German canteen-goers. But the queue is usually very long. A “fast lane” for consumers with a salad on the tray could be, for example, a nudge, which stimulates a healthier eating behavior. There are a variety of ways to implement nudges. The setting of so-called defaults is a method frequently used in marketing and means that the marketeer makes a default setting and thus changes the consumer’s decision-making behavior in a predictable direction (Goldstein et al., 2008). Companies use defaults to achieve their commercial goals. For example, someone who orders something from an online retailer is often asked at check-out whether they would like to subscribe to a newsletter. The checkmark that is set and that one has to consciously decide against is a nudge. Example: Insights into the World of Nudging In the 3-minute interview, Prof. Richard Thaler uses examples to explain what nudges are and how they can be useful in everyday life. Scan the QR code to start the video. ◄ 7.6Learning Aid Quintessence Normative decision theory is based on homo economicus. It makes statements about how the consumer should optimally decide. Descriptive decision theory empirically examines how consumers actually decide. Prospect theory is the most influential descriptive decision theory. Among other things, it points out that consumers use heuristics, i.e. informal rules of thumb that reduce the complexity of making a decision. It also illustrates under the term framing and context effects that the presentation or formulation of a decision problem also influences the consumer’s decision behavior. Primes and nudges are techniques to subtly influence consumer behavior. ◄ Exercise Questions and Tasks Complete the following sentence: Prospect theory assumes that decisions under uncertainty occur in two phases: the ____________ and the ____________. References 115 Right or wrong? Coding in the editing phase aims to reduce the complexity of the decision situation and thus simplify the decision. Tick the correct answer(s). Which of these components of a decision problem belongs/belong to the external components? O option O goals O reasons O event O consistency ◄ Cross-Linking Question When we download and install a freeware from the Internet, the installation menu often already contains checkmarks for the download of further packages. The provider “nudges” us to further installations. What other nudges do consumers encounter in everyday life? Name and explain three. Choose three areas of life that are as different as possible, e.g. in the supermarket, in the gym, when surfing the Internet, in the café, when looking for an apartment, at the kiosk, etc. Further Reading Hastie, R., & Dawes, R. M. (Eds.). (2010). Rational choice in an uncertain world: The psychology of judgment and decision making. Sage. Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking, fast and slow. Penguin. Thaler, R. C., & Sunstein, C. R. (2008). Nudge. Improving decisions about health, wealth and happiness. Penguin. References Anderson, E. W., & Sullivan, M. W. (1993). The antecedents and consequences of customer satisfaction for firms. Marketing Science, 12(2), 125–143. Bamberg, G., Coenenberg, A. G., & Krapp, M. (2012). Betriebswirtschaftliche Entscheidungslehre (15th ed.). Vahlen. Bargh, J. A. (2002). Losing consciousness: Automatic influences on consumer judgment, behavior, and motivation. Journal of Consumer Research, 29(2), 280–285. Blackwell, R. D., Miniard, P. W., & Engel, J. F. (2001). Consumer behavior (9th ed.). Harcourt. Brashers, D. E. (2001). Communication and uncertainty management. Journal of Communication, 51(3), 477–497. 116 7 Decision Chartrand, T. L., Huber, J., Shiv, B., & Tanner, R. J. (2008). Nonconscious goals and consumer choice. Journal of Consumer Research, 35(2), 189–201. Eisenführ, F., Weber, M., & Langer, T. (2010). Rationales Entscheiden. Springer. Gerrig, R. J. (2014). Psychologie (20th ed.). Pearson. Gigerenzer, G., & Gaissmaier, W. (2011). Heuristic decision making. Annual Review of Psychology, 62, 451–482. Göbel, E. (2014). Entscheidungen in Unternehmen. UTB. Goldstein, D. G., Johnson, E. J., Herrmann, A., & Heitmann, M. (2008). Nudge your customers toward better choices. Harvard Business Review, 86(12), 99–105. Hertwig, R., Herzog, S. M., Schooler, L. J., & Reimer, T. (2008). Fluency heuristic: A model of how the mind exploits a by-product of information retrieval. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 34(5), 1191. Jungermann, H., Pfister, H. R., & Fischer, K. (2016). Die Psychologie der Entscheidung (4th ed.). Spektrum. Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. (1979). Prospect theory: An analysis of decision under risk. Econometrica: Journal of the Econometric Society, 47(2), 263–291. Laux, H., Gillenkirch, R. M., & Schenk-Mathes, H. Y. (2014). Entscheidungstheorie (9th ed.). Springer Gabler. Levin, I. P., & Gaeth, G. J. (1988). How consumers are affected by the framing of attribute information before and after consuming the product. Journal of Consumer Research, 15(3), 374–378. Oliver, R. L. (1980). A cognitive model of the antecedents and consequences of satisfaction decisions. Journal of Marketing Research, 17(4), 460–469. Simon, H. A. (1982). Models of bounded rationality: Empirically grounded economic reason (Bd. 3). MIT Press. Simon, H. A., Egidi, M., Viale, R., & Marris, R. L. (2007). Economics, bounded rationality and the cognitive revolution. Edward Elgar Publishing. Solomon, M. R., Bamossy, G. J., Askegaard, S. T., & Hogg, M. K. (2013). Consumer behaviour. A European perspective (5th ed.). Pearson. Thaler, R. C., & Sunstein, C. R. (2008). Nudge. Improving decisions about health, wealth and happiness. Penguin. Trommsdorff, V., & Teichert, T. (2011). Konsumentenverhalten (8th ed.). Kohlhammer. Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1974). Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases. Science, 185(4157), 1124–1131. Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1981). The framing of decisions and the psychology of choice. Science, 211(4481), 453–458. Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1983). Extensional versus intuitive reasoning: The conjunction fallacy in probability judgment. Psychological Review, 90(4), 293–315. von Nitzsch, R. (1998). Prospect theory und Käuferverhalten. Die Betriebswirtschaft, 58(5), 622–634. Yi, Y. (1990). The effects of contextual priming in print advertisements. Journal of Consumer Research, 17(2), 215–222. 8 Interindividual Differences cc Consumer Twins with Two Mismatched Dogs Yesterday Lea chose a dog of her own at the dog breeder and decided on a Golden Retriever. She is already looking forward to extensive walks along the riverbank with the bright rascal. Finally getting out into nature more often and doing something for her fitness. As she indulges in these thoughts, she meets Bea, whom she still knows from her school days. Both are 25 years old, both grew up in the same city, both are in a committed relationship. And Bea also now owns a dog. “Wow, I don’t believe it. You’re Lea! Look, this is my Schnuffi. I just got him yesterday. Isn’t he cute?” “Oh my God,” Lea thinks to herself, “what a fancy dog Bea has. This little something is probably more likely to be carried around by Bea in her handbag than to break a sweat on walks together. The Chihuahua will probably be coiffed just as often and conscientiously as his mistress.” How is it that Lea and Bea differ so much in the choice of their new companion? Their profiles are almost identical: same age, same gender, same origin, same school, same family background. How do differences between consumers come about if it’s not because of these characteristics? © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2023 S. Hoffmann, P. Akbar, Consumer Behavior, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-39476-9_8 117 118 8 Interindividual Differences Learning Objectives In this chapter, you will learn … • what is meant by market segmentation (Sect. 8.1), • how consumption patterns change with age (Sect. 8.2), and • how lifestyles, values and culture influence consumer behavior (Sect. 8.3), … by looking at differences between consumers through the following models: • • • • AIO approach, Lifestyle typologies, Schwartz’ value conception, and Hofstede’s cultural conception. 8.1Market Segmentation So far in this book we have mainly dealt with psychological processes that are more or less similar for all consumers. However, there are also interindividual differences, i.e. differences between different consumers. In the introductory example, we saw that Lea and Bea have almost identical socio-demographic profiles. Consumers with such similarities are also referred to as socio-demographic twins (Halfmann, 2014; Sinus-Institut, 2015). Nevertheless, Lea and Bea choose different dog breeds. Marketers are keenly interested in knowing and understanding differences between consumers as they seek to tailor their offerings to specific target groups. Market segmentation refers to the division of a heterogeneous overall market into subgroups while simultaneously observing the following two principles (Wedel & Kamakura, 2000; Meffert et al., 2018): • Within the subgroups, consumer needs and preferences should be relatively homogeneous and • between subgroups, they should differ as much as possible. To segment a market based on empirical data, market researchers use cluster analysis. This analysis looks at several characteristics of consumers at the same time and it identifies groups of people who are relatively similar based on these characteristics (Hoffmann et al., 2018). Geographical, socio-demographic, psychographic and behavioral characteristics are often used as criteria for market segmentation. In order for a division of consumers into different segments to be meaningful for practical implementation in marketing, the 8.2 Socio-Demographic Characteristics 119 segmentation criteria should withstand various requirements. These include relevance to buying behavior, suitability for the use of marketing instruments, accessibility of the target group, measurability of the criterion, stability over time, and cost-effectiveness of the segmentation (Freter, 1983, p. 45 ff.; Meffert et al., 2018). Let us take, for example, the distinction whether a consumer is a dog owner or not as a segmentation criterion. The relevance of this criterion for purchasing behavior is undoubtedly given: Owning a dog has a great influence on whether the consumer buys dog food or not. However, the segmentation criterion should also be measurable with research methods and attainable and workable with the methods of marketing. For example, dog owners could be targeted communicatively through advertisements in pet magazines. We will discuss below the extent to which socio-demographic (Sect. 8.2) and psychographic (Sect. 8.3) characteristics fulfil the above criteria. Background Info: Identify Interesting Consumer Segments Yourself “B4P” or Best for Planning is a joint market media study by the four media companies Axel Springer, Bauer Media Group, Gruner + Jahr and Hubert Burda Media. The study records consumer and media usage behavior and is based on the data of more than 30,000 respondents who are representative of the German population. It contains data on several thousand brands in over 100 product areas and on many different media. The study can be used for target group analyses. Best of all, the data is available online. 8.2Socio-Demographic Characteristics Socio-demographic characteristics are population characteristics that can be used to describe consumers or the members of a target group or market segment. They can be divided into demographic and socio-economic variables. The former include age, gender and family status; the latter include education level, occupation, salary, household income and social situation. 8.2.1Age as an Example of a Demographic Variable Age and gender are used particularly frequently in practice to segment markets. This is mainly because they meet the two aforementioned requirements of measurability and suitability for the use of marketing tools. They are easy to determine – even from the outside and without a measuring instrument – and companies can very easily gear their prices, product design, advertising measures etc. to target groups defined on the basis of age and 120 8 Interindividual Differences gender. But while, for example, different clothing ranges for men and women certainly make sense, differences in many areas of consumption are not as great as stereotypically assumed. The relevance of demographic variables to purchasing behavior is often low. Psychographic segmentation criteria are often much better at predicting consumer behavior; however, they are more difficult to capture. The introductory example of pet selection illustrates this. Lea and Bea are both female, the same age, come from the same town, went to the same school; but they own different dogs because they have different lifestyles. Bea considers herself part of the city’s “scene” and she adopts the typical consumption patterns; Lea, on the other hand, values naturalness and a connection to nature. Nevertheless, relevant differences between different age groups can also be observed empirically. Older consumers in particular are currently attracting more and more attention from companies. There are two reasons for this: First, the age distribution in industrialized nations is shifting dramatically due to increasing life expectancy and declining birth rates. This demographic change means that the proportion of older consumers compared to younger ones is becoming larger and larger, thus increasing market potential. Secondly, the older generation is already more established in professional life and thus has much greater purchasing power on average than young people or young adults. For decades, 14to 49-year-olds were the so-called “advertising-relevant target group” in the mass media. Agencies and marketing managers planned their advertising measures and designed the media content in such a way that this target group felt addressed. In the meantime, it has been recognized that older consumers have a buying potential that should not be underestimated, and they also want to address them specifically. But how does this group differ from the younger ones? Without a doubt, we can observe differences between younger and older consumers in everyday life. Toddlers like Princess Lillifee, teenagers admire LeFloid and older consumers appreciate Günther Jauch. Is this really due to age? And if so, will today’s LeFloid fan also watch “Who wants to be a millionaire” in 40 years? Different age groups also differ significantly in terms of income, lifestyle and their demands on products and services. Our first impulse will be to explain these differences in terms of consumer age. As a consumer behavior researcher, however, one must ask whether age is actually the cause of a particular consumption pattern. To answer this question, we should distinguish age effects from cohort effects. Age effects depend on age. Cohort effects, on the other hand, only appear to be related to age when comparing several age groups at a given point in time. The differences may be due to the prevailing socialization at a given time (Sect. 9.2) and they shift over time. First, the age effect, which can be explained by theories of aging (cf. Hoffmann et al., 2012, p. 62). The biological-physiological approach describes the age-related “decline” of various physical functions. If one follows this “deficit model,” one would, for example, have to mount magnifying glasses on shopping trolleys, design smartphones with larger keyboards, etc., in order to reduce barriers for older consumers. However, the deficit model is more relevant to very old seniors and is less suitable for differentiating consumers after the age of 50 from younger ones. While the deficit model makes a similar prediction for 8.2 Socio-Demographic Characteristics 121 all older consumers, in reality, however, one sees many facets and different lifestyles in the 50-plus generation. The psychological-sociological approach takes this into account by providing for individually different developments in old age based on interests, lifestyles etc. In addition, the subjective age should be taken into account, i.e. the question of how old the consumer feels. It is often significantly lower than the actual age and the discrepancy increases with increasing age. Moreover, it often plays a greater role in purchasing behavior than biological age. In summary, it can be stated that consumers age individually and that the heterogeneity of older consumers is large. Companies are therefore also increasingly segmenting within older consumers. Despite this heterogeneity in age, you will rarely find older consumers following LeFloid’s YouTube channel. Does this mean that the current LeFloid fans will also turn away later? Not necessarily. The explanation in this case will be a cohort effect. Also, the common statement that older people are worse at using a tablet is probably not an age effect, but a matter of birth year. An age cohort is a group of people who were born in the same time period. They thus grew up under similar general conditions (e.g. post-war period, new technological developments, oil crisis, financial crisis). Members of an age cohort form similar interests, attitudes and behavior patterns that differ from earlier or later groups. For marketing, the influences of cohort membership on purchasing behavior are of particular interest. A distinction is currently made between the Baby Boomer cohorts and the so-called generations X, Y and Z, which are briefly characterized in Table 8.1 (Scholz, 2014). When comparing different age groups, it is therefore always important to consider whether differences are actually attributable to age or perhaps also to cohort. 8.2.2Social Status as an Example of a Socio-Economic Variable The social status of a person is derived from how the person’s position or functional classification in a social system is assessed and what esteem they are held in (Foscht et al., Table 8.1 Generation concepts Year of birth Basic attitude Main feature Purchasing behavior Baby boomer From 1950 Gen X From 1965 Gen Y (millennials) From 1980 Gen Z From 1995 Idealism Skepticism Optimism Realism Self-fulfillment Lack of perspective High subjective time pressure, rather planned purchases Motivation “Flightiness” High likelihood of impulse buying, online shopping, giving online references Still quite unknown and difficult to predict, smartphone, social media Highest annual spending of all groups, prefer local stores Based on Belch and Belch (2011, p. 137) and Scholz (2014) 122 8 Interindividual Differences 2017, p. 152 ff.). For example, the professional group of doctors is traditionally held in high esteem, while insurance intermediaries are viewed rather skeptically. According to Blackwell et al. (2001, p. 347 f.), social status is determined by the following criteria: first, economic variables such as occupation, income and wealth; second, interactional variables such as personal prestige, networking and socialization; and third, political variables such as power, class consciousness and mobility. A social class consists of individuals who have similar high social status. Social class is relevant to marketing because it has great predictive power for buying behavior. 8.3Psychographic Variables Psychographic variables are often more relevant to purchasing behavior than socio- demographic variables. Psychographic variables include, among others, lifestyles, values and cultural imprint. 8.3.1Lifestyles Lifestyle encompasses a person’s personality, values and behaviors and is associated with various psychological states, characteristics and dispositions (Holt, 1997). Unlike values, lifestyles do not only refer to inner states, but manifest themselves in observable (consumption) behavior (Hoyer et al., 2012, p. 401). A lifestyle also includes, for example, what is important to a person and what they spend their time doing. Lifestyles are also related to how consumers allocate the income available to them between different products and services and which products they choose within a category. Lifestyles are thus a relatively broad construct. A widely used approach to making them concrete and measurable (i.e., “operationalizing” them) is the AIO approach (Wells & Tigert, 1971, p. 27 ff.; Plummer, 1974). The acronym stands for the following three terms: • Activities: e.g. regarding work, shopping, leisure time, vacation, sports, memberships • Interests: e.g. career, family, fashion, home, food • Opinions: e.g. concerning economics, politics, social issues, education, future Demographic variables are often added to assign consumers to certain lifestyles. Lifestyles are therefore suitable for delimiting certain social groups. They thus offer a holistic approach to segmenting consumers for marketing measures (Lastovicka, 1982). Lifestyle typologies are widely used and are provided by many major market research institutions. Typical examples are the Sinus Milieus of the Sinus Institute, the Roper Consumer Styles of the Gesellschaft für Konsumforschung (GfK) or the “Values and Lifestyles” typology (VALS) (e.g. Kahle et al., 1986) of Strategic Business Insights (SBI) (Table 8.2). 8.3 Psychographic Variables 123 Table 8.2 Established lifestyle typologies Typology Sinus milieus Organization Sinus-Institute Dimensions Social situation Basic orientation Roper consumer styles GfK Values and lifestyle survey (VALS) SRI Consulting Business Intelligence To have vs. to be Living peace/ security vs. passion Resources Primary motivation Types Conservative-established, Liberal- intellectual, high achiever, movers and shakers, socio-ecological, adaptive- pragmatist, new middle-class, traditional, precarious, hedonists Dreamers, adventurers, open-minded, homebodies, rational-realists, organics, settled, demanding Innovators, thinkers, believers, achievers, strivers, experiencers, makers, survivors A social milieu is understood to be a group of like-minded people who express themselves through similar values, attitudes and opinions (Hradil, 2010, p. 230). The milieu studies of the market and social research institute Sinus Sociovision, for example, use, among other things, the social situation to segment consumers (Sinus-Institut, 2015): They divide the population into upper, middle and lower class. In order to define milieus, this approach uses the basic orientation as a second criterion in addition to the social situation. According to this, some consumers are oriented towards traditional values such as fulfilment of duty and order. Others strive for modernization (including individualization, self- realization and enjoyment). A third group pursues a new orientation in the sense of multi-optionality, the joy of experimentation or a life in paradoxes. Numerous segments can be defined on the basis of the two dimensions of social situation and basic orientation. The conservative-established milieu, for example, is mainly located in the upper class. It is also characterized by traditional values. In contrast, hedonists belong to the lower or middle class and advocate a new orientation. Such milieu studies help to perceive consumers holistically and to take into account many aspects that are important for consumer behavior at the same time. Brand manufacturers and service providers from all sectors, as well as politicians, the media and associations, and advertising and media agencies, use the findings of milieu studies for the strategic planning of their marketing measures. 8.3.2Value Orientations Values, according to Rokeach (1969), refer to general life goals and rules of conduct. They embody what the individual or a social group considers desirable. Values are relatively stable and durable and they address – unlike attitudes – several object areas. For example, someone who follows the value “live healthily” is very likely to eat healthily, not smoke, 124 8 Interindividual Differences do a lot of sport, get plenty of sleep, go for frequent preventive check-ups, etc. However, global and domain-specific values can be distinguished (Vinson et al., 1977). Global values are central to the person. They are enduring in time and serve as a guide for behavior in different contexts (e.g., freedom, fairness, self-actualization). Domain-specific values relate only to specific aspects of life, such as work life, behavior as a consumer, or as a family member. Each person has significantly more domain-specific values than global values. They are less abstract and have a stronger influence on consumer behavior. Values serve as a guideline for how a person behaves in certain situations and as a yardstick for how he or she evaluates his or her own and others’ behavior. Values are of great importance for consumer behavior, because consumers are in principle interested in buying products that correspond to their values. In this way, one’s own basic attitude and identity can be expressed. In the introductory example, Lea would not have chosen the same dog breed as Bea, because she wants to express different values through her animal companion than her former classmate. Brands also often stand for certain values and can therefore help consumers to embody them. For example, people who choose Apple products want to express the importance they attach to technological superiority, design and status. Schwartz’s (1999, p. 26 ff.) conception of values builds on the preliminary work of Rokeach (1969, 1986). It distinguishes the following seven values, which can be arranged according to three dimensions. The diametrically opposed endpoints do not occur together. • Hierarchy vs. egalitarianism: The value orientation of hierarchy legitimizes the unequal distribution of power, roles, and resources (e.g., social power, authority, wealth). In contrast, when focusing on equality, one overcomes selfish interests and advocates for the needs of others (e.g., social justice, freedom, responsibility). For example, a hierarchy-focused consumer, as opposed to an egality-focused consumer, would value riding first class and receiving other special treatment on a train ride. • Harmony vs. mastery: The value of harmony is expressed by living in harmony with the natural environment (e.g. environmental protection). On the other hand, those who are oriented towards the value of mastery regard assertiveness and self-confidence as signs of success (e.g. ambition, achievement, competence). A mastery-oriented consumer will be more inclined than a harmony-oriented consumer to complain if the train is late. • Embeddedness vs. intellectual or affective autonomy: Embeddedness manifests itself in holding on to the status quo and limiting actions that might endanger the traditional order (e.g. social order, respect for traditions, wisdom). The opposite pole can be divided into two aspects. The value intellectual autonomy leads one to pursue individual goals and intellectual interests (e.g., curiosity, openness, creativity). Affective autonomy refers to seeking positive emotional experiences (e.g., pleasure, experiences, variety). Thus, the conservative train rider seeks the clean train compartment, while the intellectually autonomous person looks forward to the potential acquaintance with an as yet unknown traveler who has stimulating stories to tell. 8.3 Psychographic Variables 125 In addition to Schwartz’s (1999) conception of values, a distinction is also made between personal or individual values and collective values, i.e. values that are common in a social group. Many values are socially acquired and socially shared. For example, Lea’s strong environmental awareness could possibly be due to the fact that many of her teachers held this value highly and that many of her friends also support the protection of the environment. Values are often acquired in childhood; they also differ between families, different age groups and social classes. Therefore, values are at the core of considering cultural differences (Müller & Gelbrich, 2015), as we will see in the next section. Since values are similar within a social group and differ between different groups, they serve marketing for target group definition and as a segmentation approach. 8.3.3Cross-Cultural Differences The broadest and most abstract concept that influences consumer behavior is culture. It is often considered at the level of nations. That is, national borders are often used as so-called proxy variables (auxiliary variables) for cultures. However, cultural spaces should not be equated with national borders. A person from Hamburg who finds him- or herself unprepared at a Lower Bavarian folk festival may confirm this. Cultural spaces can refer to countries, but also to regions, social groups (so-called subcultures), etc. However, they do not necessarily end at national borders. According to Müller and Gelbrich (2015, p. 25), culture is a unifying element for larger communities and at the same time it serves as a demarcation from other communities. Culture-specific norms, taboos, values and habits are formed, which are not innate, but are learned by the members of the respective culture. Culture is thus an orientation system that exerts a strong influence on the behavior of members of the culture. Different cultures have different value systems. Values can therefore not only be located individually, but also at the group or societal level. In order to make culture measurable, so-called dimensional approaches are usually used in consumer research. This means that one does not describe individual cultures, but looks for several independent dimensions that can be used to systematically classify the cultural characteristics of different groups. The best-known cultural concept comes from the Dutch organizational researcher Geert Hofstede. In its current version, this conception distinguishes the six dimensions shown in Fig. 8.1 (Hofstede et al., 2010). The most important dimension with the highest discriminatory power and explanatory power is the dimension individualism/collectivism. Anglo-Saxon countries in particular are generally considered to be strongly individualistic, whereas Asian countries are more known for being collectivistically oriented; i.e., the individual aligns his or her behavior with the group that is relevant to him or her (e.g., the family) and subordinates personal goals. In addition to Hofstede’s approach, the GLOBE project (House et al., 2004), in which more than 170 researchers participated in the worldwide data collection, describes nine cultural dimensions, each of which can be understood as prevailing practice (“as it is”), but also as values (“as it should be”). 126 8 Western industrialized nations Eastern Europe, Asia, Latin America, Africa Japan, German speaking countries Eastern/Central Europe, Latin America, Japan, German-speaking countries East Asia, Eastern and Central Europe North/South America, Western Europe, partly subSaharan Africa Individualism Collectivism Is the individual more responsible for him/herself,... high ... or is s/he integrated into a community and bound to loyalty? Acceptance of Power Distance Masculinity low Femininity Do gender-specific role expectations differ greatly, ... ... or do they hardly differ? Uncertainty Avoidance Do individuals feel threatened in uncertain and unknown situations, ... long-term Indulgence Is it considered desirable that needs be met without hindrance, ... low ... or can they handle these situations well? Orientation Do individuals consider what consequences their behavior might have in the long run, ... Eastern and less developed countries English and German speaking, western countries ... or do they not accept the unequal distribution of power? Do less influential members expect and accept an unequal distribution of power, ... high Interindividual Differences Scandinavia, the Netherlands English speaking countries, Scandinavia, China short-term USA, Australia, Latin America, Africa, Muslim countries ... or do they act on the basis of their awareness of tradition and social obligations? Restraint ... or should the need for control over one's own life prevail? Eastern Europe, Asia, Muslim countries Fig. 8.1 Hofstede’s dimensions of culture. (Based on Hofstede et al., 2010; Müller & Gelbrich, 2015) 8.4 Learning Aid 127 Background Info: Compare the Cultural Profiles of Different Countries Data and findings by Geert Hofstede are documented on the website “The Hofstede Centre©.” If you scan the QR code, you can make your own country comparisons. 8.4Learning Aid Quintessence There are large inter-individual differences between consumers. This heterogeneity is reflected in consumption preferences and market reactions. Market segmentation aims to form clusters that are internally homogeneous and relatively heterogeneous among themselves. Socio-demographic segmentation criteria usually have little behavioral relevance. Psychographic criteria such as values or lifestyles have greater predictive power. There are also major differences in consumer behavior between members of different cultural regions. ◄ Exercise Questions and Tasks Complete the following sentence: There are large inter-individual differences between consumers. Market segmentation aims to form clusters of consumers that are internal ____________ and relative to each other ____________. The ____________ is used as a method to identify the segments. Right or wrong? Socio-demographic variables such as age and gender are frequently used as segmentation criteria in practice, as they have a high relevance to purchasing behavior. Tick the correct answer(s). Which of the following use the concept of lifestyle to segment consumers? O Sinus Milieus O Generation X, Y, Z O Hofstede approach O Roper Consumer Styles O VALS O GLOBE project 128 8 Interindividual Differences Cross-Linking Question Lea and Ben observe that there are more and more different variations of coffee and that the coffee drinkers in their circle of acquaintances prefer very specific types. Some pragmatic acquaintances mainly drink instant coffee, while some frahling lovers swear by espresso. Still others always order latte macchiato and certain people still brew or restarted brewing filter coffee. The list is far from complete. I’m sure you know these different types of coffee drinkers from your circle of acquaintances, too. Make a list. Then think about the characteristics that distinguish the different types of coffee drinkers. Can the different types possibly be assigned to the clusters of a lifestyle typology? Consider what values and motives the different types might have. Next time you meet your acquaintances, carefully use the laddering technique described in Sect. 3.5 to find out what motives and values are actually behind their choice of coffee. Think about how a coffee roaster could use this knowledge to market their products to specific target groups. Further Reading Halfmann, M. (Ed.). (2014). Zielgruppen im Konsumentenmarketing: Segmentierungsansätze – Trends – Umsetzung. Springer Gabler. Müller, S., & Gelbrich, K. (2015). Interkulturelles Marketing (2nd ed.). Vahlen. Wedel, M., & Kamakura, W. A. (2000). Market segmentation. Conceptual and methodological foundations (2nd ed.). Springer. References Belch, G., & Belch, M. (2011). Advertising and promotion (9th ed.). McGraw-Hill. Blackwell, R. D., Miniard, P. W., & Engel, J. F. (2001). Consumer behavior (9th ed.). Harcourt. Foscht, T., Swoboda, B., & Schramm-Klein, H. (2017). Käuferverhalten. Grundlagen – Perspektiven – Anwendungen (6th ed.). Springer Gabler. Freter, H. (1983). Marktsegmentierung. Kohlhammer. Halfmann, M. (2014). Der Konsument von morgen – Vom Homo oeconomicus zum Homo mysticus. In M. Halfmann (Ed.), Zielgruppen im Konsumentenmarketing: Segmentierungsansätze – Trends – Umsetzung (pp. 1–15). Springer Gabler. Hoffmann, S., Liebermann, S., & Schwarz, U. (2012). Ads for mature consumers: The importance of addressing the changing self-view between the age groups 50+ and 60+. Journal of Promotion Management, 18(1), 60–82. Hoffmann, S., Franck, A., Schwarz, U., Soyez, K., & Wünschmann, S. (2018). Marketing-Forschung. Grundlagen der Datenerhebung und Datenauswertung. Vahlen. Hofstede, G., Hofstede, G. J., & Minkov, M. (2010). Cultures and organizations – Software of the mind: Intercultural cooperation and its importance for survival (3th ed.). McGraw-Hill. Holt, D. B. (1997). Poststructuralist lifestyle analysis: Conceptualizing the social patterning of consumption in postmodernity. Journal of Consumer Research, 23(4), 326–350. References 129 House, R. J., Hanges, P. J., Javidan, M., Dorfman, P. W., & Gupta, V. (2004). Culture, leadership, and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies. Sage. Hoyer, W. D., MacInnis, D. J., & Pieters, R. (2012). Consumer behavior (6th ed.). Cengage Learning Emea. Hradil, S. (2010). Soziale Ungleichheit, soziale Schichtung und Mobilität. In H. Korte & B. Schäfers (Eds.), Einführung in Hauptbegriffe der Soziologie (8th ed., pp. 211–234). VS Verlag. Kahle, L. R., Beatty, S. E., & Homer, P. (1986). Alternative measurement approaches to consumer values: The list of values (LOV) and values and life styles (VALS). Journal of Consumer Research, 13(3), 405–409. Lastovicka, J. L. (1982). On the validation of lifestyle traits: A review and illustration. Journal of Marketing Research, 19(1), 126–138. Meffert, H., Burmann, C., Kirchgeorg, M., & Eisenbeiß, M. (2018). Marketing. Grundlagen marktorientierter Unternehmensführung. Konzepte – Instrumente – Praxisbeispiele (13th ed.). Springer Gabler. Müller, S., & Gelbrich, K. (2015). Interkulturelles Marketing (2nd ed.). Vahlen. Plummer, J. T. (1974). The concept and application of life style segmentation. Journal of Marketing, 38(1), 33–37. Rokeach, M. (1969). The role of values in public opinion research. Public Opinion Quarterly, 32(4), 547–559. Rokeach, M. (1986). Beliefs, attitudes and values: A theory of organization and change. Jossey-Bass. Scholz, C. (2014). Generation Z. Wie sie tickt, was sie verändert und warum sie uns alle ansteckt. Wiley. Schwartz, S. H. (1999). A theory of cultural values and some implications for work. Applied Psychology, 48(1), 23–47. Sinus-Institut. (2015). Informationen zu den Sinus-Milieus(R). http://www.sinus-institut.de/fileadmin/user_data/sinus-institut/Downloadcenter/Informationen_zu_den_Sinus-Milieus.pdf. Accessed: 12. März 2016. Vinson, D. E., Scott, J. E., & Lamont, L. M. (1977). The role of personal values in marketing and consumer behavior. Journal of Marketing, 41(2), 44–50. Wedel, M., & Kamakura, W. A. (2000). Market segmentation. Conceptual and methodological foundations (2nd ed.). Springer. Wells, W. D., & Tigert, D. J. (1971). Activities, interests and opinions. Journal of Advertising Research, 11, 27–35. 9 Social Environment cc Lea Doesn’t Want to Go to the New Burger Restaurant … “Lea, come with me now!,” Ben is desperate. His school friend Jan is visiting the city and they want to eat a burger before they go out like in the old days. That’s when the new restaurant around the corner comes in handy. However, Lea refuses to come along. “What if someone sees me there? I’ve been vegan for two months and I can’t show my face in a burger restaurant.” “Why don’t you come along for my sake,” Ben pleads. “By the way, Vanessa, who always knows all the new places first, told me that they have excellent vegan burgers. She knows what’s hip, and if she recommends the burger restaurant, then you can definitely hit it up there.” How will Lea decide? There is no doubt that consumption decisions are rarely made alone. Very often there is an agreement with the social environment or one at least mentally anticipates the reactions of the social environment. But under what circumstances is the social environment particularly relevant and who do consumers look to for guidance? © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2023 S. Hoffmann, P. Akbar, Consumer Behavior, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-39476-9_9 131 132 9 Social Environment Learning Objectives In this chapter, you will learn … • • • • • how reference groups influence consumer behavior (Sect. 9.1), how people grow into the role of consumers (Sect. 9.2), when individuals adapt their decisions to others (Sect. 9.3), what defines opinion leaders (Sect. 9.4), and when consumers do nothing because others are already doing it (Sect. 9.5), … by looking at the social environment through the following theories and models: • • • • Social Comparison Theory, Social Identity Theory, Role Theory, and Social Dilemma. The opinions and behavior of friends and acquaintances, neighbors and work colleagues, but also enemies and envious people strongly influence the decisions and behavior of consumers. The fact that consumers are social beings is also evident from the fact that many consumers often shop together, seek advice from others or are inspired by their consumption experiences. How is it that people perceive an evening at the cinema together differently than if they had been at the cinema alone (Raghunathan & Corfman, 2006) and why do clothing styles, hairstyles etc. resemble each other within a circle of friends (Reingen et al., 1984)? To answer these questions, we first need to look at the construct of reference groups (Sect. 9.1). We will then look at how people grow into the role of consumer and gradually adopt the consumption patterns common in their relevant group (Sect. 9.2), as well as how the social environment controls compliance with these patterns (Sect. 9.3). We will then look at how individuals, the so-called opinion leaders, exert a particularly strong influence on the consumption patterns of others (Sect. 9.4). Finally, we look at conflicts in situations where it is important for consumers to coordinate their consumption behavior (Sect. 9.5). 9.1Reference Groups 9.1.1Forms of Reference Groups Reference groups are groups (or sometimes just individuals) that influence how consumers perceive their environment, what attitudes and knowledge they form and, above all, what behavior they engage in (Bearden & Etzel, 1982, p. 184). Three types of reference groups can be distinguished (Hoyer et al., 2012, p. 305): 9.1 Reference Groups 133 • Associative reference groups are those groups to which one currently belongs. This can be, for example, the circle of friends, the family or the work group. In the introductory example, Lea belongs to the group of her vegan friends. So-called “brand communities,” i.e. groups of consumers who have a special bond with a particular brand, are also interesting for marketing. • Aspirational reference groups are those groups that one admires. One wishes to be like these idealized figures. These include, for example, famous actors, athletes, musicians or the like. • Disassociative reference groups are groups whose values and attitudes one consciously rejects. In order to distinguish oneself, one deliberately behaves differently from this group. For many Apple fans, ordinary PC users are a group from which they want to distance themselves as much as possible. And Lea, in the introductory example, definitely does not want to be associated with people who, in her view, consume irresponsibly in a burger restaurant. Reference groups can further be distinguished according to the following criteria (Hoyer et al., 2012, p. 306 ff.; Solomon et al., 2013, p. 395 ff.): • Formal vs. informal reference groups: A reference group can be a formal group such as a school class, but also an informal group such as a gathering of friends (like Lea, Ben and Jan in the introductory example). Small informal groups are less tangible for marketing; however, they are particularly relevant because they exert strong normative influence. By normative influence is meant here that the individual feels obliged to comply with social norms of the group and that he or she may have to expect negative consequences if they are disregarded. • Primary vs. secondary reference groups: One often has personal contact with primary reference groups (e.g. family and friends), whereas this is not the case with secondary reference groups. In the introductory example, this would be the group of urban vegans that Lea is committed to. In the course of social media with platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, Pinterest, XING etc., the influence of people with whom one has no direct contact on consumer behavior is increasing more and more. Further criteria for classifying affinity groups are the similarity of the group members, the attractiveness of the group, the strength of the members’ identification with the group and the intensity of the connections between them (Hoyer et al., 2012, p. 306 ff.). 9.1.2Influence of Reference Groups Reference groups can have a direct influence on consumer behavior; for example, when children want to have a say in which holiday their parents book. However, reference groups can also establish norms and expectations that indirectly influence consumer behavior. Bearden and Etzel (1982, p. 184) identify three types of reference group influence: 134 9 Social Environment • Informational influence: Consumers want to make well-informed decisions in many cases. If there is uncertainty, there are various ways of obtaining the necessary information, with the credibility of the source being a key factor. For example, people seeking advice can obtain information from experts and specialists. Or they can ask for advice from other people in their personal environment, such as family members, friends, acquaintances or colleagues. Observing the consumption behavior of these people can also be of informative value. For example, Lea could ask a doctor or a vegan friend if she is unsure whether giving up animal products could be dangerous to her health. • Utilitarian influence: In order to receive positive reinforcements or to avoid social sanctions or disapproval, consumers often adapt to the wishes and ideas of others. Thus, the preferences of the social environment (such as friends, colleagues, relatives, etc.) and the extent to which the individual is willing to meet these expectations are relevant. In the introductory example, Lea tries at all costs to avoid being ostracized by her vegan friends. • Value-expressive influence: Consumers often want to improve the image others have of them through their consumption behavior. For example, people use certain products and brands publicly (e.g. smartphones, expensive branded clothing) in order to be admired by others or to demonstrate that they are like others who also use these products and brands. Lea, in the entry example, is keen to be perceived as part of the vegan community and to embrace its value orientations. This can be explained by Tajfel and Turner’s (1986) theory of social identity, which states that individuals have a social identity in addition to a personal identity, which in turn results from belonging to a group (“ingroup”) and being differentiated from other groups (“outgroup”). Example: Reference Group Influence? A Question of Publicity and Luxury? Whether and to what extent the reference group influences our consumption behavior also depends on the product category. The classic study on this comes from Bearden and Etzel (1982). As Fig. 9.1 illustrates, the reference group influences whether one consumes a certain product at all or not, especially in the case of luxury goods. The choice of brand, on the other hand, only depends on the reference group if it is a publicly consumed good. ◄ 9.1.3Social Comparisons Group influences can have not only normative but also comparative effects (cf. Kelley, 1968). We speak of normative influence when the consumer adheres to social norms in order not to attract negative attention or even to be socially sanctioned. Comparative influence, on the other hand, involves a comparison with others. The importance of comparisons lies in particular in the fact that everyone would like to assess themselves and that, 9.1 Reference Groups 135 Necessity items Luxury items Influence on product choice strong weak Public consumption Private consumption Influence on brand choince strong e.g. watch e.g. smartwatch weak e.g. kitchen clock e.g. antique grandfather clock Fig. 9.1 Reference group influence. (Adapted from Bearden & Etzel, 1982) especially in social aspects, there are often no objective norm values. In other words: Why is someone unhappy about his 1 year old and fully functional smartphone when he sees that his roommate could afford the latest generation iPhone? Obviously, it is often not the absolute possession, the absolute ability or the absolute knowledge that is relevant, but rather the relation to others (“Am I better than the other?”). Festinger (1954) postulates in his social comparison theory that people seek comparison with others in order to gain information about themselves. Social comparisons have several important functions. Depending on which function is to be fulfilled, one chooses other persons for comparison: • In order to get a realistic picture of oneself, one compares oneself with people who are similar or equal to oneself (horizontal comparison). These are often the so-called “peers,” i.e. people of the same age. • If one wants to protect one’s own self, one makes a downward comparison. That is, one compares oneself with socially weaker, less educated, less athletic people, etc. This leads to so-called self-enhancement, i.e. the attempt to increase one’s own self-worth. • If, on the other hand, one wants to learn what self-optimization is possible, one conducts an upward comparison. In the opening example, Lea compares herself with the group of urban vegans she admires. She strives to behave like them. Example: My House, My Car, My Boat This quote comes from a savings bank commercial from the 1990s, which takes up the social comparison theory. Two school friends meet again after years and compare who was able to accumulate which possessions. Scan the QR code to watch the commercial. ◄ 136 9 Social Environment 9.2Consumer Socialization Socialization refers to the transmission of social norms and values (Henecka, 2015, p. 88). Individuals gradually adapt to the roles expected of them by the social environment, i.e. by society or by his relevant social group. They form typical patterns of thinking, feeling and acting. Socialization begins within the family and continues in various contexts such as school or the workplace. Consumer socialization is when individuals learn their role as consumers and adopt the consumption patterns prevalent in their society (Hoyer et al., 2012, p. 309). Among other things, individuals develop an understanding of what value money has and adapt the corresponding consumption-related attitudes and behaviors (Kroeber-Riel & Gröppel- Klein, 2013, p. 728). In the process of consumer socialization, the model learning presented in Sect. 5.3.2 is particularly relevant. This means that consumers also observe how others around them behave and what rewards and punishments they receive in return. According to role theory (Dahrendorf, 1967), the influence of the social environment on a consumer also takes place via roles. A social role describes which behavioral pattern the social environment expects from a person when he or she acts in a certain context (Gerrig, 2014, p. 651). Depending on the context, the same person takes on different roles: as a husband, brother or friend, as a student, intern or professional, as a football fan or hobby gardener. Each role requires different behavior. In the introductory example, Lea first assumes that the role of vegan requires her to disapprove of going to the burger restaurant. Consumer socialization takes place over a longer period of time, with the first phases of life proving to be particularly relevant. During this time, various people and institutions influence the socialization of the consumer. These are referred to as socialization agents (Hoyer et al., 2012, p. 309). Of particular relevance here are, of course, the parents and also other family members. From childhood to adolescence, the influence of parents is reduced and the influence of peers increases (e.g. Wooten, 2006). In the introductory example, Lea is guided by the assumed opinion of her friends and especially that of Vanessa. But the media, including television programs, advertising, YouTube etc. also act as socialization agents. This is even more true today than in the past due to social media. 9.3 Standards and Conformity 137 9.3Standards and Conformity Social norms are implicit or explicit rules that contain what the social environment expects of one’s own behavior in certain situations (Gerrig, 2014, p. 655). An example of such a rule is the regionally customary amount of the tip to be paid in restaurants. Social norms have an obligatory character for the behavior of the person. They thus coordinate our living together. From an individual point of view, norms are positive in that they provide us with a framework for how to behave (e.g. when getting to know a new person) and thus reduce uncertainty. However, they also have the negative property that they are prescriptive and thus restrict freedom. This is because the social environment expects and controls compliance with norms. Anyone who breaks them is socially punished (e.g. by being ostracized or ridiculed). Example: Sustainable Products Are Only Consumed Under Observation Luchs et al. (2010) demonstrated that consumers unconsciously attribute less quality, taste, etc. to products that are positioned as sustainable. Ironically, this means that sustainability, which is actually a positive attribute, has a negative effect on consumer judgement. The researchers conducted a field experiment (Sect. 2.4.4) in which they observed their subjects in the refectory of a university. In one experimental group, the subjects can clearly recognize the observer. They were therefore in a social situation in which they presumably aligned their behavior with social norms. For another part of the subjects, the observer was not visible. Consequently, there was no external compulsion to comply to social norms. The study demonstrates that subjects used a liquid hand soap labeled as sustainable only when another person was present to observe them. If no other person was present, they reached for the conventional version. The sustainable behavior was thus only shown when social norms were relevant. ◄ We often adapt our consumption decisions to others who are present in the situation. We behave in conformity. Conformity refers to the tendency to adopt opinions of other group members and exhibit similar behavior (Gerrig, 2014, p. 655). Lea did not want to enter the burger restaurant in the entry example because she assumed that other vegans would not do so either. Example: Geometry Is a Social Phenomenon Research on conformity has its origins in a classic experiment by the Polish-American social psychologist Solomon Asch (1955). The study powerfully reveals that in a social context, conformity pressures emerge to influence individuals’ decisions. Although the objectively correct answer in this experiment was obvious, numerous experimental participants bowed to group opinion when estimating the length of a line. They adjusted their estimation to the obviously biased estimation of other individuals whom they thought were experimental participants but who were instructed by the researchers. Scan the QR code to learn more about the experiment. ◄ 138 9 Social Environment The tendency towards conformity is also evident in consumer decisions. However, there are also numerous studies that show that consumers often consciously behave differently from their social environment in order to set themselves apart and show how unique or special they want to be perceived. The case is interesting when the need for uniqueness (Tian et al., 2001) and the need to conform are diametrically opposed. Example: I’ll Eat Something You Won’t Ariely and Levav (2000) developed a model that shows how consumers make decisions in group situations. In the study, the example is assumed to be a joint dinner in a restaurant, where everyone in turn places their order. The researchers assumed that each participant wants to pursue his or her individual goal, i.e., to choose the dish that tastes best to him or her. At the same time, however, there are also goals to consider in the interaction between the individual and the group, which may fluctuate between conformity and the expression of one’s individuality. Thus, there may be group conformity and thus uniformity of choice decisions or variation of choices within the group. The experiment reveals that each individual tries to decide between his or her individual goals and the following three possible goals in the context of the group: • Minimizing regret: If you want to avoid bad decisions and don’t want to watch others eat a better menu later, you take your cue from others’ decisions. This leads to uniform decisions within the group. • Information gathering: If the goal is to gather and share as many impressions as possible as a group, consumers are more likely to choose different offers. • Self-presentation: Individuals want to present a certain image of themselves. This can mean, for example, that they want to show that they are unique or at least not conformist. In order to make a unique decision, they may have to choose an offer that no one has chosen before and that does not optimally meet their individual needs. In summary, it can be stated that in dynamic group decisions, the individual often makes a decision that does not provide the maximum individual benefit. This can be due to the fact that one either wants to collect as much information as possible together or to present oneself in the best possible light to the outside world. ◄ 9.4 Word-of-Mouth and Opinion Leaders 139 9.4Word-of-Mouth and Opinion Leaders Whether a communication is successful or not depends in particular on how credible the recipient considers the sender to be (Kroeber-Riel & Gröppel-Klein, 2013, p. 590 ff.). Two criteria in particular influence credibility: whether the communicator is considered an expert and whether he or she is judged to be trustworthy. For the latter, a perceived similarity between communicator and recipient is conducive. Word-of-mouth (WoM) is the (non-mass media) communication between consumers. This word-of-mouth is considered to have a very high influence potential, as recipients generally consider a message to be more credible if it comes from a friend, acquaintance or other non-commercial sender than if a commercial company is the originator and sender of the message (Herr et al., 1991; Duhan et al., 1997). Opinion leaders are persons who exert a particularly strong influence on the consumption-relevant attitudes, opinions and behaviors of other persons in the context of interpersonal communication (e.g. Flynn et al., 1996; Rogers, 2003). In the introductory example, Vanessa was described by Ben as an opinion leader. Opinion leaders are seen by others as credible and reliable sources of information and advice. Often, the influence of opinion leaders is limited to specific product categories. Someone who enjoys the status of an opinion leader in the field of fashion and beauty is not necessarily also considered a competent source of information on computer hardware. Opinion leaders are usually characterized by the fact that they occupy a key social position and are well networked, as well as being experts in a particular field. In most cases, opinion leaders have a high product involvement, they know a lot about certain products and they use mass media. Often they are also innovators, i.e. they buy new products earlier than others and can thus build up a certain product-specific knowledge (Childers, 1986; Hoffmann & Soyez, 2010). Opinion leaders also play a major role in digital communication. Particularly through the triumph of social media, WoM (in this context word-of-mouse) is becoming increasingly important, as information can now be shared on a large scale not only between acquaintances, but also between strangers. Bloggers, for example, are perceived as credible and have a great influence on consumer decisions (Colliander & Dahlen, 2011). Personal communication between consumers and, in particular, opinion leaders is extremely important for spreading information (e.g. a company’s advertising messages) quickly and credibly. This is referred to as diffusion, i.e. the spread of the company’s idea, thought or message in a social system. Companies make use of this process as part of their communication strategy. So-called word-of-mouth marketing attempts to deliberately initiate the diffusion effect (Kozinets et al., 2010), so that consumers spread the message without any further action on the part of the company (Hutter & Hoffmann, 2014, p. 29). If each recipient forwards the advertising message to several others, it spreads in a similar way to a virus. This is why we speak of viral marketing, the success of which depends primarily on two factors: firstly, seeding, i.e. initial placement, must succeed. Messages 140 9 Social Environment are often placed in video clips (e.g. on YouTube), which users can “like” and “share” via social media. Second, there must be some interest for the consumer to forward the message. This is achieved through unusual, activating, funny, erotic or even off-putting content. 9.5Social Dilemma: The Flip Side of Reference Group Influence As we will discuss in the last chapter (Chap. 12), nowadays there is increasing criticism that consumers influence ecological and social aspects through their consumption behavior. It is therefore demanded that they should consume more consciously. This is also referred to as consumer social responsibility (Devinney et al., 2006), following the example of CSR (i.e. corporate social responsibility) on the part of companies. Responsible consumption can be expressed by consumers supporting a good cause through their purchasing behavior (e.g. switching to green electricity) or by consciously avoiding certain products (e.g. boycotting smartphones manufactured with the help of child labor). In many cases, however, a single consumer can make relatively little difference and it is more important that many consumers exhibit the appropriate behavior. To mitigate climate change, it is necessary for the majority of consumers to change their behavior. Even if the aim is to influence corporate decisions, for example in the form of consumer boycotts (Sect. 12.5), the actions of several consumers must be coordinated (Hoffmann, 2008). This need for collectively aligned consumption creates interesting reference group phenomena. Whether individuals join a boycott or not, for example, is a typical collective action problem (Sen et al., 2001) and a so-called social dilemma often arises. This refers to a decision-making situation in which individual interests conflict with the interests of a larger collective. For example, individuals might still prefer to order from a large online retailer because the selection is large and delivery times are short. However, from a collective perspective, it might be desirable to boycott that company in order to get it to adopt higher social standards. The individual would therefore have to make a subjective sacrifice in order for the collective to achieve its goal. Consequently, he or she has to trade off between maximizing his or her individual utility and contributing to the common good (cf. Dawes, 1980). van Lange et al. (1992) list three conditions that lead to a person being caught in a social dilemma: non-cooperative behavior (i.e. as a consumer, e.g. refusing to support a boycott) • provides greater individual benefit to the individual than cooperative behavior, • is at a disadvantage to others, • reduces the aggregate benefit to the community. In particular, three effects are distinguished that explain how consumers behave in such situations (Hoffmann, 2008, p. 82). 9.6 Learning Aid 141 • Social loafing: The individual’s motivation to contribute decreases with increasing group size, because other group members can then hardly observe and evaluate the behavior (e.g. Arnscheid et al., 1997). This effect is even intensified by the fact that individuals assume that their contribution is less significant in large groups, i.e., the marginal utility of the individual contribution decreases. This is also referred to as the small agent problem (John & Klein, 2003). • Free-riding: The larger the group becomes, the greater the incentive to benefit from the contributions of other group members (e.g., Kerr & Bruun, 1983; Arnscheid et al., 1997). To be sure, this effect is similar to social loafing. The difference, however, is that individuals tend to engage in social loafing when they assume that their denial will not be revealed. In contrast, those who free-ride assume that enough other individuals are already participating and that, consequently, their own contribution is no longer critical to whether or not the collective achieves its goals. • Sucker effect: It can also be that the individual is not willing to support the goal of the collective after he or she has learned that other group members are free-riding. He or she does not want to be taken advantage of and not be considered a “sucker.” 9.6Learning Aid Quintessence Since people are social beings, the behavior of every consumer is strongly influenced by his or her social environment. In the course of consumer socialization, people learn the consumption patterns prevailing in their society. Reference groups exert informational, utilitarian, and value-expressive influence. Social comparisons offer individuals the opportunity to assess themselves despite the lack of objective norm values. Social norms are implicit or explicit rules about what is expected of one in certain situations. Conformity leads one to conform one’s decisions to those of others in group situations. Opinion leaders are individuals who exert a particularly strong influence on the consumption decisions of others. Social dilemmas are decision-making situations in which individual goals conflict with the interests of a larger collective. ◄ Exercise Questions and Tasks Complete the following sentence: Reference groups exert an influence on consumer behavior. The following types can be distinguished: Those from whom one consciously distances oneself and whose values and attitudes one explicitly rejects are called _________________________. Persons or groups whom one admires and whose behavior one likes to copy, on the other hand, are referred to as _________________________. One belongs to the _________________________. It includes, for example, family and friends. 142 9 Social Environment Right or wrong? Word-of-mouth, i.e. consumer-to-consumer communication, has a much lower potential to persuade the recipient of the message than commercial advertising because the communicator is a layperson. Commercial advertising messages are created by professional agencies, marketing managers and experts and these messages are therefore considered more trustworthy. Tick the correct answer(s). Taking Bearden and Etzel’s (1982) research as a basis, does the reference group then influence product and/or brand choice for the following goods? O Smartphone: reference group influences product and brand choice O Flat-screen TVs: reference group influences product choice O Butter: reference group influences brand choice O Dining in starred restaurants: reference group influences product and brand choice O Designer handbag: reference group influences product choice O Lawn mowers: reference group influences brand choice Cross-Linking Question Let us recapitulate the introductory example. Ben wants to go to the burger restaurant because his school friend is in town. He wants to persuade his girlfriend Lea to come along. Lea refuses because her friends would talk bad about her if she visited a burger restaurant as a vegan. Vanessa’s views seem to change Lea’s mind. It’s a complex, yet very familiar and everyday social mix-up for all of us. Decipher all the social processes at work in this example by applying the concepts addressed in this chapter. Further Reading Bearden, W. O., & Etzel, M. J. (1982). Reference group influence on product and brand purchase decision. Journal of Consumer Research, 9(2), 183–194. Rogers, E. M. (2003). Diffusion of innovations (5th ed.). Free Press. Sen, S., Gurhan-Canli, Z., & Morwitz, V. (2001). Withholding consumption: A social dilemma perspective on consumer boycotts. Journal of Consumer Research, 28(3), 399–417. References Ariely, D., & Levav, J. (2000). Sequential choice in group settings. Taking the road less traveled and less enjoyed. Journal of Consumer Research, 27(3), 279–290. Arnscheid, R., Diehl, M., & Stroebe, W. (1997). Motivationsverluste in Gruppen: Ein empirischer Test einer theoretischen Integration. Zeitschrift für Sozialpsychologie, 28(4), 251–264. Asch, S. E. (1955). Opinions and social pressure. Scientific American, 193(5), 31–35. References 143 Bearden, W. O., & Etzel, M. J. (1982). Reference group influence on product and brand purchase decision. Journal of Consumer Research, 9(2), 183–194. Childers, T. (1986). Assessment of the psychometric properties of an opinion leadership scale. Journal of Marketing Research, 23(2), 184–187. Colliander, J., & Dahlen, M. (2011). Following the fashionable friend: The power of social media. Weighing publicity effectiveness of blogs versus online magazines. Journal of Advertising Research, 51(1), 313–320. Dahrendorf, R. (1967). Homo Sociologicus: ein Versuch zur Geschichte, Bedeutung und Kritik der Kategorie der sozialen Rolle. Westdeutscher Verlag. Dawes, R. M. (1980). Social dilemmas. Annual Review of Psychology, 31(1), 169–193. Devinney, T. M., Auger, P., & Eckhardt, G. M. (2006). The other CSR: Consumer social responsibility. Stanford Social Innovation Review, 4(3), 30–37. Duhan, D., Johnson, S., Wilcox, J., & Harrell, G. (1997). Influences on consumer use of word-of- mouth recommendation sources. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 25(4), 283–295. Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations, 7(2), 117–140. Flynn, L. R., Goldsmith, R. E., & Eastman, J. K. (1996). Opinion leaders and opinion seekers. Two new measurement scales. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 24(2), 137–147. Gerrig, R. J. (2014). Psychologie (20th ed.). Pearson. Henecka, H. P. (2015). Grundkurs Soziologie. UTB. Herr, P. M., Kardes, F. R., & Kim, J. (1991). Effects of word-of-mouth and product-attribute information on persuasion: An accessibility-diagnosticity perspective. Journal of Consumer Research, 17(4), 454–462. Hoffmann, S. (2008). Boykottpartizipation. Gabler. Hoffmann, S., & Soyez, K. (2010). A cognitive model to predict domain-specific consumer innovativeness. Journal of Business Research, 63(7), 778–785. Hoyer, W. D., MacInnis, D. J., & Pieters, R. (2012). Consumer behavior (6th ed.). Cengage Learning Emea. Hutter, K., & Hoffmann, S. (2014). Professionelles Guerilla-Marketing. Springer Gabler. John, A., & Klein, J. (2003). The boycott puzzle: Consumer motivations for purchase sacrifice. Management Science, 49(9), 1196–1209. Kelley, H. (1968). Two functions of reference groups. In H. Hyman & E. Singer (Eds.), Readings in reference group theory and research (pp. 410–415). Free Press. Kerr, N. L., & Bruun, S. E. (1983). Dispensability of member effort and group motivation losses: Free-rider effects. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(1), 78–94. Kozinets, R. V., de Valck, K., Wojnicki, A. C., & Wilner, S. J. S. (2010). Networked narratives: Understanding word-of-mouth marketing in online-communities. Journal of Marketing, 74(2), 71–89. 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A European perspective (5th ed.). Pearson. Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behaviour. In S. Worchel & W. Austin (Eds.), Psychology of intergroup behaviour (pp. 7–24). Nelson. Tian, K. T., Bearden, W. O., & Hunter, G. L. (2001). Consumers’ need for uniqueness: Scale development and validation. Journal of Consumer Research, 28(1), 50–66. van Lange, P. A. M., Liebrand, W. B. G., Messick, D. M., & Wilke, H. A. M. (1992). Social dilemmas: The state of the art. In W. B. G. Liebrand, D. M. Messick, & H. A. M. Wilke (Eds.), A social psychological approach to social dilemmas (pp. 2–28). Pergamon. Wooten, D. B. (2006). From labelling possession to possession of labels: Ridicule and socialization among adolescents. Journal of Consumer Research, 33(2), 188–198. 10 Physical Environment cc There’s Still Room in the Shopping Cart One look at the smartphone and Ben’s mood dims: “Can you please go shopping quickly? I didn’t make it earlier. Cheers Lea.” Reluctantly, but driven by hunger, Ben enters the supermarket. “Where were the cold cuts?” Ben doesn’t find a salesman, but he does find a stand with a product tasting. “Not bad either,” Ben thinks to himself, helps himself to the small snacks and continues his shopping. Once home, Lea looks at the bags in wonder. “Thanks, but you didn’t have to do the whole week’s shopping straight away.” Ben is also surprised that the shopping turned out bigger than originally planned. Consumers often buy more in the supermarket than originally planned. This is no coincidence, but due to the design of the supermarket and thus part of the physical environment. But what characterizes the consumer’s physical environment and how does it influence his behavior? Learning Objectives In this chapter, you will learn … • to understand the interaction between consumer behavior and the physical environment (Sect. 10.1), • how the physical environment affects consumer behavior (Sect. 10.2), • how the design of the purchasing channel influences behavior (Sect. 10.3), • to understand the influence of product packaging on purchasing behavior (Sect. 10.4), and • the role of the salesperson and other persons at the point of sale (Sect. 10.5), … by looking at the consumer’s physical environment through the following model: environmental psychological model. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2023 S. Hoffmann, P. Akbar, Consumer Behavior, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-39476-9_10 145 146 10 Physical Environment 10.1Interactions Between Consumers and the Physical Environment Consumer behavior depends on a variety of psychological processes, to each of which we have devoted a chapter in this book. They all (emotions, motivation, attitudes, etc.) are interrelated, even if we consider them in isolation for reasons of complexity reduction – in the sense of the partial models. According to the total model of Blackwell et al. (2001; Sect. 1.3.1.1), the environment also influences consumer behavior. Three environments can be distinguished: In addition to the media environment (Chap. 11) and the social environment (Chap. 9), the physical environment is particularly relevant for consumer behavior. The physical environment is defined as a section of the material world that has meaning for the individual (Hellbrück & Kals, 2012). This can be, for example, landscapes, buildings, rooms or furnishings. The physical environment also always involves the constitution of the material world. For example, a landscape (physical environment) affects the individual differently depending on the climate, weather or season (constitution). Consumers also feel more or less comfortable in shopping centers (physical environment), depending on the temperature and lighting conditions (constitution). In this context, the physical environment and consumer behavior have a reciprocal relationship (Kroeber-Riel & Gröppel-Klein, 2013). In consumer behavior research, when we speak of a reciprocal relationship between two variables, this means that each of the two variables can be both the independent variable (IV) and the dependent variable (DV) (Sect. 1.3.2). The physical environment influences people in their role as consumers in the acquisition, consumption and disposal of goods and services. Thus, the tasting booth at the point of sale (PoS) had a strong influence on Ben’s purchasing behavior. At the same time, consumer behavior affects the physical environment. This is reflected, for example, in the trend for more and more environmentally aware consumers, including Lea, to pay attention to the impact of their consumption behavior on the natural environment when purchasing (e.g. not using plastic bags), using (e.g. changing the way they drive their private car) and disposing of (e.g. recycling) (Sect. 12.4). Table 10.1 provides an overview of typical issues arising from this interrelationship. In this chapter, we focus on the most important influences of the physical environment on consumer behavior in practice. These include, among others, the design of the purchasing channel or the packaging of products. Before we start, we look at the environmental psychological model according to Mehrabian and Russell (1974), which forms the theoretical basis. 10.2The Environmental Psychological Model Mehrabian and Russell’s (1974) environmental psychological model of behavior echoes the S-O-R model of neo-behaviorism (Sect. 1.1) and assumes that the physical environment influences the behavior of individuals via emotional responses. It states that a 10.2 The Environmental Psychological Model 147 Table 10.1 Mutual relationship between consumer behavior and physical environment Consumer behavior Acquisition Physical environment as … Independent variable How does store design influence the buying process? Consumption and use Disposal Does background music affect dwell time in restaurants? Do consumers separate their waste more conscientiously in video-monitored areas? Dependent variable Does participation in bike-sharing services reduce car use in big cities? How does ski tourism affect the Alpine region? Does buying deposit bottles lead to less litter on the streets? The aspects of the physical environment are highlighted in bold Environmental stimulus Personality Intervening variables Primary emotional response Pleasure Arousal Dominance Behavioral response Approach Avoidance Fig. 10.1 The environmental psychological model of behavior. (Adapted from Mehrabian & Russell, 1974) stimulus from the physical environment (S) initially triggers emotions. In terms of the S-O-R model, these emotions are organism variables that elicit a behavioral response (R) as intervening variables (I). However, due to the personality (P) of the individual, objectively identical stimuli lead to different behavior. Personality thus acts as a moderator variable (Sect. 1.3.2). Some retailers, for example, try to generate positive emotions (I) in the consumer by a particularly elegant store design (S) in order to then generate more sales (R). Depending on the personality of the consumer (P), this is sometimes more, sometimes less successful. After all, even a classy atmosphere is unlikely to lure a thrifty person’s credit card out of their pocket. Mehrabian and Russell’s (1974) model forms the theoretical basis for numerous studies explaining how the physical environment affects consumer behavior (Kroeber-Riel & Gröppel-Klein, 2013). Therefore, we explain the individual constructs of the model in detail below (Fig. 10.1). 148 10 Physical Environment 10.2.1Stimulus Any stimulus from the physical environment can be a stimulus variable. A prerequisite for the influence on consumer behavior is that the consumer perceives the stimulus (Sect. 5.2). The process of perception starts with taking in a stimulus from the physical environment with the senses (e.g. smell), understanding it (“It smells spicy aromatic.”) and giving it a label (“That’s coffee”) (Gerrig, 2014). All perceived stimuli together form the stimulus volume of the physical environment, which Mehrabian and Russell summarize on the basis of the information rate. By this they mean the amount of information in the environment per unit of time. They distinguish between objective and subjective information rates. The former refers to the total amount of information contained in the environment per unit of time, the latter to the information actually perceived by the individual. A high information rate is the result of a high-stimulus environment, whereas a low information rate results from a low-stimulus environment. In addition to quantity, i.e. the amount of information, the quality of the information also plays an important role. Novelty and complexity, for example, are qualitative characteristics of stimuli that increase the information rate. 10.2.2Personality Objectively identical stimuli do not lead to identical emotional reactions in all recipients. According to Mehrabian and Russell (1974), the effect of the environmental stimulus on the individual depends on personality. The researchers distinguish stimulus screeners, who prefer a physical environment with a low stimulus volume, and nonscreeners, who are receptive to stimuli from the environment. While stimulus screeners probably feel comfortable in a puristically furnished restaurant, many nonscreeners may also like a teppanyaki restaurant where the dishes are prepared by the chef directly at the table. 10.2.3Intervening Variable The environmental stimulus triggers an emotional reaction in the consumer, which influences behavior as an intervening variable (I) – one can also say mediator variable. Mehrabian and Russell categorize the emotional reaction on the basis of three dimensions. Due to the initial letters of the dimensions, one also speaks of the PAD model: • Pleasure describes how pleasant or unpleasant an environmental stimulus is perceived by the recipient. • Arousal describes how activating or calming the environmental stimulus is for the individual. 10.3 The Purchase Channel as a Physical Environment 149 • Dominance describes whether the recipient has the feeling of being able to control his environment or whether he or she feels at its mercy. Visitors to a wellness center (physical environment) only experience a pleasant feeling (intervening variable) if the massage is pleasant (pleasure) and calming (arousal) and the masseur asks whether the pressure applied is okay (dominance). 10.2.4Behavioral Response The emotional reaction to the environment is expressed in approach or avoidance behavior, following Kurt Lewin’s field theory (Sect. 3.3.4). Consumers in the approach behavior mode stay longer in the shop, deal more intensively with the products and possibly also prefer to make contact with the sales staff. Consumers in avoidance behavior mode want to get the purchase over with as quickly as possible and then leave the store directly. In particular, the effect of the design of the retailer (physical environment) on purchasing behavior has been studied many times using the model of Mehrabian and Russell (e.g. Bitner, 1992; Baker et al., 2002; Donovan et al., 1994). The study by Donovan and Rossiter (1982) described below is one of the best known. Example: What Retailers Can Learn from Mehrabian and Russell Donovan and Rossiter (1982) used Mehrabian and Russell’s environmental psychological model to investigate how the retailer’s atmosphere affects consumer behavior. According to them, the following effects occur when the atmosphere at the PoS is activating and perceived as pleasant: Customers linger longer in the store, they are more willing to talk to sales staff, they spend more money than originally planned, and they are more likely to visit the retailer again. The study thus impressively proves that it is financially worthwhile for retailers to invest in a pleasant and activating store design. ◄ 10.3The Purchase Channel as a Physical Environment An important space for consumer behavior is the physical purchase channel, i.e. the retailer’s brick-and-mortar store. The effect of the purchase channel on the consumer depends in particular on its atmosphere and its spatial layout. 10.3.1Atmosphere of the Purchasing Channel Consumers perceive the atmosphere in a store via their sensory organs. Five different sensory organs pick up corresponding stimuli from the physical environment, which are then processed in the brain and together form the atmospheric impression of the store. 150 10 Physical Environment 10.3.1.1Visual Stimuli Typical visual impressions are colors (luminosity, saturation, spectrum) and lighting conditions (brightness, illumination, daylight or artificial light). They can influence the emotional state of the consumer and, depending on the consumer’s personality, favor a certain behavior. Empirical studies show, for example, that colors influence the willingness to pay, the time spent in the store (Bellizzi & Hite, 1992) or the activation level of the consumer (Crowley, 1993). Basically, however, there is no silver bullet of color design or lighting of the retail store. Simplifying advice such as “paint the walls dark red so that your customers buy more” falls short, because the consumers’ evaluations of the color choice and lighting depends on many other factors, such as their personalities, but also on the image of the retailer (Baker et al., 1992). Precious colors in a discount store, for example, seem out of place, thus creating reactance in the consumer and leading to negative emotions, whereas they can have the desired effect in a classy boutique. In general, studies show that consumers tend to prefer warm colors. However, for products that are usually associated with a high level of involvement – such as cars – consumers prefer a colder color scheme (Bellizzi et al., 1983). It is therefore not surprising that car dealers design their showrooms with a lot of chrome and steel. 10.3.1.2Acoustic Stimuli Music is a typical acoustic stimulus in retail stores. It influences the consumer’s level of activation at the PoS and subsequently both the perceived and actual time spent in the store (Milliman, 1986; Hui et al., 1997). Background music can have different effects depending on genre, tempo, and volume. For example, slower background music may cause consumers to adjust their walking speed and move through the store at a correspondingly leisurely pace. The increased dwell time, in turn, has a positive effect on the number of items purchased and thus on the amount of the cash register receipt (Milliman, 1982). However, the influence of music as an acoustic stimulus at the PoS depends on several boundary conditions, including the age of the consumer (Gulas & Schewe, 1994), the volume and tempo (Milliman, 1982), and musical taste (Herrington, 1996). Music has an effect even – and sometimes only – when consumers do not consciously perceive it (Gulas & Schewe, 1994). Example: Can Music Influence the Choice of Wine? In a two-week field experiment, North et al. (1999) investigated precisely this question. In the first week they played typical French music over the loudspeakers of the retailer, in the second week typical German music. In parallel, they recorded the sales of the wine bottles. While in the first week significantly more French (40) than German (8) wine bottles went over the counter, in the second week more German (22) than French (12) wines were sold. A subsequent survey also showed that customers did not associate their choice of wine with the music. Thus, the researchers prove that music at the PoS can influence consumer behavior without customers being aware of it. ◄ 10.3 The Purchase Channel as a Physical Environment 151 10.3.1.3Olfactory Stimuli The so-called scent marketing tries to influence consumer behavior with the help of scents in order to increase the sales of products. Some shopping centers or train station malls deliberately use aromas to lure consumers to the nearest café (coffee aroma) or tea merchant (berry aroma). In doing so, scents that match the retailer can influence consumer attitudes and behavior (Mitchell et al., 1995). For example, a fresh scent can positively influence the perceived competence of a sports shop (Stöhr, 1998). The dosage of fragrances is of particular importance. They must not be used in an obtrusive manner, as they otherwise generate reactance in the consumer and have a negative effect on his behavior. However, there are also counter-examples here. The US fashion company Abercrombie & Fitch blows the sweet smell of its perfume “Fierce” through the ventilation systems of its stores, literally marking the clothes in the store. 10.3.1.4Gustatory Stimuli For many, food is a pleasure and associated with positive emotions. It therefore makes sense that retailers want to use product tastings or live cooking events in the store to stimulate consumers’ taste buds. We recall that Ben in the introductory example was also attracted by one of these promotions. Empirical studies support the impact of product tastings at the PoS (Phillips et al., 2015). They can encourage consumers who are planning to purchase a particular branded product to switch brands, but they can also encourage the purchase of products that the consumer did not previously have on their shopping list (Heilman et al., 2011). The reasons why a consumer reaches for a product tasting range from hedonic motives (“Product tastings make shopping more enjoyable.”) to utilitarian motives (“I want to learn more about the product.”) to physiological motives (“I’m hungry.”). 10.3.1.5Haptic Stimuli In retail stores, consumers absorb information via haptic stimuli by touching products. The need for haptic stimuli for the purchase decision varies between individuals. The “Need for Touch” (NFT) scale measures this need on the basis of two dimensions (Peck & Childers, 2003a; cf. Figure 10.2): • Autotelic NFT is intrinsically motivated. Touching products occurs because of hedonic goals, such as fun or pleasure, and often happens automatically and unconsciously. • Individuals with a high level of Instrumental NFT touch products in order to obtain purchase-relevant information about other product characteristics. They are characterized by a higher goal orientation in the purchase process. Individuals with a high NFT evaluate products better if they can touch them in advance (Peck & Childers, 2003b; Nuszbaum et al., 2010). The haptic stimulus can also increase the probability of purchase. This influence of haptic stimulus on consumer purchase behavior occurs unconsciously. Skilled salespeople therefore use haptic stimuli by 152 Item (Dimension) 10 Physical Environment Agree Disagree When walking through stores, I can’t help touching all kinds of products. (A) Touching products can be fun. (A) I feel more comfortable purchasing a product after physically examining it. (I) I place more trust in products that can be touched before purchase. (I) If I can’t touch a product in the store, I am reluctant to purchase the product. (I) Fig. 10.2 Extract from the NFT scale encouraging consumers to try products. Even in the age of digitalization, haptic stimuli require a physical environment (stationary retail) and, like taste and olfactory stimuli, cannot be transferred to the media environment. Example: Experience Orientation in the Retail Store Whether in the plunge pool, the climbing tunnel or the cold chamber: The store design and atmosphere of the outdoor retailer Globetrotter offers consumers a variety of opportunities to try out products directly in the store. Scan the QR code to get an insight into the Dresden experience branch. ◄ 10.3.2Spatial Breakdown of the Purchasing Channel “Where do I find the olive oil? Do you have soy milk?” Much of the guidance consumers seek at the PoS is for orientation purposes. For retailers, smooth consumer orientation is critical to success. After all, surveys show that consumers postpone or even discard every fifth planned product purchase because they cannot find the corresponding product (Kroeber-Riel & Gröppel-Klein, 2013). The orientation in the room and the movement behavior in the room provide information on the optimal spatial distribution of the purchase channel. 10.3 The Purchase Channel as a Physical Environment 153 10.3.2.1Orientation in Space How do people orient themselves in shopping centers or stores? According to the findings of social geography, people use so-called cognitive maps, i.e. mental representations of a geographical space. In the case of consumers, this geographical space refers, for example, to a shop or to the entire shopping center. Cognitive maps are characterized by the features shown in Table 10.2 (Lynch, 1960). Consumers’ cognitive maps of shopping centers and stores are usually distorted and do not reflect reality to scale and proportionally. Familiar and prominent features take up a lot of space, while other features are underrepresented. This affects consumer orientation in shopping centers and retail stores. Orientation in the Shop Consumers orient themselves in retail stores with the help of spatial references between objects (“The olive oil is on the right under the balsamic vinegar.”) and pictorial elements (“on the shelf opposite the red column”). Studies also show that consumers orient themselves to distinctive features in the store, such as the main aisles, large objects such as refrigerated counters or display units, as well as colored surfaces and advertising boards. These objects are usually located in the peripheral areas of the store. Therefore, consumers remember better the location of products that are located outside the store. Product locations in the interior of the store are less well remembered because they offer fewer landmarks and are very similar in structure and layout (Kroeber-Riel & Gröppel-Klein, 2013, p. 509; Sommer & Aitkens, 1982). To help consumers find their way around the space and to ease the burden on employees, some retailers are setting up touch screens and electronic info terminals. Some retailers have also developed apps that navigate customers through the store. Depending on the retailer, the apps offer additional value such as discounts, coupons and product info. Newer developments include so-called beacons, small Bluetooth transmitters that are attached to shelves, signs or doors, for example, and communicate with the customer’s smartphone. With the help of the small transmitters, retailers can even determine the location of the consumers in the store, navigate them through the store to a special offer or grant them an individual discount and thus influence their consumer behaviors. Table 10.2 Characteristics of cognitive maps for retail stores and shopping centers Feature Pathways Limitations Territories Nodes Landmarks Shop Main courses in the shop Shelves, sales tables Fruit department, deli counter Crossroads Information terminals, cash registers Based on Lynch (1960) Shopping center Main courses in the center Rows of seats, flower pots Areas such as gastronomy Crossroads Escalators, elevator 154 10 Physical Environment rientation in the Shopping Center O In a shopping center, consumers find retail stores and service providers of different industries spatially united under one roof. Consumer orientation in shopping centers also follows the laws of environmental psychology and social geography. In the cognitive map, architectural features such as entrances and exits, crossroads, escalators or elevators are particularly prominent. Anchor tenants and secondary points of attraction are other special landmarks in the cognitive map of consumers. Anchor tenants exert an above-average attraction on consumers, so that they ensure a higher frequency of shopping centers. These are usually large department stores (e.g. Galeria Kaufhof), clothing stores (e.g. H&M) or electronics retailers (e.g. Saturn). Secondary attractions are restaurants, banks or quiet areas (Kroeber-Riel & Gröppel-Klein, 2013). ovement Behavior in Space M There are two observations about human locomotion that are particularly interesting for consumer behavior research. First, people tend to walk on the right side. This has to do with socialization, such as the right-hand driving requirement in most countries. For another, people tend to drift to the left when walking. If people get lost in the wilderness, for example, they usually walk around to the left in a very large circle. Many retailers take advantage of this knowledge and guide the consumer counterclockwise through the store by positioning the entrance on the right and then using the shelf layout to guide the consumer left through the store. Furthermore, consumers tend to reach for products on the right, as most are right-handed. Considering that consumers have a wall-based orientation, it is not surprising that they avoid interior aisles and heavily frequent right-side retail spaces (Underhill, 2009). These basic tendencies of human movement behavior as well as the findings on the cognitive map lead to top spots and flop spots (Table 10.3) in retail stores (Kroeber-Riel & Gröppel-Klein, 2013). Retailers align the spatial distribution of the shopping channel strongly with findings on the orientation of consumers in the space and their movement behavior. If these findings are summarized, four store zones with typical consumer behavior patterns and Table 10.3 Top spots and flop spots in retail stores Top spots Main routesa Right-hand sales areasb Lift, stairs etc.a Passageway intersectionsa Checkout zonesa Based on Kroeber-Riel and Gröppel-Klein (2013) Substantiation: a Cognitive maps b Movement behavior Flop spots Middle aislesb Left sales areasb Higher and lower floorsb Dead endsa Rooms behind the cash registersb 10.3 The Purchase Channel as a Physical Environment 155 corresponding sales-promoting measures by retailers can be identified in principle (Underhill, 2009; Table 10.4). Not only the spatial division of the shopping channel in general, but also the position of the product on the retailer’s shelf shapes the consumer’s physical environment at the PoS. The shelf division takes place on a horizontal level and on a vertical level. On the vertical level, a distinction is made between four shelf zones. • The stretching zone is located at a height of over 180 cm and thus outside the direct field of vision of most consumers. As a result, products in this zone are perceived less strongly. • The viewing zone is set at a height of 140–160 cm. Consumers include products in this area most strongly in their selection process, as they are in direct view at eye level. Retailers position premium products here, where the profit margin is highest. • The grip zone between 60 and 140 cm is suitable for positioning the normal assortment, for novelties and for impulse articles. • The stoop zone below 60 cm is available for so-called fast-moving items (i.e. goods that are sold quickly) and merchandise. On a horizontal level, it is important to consider that consumers perceive the shelf from left to right along the reading direction. Therefore, for example, different varieties can be placed next to each other instead of positioning one variety in a row. Facing expresses the visibility of a product. The number of facings determines sales. It can be increased by taking into account the advice on vertical and horizontal shelf layout discussed in this section. Therefore, products should be shown from their best side. The shelf should offer variety. Handle gaps and out-of-stock should be avoided and long contact distances (presentation width of at least 30 cm) should be realized (Kroeber-Riel & Gröppel-Klein, 2013). Table 10.4 Typical retail store zones Area Rear and upper shop areas Transition zone Parking spaces Billboards and posters Typical behavior Customers avoid rear and upper store areas Quickly cross the parking lot and enter the store Customers need both hands when shopping Customers only pay attention to posters when they have time Based on Underhill (2009) Marketing measures Integrate rear and upper areas through attractive offers and architecture “Runway” for deceleration, e.g. through personal greetings in the entrance area Provision of storage areas (counters, cloakrooms) and of containers (shopping baskets, carrier bags) Place information boards and posters near escalators, queues and toilets 156 10 Physical Environment Example: Can an Unplanned Purchase Be Planned? In-Store Slack Stilley et al. (2010a) show that consumers plan for unplanned purchases in advance. Apparently, most consumers calculate before a purchase that they do not have certain products on their shopping list, but need them or suddenly want to acquire them in the shopping situation. There are several reasons for these planned impulse purchases (in- store slack): People may simply have forgotten that they want or need the product and are reminded of it when they look at the supermarket shelf. Consumer impulsivity also plays a role here. Another study by Stilley et al. (2010b) shows the following: Consumers have a “mental budget” and the planned amount of total purchases (on average US$66.45 in the study) roughly matches the actual amount of total purchases (US$69.84). However, instore slack was significantly higher than planned (US$20.37), averaging US$34.59. ◄ 10.4The Product as Part of the Physical Environment Every object of the material environment that has meaning for a person can be part of the physical environment (Hellbrück & Kals, 2012). As a carrier of information and meaning, the product itself and in particular the packaging of the product are thus part of the physical environment and among the relevant influencing variables at the PoS. Product packaging generally fulfills four functions for consumers (Meffert et al., 2018). 1. Protective function: The packaging protects the product from contamination (e.g. shrink-wrapped cheese) or damage (e.g. TV in cardboard and Styrofoam). 2. Distribution function: The packaging makes it possible and easier for the consumer to transport the product home (e.g. carrying handle on the washing powder package). 3. Use function: Packaging can facilitate the use of the product (e.g. easier opening or resealability). 4. Information function: The packaging can be used to provide information about product characteristics. The information function can be explicit, but also implicit. Explicit product information in the case of food is, for example, information on nutritional values or energy efficiency in the case of household appliances. Implicit product information is communicated through the packaging design and is intended to encourage the consumer to buy. Consumers process all stimuli (visual, acoustic, olfactory, haptic) emanating from product packaging – often unconsciously – and form a judgement based on this. The packaging of light foods, for example, is often in light pastel shades (e.g. light blue) and is thus implicitly intended to communicate associations such as lightness and health. Depending on the color, typography, shape and material of the packaging, different stimuli have an effect on the consumer (Ampuero & Vila, 2006). However, the effect of these stimuli also depends on the product itself, so that we cannot formulate any generally valid rules of thumb at this point (along the lines of “red packaging encourages consumers to buy”). The interplay between 10.5 Salespersons and Other Persons at the Point of Sale 157 the design possibilities of packaging and the product itself is too complex for this, as the following example study illustrates. Example: Healthy and Delicious? It Can’t Be! The “Unhealthy = Tasty” Intuition The “Unhealthy = Tasty” intuition (UTI) states that consumers associate unpalatable foods with a healthy lifestyle and palatable foods with an unhealthy lifestyle (Raghunathan et al., 2006). Mai et al. (2016) show that UTI is also prevalent in light products, which often use pastel shades in packaging design; and this is dependent on health consciousness. Health-conscious consumers have a positive attitude towards pastel-colored product packaging. Consumers with a low health consciousness, on the other hand, unconsciously judge the product as not tasty due to the pastel-colored packaging and decide not to buy it. ◄ 10.5Salespersons and Other Persons at the Point of Sale Consumers encounter sales staff and other consumers at the PoS. These also belong to the social environment. However, they are bound to the specific context of the physical environment, i.e. the point of sale. Therefore, we address their influence in this chapter. 10.5.1Characteristics of the Seller Research on the influence of the salesperson on consumer behavior has long been concerned with the characteristics of the salesperson. Success in sales was considered to be the result of personal qualities and characteristics of the salesperson (e.g. age, gender, appearance, self-confidence). More recent studies understand the sales process as an interaction between the salesperson and the consumer at the PoS. Thus, success or failure depends on the behavior of both actors. Nevertheless, salespeople can use suitable techniques to control the interaction situation and thus attempt to influence the behavior of consumers – towards a purchase (Kroeber-Riel & Gröppel-Klein, 2013). Mehrabian and Ferris (1967) postulated 50 years ago that the interaction process is influenced by 7% verbal, 38% vocal and 55% mimic (7-38-55 rule). Due to their low external validity (Sect. 2.4.4), these values should not be applied to the interaction between salesperson and consumer to the exact percentage. However, the three elements show the levels at which salesperson behavior can influence interaction with the customer. • Verbal: Through the spoken word, the salesperson can interact with the customer, clarify their questions about the product and create trust. Trust is considered a critical success factor for a successful interaction. Whether the customer trusts the salesperson depends on whether the customer judges the salesperson to be competent, whether the 158 10 Physical Environment customer feels that the salesperson is not pressuring the customer to buy, as well as on the general service quality of the retailer (Kennedy et al., 2001). • Vocal: Voice quality, speech melody and pauses in speech are summarized under vocal behavior. Studies show that salespeople who speak particularly fast have more persuasive power. However, a constant speech tempo – whether fast or slow – has little activating effect and is therefore less persuasive (Kroeber-Riel & Gröppel-Klein, 2013, p. 629). Even the salesperson’s accent affects consumer behavior. If the customer and the salesperson have the same dialect, the consumer is more satisfied with the advisory service and the probability of purchase increases (Mai & Hoffmann, 2011). • Facial expressions: Gestures and facial expressions as part of non-verbal communication can strongly influence the sales process. Basically, only authentic non-verbal behavior is promising (Kroeber-Riel & Gröppel-Klein, 2013). Approaching gestures and facial expressions (nodding in agreement, eye contact, slight smile, etc.) generate sympathy and thus approach behavior towards the interaction partner. Salespeople can control the interaction situation not only verbally, vocally and mimically, but also through sales techniques. The aim of sales techniques is to create compliance. Compliance generally means that a person voluntarily adheres to rules or agreements. Social psychology defines compliance somewhat more narrowly: according to this, it is a change in behavior due to outside influence (Gerrig, 2014). Social psychological theories can be used to explain how salespeople use sales techniques to generate compliance and how these lead to a purchase (Table 10.5). 10.5.2Presence and Absence of Other Consumers While we are likely to get bored and run away in a yawningly empty club, we quickly feel uncomfortable in a crowded train compartment. Arco et al. (2005) empirically determined that consumers experience fewer negative emotions when shopping if at least one other customer is present. Direct interaction with this person is not necessary for this. However, if the number of other customers increases, the experience of negative emotions increases again. The desire for the presence and absence of other people when consuming products and services can be explained by two different environmental psychological findings (Hellbrück & Kals, 2012): crowding is the experience of constriction and overcrowding. Studies show that crowding creates stress and strain in people. Anyone who has ever had to get the last Christmas presents on 12/23 should be all too familiar with this phenomenon. Crowd behavior shows that objective crowding doesn’t always have to subjectively create feelings of crowding. Heavily frequented stores are also a heuristic for quality for consumers (“If there are so many in the store, it can only be good.”). For example, consumers find it pleasant to be in close proximity to each other in football stadiums, at concerts or in discotheques. Crowd behavior refers to the behavior and experience of individuals in a crowd. By showing the same feelings and behavior, consumers experience a strong social bond. 10.5 Salespersons and Other Persons at the Point of Sale 159 Table 10.5 Typical sales techniques at the point of sale Door in the face Explanation A first makes a large request, which B rejects. B then probably agrees to the subsequent smaller request Foot in the door A makes a small request, which is followed by a large request. If B has previously also agreed to the small request, then he or she very likely also agrees to the large request Compliance Reciprocity norm: If Self-perception theory: through someone does People infer their internal something for another, states such as attitudes, the latter feels obliged motives, and feelingsa to do something for the based on their past and former in return present behavior Example Low ball A makes a demand, but reveals only part of the initial conditions. If B agrees to this demand, A gives further – mostly negative – information Consistency theories: Group of theories that assign a motivational role to freedom from contradiction (consistency). For example, theory of cognitive dissonance,a according to which people strive for contradiction-free goal states and adapt contradictory cognitions In a sales conversation, Those who have A fitness trainer makes the a salesperson offers a previously agreed to sign a studio palatable to the product at a high price petition against the potential customer (“for only (“the used car costs deforestation of the 20 EUR a month you can 6000 EUR”) and rainforest are more likely train as often as you like.”). immediately to make a monetary After the consumer has backpedals (“but donation afterwards. The convinced himself of the because it’s you, I’ll inner dialogue could be as advantages of the studio and make it 5800 EUR”). follows: “Am I willing to wants to sign the contract, After the salesperson donate EUR 10 per the trainer reveals further has done the customer month? Why not, after all, costs (e.g. 90 EUR admission a favor (lowered the I have already shown fee). Since the customer has price), the customer environmentally friendly meanwhile generated many feels obligated to buy behavior in the past, such positive arguments himself according to the as participating in the (“visiting the studio is good reciprocity norm and signature campaign” for my health.”), he adjusts the probability of the negative information to purchase increases avoid dissonance (“I had imagined a higher monthly fee anyway and the modern training equipment justifies this admission fee.”) and puts his signature under the contract Based on Bem (1972) and Festinger (1957) a Festinger (1957) b Bem (1972) 160 10 Physical Environment 10.6Learning Aid Quintessence The consumer’s physical environment has a significant effect on his or her behavior. The environmental psychological model of Mehrabian and Russell helps to explain this effect. The atmosphere of the shopping channel and the spatial layout of the store take on a special role. In addition to space, objects such as products and product placements as well as subjects such as salespeople and other consumers at the PoS also influence consumers in their physical environment. ◄ Exercise Questions and Tasks Complete the following sentence: According to the environmental psychological model, the effect of the environmental stimulus also depends on the personality of the recipient. Mehrabian and Russell (1974) distinguish two types: ____________ are receptive to environmental stimuli, while ____________ prefer a physical environment with a low stimulus volume. Right or wrong? Mehrabian and Russell’s (1974) environmental psychological model of behavior assumes that the physical environment influences the behavior of individuals through emotional responses. Tick the correct answer(s). In a retail store, the following environmental stimuli can affect consumers: O Visual stimuli O Acoustic stimuli O Olfactory stimuli O Taste stimuli O Haptic stimuli Cross-Linking Question Whether Mymuesli or Notebooksbilliger: More and more online pure players are opening a brick-and-mortar store in addition to their online shop. Discuss this decision against the background of Mehrabian and Russell’s (1974) environmental psychological model of behavior. Further Reading Jain, R., & Bagdare, S. (2011). Music and consumption experience: A review. International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, 39(4), 289–302. References 161 Teller, C., & Dennis, C. (2012). The effect of ambient scent on consumers’ perception, emotions and behaviour: A critical review. Journal of Marketing Management, 28(1–2), 14–36. Turley, L. W., & Milliman, R. E. (2000). Atmospheric effects on shopping behavior: A review of the experimental evidence. Journal of Business Research, 49(2), 193–211. References Ampuero, O., & Vila, N. (2006). Consumer perceptions of product packaging. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 23(2), 100–112. Arco, J. J., Dahl, D. W., & Manchanda, R. V. (2005). The influence of mere social presence in retail context. Journal of Consumer Research, 32(2), 207–212. Baker, J., Levy, M., & Grewal, D. (1992). An experimental approach to making retail store environmental decisions. Journal of Retailing, 68(4), 445–460. Baker, J., Parasuraman, A., Grewal, D., & Voss, G. B. (2002). The influence of multiple store environment cues on perceived merchandise value and patronage intentions. Journal of Marketing, 66(2), 120–141. Bellizzi, J. A., & Hite, R. E. (1992). Environmental color, consumer feelings, and purchase likelihood. Psychology & Marketing, 9(5), 347–363. Bellizzi, J. A., Crowley, A. E., & Hasty, R. W. (1983). The effects of color in store design. Journal of Retailing, 59(1), 21–45. Bem, D. J. (1972). Self-perception theory. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 6, pp. 1–62). Academic. Bitner, M. J. (1992). Servicescapes: The impact of physical surroundings on customers and employees. Journal of Marketing, 56(2), 57–71. Blackwell, R. D., Miniard, P. W., & Engel, J. F. (2001). Consumer behavior (9th ed.). Harcourt. Crowley, A. E. (1993). The two-dimensional impact of color on shopping. Marketing Letters, 4(1), 59–69. Donovan, R. J., & Rossiter, J. R. (1982). Store atmosphere: An environmental psychology approach. Journal of Retailing, 58(1), 34–57. Donovan, R. J., Rossiter, J. R., Marcoolyn, G., & Nesdale, A. (1994). Store atmosphere and purchasing behavior. Journal of Retailing, 70(3), 283–294. Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Row & Peterson. Gerrig, R. J. (2014). Psychologie (20th ed.). Pearson. Gulas, C. S., & Schewe, C. D. (1994). Atmospheric segmentation: Managing store image with background music. In R. Achrol & A. Mitchell (Eds.), Enhancing knowledge development in marketing (pp. 325–330). American Marketing Association. Heilman, C., Lakishyk, K., & Radas, S. (2011). An empirical investigation of in-store sampling promotions. British Food Journal, 113(10), 1252–1266. Hellbrück, J., & Kals, E. (2012). Umweltpsychologie. Springer. Herrington, J. D. (1996). Effects of music in service environments: A field study. Journal of Services Marketing, 10(2), 26–41. Hui, M. K., Dube, L., & Chebat, J. C. (1997). The impact of music on consumers’ reactions to waiting for services. Journal of Retailing, 73(1), 87–104. Kennedy, M. S., Ferrell, L. K., & LeClair, D. T. (2001). Consumers’ trust of salesperson and manufacturer: An empirical study. Journal of Business Research, 51(1), 73–86. Kroeber-Riel, W., & Gröppel-Klein, A. (2013). Konsumentenverhalten (10th ed.). Vahlen. Lynch, K. (1960). The image of the city (Bd. 11). MIT Press. 162 10 Physical Environment Mai, R., & Hoffmann, S. (2011). Four positive effects of a salesperson’s regional dialect in personal selling. Journal of Service Research, 14(4), 423–437. Mai, R., Symmank, C., & Seeberg-Elverfeldt, B. (2016). Light and pale colors in food packaging: When does this package cue signal superior healthiness or inferior tastiness? Journal of Retailing, 92(4), 426–444. Meffert, H., Burmann, C., Kirchgeorg, M., & Eisenbeiß, M. (2018). Marketing. Grundlagen marktorientierter Unternehmensführung. Konzepte – Instrumente – Praxisbeispiele (13th ed.). Springer Gabler. Mehrabian, A., & Ferris, S. R. (1967). Inference of attitudes from nonverbal communication in two channels. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 31(3), 248–252. Mehrabian, A., & Russell, J. A. (1974). An approach to environmental psychology. MIT Press. Milliman, R. E. (1982). Using background music to affect the behavior of supermarket shoppers. Journal of Marketing, 46(3), 86–91. Milliman, R. E. (1986). The influence of background music on the behavior of restaurant patrons. Journal of Consumer Research, 13(2), 286–289. Mitchell, D. J., Kahn, B. E., & Knasko, S. C. (1995). There’s something in the air: Effects of congruent or incongruent ambient odor on consumer decision making. Journal of Consumer Research, 22(2), 229–238. North, A. C., Hargreaves, D. J., & McKendrick, J. (1999). The influence of in-store music on wine selections. Journal of Applied Psychology, 84(2), 271–276. Nuszbaum, M., Voss, A., Klauer, K. C., & Betsch, T. (2010). Assessing individual differences in the use of haptic information using a German translation of the need for touch scale. Social Psychology, 41(4), 263–274. Peck, J., & Childers, T. L. (2003a). Individual differences in haptic information processing: The “need for touch” scale. Journal of Consumer Research, 30(3), 430–442. Peck, J., & Childers, T. L. (2003b). To have and to hold: The influence of haptic information on product judgments. Journal of Marketing, 67(2), 35–48. Phillips, M., Parsons, A. G., Wilkinson, H. J., & Ballantine, P. W. (2015). Competing for attention with in-store promotions. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 26, 141–146. Raghunathan, R., Naylor, R. W., & Hoyer, W. D. (2006). The unhealthy = tasty intuition and its effects on taste inferences, enjoyment, and choice of food products. Journal of Marketing, 70(4), 170–184. Sommer, R., & Aitkens, S. (1982). Mental mapping of two supermarkets. Journal of Consumer Research, 9(2), 211–215. Stilley, K. M., Inman, J. J., & Wakefield, K. L. (2010a). Planning to make unplanned purchases? The role of in-store slack in budget deviation. Journal of Consumer Research, 37(2), 264–278. Stilley, K. M., Inman, J. J., & Wakefield, K. L. (2010b). Spending on the fly: Mental budgets, promotions, and spending behavior. Journal of Marketing, 74(3), 34–47. Stöhr, A. (1998). Air-Design als Erfolgsfaktor im Handel: Modellgestützte Erfolgsbeurteilung und strategische Empfehlungen. Gabler. Underhill, P. (2009). Why we buy: The science of shopping. Simon & Schuster. Media Environment cc 11 YouTube Killed the Radio Star With the radio playing in the background, Lea and Ben sit on the sofa with their tablets, watching the latest vlogs from their respective favorite YouTubers. “I think I’ll give the vegan diet thing a try too.” “Excuse me?” asks Lea in surprise, closing the travel vlog she had been watching in a relaxed manner a moment ago. “You’re going to voluntarily give up burgers?” “Well, my favorite YouTuber is an athlete and also eats a vegan diet. And in a way, you’re right about your concerns about animals suffering so much.” “I think that’s great, Ben. I’ll go straight out and find us some vegan recipes that we can cook together.” However, Ben doesn’t get Lea’s answer anymore. He has just clicked on the link to a vegan protein shake that the vlogger recommended. Consumers use media for many reasons: They relax in front of the TV, they inform themselves about products and services on the Internet or they exchange information with other consumers via social media. But how do consumers choose from the wide range of media on offer and how does the media environment influence their behavior? © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2023 S. Hoffmann, P. Akbar, Consumer Behavior, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-39476-9_11 163 164 11 Media Environment Learning Objectives In this chapter you will learn, …. • how media convey information between companies and consumers (Sect. 11.1), • what consumers do with media (Sect. 11.2) and • what the media do to consumers (Sect. 11.3), … by looking at the consumer’s media environment through the following models and theories: • • • • Sender-Receiver Model, Uses and Gratification Theory, Mood Management Theory, and Flow Theory. 11.1How Media Mediate Between Consumers and Their Environment Just do it! Belong anywhere. Real Magic. Whether Nike, airbnb or Coca-Cola, companies want to communicate with consumers. The following applies: there is no such thing as unmediated communication; communication always requires a medium (Batinic & Appel, 2008). The best-known communication model that integrates the mediating role of media in communication is Shannon and Weaver’s (1949; see Fig. 11.1) sender-receiver model. A sender (e.g. Nike) encodes and transmits a message (“Just do it!”) through a transmission medium (TV transmission mast), which reaches the receiver’s (consumer’s) reception medium (TV set) via the transmission channel (atmosphere). Many theoretical approaches to the media environment borrow from Shannon and Weaver’s work. In it, sources of interference take on a special role. They lead to a divergence between transmitted and received information. Shannon and Weaver originally understood interference sources to be technical transmission problems, such as noise on the line. However, transmission interference can also arise because the sender and receiver encode and decode the information differently, for example because they have different motives and expectations or come from different cultural backgrounds. Newer approaches therefore take into account all the processes of information processing (Sect. 5.1) in the receivers and their motivation to deal with media content. Thus, consumers who do not speak English (information processing) or who have little to do with sport (low motivation) will probably not be receptive to the slogan sent by Nike and pay little attention to the corresponding media content. 11.1 How Media Mediate Between Consumers and Their Environment Sender Encoder (transmission medium) Channel Decoder (reception medium) 165 Receiver Noise Fig. 11.1 Sender-receiver model. (Adapted from Shannon & Weaver, 1949) 11.1.1Systematization of the Media Environment Media assume a mediating function between the sender and the receiver of information. A distinction is made between four groups of media (Burkart, 2002; Pross, 1972). • Primary media convey information between sender and receiver without technical aids. For example, consumers use language, gestures and facial expressions to convey their order to the waiter in the restaurant. • In the case of secondary media, the sender uses a technical aid to produce the information, which can be received by the other party without any aid. For the production of a print magazine as a medium, publishing houses need technical devices such as PCs and printers. The recipient, however, can read the magazine without any technical aids at all. • Tertiary media require technical aids for both the sender and the receiver. For a cozy TV evening, the consumer needs a receiver and the TV studio needs a transmitting station. • Quaternary media take the digital revolution into account. The production, transmission and consumption of information take place via digital media and digital technical aids (e.g. smartphone). They can also be understood as a hybrid of the first three types of media. Quaternary media break with the rigid distribution of roles between sender and receiver, because in the course of digitalization people no longer just consume media content, but also produce it. Via social media offerings such as Facebook and YouTube, consumers can not only use the content of others, but also create content themselves. 11.1.2Media of Individual and Mass Communication Different forms of communication between companies and consumers are divided into individual media and mass media depending on the number of recipients (Six et al., 2007). • Individual media such as telephone, e-mail or video conferencing enable so-called one-to-one communication between sender and recipient. Some online retailers offer consumers the option of contacting an employee directly via a chat function or a messenger service such as WhatsApp. 166 11 Media Environment • Mass media make it possible to reach several recipients. One-to-many communication mediates between one sender and many consumers, e.g. via print, TV or radio (such as the Redbull company with its print magazine The Red Bulletin). Many-tomany communication mediates between many senders and many receivers, which is the case, for example, in web forums. Customers of the online retailer Amazon can exchange information about the retailer’s products and services in discussion forums. Practically anyone can participate in or view the course of the discussion. cc Keep in mind: Mass media are technical tools for the dissemination of content to a large number of recipients. Typical mass media include print media (e.g. newspapers, magazines, posters) and electronic media (e.g. broadcast media such as TV and radio and online services). Which medium the company chooses to contact the consumer depends on the following factors (Bak, 2014): target group reachability, target group size, heterogeneity/homogeneity of the target group, difficulty/simplicity of the message to be conveyed and the goal of the communication. The distinction between individual medium and mass medium is fluid, as the example of “individualized mass email” shows. Mass media play an important role in consumer behavior. Of interest here is how consumers deal with these media, which we discuss in Sect. 11.2, and also how media use affects consumers, which we discuss in Sect. 11.3. Background Info: Watch the Mass Media and the German Advertising Market Media Perspektiven is a monthly journal for media science and media policy topics published by Hessischer Rundfunk. The magazine analyzes the situation and development of the mass media as well as their role as advertising media. Use the QR code to access all issues published since 1970. 11.2Explanatory Approaches to Media Choice and Use What do consumers do with media? Or, in other words: How do consumers select media and how do they use them? Current theories and models of media use research assume an active recipient (user, receiver of media content) who turns to certain media offers according to his interests, needs and motives. Depending on the approach, one assumes a rational, habitualized or emotionally motivated media selection and use, which we explain in the following. 11.2.1Rational Media Use Two explanatory approaches to media choice and use that are based on rational deliberation and decision-making processes are the uses and gratification theory (UGT) and the GS-GO model (Batinic & Appel, 2008). 11.2 Explanatory Approaches to Media Choice and Use 167 11.2.1.1Uses and Gratification Theory According to the Uses and Gratification Theory (UGT), the consumer’s media choice and use is a problem-solving and active decision (remember: consumers are problem solvers). Gratification means reward. It sets in after consumers have been able to satisfy their needs or pursue their motives by using the media. The UGT makes five basic assumptions (Katz et al., 1974): • People use media actively and purposefully. • Recipients play a key role in the media usage process. They decide whether to start or stop the communication process. • Mass media compete with alternative sources or ways of satisfying needs. • Recipients are aware of their needs and motives for media use and they can name them in surveys. • Categories by which people describe their needs and motives for media use are crucial for the analysis of their devotion to certain media. Studies following the UGT identified a number of motives why consumers consume certain media (e.g. TV, print magazine) or media content (e.g. soaps, reality documentaries). Rubin (1983), for example, names nine motives for television use: arousal, information, relaxation, companionship, social interaction, escape, pass time, entertainment, habit. While Lea, for example, seeks relaxation on YouTube, Ben uses the medium to inform himself about the topic of fitness. Media users not only consume media; they also generate media content themselves. This is referred to as user-generated content. When consumers comment on an article on Spiegel Online or upload a video to YouTube, this is user-generated content. UGT can be used to explain how consumers deal with user-generated content (Shao, 2009). People consume user-generated content to inform or entertain themselves. They interact with media content and with other users by, for example, replying to comments and thereby satisfying their need for social relationships. By producing their own content, they express their motive for self-realization and self-expression. Background Info: On the Run – Escapism Escapism is an important motive of media use. It describes the recipient’s escape from everyday life. In modern societies, people build up tensions by having to orient themselves to socially defined role patterns when carrying out various activities (e.g. at work, at university). According to the UGT, media offerings can help people escape into another reality and leave these constraints behind, thereby reducing tensions (Batinic & Appel, 2008; Katz & Foulkes, 1962). 168 11 Media Environment Beliefs Gratification sought (GS) Media use Gratification obtained (GO) Evaluations Fig. 11.2 GS-GO model. (Adapted from Palmgreen et al., 1985) 11.2.1.2GS-GO Model The GS-GO model is a further development of the UGT (Palmgreen et al., 1985, cf. Fig. 11.2). It considers the gratification sought (GS) and the gratification obtained (GO) that people experience through the use of media offerings. Media offers can be the medium itself (TV), genres, programs or shows within the medium (soap, talk show, reality documentary) as well as content within the program (article about popular travel destinations in a magazine) (Six et al., 2007). Consumers have a certain idea and expectation of the extent to which a media offer can satisfy certain needs based on its characteristics (“Cicero is a magazine for political culture that you should read if you want to inform yourself deeply.”). At the same time, they evaluate these characteristics of the media offering (“In-depth information on political topics is good.”). They link these expectations and evaluations with each other and then decide to use the media offering with the highest assumed yield (“Cicero offers more in-depth information on political topics than Spiegel, for example.”). The recipient compares to what extent the gratification received by using the media offer corresponds to the expected return (“Was I able to satisfy my need for information by reading the Cicero magazine?”). The outcome of this comparison affects his or her future media choice (“What a great issue, I will buy the next copy too.”). For example, when Lea visits her favorite YouTuber’s channel, she expects easily digestible fare that helps her escape from her everyday life (escapism). She rates these characteristics positively. Although the radio is also on at the same time, she expects more relaxation from the latest YouTube video after a stressful week at university. She receives this and decides to stay longer on the channel than originally planned. The UGT and the GS-GO model are based on the assumption that people use high cognitive resources when choosing media and are very reflective when doing so. However, consumers do not always choose the media they use consciously and rationally. Rather, consumers often turn to a medium in a habitualized or emotionally motivated manner. 11.2 Explanatory Approaches to Media Choice and Use 169 11.2.2Habitualized Media Use Rubin (1983) distinguishes between instrumental and ritualized media use. The former includes the targeted search for media content and a high level of attention during its reception, as assumed by the UGT or the GS-GO model. By contrast, ritualized media choice and use is understood to be habitualized behavior to which consumers pay little attention and which they do not carry out in a targeted manner (cf. purchase decision typology, Sect. 7.1.3.2). In order to avoid cognitive effort, consumers use various heuristics when selecting media. Often the media choice is instrumental at the beginning (“Which series do I watch next on Netflix to relax?”) and it gradually turns into a habitualized behavior (“Oh, I could watch an episode again.”). Should the framework of the habitualized behavior change (“Oh, that was the last episode.”), conscious decision processes run again (“Which series do I watch next?”). 11.2.3Emotionally Motivated Media Use Zillmann (1988) postulates with the mood management theory that it depends on the mood of the recipients which media content they select. As a theoretical justification, he cites the hedonic principle, according to which people strive to generate positive emotions and avoid negative emotions. The psychophysiological arousal level (Sect. 4.1.2) plays an important role in mood management theory. If it is too low (e.g. boredom) or too high (e.g. stress), people feel unwell. By consuming media content, consumers can compensate for these unpleasant states and restore their sense of well-being. When bored, one chooses varied and stimulating media content, and when stressed, one chooses calming content that has nothing to do with the cause of the stress. The process of mood management is unconscious, so according to mood management theory, questionnaires are not a suitable tool for measuring media choice. Researchers therefore usually analyze the influence of mood management on the choice of media content in the context of experiments in which they induce a certain mood in the subjects and subsequently observe their media choice. Such studies show that the mood of the recipient influences the selection of different media content, such as television programs (Bryant & Zillmann, 1984), newspaper articles (Biswas et al., 1994) or music (Knobloch & Zillmann, 2002). Background Info: Heartbreak Doesn’t Pay, or Does It? The Sad Film Paradox With almost 19 million moviegoers in Germany and a worldwide box office takings of over 2 billion US dollars, Titanic is one of the most successful films of all time. Without spoiling, many viewers may have felt a lump in their throat at the end of the film. But why do recipients choose sad and tragic media content? According to mood management theory, this decision seems illogical at first glance. However, the sad-film paradox reveals that recipients experience the negative mood generated by movies as positive, partly because experiencing media sadness is unconsciously associated with positive self-attribution (“I am a compassionate and empathetic person.”). In this way, they also engage in mood management (Oliver, 1993). 170 11 Media Environment 11.3The Effect of the Media Environment on the Consumer What do media do to people? In marketing, this question is of particular interest in the context of communication policy and advertising research. There is no doubt that mass communication mediated by the media has an effect on the experience and behavior of consumers. We therefore now turn our attention to selected effects of the media environment on the consumer. 11.3.1Knowledge Gap and Knowledge Illusion People use media, among other things, to satisfy their need for information. Studies show a positive correlation between media use and knowledge growth (Batinic & Appel, 2008). According to the knowledge gap hypothesis, however, this knowledge growth is unequal between people with a formally higher education and those with a formally lower education (Six et al., 2007). Well educated people experience a greater increase in knowledge from media use than people who are educationally disadvantaged because they • • • • are better able to separate the important from the unimportant content. have more prior knowledge on certain topics. process information faster. use several different media (e.g. TV, daily newspaper, etc.) instead of only one medium (e.g. only TV). As the flow of information steadily increases and more and more media are available, the inequality between different social groups increases. The knowledge gap is widening (Tichenor et al., 1970). The term digital divide attributes knowledge gaps to differences in access to the Internet and in the way the World Wide Web is used. Both, in turn, depend on socioeconomic status (Sect. 8.2.2) (Wei & Hindman, 2011). Knowledge illusion is the deviation of the subjective assessment of one’s own knowledge (“I feel well informed.”) from the actual, objectively measurable knowledge that consumers obtain from the media. In particular, television use leads to the knowledge illusion, while readers of daily newspapers can assess their knowledge more realistically. This relationship is explained by the fact that TV distracts from the actual information to be conveyed due to its visual component (Six et al., 2007). 11.3.2Flow Experience Flow refers to complete immersion and complete absorption in an activity. The psychologist Mihalyi Csikszentmihalyi (1975, 1996) first observed this state in extreme athletes (e.g. mountaineers) and various professional groups (e.g. surgeons). Later, it was found 11.3 The Effect of the Media Environment on the Consumer 171 that flow is also relevant for consumer behavior and that it occurs especially when dealing with electronic media (e.g., Internet, computer games) (Hoffman & Novak, 2009). People who experience a flow state (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975, 1996), • • • • • feel optimally strained. can control an action despite high demands. perceive the demand and feedback from an action as clear and understandable. know what to do at any time without thinking about it. report that time flies. Whether consumers experience a flow state depends on their abilities and the demands of the activity. Flow requires that both are highly developed and in balance (Csikszentmihalyi, 1996, cf. Fig. 11.3). In the case of media use, the flow state depends in particular on the media content (demands) and the user’s ability to interpret this media content. The latter is influenced by the media experience and the cognitive abilities of the consumer (Sherry, 2004). In the online context, the flow experience occurs particularly easily due to direct feedback (“Clicking led to the desired subpage.”). However, it depends strongly on the complexity of the website how high the demand on the user is. However, higher complexity often means that the website is richer and therefore more interesting. While consumers prefer a low level of structural complexity when navigating the website (“How do I get back to the main page quickly?”), a high level of complexity in terms of design and content promotes the perceived pleasure of surfing (“Great, there is so much to discover.”) (Hoffmann et al., 2011; Mai et al., 2014). high Flow Apathy Boredom Challenge Anxiety low low Skills Fig. 11.3 Flow model. (Based on Csikszentmihalyi, 1996) low 172 11 Media Environment 11.3.3Social Media Whether TV, print or radio: most media content is also financed by advertising. Therefore, consumers not only receive media content, but also – intentionally or not – advertising content. New advertising formats in the social media complement traditional advertising on TV, on advertising pillars or in magazines. The special thing about it: While classic advertising usually interrupts the media feed (e.g. commercial break) and is thus often perceived as annoying by recipients, social media enables a subtle and less intrusive transmission of the advertising message from the sender to the recipient. Examples include blogs (e.g. Tumblr), vlogs (e.g. YouTube), microblogging services (e.g. Twitter) and, of course, social networks (e.g. Facebook). Social media creates new advertising formats for companies, which they use in particular in the following two ways. In content marketing, companies inform, advise or entertain their target group via various media. In contrast to advertisements or radio spots, the focus is on editorial content that is intended to offer consumers added value (Heinemann, 2014). The company Otto, for example, runs the blog “Two for Fashion” and informs its target group about fashion and lifestyle. Users can comment on blog entries and share content on Facebook or Pinterest. In the sense of viral marketing, they thus pass on the company’s message to other consumers free of charge (Hutter & Hoffmann, 2014). In affiliate marketing, companies do not make direct contact with consumers. Instead, they pay a sales partner (affiliate) for initiating the sale (Heinemann, 2014). Many YouTubers also report on products in their vlogs and then link to an online shop. They thus appear as social media influencers. If the recipient clicks on the link, the YouTuber receives a commission from the company as an affiliate. In the social media context, however, classic advertising techniques continue to play a role, which the consumer encounters in a new guise, such as product placement in YouTube videos, advertisements on Facebook or “radio advertising” on Spotify. Ben was also tempted by his favorite vlogger to order the advertised vegan protein shake. cc Keep in mind. Social media encompasses digital media and technologies that individuals, networks, communities, and organizations use to communicate, collaborate, and share content, opinions, experiences, and information (Tuten & Solomon, 2017). 11.4Learning Aid Quintessence Media mediate between the consumer and his environment. Shannon and Weaver’s model of information transmission describes the mediating function. Explanatory approaches such as the uses and gratification theory and the GS-GO model show that consumers use media to satisfy a variety of needs and motives. When using media, consumers can experience a flow state. ◄ References 173 Exercise Questions and Tasks Complete the following sentence: According to rational explanations of media use, the motives for media use include __________ and ___________. Right or wrong? The Sad-Film-Paradox describes the escape of the recipients from their everyday lives by consuming sad and tragic media content. Tick the correct answer(s). What is not a basic assumption of the uses and gratification theory? O People use media actively and purposefully. O Recipients play a key role in the media use process and decide whether to start or stop the communication process. O People often make their media choices unconsciously. O Mass media compete with alternative sources of need satisfaction. Cross-Linking Question Using flow theory, explain why travel blogs are popular with consumers and discuss potential pitfalls in web design by considering research findings on website complexity. Further Reading Batinic, B., & Appel, M. (2008). Medienpsychologie. Springer. Heinemann, G. (2014). Der neue Online-Handel: Geschäftsmodell und Kanalexzellenz im Digital Commerce. Springer. Mai, R., Hoffmann, S., Schwarz, U., Niemand, T., & Seidel, J. (2014). The shifting range of optimal web site complexity. Journal of Interactive Marketing, 28(2), 101–116. References Bak, P. M. (2014). Werbe- und Konsumentenpsychologie. Eine Einführung. Schäffer-Poeschel. Batinic, B., & Appel, M. (2008). Medienpsychologie. Springer. Biswas, R., Riffe, D., & Zillmann, D. (1994). Mood influence on the appeal of bad news. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 71(3), 689–696. Bryant, J., & Zillmann, D. (1984). Using television to alleviate boredom and stress: Selective exposure as a function of induced excitational states. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 28(1), 1–20. Burkart, R. (2002). Kommunikationswissenschaft: Grundlagen und Problemfelder: Umrisse einer interdisziplinären Sozialwissenschaft. UTB. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1975). Play and intrinsic rewards. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 15(3), 41–63. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1996). Flow and the psychology of discovery and invention. Harper Collins. 174 11 Media Environment Heinemann, G. (2014). Der neue Online-Handel: Geschäftsmodell und Kanalexzellenz im Digital Commerce. Springer. Hoffman, D. L., & Novak, T. P. (2009). Flow online: Lessons learned and future prospects. Journal of Interactive Marketing, 23(1), 23–34. Hoffmann, S., Schwarz, U., & Mueller, S. (2011). The ambivalent effects of website complexity. International Journal of Internet Marketing and Advertising, 6(4), 413–433. Hutter, K., & Hoffmann, S. (2014). Professionelles Guerilla-Marketing. Springer Gabler. Katz, E., & Foulkes, D. (1962). On the use of the mass media as “escape”: Clarification of a concept. Public Opinion Quarterly, 26(3), 377–388. Katz, E., Blumler, J. G., & Gurevitch, M. (1974). Uses and gratifications research. The Public Opinion Quarterly, 37(4), 509–523. Knobloch, S., & Zillmann, D. (2002). Mood management via the digital jukebox. Journal of Communication, 52(2), 351–366. Mai, R., Hoffmann, S., Schwarz, U., Niemand, T., & Seidel, J. (2014). The shifting range of optimal web site complexity. Journal of Interactive Marketing, 28(2), 101–116. Oliver, M. B. (1993). Exploring the paradox of the enjoyment of sad films. Human Communication Research, 19(3), 315–342. Palmgreen, P., Wenner, L. A., & Rosengren, K. E. (1985). Uses and gratifications research: The past ten years. In K. E. Rosengren, L. A. Wenner, & P. Palmgreen (Eds.), Media gratifications research current perspectives (pp. 11–37). Sage. Pross, H. (1972). Medienforschung. Habel. Rubin, A. M. (1983). Television uses and gratifications: The interactions of viewing patterns and motivations. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 27(1), 37–51. Shannon, C. E., & Weaver, W. (1949). The mathematical theory of communication. University of Illinois Press. Shao, G. (2009). Understanding the appeal of user-generated media: A uses and gratification perspective. Internet Research, 19(1), 7–25. Sherry, J. L. (2004). Flow and media enjoyment. Communication Theory, 14(4), 328–347. Six, U., Gleich, U., & Gimmler, R. (Eds.). (2007). Kommunikationspsychologie – Medienpsychologie. Beltz. Tichenor, P. J., Donohue, G. A., & Olien, C. N. (1970). Mass media flow and differential growth in knowledge. Public Opinion Quarterly, 34(2), 159–170. Tuten, T. L., & Solomon, M. R. (2017). Social media marketing (3rd ed.). Pearson. Wei, L., & Hindman, D. B. (2011). Does the digital divide matter more? Comparing the effects of new media and old media use on the education-based knowledge gap. Mass Communication and Society, 14(2), 216–235. Zillmann, D. (1988). Mood management through communication choices. American Behavioral Scientist, 31, 327–340. Changing Consumer Behavior cc 12 Lea Is Not (Eating) Like Her Mother “Tell me, Lea, what kind of car does your new boyfriend Ben actually drive?” “None at all, Mum,” Lea answers annoyed through the phone. “And he won’t be buying one after graduation either. We take the train. For the sake of the environment. Or go by bike; it’s good for fitness, too. If we ever need a car, we use a car-sharing service.” “Oh Lea, you really can’t do without your own car. Hey, what am I supposed to cook when you guys visit? Schnitzel and fries? And afterwards there’s my special punch, right?” “No meat, no alcohol, Mom. And please only organic products and fair trade, okay?” “Where will it lead? We can’t offer you anything anymore.” Clearly, the consumption patterns of Lea and her mother differ. Consumer behavior is constantly changing in line with various social trends. But what are the larger developments on which these trends are based? Can general patterns be identified? And what are currently the most important shifts in consumer behavior? © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2023 S. Hoffmann, P. Akbar, Consumer Behavior, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-39476-9_12 175 176 12 Changing Consumer Behavior Learning Objectives In this chapter, you will learn … • • • • • • which megatrends are changing consumer behavior (Sect. 12.1), why material goods mean less and less to many people (Sect. 12.2), when to consume healthy foods (Sect. 12.3), which consumers want to protect the environment (Sect. 12.4), why some consumers voluntarily consume less (Sect. 12.5), and why more and more consumers are using sharing services (Sect. 12.6), … by looking at the change in consumer behavior through the following models: • Postmaterialism Hypothesis, • social-cognitive models, and • Norm Activation Theory. 12.1Megatrends Influencing Consumer Behavior Numerous social changes are currently taking place that are also having an impact on consumer behavior. One particularly significant trend is increasing digitalization, especially the spread of mobile Internet use and the growing importance of social media. We have discussed this development in Chap. 11. Demographic change, which is causing the population to grow older on average, especially in industrialized nations, is also having a strong impact on consumer behavior. Thanks to healthier lifestyles and improved medical care, consumers are also still fit and active at an advanced age. Older target groups are therefore becoming more interesting for marketing – and also because they have comparatively many financial resources at their disposal. We have looked specifically at this target group in Chap. 8. Another social trend influencing consumer behavior is the value change, which is leading consumers to attach less importance to material goods and to issues such as individual well-being, happiness, life satisfaction, self-fulfillment, but also environmental protection and health becoming more relevant. This trend is changing our consumption habits to such an extent that a subgroup on Transformative Consumer Research (TCR) has been formed within the Association of Consumer Research (the central international association for consumer research) in recent years. Adherents of this research stream study consumer behavior specifically with an eye to how subjective and collective well-being can be enhanced (Mick et al., 2011). Areas of research such as tobacco, alcohol and drug use (= ‘negative’ or dysfunctional consumer behavior) are highlighted, as are environmentally aware and health-conscious consumer behavior (= ‘positive’ consumer behavior). In this chapter, we address some selected topics of this exciting, emerging field of research. 12.2 Post-materialism Hypothesis 177 12.2Post-materialism Hypothesis As early as the 1970s, the US political scientist Roland Inglehart used the post-materialism hypothesis to describe a societal value change that is taking place almost imperceptibly but steadily and which he therefore called a “silent revolution” (Inglehart, 1997; Inglehart & Welzel, 2005). According to this view, changes in a nation’s economy, politics, and culture are closely interrelated. The more prosperous a nation becomes and the more the welfare state covers the major risks of life, the more material values (of “having”) recede into the background and the more post-material values (of “being”) gain in importance. Due to an increasingly improving economically stable situation, basic existential needs (e.g. having enough food and a roof over one’s head) move into the background. Experiences of want, which were omnipresent in Germany after the Second World War, are becoming rarer. In this materially secure state, people attach more and more importance to post-material values such as self-realization. Background Info: Watch the Silent Revolution The World Values Survey has been conducted by a worldwide network of researchers for decades. In six completed survey waves, consumers in numerous countries have been asked about socio-cultural, moral, religious and political values. The degree of materialism and post-materialism has also been surveyed regularly, making it possible to track changes in values. If you scan the QR code, you will get access to the data and numerous evaluations. The thesis of value substitution at the societal level is closely linked to Maslow’s (1987) individual hierarchy of needs described in Sect. 3.3.1.1 and its underlying deficit hypothesis: A person who is satisfied in material terms nevertheless turns to unsatisfied post-material values, and issues such as individual well-being, maintaining one’s own health and protecting the natural environment become more important. Example: Can You Buy Happiness? Most people consider the growth of their wallet and the accumulation of material goods to be desirable goals. But does this really make people happy? Numerous economic and psychological studies have investigated this connection and, in summary, it can be assumed that at a low income level, an increase in salary is very likely to lead to an increase in life satisfaction (Easterlin, 1974, 1995; Tatzel, 2014). However, if the baseline level increases, then the marginal utility of further income increases decreases significantly. Kahneman and Deaton (2010) venture the specific figure of an annual income of US$75,000, which they believe is sufficient to be able to acquire all the things one needs to be happy. Above this threshold, the effect of further increases in 178 12 Changing Consumer Behavior income on emotional well-being is small. The rationale for this is that some basic income is needed to protect against inconveniences associated with poverty that can significantly reduce happiness in life. However, if there is enough money to solve the basic problems, the increase in financial resources is not necessarily associated with greater happiness, and not for all people. Two processes are responsible for this possible disconnect between money and happiness (Chancellor & Lyubomirsky, 2014): 1. Hedonic adaptation: A new acquisition can initially trigger a subjective feeling of happiness. However, we quickly become accustomed to this new object and the feeling of happiness fades. Let’s say we notice that our bathroom looks a bit in need of renovation and we decide to redesign it. The sight of the new bathroom initially brings us joy; however, all too soon we become accustomed to it and the perceived feeling of happiness fades. 2. Rising aspirations: The satisfaction of high goals often results in us striving for even higher goals. In our example, if the bathroom looks nice, the consequence is that the living room looks outdated in comparison. So we are back at the starting point: we don’t like one room in our house. ◄ An important aspect in the course of the change in values and the increase in post- materialistic orientations is the growing consumer responsibility (the Consumer Social Responsibility, ConSR; Devinney et al., 2006) and the increasing importance of ethical consumption. The term ethical consumption will be used here as a catch-all term combining sustainable, green, environmentally conscious and prosocial consumer behavior. All these forms of consumption describe different things in nuances. The common thread is that consumers consider ethical and moral criteria in addition to their individual benefits when making purchasing decisions (Balderjahn, 2013, p. 199). These include, for example, criteria such as justice and fairness towards other people and future generations. Ethical consumer behavior is often in tension between egoistic motives (e.g. “I want to buy fancy and cheap clothes from retailer XY.”) and moral obligations (e.g. “I cannot support a company that does not meet basic social standards in the production process.”). As it is often rather the selfish motives that prevail and consumers only want to present their consumption behavior as ethical to the outside world or to themselves (Symmank & Hoffmann, 2017), some critics also speak of the “myth of the ethical consumer” (Devinney et al., 2010). We will discuss this in more detail when we look at environmentally conscious consumer behavior (Sect. 12.4). 12.3Health-Conscious Consumer Behavior Maintaining one’s own health is becoming increasingly important for more and more people. This has an impact on consumer behavior and manifests itself, among other things, but not only, in eating habits. Organic products are increasingly in demand and the number of vegetarians and vegans is growing steadily. A better understanding of the motivations of 12.4 Environmentally Conscious Consumer Behavior 179 health-conscious consumers is therefore of interest to companies marketing health- positioned products. But this knowledge is also important from a social marketing perspective. Many diseases such as diabetes mellitus type 2, obesity or cardiovascular diseases are (partly) caused by health-damaging behaviors such as smoking, unhealthy diet and lack of exercise, and changes in lifestyle and consumption style can counteract this. Social marketing campaigns can encourage consumers to change their behavior towards a healthier lifestyle (Loss & Nagel, 2010). However, they only unfold their effect if the designers of the campaigns are aware of what motivates consumers to want to behave more healthily and under what conditions they actually change their behavior. In order to be able to explain and influence when consumers behave in a health- conscious manner, models from health psychology research based on social-cognitive approaches are particularly helpful (Faselt & Hoffmann, 2010). These models discuss variables that – unlike socio-economic variables – can be changed by the person himself or by external stimuli. There are two basic types of social-cognitive models. • Linear models such as the model of health beliefs (Becker, 1974) or the protection motivation theory (Rogers, 1975) postulate that health behavior can be continuously changed by changing certain influencing variables. Most models attach particular relevance to the following three influencing variables (Faselt & Hoffmann, 2010): risk perception as well as action outcome and self-efficacy expectations. Social marketing campaigns should therefore show consumers that their current lifestyle involves risks (risk perception), that certain measures help to reduce these risks (action outcome expectations) and that the consumer is able to carry out the necessary actions (self- efficacy expectations). • Stage models, on the other hand, are based on the assumption that individuals pass through several qualitatively different stages in their intention to behave in a more health-conscious manner. One well-known approach is the transtheoretical model (Prochaska & DiClemente, 1984), which delineates the following stages: Precontemption, contemption, preparation, action, maintenance, and for some behavioral domains such as smoking cessation, termination. With regard to the target group segmentation for health-conscious products and the design of tailored social marketing campaigns, it is important to recognize that behavior must be changed gradually and that at each stage other factors influence whether the person reaches the next stage. 12.4Environmentally Conscious Consumer Behavior Environmental pollution and climate change have been the subject of much public discussion in recent decades, and many people have gradually become aware that they could and should contribute to a reduction in this problem by changing their consumption style. Environmental awareness can be expressed in different ways in consumer behavior (Balderjahn, 2013, p. 207): 180 12 Changing Consumer Behavior • Sufficiency option: Conscious renunciation of certain products or general reduction of the consumption level (see anti-consumption, Sect. 12.5). • Efficiency option: Purchase of the product alternative that is least harmful to the environment (e.g. an electric car instead of a gasoline driven car) and sustainable use (e.g. resource-conserving driving style; charging the battery only with solar energy). • Recycling option: Recycling of products or return to the economic cycle. Why do consumers have an interest in consuming ecologically? In response to this question, Stern and colleagues proposed the Value Belief Norm Theory, which distinguishes between three value orientations (cf. Stern, 2000; Stern et al., 1993): • Egoistic orientation: protecting the environment in order to benefit oneself. • Altruistic orientation: protection of the environment, as the environment serves the well-being of (fellow) humans. • Biospheric orientation: protection of the environment for its own sake and for the sake of the species living in it. Many empirical studies show an increasing trend that consumers attach importance to ecological aspects. For example, the Ökobarometer 2013 commissioned by the Federal Ministry of Food and Agriculture shows that compliance with social standards (cited by 44% of the 742 respondents) and the contribution to climate protection (41%) are important motives for buying organic food (BMELV, 2013). Other recent surveys such as the Otto trend study on ethical consumption also confirm this, with criteria such as regionality and seasonality gaining in importance (Otto Group, 2013). Nevertheless, sales of organic products are still at a low level (Eyerund, 2016), willingness to pay higher prices is low, and the importance of ecological criteria does not seem to be equally widespread in all consumption sectors either. In Chap. 6, we shed light on the attitude-behavior gap using the theory of planned behavior; (non)environmentally conscious consumption behavior is a classic example of this gap. What specific theories help explain the gap in this area? Schwartz’s (1977) norm-activation model is an explanatory approach that was originally intended to explain helping behavior and can now help us understand when the aforementioned motives drive our consumption behavior. The approach distinguishes several phases of a cognitive processing process: • The decision-making process begins with the individual recognizing increasing pollution as a problem and coming to the realization that he or she can help mitigate the problem through his or her own consumption behavior. • Now personal norms become salient. These comprise internalized moral convictions which express the person’s demands on himself or herself. They are to be distinguished from social norms, which are imposed by the social environment. The activation of personal norms leads to the person feeling morally obliged to intervene. 12.5 Anti-consumption 181 • Environmentally conscious consumer behavior often entails subjective costs (e.g. foregoing preferred products or paying extra for ecological product variants). If the person wants to avoid these, he or she must deny his moral obligation or otherwise reframe the situation in his favor. • Whether a person actually acts ecologically depends on the interplay of activated personal norms, perceived responsibility and anticipated consequences of non-action. According to the low-cost hypothesis, consumers also behave in an environmentally friendly manner primarily when this does not involve any costs (Diekmann & Preisendörfer, 2003). However, the costs experienced must not only be understood in monetary terms, but also include the time resources required. Ethical consumer behavior (which includes environmentally conscious consumer behavior) is always in tension between self-interests (e.g. having fun, protecting one’s health) and perceived moral obligations (e.g. protecting others, protecting the environment) (Balderjahn, 2013, p. 199). Environmentally conscious consumption that follows a perceived moral obligation often contradicts our self- interests. If one restricts oneself (see Sect. 12.5), this reduces the possibilities of utilitarian and hedonic need satisfaction. If one chooses an ecological alternative when selecting a new product, this is often associated with a surcharge, more research or procurement effort or a low product quality, a poorer design, limited functionality, etc. This is not always the case. Interestingly, only the egoistic orientation of the Value Belief Norm Theory overlaps with self-interest, and it is in this case that a decision dilemma is least likely to arise for the consumer. The altruistic and biospheric orientation, on the other hand, often contradicts self-interest and thus requires sacrifices from the consumer. Not everyone is willing to make these sacrifices. If one wants to market ecological products to broader sections of the population, it therefore makes sense to also address egoistic motives. This is the case, for example, with organic food, which is not only bought to protect the environment. For many, the motive of their own health or a stronger sense of taste is more important (Joerß et al., 2017). 12.5Anti-consumption More and more people are making a conscious decision not to buy certain things. Some do this to reduce negative impacts on the environment or other people. For example, many people boycott companies that do not act ethically. Trends such as going vegan, which are becoming more widespread, are also examples of this. Others, such as Voluntary Simplifiers reduce their overall consumption in order to live a more fulfilling and stress- free life that is less dependent on material constraints (Peyer et al., 2017). Anti-consumption research analyzes all these trends to describe societal changes, but also to derive recommendations for action for companies (e.g. Lee et al., 2009). However, an anti-consumption decision is not simply the opposite of a consumption decision (“I don’t buy deodorant A 182 12 Changing Consumer Behavior because deodorant B is better.”), but is based on certain motives that can be fundamentally different from consumption motives. Someone who eats a vegan diet wants to prevent animals from being killed. Those who eat meat presumably do not pursue the diametrically opposite motive (Chatzidakis & Lee, 2013). Often, “anti-consumption” is also used to achieve certain political, social, ecological or economic goals. A typical example of this is the consumer boycott (Hoffmann, 2011; Hoffmann & Müller, 2009; Friedman, 1999). Consumers deliberately renounce individual brands, products or product categories in order to express their disagreement with the behavior of companies. In 2008, for example, numerous German consumers boycotted products of the Finnish company Nokia after it announced that it would relocate its Bochum plant to Romania. They wanted to use their market power to influence the management’s decision. Occasionally, products from certain countries are also boycotted in order to influence government decisions or at least to express disapproval. Boycotters are often aware that in many cases such actions may not have the desired effect. Nevertheless, many feel morally obligated to act accordingly, or at least want to send a signal. Especially through social media platforms such as Facebook and Twitter, information about irresponsible corporate actions and the corresponding calls for boycotts are spreading ever faster. Consumers are thus increasingly better informed. However, it should also be noted that boycotting means giving up preferred products. For this reason, consumers often try to justify to themselves and others why they do not boycott certain products (Symmank & Hoffmann, 2017). The rationalization processes and aspects of the social dilemma described in this book (Sect. 9.5) therefore occur particularly frequently in connection with boycotts. 12.6Sharing Sharing and using instead of buying and owning. Collaborative consumption of products is becoming increasingly important and is referred to as sharing (Botsman & Rogers, 2010; Belk, 2007). Sharing means that I give something that belongs to me to someone else so that he or she can use it, and/or receive something from someone else so that I can use it. A distinction is made between sharing-in and sharing-out (Belk, 2010). Sharing-in refers to sharing things with family and friends. It often happens intuitively and automatically. For example, if you order a bottle of wine in a restaurant, you usually share it with your companion, without subsequently counting up who has drunk how much. Sharing- out, on the other hand, concerns the joint consumption of products with strangers. This usually happens for utility-oriented reasons. For example, people who advertise a ride on BlaBlaCar and share their car do so mainly to save on travel costs. Today, sharing-out takes place in the so-called sharing economy. In the sharing economy, companies offer consumers access to resources for a fee. If this resource belongs to a company, it is called 12.6 Sharing 183 Driver Sharing tendency is higher, the higher… • Price of ownership2, 4 the calculated costs of owning and maintaining. • Frugality2, 4 the frugality disposition. • Sustainability5 the sustainability orientation. • Anti-consumption2, 6 the anti-consumption disposition. • Anti-industry4 the anti-industry attitude. • Idealism3 the idealistic orientation. • Subsitutability1 the substitutability of a good via sharing. • Social utility1, 2, 4 • Functional utility1 the options to socialize with sharing system members. the perceived utility of sharing. • Sharing knowledge2,5 the familiarity with the sharing system. • Satisfaction5 the satisfaction with the sharing option. • Uniqueness6 the desire for unique consumer products. Inhibitor Sharing tendency is lower, the higher… • Materialism2, 6 the importance of material goods to a person's life. • Search costs2, 4 time is spend looking for providers. • Scarcity risk1 the perceived likelihood that a product will be unavailable. Sources: 1Lamberton and Rose (2012); 2Ozanne and Ballantine (2010); 3Hellwig et al. (2015); 4Möhlmann (2015); 5Seegebarth et al. (2016); 6Akbar et al. (2016) Fig. 12.1 Reasons for consumers’ sharing behavior (Akbar et al., 2016) C2P sharing (Company to Person), if it belongs to a private person, it is called P2P sharing (Person to Person). In this case, the company is merely an intermediary between the supplier and the buyer and takes a commission for this. The difference between C2P and P2P is clearly illustrated by the two car sharing providers DriveNow and Drivy. DriveNow provides the car fleet (resource) itself. In contrast, Drivy is a platform where individuals can share their car with other consumers for a fee. Thus, people take on two roles in the share economy. On the one hand, they are consumers who use products without having to buy them. On the other hand, they make their property available to others and thus appear as so-called micro-entrepreneurs. The sharing services from which consumers can choose are diverse and range from clothing (Kleiderei) and luxury handbags (Bag Borrow or Steal) to now classic services such as bike sharing (Call a Bike) and car sharing (Car2Go). Numerous studies now address consumer sharing behavior (Lamberton & Rose, 2012; Ozanne & Ballantine, 2010; Hellwig et al., 2015; Möhlmann, 2015; Seegebarth et al., 2016; Akbar et al., 2016). The reasons why consumers engage in sharing behavior vary and are summarized by way of example in Fig. 12.1. 184 12 Changing Consumer Behavior 12.7Learning Aid Quintessence Digitalization, demographic change and changing values are megatrends with enormous effects on consumer behavior. The post-materialism hypothesis postulates that the relevance of material values (of “having”) dwindles and post-material values (of “being”) gain in importance when a society becomes wealthier. In the rich industrial nations, it is therefore becoming increasingly important for many people to shape their consumer behavior in such a way that they protect their own health and cause as little damage as possible to the natural environment. More and more consumers are also practicing “anti-consumption,” i.e. consciously and voluntarily restricting their consumption behavior. However, ethical consumer behavior is often caught between selfish motives and moral obligations. The increasingly popular sharing offers provide a way to use products without using too many resources. ◄ Exercise Questions and Tasks Complete the following sentence: According to the post-materialism hypothesis, changes in the ____________, ____________ and ____________ of a nation are closely linked. The more prosperous a nation becomes and the more the welfare state covers the major risks of life, the more ____________ values recede into the background and the more ____________ values gain in importance. Right or wrong? Social cognitive stage models of health behavior offer the following main insight for the design of social marketing campaigns: behavior must be changed in stages, and at each stage other factors affect whether or not the person can reach the next stage. Tick the correct answer(s). In principle, consumers can choose from the following options if they wish to express their environmental awareness: O Sufficiency option O Rehearsal option O Saliency option O Efficiency option O Recycling option Cross-Linking Question In the introductory example, it was described that Lea’s consumption habits differ greatly from those of her mother. What differences in consumer behavior can you observe between members of your generation and older consumers in your environment? Recall the distinction between age and cohort effects that we discussed in Chap. 8. Which of the observed differences in your social environment are age effects and References 185 which differences can be attributed to cohorts? Which differences can be attributed to the megatrends mentioned, namely digitalization, demographic change and changing values? Dare to predict which trends will be relevant in the future and how consumer behavior will change in the future! Further Reading Belz, F.-M., & Peattie, K. (2012). Sustainability marketing: A global perspective (2nd ed.). Wiley. Hoffmann, S., & Müller, S. (2010). Gesundheitsmarketing: Gesundheitspsychologie und Prävention. Huber. Peyer, M., Balderjahn, I., Seegebarth, B., & Klemm, A. (2017). The role of sustainability in profiling voluntary simplifiers. Journal of Business Research, 70, 37–43. References Akbar, P., Hoffmann, S., & Mai, R. (2016). When do materialistic consumers join commercial sharing systems? Journal of Business Research, 69(10), 4215–4224. Balderjahn, I. (2013). Nachhaltiges Management und Konsumentenverhalten. UTB. Becker, M. H. (1974). The health belief model and personal health behavior. Slack. Belk, R. (2007). Why not share rather than own? The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 611(1), 126–140. Belk, R. (2010). Sharing. Journal of Consumer Research, 39(5), 715–734. BMELV. (2013). Ökobarometer 2013. Repräsentative Bevölkerungsbefragung im Auftrag des Bundesministeriums für Ernährung, Landwirtschaft und Verbraucherschutz (BMELV). http:// www.bmel.de/SharedDocs/Downloads/Ernaehrung/Oekobarometer_2013.pdf. Accessed: 04. Mai 2016. Botsman, R., & Rogers, R. (2010). What’s mine is yours: The rise of collaborative consumption. Harper. Chancellor, J., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2014). Money for happiness: The hedonic benefits of thrift. In M. Tatzel (Ed.), Consumption and well-being in the material world (pp. 13–48). Springer. Chatzidakis, A., & Lee, M. 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