Natalia Góra
Borrowings in fashion
1. Background and motivation for my research.
The function of any language is to combine meaning and form to express feelings.
The most basic function of language is to express thoughts, opinions, ideas or concepts and
put them into practice. Languages also serve to regulate social and cultural relations.
Language as a tool for interpersonal communication has much in common with social and
interactional development. The interpenetration of cultures and linguistic as well as personal
diversity has influenced the development and enrichment of vocabulary. The adaption
of words to another language has become an ideal solution for collapsing language barriers
and differentiating speech. The adaptation of original words from one language to another is
called borrowings or loans. In my work entitled 'Borrowings in fashion', I will try to answer
the question ‘Are we borrowing more words in today's world than in previous decades?’ In
my study, I will give examples from an ideally chosen field that is as volatile as linguistics,
fashion.
2.1 The study of borrowings
Language development is an uninterrupted and continuous process. The amount and
frequency of linguistic borrowing is based on many intra- and extra-linguistic factors. Today's
rapidly developing societies are influencing the richness of communication. Language has
evolved since the beginning of mankind. As cultures have developed, so has language.
Societies have mixed together and vocabulary has permeated everyday use. Words transferred
from other languages partly lose in the atmosphere of the new language some features of the
original languages and accept some features of the language they enter, some even change so
much that they take on an unrecognisable form. 1
Any usable language can be borrowed from a recipient language. It also happens that
some languages become sources for others. And there is so much linguistic borrowing that it
1
Magami Aygun.(2015). Concepts of Borrowings in Modern Science of Linguistics, Reasons of Borrowed
Words and Some of Their Theoretical Problems in General Linguistics, International Journal of English
Linguistics; Vol. 5, No. 6
is difficult to find the native speech. Linguists who have studied and researched the matter
have concluded that there are more than 120 different languages that have enriched the
English language since the beginning of civilisation. Such languages include Latin and
French. Others are more mysterious and far less popular - Zulu or Tswana. But, undeniably,
they have had a great influence on the formation of modern speech. Moreover, there are two
methods of transmitting borrowed languages - through oral speech and written speech.
Borrowings based only on verbal transmission, are usually quite short (easy to remember) and
do not require many changes in the act of adaptation. Written borrowings are more often
longer, and the process of adaptation requires transformations and adjustments.2
Word formation is defined as 'the creation of new words from existing words', involving
prefixation and suffixation. There are many possibilities and ways in which words are
combined, merged and condensed.
3
. An area derived from word-making is linguistic
borrowing. Linguistic translation causes many problems and ambiguities because not every
language has accurate word equivalents. ‘The reason for this is that there are certain
differences in language system and culture between the source language (SL) and the
recipient language (RL).’ 4 It is often the case that translating some words can be very timeconsuming, and sometimes even impossible. There are many reasons for this problem,
ranging from cultural to language diversity.
According to the authors Vinay and Darbelnet, linguistic borrowing is one method of
translation. The authors consider a borrowed word to be a taken word/expression directly
from the original language. Vinay and Dalberne stress that the technique of linguistic
borrowing is used to exclude the presence of 'a lacuna.' A ‘lacunais’ is usually metalinguistic,
as a new process or unexplored phenomenon. Furthermore, the authors believe that linguistic
borrowing is also used to introduce a 'stylistic effect'. An example is the use of foreign terms
from French into Polish. In addition, the authors believe that borrowing is only possible when
2
Bila Ievgeniia Sergiivna, Bondarenko Ievheniia Volodymyrivna, Maslova Svitlana Yakivna. (2020). Linguistic
Essence of the Process of Borrowing: French and English Language in Contact
3
The Oxford Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics Edited by: Dirk Geeraerts And Hubert Cuyckens, Published
online: Sep 2012
4
Fashion Term Borrowings Found In Article Translation In Colours Magazine, I Gusti Agung Maitreya Adi
Santa, Made Budiarsa, Nyoman Sedeng, Nyoman Udayana, June 2015 edition.
both languages have a structural, lexical and even morphological basis. Only when the
languages are related and analogous is appropriate borrowing presumed.5
By contrast, according to authors Hock & Joseph (2009), who define the process of
linguistic borrowing as ‘the acquisition of single words or even large sets of vocabulary from
another language or dialect’, which they claim is ‘a very common outcome of language
contact.’6 Fromkin, Rodman and Hyams (2002) unequivocally stated ‘borrowing occurs when
one language adds a word or morpheme from another language into its own lexicon.’
Furthermore, the authors maintain that ‘the pronunciation of a borrowed element is often
changed to conform to the phonological rules of the borrowing language.’7 McArthur (1992)
considers that borrowing is taking ‘a word or phrase from one language into another, or from
one variety of a language into another.’8 There are also many definitions of borrowing as a
distinctive linguistic unit results from this process. For example, the Oxford Advanced
Learner’s Dictionary (2005) defines the notion of borrowing as ‘a word […] taken from […]
another language and used in their own.’9
According to Bates L. Hoffer, it is a complex process of importing linguistic constructs
from one linguistic system to another. The author emphasises that two factors are important linguistic borrowing can arise at any time and in any culture. Moreover, he stresses that this
process is natural when two independent cultures, come into contact with each other over a
period of time. Hoffer also points out an interesting fact about linguistic borrowing. Early
studies of the whole process of linguistic change emphasised 'language systems' such as
grammar, vocabulary or phonetics. Today, the development of linguistic borrowing focuses
more on borrowing elements in communicative systems such as psychology, sociology or
anthropology. The author stresses that computerisation and the impact of new technologies on
society have made linguistic borrowing somewhat natural. The process of borrowing has
become much simpler and freer. The advent of radio and television has made intercontinental
contact more accessible. A kind of linguistic as well as cultural contact has been generated.
The globalisation of the market has resulted in goods that are common throughout the world.
Vinay, J.-P. and J. Darbelnet (1977): Stylistique comparée du français et de l’anglais, París: Didier:
Georgetown University Press
6
Hock, H. & Brian D. J. (2009). Language History, Language Change, and Language Relationship: An
Introduction to Historical and Comparative Linguistics (2nd ed.). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
7
Fromkin, V., Rodman, R., & Hyams, N. (2002). An Introduction to Language (7th ed.). The United States of
America: Thomson and Wadsworth
8
McArthur, T. B. & McArthur, F. (1992). The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
9
Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2005). Oxford: Oxford University Press. (7 th ed.)
5
Thus, it contributes to unifying and spreading the method of human communication. Hoffer
draws attention to the speed of penetration of linguistic borrowings into native speech, but
also to the possibility of forgetting the word/structure used. The author gives the example of a
car brand that has penetrated into everyday use in many societies around the world. The
globalization and digitization of the word has been present and common for a while, as
advertisements or television programs have appeared. When it's time to end their
broadcasting, the word has been forgotten - and the linguistic process has been reversed. The
author strongly emphasizes the influence and the cultural role (B.L. Hoffer, 2002). 10
Anna Lenhult in her research 'A case study of the use of recent English borrowings and
codeswitching in advertisements in two Swedish lifestyle magazines' points out that the term
'borrowing' refers to various borrowings including sounds or grammatical elements. At the
same time, it emphasises that borrowed words are adapted to the native language, in terms of
phonology, morphology, syntax and also meaning. 'The language from which the loanwords
are borrowed is called the donor language, whilst the language that receives the word is the
recipient language'. (A. Lenhult, 2013). The author gives several possible methods of
linguistic borrowing.Lenhult points out that one of the most common techniques is
convenience borrowing. It is a technique designed to cater to a rapidly changing society and
to fit in with communication needs. At the same time, it is difficult to find the reason for such
borrowing. One can look for reasons in the prestige and attractiveness of the donor language.
After some time it is difficult to find differences in the donor and recipient language. The
author believes that the answer to this question should be sought in linguistic history. One
should always refer to the native history of a particular word. The second method of linguistic
borrowing is borrowings, or loanwords, consist of direct loans and translation loans. Direct
borrowings should be divided into loans with and without adaptation to the needs of the
language recipient. This includes morphology and spelling. Translation loans, on the other
hand, are formed in a direct way. At the same time the author emphasises that the word
sounds the same in the recipient language as in the donor language (Haspelmath 2009:4344).11
10
Bates L. Hoffer. (2002). Language Borrowing and Language Diffusion:* an Overview, Intercultural
Communication Studies XI:4
11
Anna Lenhult. (2013). A case study of the use of recent English borrowings and code-switching in
advertisements in two Swedish lifestyle magazine, Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences
2.2 History of the Study of Borrowing
Some of the earlier linguistic research by Salverda de Grave (1906) concentrated on
lexical borrowing. The research of the time presented language as a tool that only works one
way. The researcher treated the process of linguistic borrowing that did not work backwards
and was one-sided. In some studies the borrowed words were grouped into different semantic
categories and there is often some care taken to align these words with the phonological
system of the borrowing language. 12
The 20th century was a time of research into a new field of science. Scholars became
increasingly involved in the search for the origins of speech and how vocabulary was adapted
to cultures. Scientists have focused on finding the remains of the recipient language in the
donor language. The pioneers of the field of language borrowing were Leonard Bloomfield,
Einar Haugen and Uriel Weinreich. It was the work and achievements of these linguists that
significantly influenced the development of interpersonal communication. The initial phase of
research focused mainly on lexical borrowing. Single words are present in many languages
and are easier to adapt than grammatical constructions. Furthermore, Weinreich (1953: 56)
points out that words are more often borrowed than structural elements, and states that ‘the
vocabulary of a language, with a much looser structure than its phoneme or grammar, is the
undisputed domain of borrowing par excellence’.13 (P.Durkin, 2014) Haugen's 1950 article
introduced a new theory to linguistics and linguistic borrowing. The author thought that the
process of borrowing happens every time when two cultures stay together for a certain period
of time. The process that occurs is unconscious and direct.14 (B.L.Hoffer, 2002) In contrast,
since Weinreich and his 1953 work, attention has begun to be paid to language in the context
of cultural change. Since Weinreich's book, interest in the impact that one language has on
another in a situation of cultural contact has intensified. The study of borrowing as a factor in
contact situations has overlapped with the study of other areas of interest of linguistics over
the same fifty years. (W.Uriel & A.Martinet,1953).15
Treffers-Daller, J. (2010) Borrowing. In: Fried, M., Östman, J.- O. and Verschueren, J. (eds.) Variation and
change: pragmatic perspectives. Handbook of pragmatics highlights (6). John Benjamins, Amsterdam /
Philadelphia, pp. 17-35. ISBN 9789027289179 Available at http://centaur.reading.ac.uk/20665/
13
Philip Durkin. 2014. Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English. Oxford-New York, Oxford
University Press. xix + 491 pages. ISBN: 978-0-19-957499-5.
12
14
Bates L. Hoffer.(2002). Language Borrowing and Language Diffusion:* an Overview, Intercultural
Communication Studies XI:4
15
Weinreich Uriel, André Martinet (1953). Languages in Contact: Findings and Problems, New York, Linguistic
Circle of New York
Phillip Durkin in his book 'Borrowed Words, A History of Loanwords in English' gives
the concept of loan tranalations (2014). The author stresses that not all words were borrowed
from the donor language but some were translated. The writer gives the example of the
contemporary word 'omnipotent' and 'almightly'. He designates that 'almightly' is most likely
one of the earlier forms of the Latin word 'omnipotent'. At the same time he suggests that the
whole process took place by analysing its component parts - 'omni' - 'all' and 'potens' 'powerful', 'mighty'. Additionally, Durkrin points out that each word has a form and a
meaning. 16
Durkin also notes an interesting fact about vocabulary borrowing. Much of the vocabulary
in English is used in everyday communication and usage. Some of the vocabulary in English
is in the base language. It may also be pointed out that vocabulary in modern English speech
has its origin in17:
i.
a children's books
ii.
a popular fiction
iii.
a playwright's diary
iv.
scientific research document
v.
school historian's monograph
At the same time, the author points out that many linguists believed that vocabulary
borrowing causes market stratification in the modern vocabulary. There are two ways of
borrowing English - the everyday and the more sophisticated – more formal and learned. In
this process of loanwords, sources may be found in French and Latin. The origin of words
from foreign influences was evident in the basic constituents and derivational process. 18 An
additional point that is mentioned by Phillip Durkin is the useful issue of dissociation. Indeed,
it turns out that many semantic domains in English have formally unrelated words with
related concepts.
16
Philip Durkin.(2014).Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English, OUP Oxford, p.19-21
17
Philip Durkin.(2014).Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English, OUP Oxford, p.21-23
Philip Durkin.(2014).Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English, OUP Oxford, p.23-25
18
2.3 Periods in the history of English
Among the several periods in the linguistic history of the development of English, four time
periods are the most significant and influential. These are Old English, Middle English, Early
Modern English and Later Modern English. These periods have seen the most changes in
terms of vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation of English. All four periods have been
highly influential, intermingling with each other to create and improve the way we
communicate today.
I.
Pre-Old English
Pre-Old English developed during the Germanic migration to Britain in the 5th century. The
origins of Old English can be traced back to the language's Western European relatives and
also to an Indo-European linguistic heritage (S.Kammer). Linguistic borrowings can also be
assumed to date from before the Angles and Saxons left the continent for England. This
hypothesis is supported by similarities in forms found in other Old Germanic languages (Old
High German, Old Saxon, etc.). The source words are generally derived from Latin texts. 19
-
II.
ancor 'anchor'
butere 'butter'
cycene 'kitchen'
cirice 'church'
weall 'wall'
Old English
The beginning of the next epoch is dated to 700 AD However, many sources and scholars
give the years before 700 AD (even from 450 AD). This period is also called Anglo-Saxons or
Old English. The end of the era is thought to be in the 1100s AD. For a long time the English
language was under Germanic influence. This is one of the most significant influences on the
language of the time, as the borrowings originated in Germanic vocabulary, grammar and
sentence structures. In addition, the English language at that time was fully inflected, e.g sēo
sunne (the Sun) was feminine, while se mōna (the Moon) was masculine. Old English is also
19
Prof. S. Kemmer.(2019).‘Loanwords Major Periods of Borrowing in the History of English’, Words in
English public website LING 216 Rice University, retrieved from:
https://www.ruf.rice.edu/~kemmer/Words/loanwords.html#:~:text=in%20the%20History%20of%20English,lang
uage%20(the%20source%20language).&text=For%20example%2C%20the%20Germanic%20tribes,via%20trad
e%20with%20the%20Romans.
a period of Latin influence (conversion to Christianity, Norman invasion in1066). The main
borrowings from Latin are: the Latin alphabet, 'silent' letters, such as the 'k' in 'knight', were in
fact pronounced in Old English, and the pronunciation of individual words. The second
biggest influence was that of the Vikings. The influx of Scandinavians resulted in the
adoption of many words (especially proper names). The Vikings spoke Old Norse, which was
directly related to Old English. The mix of two cultures and dialects that resided for a period
of time resulted in intermixing. The last of the significant influxes is the Celtic influence.20
-
III.
apostol 'apostle'
cest
'chest'
paper 'paper'
brocc 'badger'
few ordinary words, but thousands of place and river names: London, Carlisle, Devon,
Dover, Cornwall, Thames, Avon
Middle English Period
The Middle English Period began from 1100 and lasted about 400 years until 1500.
It was a period in the development of the English language, which experienced many foreign
influences. Most borrowings can be traced back to Scandinavian, Latin and French. The
Scandinavian influence is mainly Danish and Norse (Norwegian and Danish settlers from the
9th to 11th century). At first the borrowed words referred mainly to everyday objects, later
function words and prepositions were borrowed. In many cases, similar native and
Scandinavian words co-existed with the same Germanic roots. In other cases Scandinavian
words completely replaced native words. French borrowings began to increase in number
after the Norman invasion in 1066. Since then Edward the Confessor, the last king of West
Saxony, imposed changes in the vernacular. Many words have been borrowed from French.
There are two main influences of French the Anglo-Norman dialect and the Anglo-French
spoken by the upper classes. On the other hand, we can analyse the various influences by
means of linguistic criteria, mainly phonological. Thus, there are many cases of so-called
doublets, words borrowed from both Anglo-Norman and Middle French varieties.
Phillip Durkin.(2018).’Exploring the penetration of loanwords in the core vocabulary of
MiddleEnglish: carry as a test case’. Published online by Cambridge University Press, Volume 22 , Special
Issue 2: Mechanisms of French contact influence in Middle English: diffusion and maintenance, pp. 265 – 282
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S1360674318000138
20
IV.
-
Cooking – beef, boil, pork, etc.
-
Culture – art, fur, satin, etc.
-
Law and government – prison, jail, crime, etc.
-
Church – saint, religion, prayer, etc.21
Early Modern English Period
The next major era for the English language begins in the 1500s and lasts until 1800.
This is the time of the Renaissance. Elizabethan language is more similar to modern speech.
The Renaissance era was greatly influenced by works in Latin and Greek written by
prominent scholars. The vocabulary was enriched by the first published dictionary, published
by Robert Cawdrey in 1604. This glossary also inspired Samuel Johnson. In 1755 this writer
produced a more useful and comprehensive dictionary. During the Elizabethan era, William
Shakespeare played a significant role in the creation and development of speech. While
working on his famous sonnets and plays, the author created innovative words and phrases
that we still use today. Well-known and memorable phrases include: ‘Star-crossed’ (Romeo
and Juliet), ‘Belongings’ (Measure for Measure), ‘Articulate’ (Coriolanus) or, ‘Fashionable
(Troilus and Cressida). Early English is also a time for Standard English. Standardization was
primarily in spelling, and new vocabulary was created through the spread of English into
many occupational specializations. The continuous development was no less gradual in
pronunciation, with processes such as the Great Vowel Shift, or in grammar, where many
changes resulted in new means of expression and greater clarity. The order of words also
underwent gradual change. 22
21
-
Latin: superintendent, expensive, area
-
Greek: tragedy, climax, comedy
-
Arabic vs. Spanish: algebra, alcove, admiral
-
Arabic via other Romance languages: amber, zero, coffee
David Crystal. (2018). Language and voice, British Library, retrieved from: https://www.bl.uk/medievalliterature/articles/oldenglish#:~:text=Old%20English%20%E2%80%93%20the%20earliest%20form,the%20Nor
man%20Conquest%20of%201066).
22
Terttu Nevalainen.(2017). Early Modern English, Copyright Oxford University Press 2022. retrieved from:
https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.013.264
V.
Present-Day English
The last era, which continues to the present day, began around 1650. Modern English
began to develop through expansions to find new lands, technological developments,
progressive industrialization and American immigration. Two characteristic features of
modern English are its analytical grammar and immense lexicon (R. Nordquist, 2018). ‘All
areas of life in the present-day era have seen the influx of new words. To be sure, many words
derive from electronic technologies . . .. Some words come from the entertainment industry
such as . . . anime (Japanese animation) and celebutante (a celebrity known in fashionable
society). Some words come from politics, for example, POTUS (president of the United
States), rubber-chicken circuit (the round of fund-raising dinners attended by politicians), and
wedge-issue (a decisive political issue). . . . New words also come from a mere desire to play
with the language, such as baggravation (the aggravation at having one's bags lost at the
airport), fantabulous (beyond fabulous), flaggin' (flashing or giving gang signs), losingest (in
last place), stalkerazzi (a tabloid journalist who stalks celebrities).’
23
(C. M. Millward and
Mary Hayes, A Biography of the English Language, 3rd ed. Wadsworth, 2012)
2.4 Language Borrowing Process

Phonetic Borrowings
These borrowings are some of the more recognisable and widespread. Linguistic
borrowings are also characteristic of all languages. They are called loan words proper. These
are borrowed words in terms of meaning, pronunciation and spelling. Another process in
borrowing is assimilation. Each word undergoes this process - adapting the corresponding
sound. In some cases the spelling is also adapted. The structure of a borrowed language can
also be modified. The accent, on the other hand, is strongly influenced by the phonetic system
of the borrowed language. Often the sample itself also modifies the word and meaning of the
borrowed word. For example, phonetic words borrowed from French - chair, people, table,
sputnik or nomenklatura are borrowings from Russian, bank, soprano, duet are phonetic
23
Richard Nordquist. (2018). Present-Day English (PDE): Definition and Examples, Glossary of Grammatical
and Rhetorical Terms, retrieved from: https://www.thoughtco.com/present-day-english-pde1691531#:~:text=The%20term%20Present%2DDay%20English,late%20or%20contemporary%20Modern%20E
nglish.
borrowings from Italian, alcohol, algebra are phonetic borrowings from Arabic and words
such as album, aluminium, alphabet come from Latin.
Al-Athwary (2016) attempted to analyse phonetic borrowing between English and
Arabic. The aim of his study was to investigate adaptation at the phonetic level (syllabic and
also prosodic). In order to conduct his research reliably, Al-Athwary 'analysed and described
the pronunciation of linguistic borrowings, which reflects the areas and effects of phonetic
and phonological interference between the two languages, English and Arabic.' To this end,
Al-Athwary analysed over 300 words that were borrowed from Modern Standard Arabic. He
found that at syllabic and prosodic levels, processes such as cluster simplification, syllabic
consonant conversion, gemination, etc. function according to Modern Standard Arabic.
However, Al-Athwara's study discussed some contemporary issues such as modern
technological and educational developments in the world of developing Arabic society. He
concluded that Arabic speakers are replacing exotic English phonemes with familiar Arabic
phonemes that lack the Arabic phonetic system, and the lack of gemination in English may be
another area of interference that may be recurrent.

Formal borrowings
Formal loans are among the rarest, considered to be relatively infrequent. These
borrowings are simultaneously associated with phonological and orthographic changes.
According to Capuz (1997), the substitutes concern only the form, the meaning remains the
same. Therefore, formal borrowing owes its name - only the form is borrowed ‘("signifiant")
and not the meaning ("signifié")’ (Capuz, 1997). According to Humbley, formal borrowing is
only possible when it involves lexical units from third languages or newly created units.
These processes occur mainly in the advertising zone. Darbelnet, on the other hand, admits
that formal borrowings arise from unexpected confusion. Derived from advertising, ‘formal
errors appear to be hypercharacterisations of neutral units based on a foreign language’
(Capuz, 1997).

Morphological borrowings
When considering morphological borrowings we encounter many different opinions.
Many researchers believe that this kind of borrowing is not possible because of the possibility
of direct transfer of morphemes. On the other hand, some scholars believe that it is possible to
borrow morphemes but by indirect means. H. Schuchardt believes that some very common
borrowed morphemes are analysed, identified and familiarised to language users. Finally, the
analysed morphemes become productive or generative in the receiving language. Weinreich
also cites that morphemes are also not difficult to recognise and identify when a language
receives a pair of words e.g. statue/statuette. In addition, Humbley believes that the
phenomenon of morphological borrowing is commonly likely to occur with semi-consonants
such as -man or -ing, which are common in Anglicisms of French.24 In contrast, according to
authors Frank Seifart and Brigitte Pakendorf, the process of morphological borrowing is ‘the
transfer of grammatical morphemes (inflection, derivation and function words) from one
language to another as a result of language contact’ (Seifart, Frank. 2013).25

Semantic borrowings
Semantic borrowing implies a transfer of unity of meaning or sememe. Due to the process
between borrowed words, some researchers have proposed a particular division into three
categories (Capuz, 1997):
-
Homologues - both items - from the language of the recipient as well as the donor show a similar analogy in meaning. However, the form remains unchanged and thus
different from each other. Hence, this type of borrowing has been called ‘translation of
semantic borrowing’ or ‘semantic calque’. Both lexemes share a basic meaning and
one of them additionally has a hidden (symbolic) meaning. ‘We found that both words
share a basic literal meaning. In this case, the word from the model language transfers
to another meaning, mainly metaphorical; hence we can speak of ‘borrowed
metaphors’.26 An example – ‘homologues’ can be the English word ‘hawk’. This word
has two meanings - the basic one as a bird of prey and the hidden one as ‘hard-liner
politician' (Capuz, 1997).
-
Analogs - this group is definitely more common and more easily recognised than
homologues (they are usually associated with etymological or related words). Capuz
points out that the words that fall into this division both retain a certain analogy. As
the name suggests ‘analogues’ show similarity in meaning and form. Consequently, it
is also much easier to discern a semantic transaction between the words. Examples of
Juan Gómez Capuz. (1997). Towards a Typological Classification of Linguistic Borrowing (Illustrated with
Anglicisms in Romance Languages, Revista Alicantina de Estudios Ingleses 10 (1997): 81-94
25
Seifart, Frank.(2013). Direct and indirect affix borrowing. Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary
Anthropology, Leipzig. Submitted manuscript.
26
Juan Gómez Capuz. (1997). Towards a Typological Classification of Linguistic Borrowing (Illustrated with
Anglicisms in Romance Languages, Revista Alicantina de Estudios Ingleses 10 (1997): 81-94
24
semantic meanings play an important role in the field of translation and influence the
language used by bilinguals. It happens quite often that such examples are identified
as 'false friends' of the translator. Capuz presents an example of an English word taken
from the jargon of US politics. In English,
the word 'conventional' in its literal
meaning/understanding means ‘traditional, customary’. However, as the author points
out in the political domain it already means ‘non-nuclear (weapons), i.e. 'traditional
weapons’. 27
-
Homophones - phonetic identity of different language segments (sounds, syllables,
words, etc.) with possible differences in spelling. Meaning that the two words share a
common form (meet-meat), but have no similarities in meaning. In contrast, according
to Haugen, this kind of linguistic borrowing is limited to errors originating in bilingual
environments. The author illustrates his thesis with the example of the English word
grocery ‘grocer's shop’. American Portuguese Grosseria ‘rude remark’, together with
the new borrowed meaning 'grocery shop' (Haugen, 1950).28 Humbley, on the other
hand, believes that borrowed words in English and Romance languages are
'etymologically related' to each other. Hence, the conclusion is also formed that words
derived from the languages in question are common to each other. These languages
share a certain semantic content such as English to control ‘to have power’ and French
contróler ‘to check’.29

Lexical borrowings
This kind of linguistic borrowing is by far one of the most common. Lexical borrowing is
also called, transferring words from the donor language to the recipient language. Lexical
borrowing is important in interlingual interaction – ‘there is a continuum stretching from
relatively minor lexical borrowing with casual contact to extreme structural borrowing with
very intensive contact’.30 Due to the amount of information and the divisions and subdivisions
27
Bila Ievgeniia Sergiivna, Bondarenko Ievheniia Volodymyrivna & Maslova Svitlana Yakivna. (2020).
Linguistic Essence of the Process of Borrowing: French and English Language in Contact, Arab World English
Journal (AWEJ) Special Issue on the English Language in Ukrainian Context,
28
Haugen, Einar. "The Analysis of Linguistic Borrowing. " Language 26 (1950) : 210-231.
29
Humbley, John. "Vers une typologie de l'emprunt linguistique. " Cahiers de Lexicologie 25 (1974) : 46-70.
John E. Miller, Tiago Tresoldi, Roberto Zariquiey,César A. Beltrán Castañón,Natalia Morozova, Johann-Mattis
List.(2020). Using lexical language models to detect borrowings in monolingual wordlists, retrieved from:
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0242709
30
a visual and clear division is necessary. Humbley31 and Meney 32propose formal criteria,
previously prefigured by the American linguists E. Haugen and U. Weinreich.33 The proposed
division is determined by the degree of modification of the lexical units of the modular
language. According to the previously mentioned principles we have three main divisions and
subdivisions.
Lexical borrowings
Importation
Morphemic Categorial
-
Loanblends or hybrids
Substitution or loan translation
Transferred stem and
Hybrid compounds
reproduced derivative
Loan rendition
affix
Indigenous stem and
Word formation
transferred affix
resources
Loan translation
proper
Importation – ‘morphemic importation’ in Haugen is the process of linguistic
borrowing that involves the direct transfer of a lexeme from a donor language to a
recipient language. Morphemic importation consists of borrowing of form as well as
meaning. Importation is usually juxtaposed with lexical borrowing. In addition,
importation is also divided into two subdivisions:
 Regarding the degree of assimilation of the foreign lexical item ‘borrowing’
versus ‘foreign words’;
 Starting from Weinreich's 34distinction between ‘simple words’ and
‘compound words’35
31
Humbley, John. "Vers une typologie de l'emprunt linguistique. " Cahiers de Lexicologie 25 (1974) : 46-70.
Meney, Lionel. "Pour une typologie des anglicismes en franjáis du Canadá. " The French Review 67 (1994) :
930-43.
33
Haugen, Einar. "The Analysis of Linguistic Borrowing." Language 26 (1950) : 210-231.
34
Weinreich, Uriel. Languages in Contad: Findings and Problems. 1953. The Hague: Mouton, 1968
35
Juan Gómez Capuz.(1997). Towards a Typological Classification of Linguistic Borrowing (Illustrated with
Anglicisms in Romance Languages). Revista Alicantina de Estudios Ingleses 10 (1997): 81-94
32
a) morphemic – monomorphemic (test, bar, derby, film) and polymorphemic ( babysiiter, juke-box or ginger ale);
b) categorical: nouns (test, fan, bar, derby), adjectives (dry, groggy), verbs (Italian:
filmare, French: stopper, Spanish: chutar), participles (thrilling, long-playing), and
adverbs, interjections and formulae (okay, all right);
c) Word formation resources: phrases and idioms (new look, on the rocks), acronyms
and abbreviations (SOS, USA), trade names (Coca-Cola), and onomatopoeic
words (growl, slam) (Klajn,and Meney).36
-
Loanblends or hybrids
Loandblends/hybrids are complex words or phrases consisting of both native and nonnative elements. According to Haugen, it is a lexical process in which 'importation' as well as
'substitution' occurs. Weinrich, on the other hand, proposes 'transfer' and 'reproducción'.
According to two authors there is such a division:
 transferred stem and reproduced derivative affix: English filth-y > Pennsylvania
Germán fil-sig; English swing-ing > French swing-ant; Concerning anglicisms in
Spanish, we can quote footballer > futbolista, leadership > liderato/liderazgo,
boxing > boxeo;37
 Indigenous stem and transferred affix: French four-age > Germán Futter-age,
Spanish is behavior-ism > conduct-ismo;38
 Hybrid compounds: anglicisms such as porte-containers in French and manager de
carretera (< road managef), tenis de mesa (< table tennis), and juego de rol (< role
playing) in Spanish; 39
-
Substitution or loan translation
This type of linguistic borrowing ‘consists of a complete morphemic substitution of
lexical units’. The result of this process is 'loan translation', sometimes encountered as
'linguistic calque'. Several main fields of 'loan translation' can be distinguished:
Meney, Lionel. "Pour une typologie des anglicismes en franjáis du Canadá. " The French Review 67 (1994) :
930-43
37
Weinreich, Uriel. Languages in Contad: Findings and Problems. 1953. The Hague: Mouton, 1968.
38
Humbley, John. ‘Vers une typologie de l'emprunt linguistique.’ Cahiers de Lexicologie 25 (1974) : 46-70.
39
Haugen, Einar. ‘The Analysis of Linguistic Borrowing.’ Language 26 (1950) : 210-231.
36
 Borrowing involving the reproduction of a foreign lexical complex by means
of native material. This usually occurs after analysis of the foreign complex.
 Capuz refers to Deroy's words ‘emprunt par traduction’. At the same time, he
juxtaposes 'loan translation' as a translation faithful to the original model.
 'Loan translation' always consists of two or more numbers of elements, it is
clear that the process is also a 'polymorphic unity'.
 According to German and French researchers on 'loan translation' it forms a
new lexical unit. The recipient language receives new lexical forms. Deroy and
Zindler cite the example of the word gratte-ciel (the English equivalent of skyscaper), which is a new French compound. Humbley, 40on the other hand, gives
another example. The French word 'réaliser' (the English equivalent of realise)
is not a new lexical unit but an acquired meaning. 41

Syntactic borrowing
According to Chomsky42, syntactic borrowing is a process consisting of a series of rules
and principles that usually include a specific word order. Syntactic borrowing focuses on the
problems of reconstructing borrowing. At the same time, the process of borrowing explores
the role of independent grammar and the impact on generative syntax of tradition. In contrast,
Capuz believes that syntactic borrowing always takes the form of 'morphemic substitution'.
He cites the opinion of scholars whose view is that 'syntactic borrowing refers to relations, not
words'.43Moreover, he stresses how difficult it is to distinguish between two similar processes
- syntactic borrowing and morphological borrowing. According to Weinreich, morphological
borrowing ‘implies the transfer of morphemes and morphological patterns’, while syntactic
borrowing ‘takes into account grammatical relations’.44 A distinction can be made in terms of
the 'degree of novelty of the foreign element', or 'foreign construction'. Pratt therefore
distinguishes the following division:
 ‘Syntactic innovation’ - ascends when the borrowed construction/structure is
completely new and innovative in the recipient language. Capuz cites the example
40
Humbley, J. (1974). Vers une typologie de l'emprunt linguistique. Cahiers de Lexicologie, 25, 46- 70.
Capuz, J.G. (1997). Towards a Typological Classification of Linguistic Borrowing (Illustrated with
Anglicisms in Romance Languages), Revista Alicantina de Estudios Ingleses, 10, 81- 9
42
Chomsky, N. (2014). Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. MIT Press
43
Capuz, J.G. (1997). Towards a Typological Classification of Linguistic Borrowing (Illustrated with
Anglicisms in Romance Languages), Revista Alicantina de Estudios Ingleses, 10, 81- 9
44
Weinreich, Uriel. Languages in Contad: Findings and Problems. 1953. The Hague: Mouton, 1968.
41
of Spanish and the construction 'estar siendo + past participle’ as a translation of
‘am/are/is+ past participle’ borrowed from English.45(Pratt, 1980).
 ‘Syntactic borrowing of higher frequency’ - this process occurs when the structure
was common in the recipient language but was not very frequent or was restricted
to specific 'distribution contexts'. An example is the overuse of passive
constructions in Spanish due to the agitation and influence of English in many
translations and dubbing.46(Pratt, 1980).

Phraseological borrowing
Phraseological borrowing is a type of linguistic borrowing that is only possible through
'morphemic substitution', i.e. 'translation of borrowing'. The process of phraseological
borrowing is only hypothetically possible if 'translations of lexical borrowings' affect
polymorphemic structures. Therefore, the translation of phraseological borrowings may
concern units consisting of several words. However, researchers emphasise that the process of
phraseological borrowing is quite complex and difficult to describe. The process is also not
favoured by boundaries with other categories (translation of lexical borrowings, syntactic
borrowings and pragmatic interference). These boundaries blur quickly and strongly and it is
difficult to determine the exact mode of loanwords. According to Capuz, both the model and
the translation of the borrowing must be simultaneously idiomatic along with the global
meaning. Meaning, however, cannot be derived from adding the sense of its components. 47
The classification of translations of phraseological borrowings proposed by Zuluaga and
Corpas is also used:
 Nominal: collocations of adjective + noun with idiomatic meaning, an example would
be the English word round table and its Spanish equivalent mesa redonda;
 adverbial - Spanish expression 'de algún modo/de alguna manera' and its literal
English meaning 'somehow'
 ‘Statements’ - phrasal borrowing - i.e. well-known formulas and phrases as well as
texts and sayings, e.g. the Spanish saying 'lorar sobre la leche derramada' and the
English equivalent 'cry over spilt milk'.
Pratt, Chris. El anglicismo en el español peninsular contemporáneo. Madrid: Gredos, (1980). . "El lenguaje de
los medios de comunicación de masas: algunos aspectos." Filología Moderna 46-47 (1972-1973) : 63-87
46
Pratt, Chris. El anglicismo en el español peninsular contemporáneo. Madrid: Gredos, (1980). . "El lenguaje de
los medios de comunicación de masas: algunos aspectos." Filología Moderna 46-47 (1972-1973) : 209
47
Juan Gómez Capuz. (1997). Towards a Typological Classification of Linguistic Borrowing
45

Pragmatic borrowing/interference
The term ‘pragmatic borrowing’ was first proposed by Australian scholar Michael Clyne.
The researcher suggested the study of ‘language contact at the discourse level’. Clyne
mentioned several hitherto unknown aspects like discourse markers, preformed discourse and
differences concerning the rule of speech and discourse procedure. Clyne points out that
across languages, differences in discourse routines can lead to ‘communication breakdowns’.
This happens when the intention is not properly understood. There can also be
‘communication conflict’. 48This process occurs when the intention contradicts the intended
intention. Clyne gives the example of the English word 'thanks/thank', which usually has a
negative connotation. An Australian immigrant who uses this word with an affirmative
intention will commit a communication error. There is also the term 'pragmatic interference'.
It refers to pragmatic borrowing, which is definitely more likely in bilingual situations. Clyne
to confirm his theory presents the example of the outflow of English into Canadian English
(the use of merci at the end of lectures, etc.) Furthermore, Clyne proposes to divide
‘pragmatic interference’ into several categories:
 ‘pragmatic interference’ as importing and substituting foreign connectors and
discourse creations;
 the difference between a ‘discourse routine’ and a ‘speech rule’. Clyne cites
discourse routine and inadequate translation for dubbing American films as
examples.
 ‘preformulated discourse segments’:
-
‘addressing formulae’ - the impact of intercultural communication and the use of
commonly used phrases such as ‘ladies and gentlemen’.
-
‘politeness and request formulae’ - a proliferation of some native forms, mostly
referring to request formulas, e.g. Spanish ‘por favor’ to match English ‘please’.
-
‘Farewell formulae’ - these forms are easily adopted to show cosmopolitanism and
sometimes even snobbery. Clyne gives the example of Spanish ‘boy bay’ and English
‘bye bye’. 49
48
Gisle Andersen.(2014). Pragmatic borrowing. Journal of Pragmatics 67:17–33. Retrieved from:
10.1016/j.pragma.2014.03.005
49
Zuluaga, Alberto. Introducción al estudio de las expresiones fijas. Peter Lang: Bern/Frankfurt am Main. 1980
 other possibilities for ‘pragmatic borrowing’:
-
‘modality’ - interference in the fields of negation, question, statement and sentence
adverbs.
-
‘interjections’

Code-switching borrowing
In linguistics, code-switching is the use of more than one language during a
conversation. This is mainly because bilingual people often have problems with clarity
and lucidity when speaking to a non-bilingual person. In order to understand each other
during conversation and not to have problems with the logic of speech, bilinguals use code
switching. According to Hymes (1974) code-switching is ‘a common term for the
alternative use of two or more languages, language varieties and even speech styles’. In
contrast, Bokamba (1989) defines code-switching as the mixing of words, phrases and
sentences within a single grammatical systems. Code-switching is also used as an
educational strategy in language learning. The technique involves the simultaneous use of
a foreign language and the mother tongue. The second language is used by learners in
crisis moments. The teacher's role is to gradually erase the mother tongue and focus the
learners' attention on the foreign language. 50
Generally, there are different types of perspectives on code-switching in linguistics.
The main branch in sociolinguistics focuses on the social motivations for code switching.
The direction focuses on factors such as lexical need, topic and discussion environment.
There are also less direct factors such as relationships, group identity or the speaker.
When observing the process of language code-switching, the frequency of borrowing from
a foreign language can be noted.
Code-switching can occur between words (intersentential) and within the structure of a
single sentence (intrasentential). There are four main divisions of switching:
-
Tag-switching - attaching tags or phrases, from the donor language to the
recipient.
-
Intersentential switching - is a type of switching where the switching occurs at
the language level, where each clause is in one or the other.
50
Cook, V. Second Language Learning and Language Teaching. Edward Arnold/ Hodder Headline Group:
Melbourne, 1991.
-
Intrasentional switching - occurs in clause or sentence areas. This type of
switching can take the form of code changes, code-mixing, insertion and
congruent lexicalizations.
-
Intra-word switching - in this type of switching, the exchange takes place
within the word boundaries. 51

Code-mixing borrowing
Code mixing is a very common phenomenon that is closely related to code-switching.
Furthermore, the phenomenon of code-mixing occurs when a speaker of two languages. A
bilingual person uses interchangeable languages when speaking or discussing - codemixing then occurs. It is important to note that there is no change of topic or level of
language during code-switching. By language level we mean terms such as phonology,
morphology, grammar or lexical structures. The reason for code-mixing is to be found in
linguistic diversity. Most cultures in the world, often unconsciously, mix their languages
or use parts of foreign languages. By mixing the recipient and donor languages, a process
of linguistic code-mixing occurs. Kachru in Nusjam views code-mixing ‘as the term refers
to the use of one or more languages to transfer linguistic units coherently from one
language to another, and by such linguistic mixing creates a new limited or not so limited
code of linguistic interaction.’ An example of mixing linguistic codes can be the use of
two languages during lessons - a student who is not aware of all the grammatical and
linguistic structures of the language he or she is learning will intermingle the foreign
language with the mother tongue. During such a process, there is an exchange and mixing
of language codes.
By contrast, according to Blom and Gumpers, code-mixing is ‘a behavioural element
of one code that is integrated to some degree with another’. They consider that there is a
basic code and an additive code. Language users tend to use the basic code, which is
dominant, and the additive code in a complementary way. In contrast, elements of the
latter code are assimilated with each other and used less consciously. The author also
emphasises that code-mixing is much more subtle than code-switching. In mixed coded
sentences, the speaker uses fragments of one language while using another language.
These ‘parts’ of another language are usually single words, but can also be phrases or
51
Numan, D. and Carter, D. Teaching English to Speakers of Other Language Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press. The Internet TESL Journal. (http: //iteslj. org /Articles /Sert Code Switching. html, 2001.
whole structures. In summary, the definition of linguistic code-mixing refers to the code
shift found in the intervals of a single clause or sentence. Code-mixing is not just a
phenomenon involving the mixing of two foreign languages. It requires the
speaker/language user to have a thorough knowledge of both languages and an awareness
of community norms.
By contrast, according to Jacobson, code-mixing should have formal as well as
functional constraints. He proposed a division:

limitations on the sociological code (contextual situation),

psychological code constraints (cognition, production and processing of a mixed code)

linguistic code constraints (interaction of two or more grammars)
From Jacobson's description we can conclude that language code-mixing is the use of two
or more languages in the same sentence, but one language more dominant, and it is linked to
the social context.52

Semiotics Borrowing
Semiology, also called semiotics, is recognised as an intellectual and research
tradition, on the borderline between many sciences including linguistics. The origin of
semilology can be traced back to the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure. In his work A
Course in General Linguistics, he called for the creation of a new science that would focus on
signs. He identified the sign as an abstract object, which consists of a form, or sign name, and
a concept. Semiologists divide the relations between signs into paradigmatic, i.e. the relations
between signs in a linguistic system, and syntagmatic, i.e. the relations between signs in a
specific, concrete utterance. Semiology understands meaning as a linguistic system-specific
whole, divisible into elementary and indivisible units of meaning. Fundamental for the
semiological understanding of the concept of sign is placing the so-called sign phenomena in
the process of communication, in their relation to the sign sender and receiver, in connection
with the situation of the sender and receiver, also in the social context of communication
processes. 53
Ahmad Mustamir Waris. (2012). ‘Code switching and mixing’. Jurnal Dakwah Tabligh, Vol. 13, No. 1,123 135
52
53
Kawakib Al-Momani, Fathi Migdadi & Muhammad A. Badarneh. (2015). A semiotic analysis of intergeneric
borrowings in print advertisements in Jordan. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1080/10350330.2015.1046217
Semiotic borrowing, on the other hand, deals with the transfer of semiotic features
from the source language to the recipient language. Semiotic borrowing also deals with the
development of communication through vocabulary development. Through numerous
linguistic borrowings, a new vocabulary is created. Researchers in this field in linguistics
agree that it is a difficult and time-consuming process that requires knowledge of signs,
objects and language tricks. 54

54
Graphic borrowings
Shurooq Talab Jaafar, Manvender Kaur Sarjit Singh & Hisham Dzakira. (2021). Survey Study of Borrowings
in the Arabic Language Based on The Hierarchy of Linguistics Branches. Asian EFL Journal 25(1):1-23.
Retrieved from:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/348634706_Survey_Study_of_Borrowings_in_the_Arabic_Language_
Based_on_The_Hierarchy_of_Linguistics_Branches