College of Business & Economics Developing a Visitor Satisfaction Index for National Parks PhD Proposal By: Anisah Deen Supervisor: Dr R Nunkoo Co Supervisor: Dr P Thomas February 2018 1 1. Introduction Customer satisfaction is one of the most important concepts of high relevance to researchers and practitioners alike (Consuegra, Molina & Esteban, 2007; Gupta & Sharma, 2016; de Salles Canfield & Basso, 2017). Satisfied customers display loyal behaviors such as engaging in repeat purchases and making positive recommendations about the product, service or organisation (Fraering & Minor, 2013; Löfgren, Witell & Gustafsson, 2008). This type of customer have also been seen to help organisations gain competitive advantage over similar others contributing to organisational success (Gupta & Sharma, 2016; Newman, Moncarz & Kay, 2014; Ilieska, 2013). Given the importance of customer satisfaction, intensive research has been conducted to-date examining the concept and its antecedents (Pollack, 2009; Zhang, Zhang & Law, 2013; Fraering & Minor, 2013; Radojevic, Stanisic & Stanic, 2017). Not only has academic debate on the topic been fervent, but research has also taken on several national and highly practical orientations. Inspired by the Swedish Customer Satisfaction Barometer (Fornell, 1992) and the American Customer Satisfaction Index (ACSI, Fornell, Johnson, Anderson, Cha & Bryant, 1996), several countries such as the United Kingdom, Hong Kong, and Singapore have developed national customer satisfaction indexes for the hospitality and related sectors of the economy. Such customer satisfaction indexes are an evaluation of the overall customer experience at the end of the consumption process and therefore reflect a cumulative measure of satisfaction which is considered superior to the transaction-specific approach to measuring customer satisfaction. For the tourism and hospitality sector, a customer satisfaction index enables a comparison of the performance of different attractions/destinations as well as the monitoring of customer satisfaction over time. It thus provides useful information to destination/attraction managers and hospitality marketing organisations and, to travellers in their decision-making. Central to all customer satisfaction indexes that have so far been nationally developed and tested, service quality figures as a core construct (Fornell, 1992; Fornell et al., 1996). Service quality has been found to be one of the most important determinants of customer satisfaction in several studies carried out across various contexts (Oh, 1999; Deng, Yeh & Sung, 2013; Shi, Prentice & He, 2014; Su, Swanson & Chen, 2016; Pizam, Shapoval & Ellis, 2016; Nunkoo, Teeroovendagum, Thomas & Leonard, 2017; Oh & Kim, 2017). Quality service can be defined as service that consistently meets and exceeds guest expectations and ultimately satisfy customers (Ali & Raza, 2017; Atsan, 2017; Priporas, Stylos, Vedanthachari & Santiwatana, 2017). 2 The concepts of service quality and customer satisfaction are very relevant to national parks (Cho, 1988; Uysal, McDonald & Martin, 1994; Buckley, 2000; Akama & Kieti, 2003; Kim, Lee & Klenosky, 2003). Postmodern and socio-economic changes, coupled with the need for travellers to be in contact with nature have reinforced the role of national parks in the overall tourism product (Akama & Kieti, 2003). Visitors desire to escape daily routine and to have access to green spaces have meant that visitors to these areas have been increasing over the past decades (O’Neill, Riscinto-Kozub & Van Hyfte, 2010; Ramkissoon, Smith & Kneebone, 2014). Parks also play a central role in the economic development of many countries (Setola, Marzi, & Torricelli, 2018; Kimmm, 2018) such as in South Africa, where park visitors account for a significant proportion of the total number of visitors to the country (Butler & Richardson, 2015). One of the primary goals for park management is to ensure that visitors are provided with a high level of service and derive a high level of satisfaction from the park’s products. The latter is complex, comprising of environmental resources, animals, lodging, accommodation, camping facilities among others (Akama & Kieti, 2003). Researchers therefore have devoted some attention to studying service quality and satisfaction as they relate to national parks and similar nature-based areas. For example, Akama and Kieti (2003) investigated service quality and satisfaction among visitors to Tsavo West National Park, Kenya. The SERVQUAL instrument was used as a theoretical basis to delineate the service quality dimensions. Lee, Graefe and Burns (2004) explored the interrelationships between service quality and satisfaction, and their influence on behavioural intention among forest visitors in the United States. The researchers established a strong relationship between these variables. Other similar studies in national parks have been carried out over the past decades (e.g. Tonge & Moore, 2007; Chen, Lee, Chen & Huang, 2011; Crilley, Weber & Taplin, 2012; Ou, Mak & Pan, 2017; Yu, Tang & Chen, 2017; Thapa & Lee, 2017). These studies have made significant contributions to our understanding of visitor attitudes and behaviours in national parks and to the management and marketing of such attractions. Despite the progress made to-date, there are still a number of literature gaps that exist. 1.2 Motivation for the Study: Literature Gaps Identified First, while service quality in national parks have attracted considerable attention among researchers, many have utilized SERVQUAL as a basis for conceptualizing the construct (e.g. Akama & Kieti, 2003; Ban & Ramsaran, 2017; Thapa & Lee, 2017). While SERVQUAL is no doubt a valuable instrument for measuring service quality, it is not without limitations. It is criticised for being too generic as it does not reflect service quality dimensions that are relevant to specific sectors (Kincaid, Baloglu, Mao & Busser, 2010; Mondo & Faites, 2017). For 3 example, the tangible dimension of the SERVQUAL consists of only four items and is extremely limited in assessing the physical environment, particularly in such service contexts as national parks where accommodation facilities, environmental resources, physical facilities, interaction with animals and their biomes, and interpretation, play an important role in the visitors’ overall experience (Akama & Kieti, 2003). Furthermore, there may be service attributes that are relevant to national parks other than the five dimensions established by SERVQUAL (tangibles, reliability, assurance, empathy, and responsiveness). For example, in her study of service quality of eco-tourists, Khan (2003) came-up with a new dimension of service, which he conceptualized as ‘eco-tangibles’. Such a dimension may be highly relevant to nature-based attractions such as national parks, but is not captured by existing service quality models such as SERVQUAL. There is therefore a need to develop context specific measures of service quality that better reflect the nature of the services and products offered by national parks. A second limitation inherent to existing studies on this topic relates to the paucity of research that has attempted to develop a comprehensive theoretical model that simultaneously includes the key determinants of customer satisfaction in a national park context. While some studies have been carried out on this topic (e.g. Lee et al., 2004; Hwang, Lee & Chen, 2005; Chen et al., 2011; Thapa & Lee, 2017), the literature is not only fragmented, but has also missed such important variables as consumption emotions, perceived value, and image that are core constructs of previous customer satisfaction indexes that have been developed and tested. 1.3 Research Aims and Objectives for the study In an attempt to bridge the above literature gaps, this study borrows the theoretical rationale embedded in previous customer satisfaction indices (Anderson, Fornell, & Lehmann 1994; Fornell, 1992; Fornell et al., 1996; Johnson, Gustafsson, Andreassen, Lervik & Cha, 2001; Nunkoo et al., 2017) to develop a comprehensive visitor satisfaction model relevant to national parks. The model incorporates such variables as service quality, image of park, visitors’ consumption emotions, place attachment, visitor experience, and perceived value as the antecedent of satisfaction (Figure 1). More specifically, the study has the following objectives: 1) Develop a scale to measure service quality in national parks; 4 2) Test a structural model comprising of service quality, place attachment, image, consumption emotions, memorable experience as the antecedents of park visitor satisfaction; and 3) Calculate the national park visitor satisfaction index. J Park’s image Perceived value H7 H5 H4 H6 H8 Service quality Visitor satisfaction H1 H12 H2 H3 H13 H15 H11 Visitor experience H9 Consumption emotions H10 0 Place attachment H14 Figure 1. The Theoretical Model of the Study 1.4 Significance and Theoretical Contributions of the Study The theoretical model of the study makes an important contributions to existing literature. While the subject of visitor satisfaction in national parks has attracted the attention of a number of researchers (e.g. Lee et al., 2004; Hwang et al., 2005; Chen et al., 2011; Thapa & Lee, 2017), to-date, an integrative model that incorporates simultaneously the most important variables influencing visitor satisfaction in parks is yet to be developed and tested. In his discussion on the research priorities in park tourism, Eagles (2014) identifies visitor satisfaction as an important research area. He notes that: Given the importance of visitor satisfaction to return visitation, to word of mouth recommendations, and to long-term park agency public profile and funding, more research work is needed, in the following areas: (1) 5 Development of theoretical structures to underpin satisfaction measurement of park visitor experiences;…(3) Development of an appropriate measurement instrument that can be used widely and inexpensively; and (4) Creation of satisfaction assessment programs that can be implemented effectively and efficiently (p. 537-538). Eagles (2014) arguments and recommendations suggest the need for researchers to develop a comprehensive model of visitor satisfaction applicable to national parks. To the author’s knowledge, the model developed in Figure 1 is unique to this study and has not been previously tested by existing researchers. Furthermore, while the model is grounded in previous customer satisfaction indices, it extends the literature in two ways and this makes another valuable theoretical contribution. First, drawing from the empirical evidences in the literature (e.g. Prayag & Ryan, 2012; Ramkissoon, Smith & Weiler, 2012; 2013a; 2013b), the study considers place attachment as an additional determinant of visitor satisfaction and investigates its determinants. Place attachment is one of such variables that hold prominence for visitors in national parks (Ramkissoon et al., 2012; 2013a; 2013b). For example, the National Park and Wildlife Services of Australia and Parks Canada consider that building emotional attachment to national parks among visitors has become a priority for many national parks (NSW Government Office of Environment and Heritage, 2013; Parks Canada, 2010). Therefore, inclusion of this variable in the theoretical model should be considered as a valuable endeavour in this study and is likely to make a theoretical advancement to the field. The second extension to the model relates to the inclusion of the construct of visitor experience as an additional antecedent of visitor satisfaction. The visitor experience with the tourism product is an important basis of memories which are considered to be the “most significant outcome remaining for tourists” (Coudounaris & Sthapit, 2017, p. 1084). Naturebased attractions such as national parks are important generators of visitor experiences (Lubbe, du Preez, Douglas & Fairer-Wessels, 2017; Manning, 2001), which are in turn considered to be an important determinant of satisfaction (Tung & Ritchie, 2011). Visitors have clear expectations as to the quality and types of services provided and to what degree their expectations are met after the visit, which determines their satisfaction level (Sivalioglu & Berkoz, 2012). 6 2. Conceptual Development 2.1. Customer Satisfaction Customer satisfaction is not a novel concept and has been conceptualized a few decades ago. Among the first definitions of customer satisfaction is that provided by Oliver (1980) who stated that customer satisfaction is a measure of the discrepancy between the customer’s expectation before purchasing the service/product and his evaluation of the service/product after consumption. The author further added that satisfaction is “the summary psychological state resulting when the emotion surrounding disconfirmed expectation is coupled with the consumer’s prior feeling about the consumption experience” (Oliver, 1981, p. 27). This conceptualization of customer satisfaction is rooted in the expectancy disconfirmation theory, whereby satisfaction of customers’ is determined by a cognitive and affective mechanism which involves the comparison of the performance of a service to a certain standard (Oliver, 1997). This standard is based on the individual expectation of each customer (Oliver, 2000). When the performance of the service provider is above what was expected, then positive disconfirmation happens which therefore results in customer satisfaction (Oliver, 2000). Thus, customer satisfaction is the extent to which a product or service fails to meet or surpasses customers’ expectations. 2.2 Service quality Closely linked to customer satisfaction is the concept of service quality. The service quality concept is also grounded in the expectancy disconfirmation theory (Gronroos, 1982, Parasuraman, Zeithaml & Berry, 1985); however, the transaction-specific conceptualisation has been found to be more appropriate for the service quality construct (Lacobucci, Ostrom & Grayson, 1995). From the latter’s perspective, service quality is considered to be an antecedent of customer satisfaction, whereby, customers make a cognitive evaluation of the performance service attributes in the short term which ultimately influences their overall experience of the service (Torres, 2014). Numerous empirical studies have demonstrated that service quality has a direct positive effect on customer satisfaction (Brady, Cronin Jr, & Brand, 2002; Cronin, Brady & Hult, 2000; Nunkoo et al., 2017; Sureshchandar, Rajendran & Anantharaman, 2002; Wu, 2014). The relationship between service quality and satisfaction has also been validated in nature-based contexts (e.g. Chen et al., 2011; Lee et al., 2004). Based on the preceding theoretical and empirical discussion, the following hypothesis is proposed: 7 Hypothesis 1: Service quality perceptions of park visitors positively influences their satisfaction. 2.3 Consumption Emotions Consumption emotions is defined as “the subjective feeling states that consumers experience when purchasing or using a product or a service” (Nunkoo et al., 2017, p. 2983). Although many conceptualisations of consumption emotions exists, researchers agree that it comprises of various basic emotions (Lo, Wu & Tsai, 2015). While consumption emotions of consumers are relevant to all sectors, it holds more prominence for the service sectors, where consumers engage in consumption for hedonic purposes (Song & Qu, 2017; Wakefield & Blodgett, 1999). Within nature based tourism, national parks contain environmental and other natural features, where visitors seek the experience of enjoying the environment and animals in the quest for authenticity. As Rolston (2003) notes in his article on Life and the Nature of Life—in Parks, “the park setting accentuates these touchstones, symbols set off from the everyday life of town and commerce, but quite genuine and authentic, primordially natural” (p. 105). He goes on to argue that park features stimulate human emotions. Studies carried out in various contexts suggest that consumption emotions is related to satisfaction (e.g. Ladhari, 2009; Ali, Amin, & Cobanoglu, 2016; Ali, Amin, & Ryu, 2016; Ladhari, Souiden & Dufour, 2017; Nunkoo et al., 2017). Some other research suggests that consumption emotions are determined by the level of service quality (e.g. Jang & Namkung, 2009; Vinagre & Neves, 2008; Ladhari, 2009; Nunkoo et al., 2017). However, the theoretical links between service quality, consumption emotions, and satisfaction remain to be tested in the context of naturebased contexts such as national parks. Accordingly, the following hypotheses are developed: Hypothesis 2: Consumption emotions of park visitors positively influences their satisfaction. Hypothesis 3: Service quality perceptions of park visitors positively influences their consumption emotions. 2.4 Park’s Image Image is the overall impression left in the minds of the customers (Hu, Kandampully, & Juwaheer, 2009; Jiang, Ramkissoon & Mavondo, 2016). In a critique of the ACSI model, Johnson et al. (2001), argued that image is a construct that was omitted in the ACSI. The researchers recommend that it is an important construct that has to be included in studies on customer satisfaction. The relationship between the two variables has been validated in a number of studies (e.g. Andreassen & Lindestad, 1998; Bloemer & de Ruyter, 1998; Ryu, Han, & Kim, 2008; De Nisco, Papadopoulos, & Elliot, 2017; Nunkoo et al., 2017; Ajami, Elola & 8 Pastor, 2018). In this study therefore, image is proposed as a determinant of visitor satisfaction. Furthermore, studies have also demonstrated that image is influenced by the level of service provided by an organization (e.g. Hu et al., 2009; Ryu, Lee & Kim, 2012; Liat, Mansori, & Huei, 2014; Tosun, Dedeoğlu & Fyall, 2015; Nunkoo et al., 2017). Based on the preceding discussion, the following hypotheses are developed: Hypothesis 4: Visitor image of the park positively influences their satisfaction. Hypothesis 5: Service quality perceptions of park visitors positively influences their image of the park. 2.5 Perceived Value Perceived value as a theoretical concept has attracted numerous definitions in existing literature such that researchers consider it as one of the most ill-defined concept (Carú & Cova 2003; Sánchez-Fernández & Iniesta-Bonilla 2007; Grönroos 2011; Grönroos & Voima 2013). Nevertheless, most definitions have their grounding in the equity theory which postulates that customers evaluate what they receive from the product or service against what they give in terms of monetary and non-monetary resources (Oliver & De Sarbo, 1988). From this perspective, Kotler (2003) defines perceived value as “the difference between the prospective customer’s evaluation of all benefits and all the costs of an offering and the perceived alternatives” (p. 60). In the case of park visitors, such costs may include monetary payments such as those related to entrance fees, purchase of equipment, and transportation to and from the park and other non-monetary sacrifices such as time and effort. Perceived value has been found to be another significant determinant of satisfaction across various service contexts (e.g. Choi, Cho, Lee, Lee & Kim, 2004; Chen & Tsai 2007; Chen 2008; Hutchinson, Lai & Wang, 2009; Kuo, Wu, & Deng, 2009; Chang & Wang 2011; Chen & Chen 2010; Kim & Park, 2017; Leppäniemi, Karjaluoto, & Saarijärvi, 2017). Hypothesis 6: Perceived value positively influences visitor satisfaction with the park. In some studies perceived value has also been treated as an outcome variable that is influenced by the quality of service (e.g. Cronin et al.,2000; Chen & Chen 2010; Ryu et al., 2012; Nunkoo et al., 2017). Such a relationship has also been validated other contexts such as theme parks (e.g. Wu, Li, & Li, 2018), heritage sites (e.g. Wu & Li, 2017), and ecotourism (e.g. Kim & Park, 2017). Research also suggests that perceived value is influenced by consumption emotions (Hyun, Kim, & Lee, 2011; Deng et al., 2013). However, there is a paucity of studies that investigate the relationship between service quality, consumption 9 emotions and perceived value in nature-based settings. Accordingly, the following hypotheses are developed: Hypothesis 7: Service quality perceptions of park visitors positively influences perceived value. Hypothesis 8: Consumption emotions of park visitors positively influences perceived value. 2.6 Place attachment Place attachment has received much academic attention from researchers for more than 40 years now (Scannell & Gifford, 2017). It is defined as the emotional bonds that people form with places that are meaningful to them (Low & Altman, 1992; Scannell & Gifford, 2010). Place attachment is a concept that holds high prominence in nature-based setting such as national parks. Such areas are important attractions for visitors who spend time to seek out new experiences in their interaction with nature (Negra & Manning, 1997, Snepenger, Snepenger, Dalbey, & Wessol, 2007). Nature-based areas provide several benefits to visitors such as promoting well-being, restorative effects, and stress reduction (Davis, Green, & Reed, 2009; Hipp & Ogunseitan, 2011; Ramkissoon, Smith, & Weiler, 2013). As a result, national parks often become a favourite place holding special meaning for visitors (Ferreira, 2011). As a result, place attachment in nature-based setting has been found to influence visitor satisfaction in a number of studies (e.g. Hwang et al., 2005; Ramkissoon et al., 2012, 2013a, 2013b; Ramkissoon & Movando, 2017; Scannell & Gifford, 2017). Given the theoretical and empirical evidence in the literature, the following hypothesis is developed: Hypothesis 9: Place attachment of park visitors positively influences their satisfaction. Researchers have also attempted to understand what determines place attachment. Consumption emotion has been found to be an important predictor of place attachment. For example, Hosany, Prayag, Van Der Veen, Huang, and Deesilatham’s (2017) study found that place attachment is significantly influenced by positive and negative emotions of visitors. From a general perspective, relationship theory posits that emotions and consumer attachment to a particular product or service are theoretically connected (Grisaffe & Nguyen 2011; Orth, Limon & Rose 2010). Some other studies suggest that service quality (Alexandris, Kouthouris, & Meligdis, 2006) and image (Hou, Lin, & Morais 2005; Kaplanidou, Jordan, Funk, & Ridinger, 2012; Prayag & Ryan, 2011) influence place attachment. However, such determinants of place attachment have yet to be tested in nature-based settings such as national parks. Accordingly, the following hypotheses are proposed: Hypothesis 10: Consumption emotions of park visitors positively influences their place attachment. 10 Hypothesis 11: Service quality perceptions of park visitors positively influences visitors place attachment. Hypothesis 12: Park Image positively influences visitors place attachment. 2.7 Visitor Experience Pine and Gilmore’s (1998) provided a vision for the new economic era – the experience economy. Visitors are consumers of the experience destinations or attractions offer (Kim, Ritchie, Tung, 2010). This concept reflects the vast literature on tourist experience that can be traced to the early works of Boorstin, MacCannell, and Cohen (Coudounaris & Sthapit, 2017; Kim, Ritchie, & McCormick, 2012; Tung & Ritchie, 2011). In an experience economy, consumers are in the quest for affective memories, sensation, and symbolism that together create a holistic and long-lasting personal experience (Hosany & Witham, 2010; Pizam, 2010; Tung & Ritchie, 2011). From this perspective, Tung and Ritchie (2011) note that planners should ‘‘facilitate the development of an environment (i.e., the destination) that enhances the likelihood that tourists can create their own memorable tourism experiences” (p. 1369). The researchers go on to argue that scholars and managers should understand the essence of tourism experiences and its antecedents and consequences. Drawing from the empirical and theoretical evidence from existing literature, this research proposes that the quality of visitor experience with the park’s products influences their level of satisfaction. For example, Hosany and Witman (2010) empirically demonstrated that visitor experience conceptualised as education, entertainment, esthetic, and escapism were significant determinants of satisfaction. Similar findings have been revealed in other studies (e.g. Kim, 2014; Sipe & Testa, 2017). Results from existing studies also demonstrate that place attachment and service quality are important determinants of the visitor experience. For example, Kim’s (2014) study found such factors as local culture, variety of activities, hospitality, infrastructure, environmental management, quality of service, and place attachment to be important predictors of the visitor experience. Accordingly, the following hypotheses are proposed: H13: Visitor experience with the park positively influences their satisfaction. H14: Place attachment of park visitors positively influences their visitor experience. H15: Service quality perceptions of park visitors positively influences their visitor experience. 11 3. Research Methodology 3.1 Research Approach The research design adopted in this study will be developed to make optimum use of the various research methods available (Kothari, 2004; Hair, Black, Babin, Anderson & Tatham 2006; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007; Malhotra & Dash, 2009; Byrne, 2010; Kline, 2011) in view of meeting the research objectives. To achieve these objectives, this study will adopt a mixed methods approach. According to Bryman and Bell (2016), mixing methods enables the researcher to capitalize on the strengths and offset the weaknesses of each method. Furthermore, this approach allows the researcher to test what works best for a better understanding of the phenomenon (Given 2008; Fox & Bayat 2013; Sekaran & Bougie 2013; Creswell 2014). The combination of both qualitative and quantitative approaches will assist the researcher in gathering the information required to develop the scale items that need to be scientifically created, to reflect the true meaning in a specific context (Flick, 2015). 3.2. Selection of Parks The sample selected for a study should provide a complete understanding of its properties and characteristics from the population (Fox & Bayat, 2013; Sekaran & Bougie, 2013; Creswell 2014; Bryman & Bell, 2016). Following discussions with SANParks, this organization has provided the following potential parks for data collection, although the final list of parks for the study will be finalized after further discussions with SANParks. The following parks have been provided: Kruger National Park; Garden Route Nation Park; Golden Gate National Park; Kgalagadi National Park; Mountain Zebra National Park; Karoo National Park; Richtersveld National Park; Augrabies Falls National Park; Addo Elephant National Park; and Table Mountain National Park. Discussions around timeline, practicality and budget will be considered during this process. However, a maximum of 5 parks will be sampled. The sampling strategy to select visitors is yet to be determined and will depend on the parks selected and the existing information on visitor profile, number of visitors, peak and off-peak visits available at 12 SANParks. Participants for the interviews as well as for subsequent surveys will include only those visitors who have spent at least 24 hours in the park so as to ensure that they have a full appreciation of the parks’ products, features, and attractions. 3.3.1 Qualitative Research: In-depth Interviews The research step to be adopted in this study is presented in Figure 2. The first objective of the study relates to the development of a scale to measure service quality in national parks. Many studies in the extant literature on service quality have focused on a mixed-methods approach to develop the items that better reflect service quality in that specific context (e.g. Parasuraman et al., 1985; 1988; Dabholkar, Thorpe, & Rentz, 1996; Brochado, Rita, & Gameiro, 2015; Teeroovengadum, Kamalanabhan, & Seebaluck, 2016; Brochado & Pereira, 2017; Lee & Cheng, 2018). The methodology of these studies involved firstly an interview phase from which the scale items and dimensions of service quality have been identified, following by a survey to validate the measurement items. Identification of Service Quality Dimensions and Attributes for Parks Literature Review/Interviews (Qualitative phase) Development of Survey Instrument Operationalization of Variables; Draft Questionnaire; Pilot Testing; Expert Validation Objective1 Survey I: Purification of Measurement Scales: Exploratory Factor Analysis and Reliability Survey II: Validation of Scales Confirmatory Factor Analysis Testing the Structural Model Structural Equation Model Calculating the Visitor Satisfaction Index Objective 2 Objective 3 13 Figure 2. The Research Step of the Study The present study will follow the same scientific principle to develop the scale to measure service quality in national parks. The first phase of the study therefore, will involve in-depth interviews with visitors to identify those dimensions of service quality that are relevant to national parks. Interviews are a powerful data collection strategy as they use one on one interaction between the researcher and the interviewee to obtain deep, detailed and complex information (Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2009; Blair, Czaja, & Blair, 2014). Previous studies have utilized a sample size varying between 5 to twenty participants to extract the dimensions of service quality (Brochado et al., 2015; Teeroovengadum et al., 2016; Brochado & Pereira, 2017). The sample size for the qualitative phase will therefore be guided by existing literature as well as the notion of theoretical saturation (Charmaz, 2006). Theoretical saturation in qualitative research is defined as the stage where fresh data neither provide valuable additional insights nor reveal new properties of the core theoretical themes (Charmaz, 2006; Glaser & Strauss, 1967). 3.3.2 Development of the Survey Instrument The results of the interviews will be analysed using thematic analysis which has been commonly utilized in previous studies of a similar nature (e.g. Teeroovengadum et al., 2016). According to Braun and Clarke (2006, p.10), a theme “captures something important about the data in relation to the research question, and represents some level of patterned response or meaning within the data set.” There are two main approaches to thematic analysis, namely, inductive approach and theoretical analysis approach (Braun & Clarke, 2006). For this study the theoretical thematic analysis is considered to be best suited, given that one of the objectives of the study is to answer a specific research question, that is, what are the service quality attributes and dimensions visitors perceive as being important when evaluating the quality of national parks. The findings from the thematic analysis will be used to develop the scale items to measure service quality in national parks. The other variables present in the theoretical model of the study (Figure 1) will be developed following an exhaustive review of existing literature in the field (e.g. Oh, 1999; Prayag & Ryan, 2012; Ramkissoon et al., 2012; 2013a, 2013b; Deng et al., 2013; Shi et al., 2014; Su et al., 2016; Pizam et al., 2016; Nunkoo et al., 2017; Oh & Kim, 2017). 14 3.3.3 Purification of the Measurement Scale (Survey I) The items that will be developed to measure service quality and the other constructs will be tested using a survey with park visitors. The sample size for the survey will be guided by the requirements for exploratory factor analysis (EFA). Hair et al. (2006) recommend a sample size of ten respondents for every variable (10:1). EFA is a technique of factor loading into categories to extract principal latent variables. It is a method that makes use of “taking what the data gives you” and it comprises of combining observable variables together on a factor or a number of different factors (Hair et al., 2006, p.104). EFA is extensively utilized in business research to identify latent constructs and the reduction of a large number of items to a few factors that explain the co-variation between them (Hair et al., 2006; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). It is also used to test for unidimensionality of measurement scales and is often used as a preliminary step for more advanced testing using structural equation modelling (SEM) (Hair et al., 2006). This step will also allow the researcher to test the reliability of the scale items to measure the various constructs. The SPSS software will be utilized to run the EFA and reliability tests. 3.3.4 Validation of the Measurement Scale (Survey II) Following the EFA process, the scale items will be validated through a second survey with park visitors. This set of data will be subjected to a SEM analysis using the Analysis of Moment Structures (AMOS) software. Nunkoo and Ramkissoon (2012) and Nunkoo, Ramkissoon and Gursoy (2013) identified the essential issues that need to be considered by researchers when using SEM: “two-step approach to SEM”, “reliability and validity”, “multivariate normality and estimation models”, “model evaluation: fit indices”; “post-hoc modifications”; “reporting effect size”; “decomposition effects” and “sample size”. The sample size will be determined in the light of the recommendations for effective use of structural equation modelling, but will not be less than 300 visitors stratified across the remaining parks (Hair et al., 2006; Nunkoo et al., 2013). Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) is a method usually used to confirm a priori hypothesized relationships between a set of indicators and their respective latent variables (factors) (Kline, 2011). CFA aim to test the extent to which the proposed relationships based on theory prevail in the data (Hair et al., 2006). The validity of a construct is a vital requirement for more advanced testing of theory and development (Hair et al., 2006). Therefore, CFA will be used as a more stringent evaluation of construct validity to ascertain that the conceptualisation and operationalisation of a latent variable (construct) is captured empirically 15 by its observable variables (indicators/items) (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). CFA is therefore an essential tool in the process of scale development, where there is a need to ascertain the validity and reliability of scales developed. Given that the first objective of this research is to develop a scale to measure service quality in national parks, use of CFA is a pre-requisite in this study. 3.3.5 Structural Equation Model The second objective of the study relates to the testing of the structural model (Figure 1). The structural model consists of the set of relationships between independent variables and dependent variables (Hair et al., 2006; Kline, 2011). The overall fit of the structural model confirms the consistency of a theoretical model and the estimated model which is based on the observed values (Hair et al., 2006). The structural model will be evaluated using a range of fit indices such as Goodness of Fit Index, Normed Fit Index, Non-Normed Fit Index, Root Mean Error Square of Approximation, Absolute Goodness of Fit Index and others (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988; Nunkoo et al., 2013; Nunkoo & Ramkissoon, 2012). 3.3.6 Calculation of the Visitor Satisfaction Index The third objective of the study is to calculate the visitor satisfaction index. This index will be computed using the recommendations of Fornell et al., (1996) who developed the ACSI. To create the index, the following formula will be utilized: 𝑆𝐴𝐴𝑆𝐼 = ∑3𝑖=1 𝑤𝑖 𝑥̅ 𝑖 − ∑3𝑖=1 𝑤𝑖 9 ∑3𝑖=1 𝑤𝑖 ×100 Where:𝑤𝑖 represents the standardised regression weight for the i scale item of customer satisfaction; 𝑥̅𝑖 represents the average perception of the i scale item of customer satisfaction; ∑3𝑖=1 𝑤𝑖 𝑥̅𝑖 represents the sum of the three products of standardized regression weight and the average score for each item; ∑3𝑖=1 𝑤𝑖 represents the sum of the three standardized regression weights. 16 4. Ethical Considerations Research that involves human beings must obtain ethical approval in order to ensure that the study meets minimal required ethical standards (Clough & Nutbrown, 2012). According to Remler and Van Ryzin (2015), the outlined principles for ethical conduct in research includes “informed consent and voluntary participation” (p. 455). In order to conduct this study, permission has been sought from SANParks. A Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) has been signed between SANParks and the University of Johannesburg (UJ). Due to the nature and research approach, constant communication with SANParks is pivotal for data collection and completion of the study. All respondents within the sample will be kept anonymous. 5. 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