College of Business & Economics
Developing a Visitor Satisfaction Index for National Parks
PhD Proposal
By:
Anisah Deen
Supervisor: Dr R Nunkoo
Co Supervisor: Dr P Thomas
February 2018
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1. Introduction
Customer satisfaction is one of the most important concepts of high relevance to
researchers and practitioners alike (Consuegra, Molina & Esteban, 2007; Gupta & Sharma,
2016; de Salles Canfield & Basso, 2017). Satisfied customers display loyal behaviors such
as engaging in repeat purchases and making positive recommendations about the product,
service or organisation (Fraering & Minor, 2013; Löfgren, Witell & Gustafsson, 2008). This
type of customer have also been seen to help organisations gain competitive advantage over
similar others contributing to organisational success (Gupta & Sharma, 2016; Newman,
Moncarz & Kay, 2014; Ilieska, 2013). Given the importance of customer satisfaction, intensive
research has been conducted to-date examining the concept and its antecedents (Pollack,
2009; Zhang, Zhang & Law, 2013; Fraering & Minor, 2013; Radojevic, Stanisic & Stanic,
2017).
Not only has academic debate on the topic been fervent, but research has also taken on
several national and highly practical orientations.
Inspired by the Swedish Customer
Satisfaction Barometer (Fornell, 1992) and the American Customer Satisfaction Index (ACSI,
Fornell, Johnson, Anderson, Cha & Bryant, 1996), several countries such as the United
Kingdom, Hong Kong, and Singapore have developed national customer satisfaction indexes
for the hospitality and related sectors of the economy. Such customer satisfaction indexes
are an evaluation of the overall customer experience at the end of the consumption process
and therefore reflect a cumulative measure of satisfaction which is considered superior to the
transaction-specific approach to measuring customer satisfaction.
For the tourism and
hospitality sector, a customer satisfaction index enables a comparison of the performance of
different attractions/destinations as well as the monitoring of customer satisfaction over time.
It thus provides useful information to destination/attraction managers and hospitality marketing
organisations and, to travellers in their decision-making.
Central to all customer satisfaction indexes that have so far been nationally developed and
tested, service quality figures as a core construct (Fornell, 1992; Fornell et al., 1996). Service
quality has been found to be one of the most important determinants of customer satisfaction
in several studies carried out across various contexts (Oh, 1999; Deng, Yeh & Sung, 2013;
Shi, Prentice & He, 2014; Su, Swanson & Chen, 2016; Pizam, Shapoval & Ellis, 2016; Nunkoo,
Teeroovendagum, Thomas & Leonard, 2017; Oh & Kim, 2017). Quality service can be defined
as service that consistently meets and exceeds guest expectations and ultimately satisfy
customers (Ali & Raza, 2017; Atsan, 2017; Priporas, Stylos, Vedanthachari & Santiwatana,
2017).
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The concepts of service quality and customer satisfaction are very relevant to national
parks (Cho, 1988; Uysal, McDonald & Martin, 1994; Buckley, 2000; Akama & Kieti, 2003; Kim,
Lee & Klenosky, 2003). Postmodern and socio-economic changes, coupled with the need for
travellers to be in contact with nature have reinforced the role of national parks in the overall
tourism product (Akama & Kieti, 2003). Visitors desire to escape daily routine and to have
access to green spaces have meant that visitors to these areas have been increasing over
the past decades (O’Neill, Riscinto-Kozub & Van Hyfte, 2010; Ramkissoon, Smith &
Kneebone, 2014). Parks also play a central role in the economic development of many
countries (Setola, Marzi, & Torricelli, 2018; Kimmm, 2018) such as in South Africa, where park
visitors account for a significant proportion of the total number of visitors to the country (Butler
& Richardson, 2015).
One of the primary goals for park management is to ensure that visitors are provided with
a high level of service and derive a high level of satisfaction from the park’s products. The
latter is complex, comprising of environmental resources, animals, lodging, accommodation,
camping facilities among others (Akama & Kieti, 2003). Researchers therefore have devoted
some attention to studying service quality and satisfaction as they relate to national parks and
similar nature-based areas. For example, Akama and Kieti (2003) investigated service quality
and satisfaction among visitors to Tsavo West National Park, Kenya.
The SERVQUAL
instrument was used as a theoretical basis to delineate the service quality dimensions. Lee,
Graefe and Burns (2004) explored the interrelationships between service quality and
satisfaction, and their influence on behavioural intention among forest visitors in the United
States. The researchers established a strong relationship between these variables. Other
similar studies in national parks have been carried out over the past decades (e.g. Tonge &
Moore, 2007; Chen, Lee, Chen & Huang, 2011; Crilley, Weber & Taplin, 2012; Ou, Mak &
Pan, 2017; Yu, Tang & Chen, 2017; Thapa & Lee, 2017). These studies have made significant
contributions to our understanding of visitor attitudes and behaviours in national parks and to
the management and marketing of such attractions. Despite the progress made to-date, there
are still a number of literature gaps that exist.
1.2 Motivation for the Study: Literature Gaps Identified
First, while service quality in national parks have attracted considerable attention among
researchers, many have utilized SERVQUAL as a basis for conceptualizing the construct (e.g.
Akama & Kieti, 2003; Ban & Ramsaran, 2017; Thapa & Lee, 2017). While SERVQUAL is no
doubt a valuable instrument for measuring service quality, it is not without limitations. It is
criticised for being too generic as it does not reflect service quality dimensions that are relevant
to specific sectors (Kincaid, Baloglu, Mao & Busser, 2010; Mondo & Faites, 2017). For
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example, the tangible dimension of the SERVQUAL consists of only four items and is
extremely limited in assessing the physical environment, particularly in such service contexts
as national parks where accommodation facilities, environmental resources, physical facilities,
interaction with animals and their biomes, and interpretation, play an important role in the
visitors’ overall experience (Akama & Kieti, 2003).
Furthermore, there may be service
attributes that are relevant to national parks other than the five dimensions established by
SERVQUAL (tangibles, reliability, assurance, empathy, and responsiveness). For example,
in her study of service quality of eco-tourists, Khan (2003) came-up with a new dimension of
service, which he conceptualized as ‘eco-tangibles’. Such a dimension may be highly relevant
to nature-based attractions such as national parks, but is not captured by existing service
quality models such as SERVQUAL. There is therefore a need to develop context specific
measures of service quality that better reflect the nature of the services and products offered
by national parks.
A second limitation inherent to existing studies on this topic relates to the paucity of
research that has attempted to develop a comprehensive theoretical model that
simultaneously includes the key determinants of customer satisfaction in a national park
context. While some studies have been carried out on this topic (e.g. Lee et al., 2004; Hwang,
Lee & Chen, 2005; Chen et al., 2011; Thapa & Lee, 2017), the literature is not only fragmented,
but has also missed such important variables as consumption emotions, perceived value, and
image that are core constructs of previous customer satisfaction indexes that have been
developed and tested.
1.3 Research Aims and Objectives for the study
In an attempt to bridge the above literature gaps, this study borrows the theoretical
rationale embedded in previous customer satisfaction indices (Anderson, Fornell, & Lehmann
1994; Fornell, 1992; Fornell et al., 1996; Johnson, Gustafsson, Andreassen, Lervik & Cha,
2001; Nunkoo et al., 2017) to develop a comprehensive visitor satisfaction model relevant to
national parks. The model incorporates such variables as service quality, image of park,
visitors’ consumption emotions, place attachment, visitor experience, and perceived value as
the antecedent of satisfaction (Figure 1).
More specifically, the study has the following
objectives:
1) Develop a scale to measure service quality in national parks;
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2) Test a structural model comprising of service quality, place attachment, image,
consumption emotions, memorable experience as the antecedents of park visitor
satisfaction; and
3) Calculate the national park visitor satisfaction index.
J
Park’s image
Perceived value
H7
H5
H4
H6
H8
Service quality
Visitor
satisfaction
H1
H12
H2
H3
H13
H15
H11
Visitor
experience
H9
Consumption
emotions
H10
0
Place attachment
H14
Figure 1. The Theoretical Model of the Study
1.4 Significance and Theoretical Contributions of the Study
The theoretical model of the study makes an important contributions to existing literature.
While the subject of visitor satisfaction in national parks has attracted the attention of a number
of researchers (e.g. Lee et al., 2004; Hwang et al., 2005; Chen et al., 2011; Thapa & Lee,
2017), to-date, an integrative model that incorporates simultaneously the most important
variables influencing visitor satisfaction in parks is yet to be developed and tested. In his
discussion on the research priorities in park tourism, Eagles (2014) identifies visitor
satisfaction as an important research area. He notes that:
Given the importance of visitor satisfaction to return visitation, to word of
mouth recommendations, and to long-term park agency public profile and
funding, more research work is needed, in the following areas: (1)
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Development
of
theoretical
structures
to
underpin
satisfaction
measurement of park visitor experiences;…(3) Development of an
appropriate measurement instrument that can be used widely and
inexpensively; and (4) Creation of satisfaction assessment programs that
can be implemented effectively and efficiently (p. 537-538).
Eagles (2014) arguments and recommendations suggest the need for researchers to
develop a comprehensive model of visitor satisfaction applicable to national parks. To the
author’s knowledge, the model developed in Figure 1 is unique to this study and has not been
previously tested by existing researchers. Furthermore, while the model is grounded in
previous customer satisfaction indices, it extends the literature in two ways and this makes
another valuable theoretical contribution.
First, drawing from the empirical evidences in the literature (e.g. Prayag & Ryan, 2012;
Ramkissoon, Smith & Weiler, 2012; 2013a; 2013b), the study considers place attachment as
an additional determinant of visitor satisfaction and investigates its determinants. Place
attachment is one of such variables that hold prominence for visitors in national parks
(Ramkissoon et al., 2012; 2013a; 2013b). For example, the National Park and Wildlife
Services of Australia and Parks Canada consider that building emotional attachment to
national parks among visitors has become a priority for many national parks (NSW
Government Office of Environment and Heritage, 2013; Parks Canada, 2010). Therefore,
inclusion of this variable in the theoretical model should be considered as a valuable
endeavour in this study and is likely to make a theoretical advancement to the field.
The second extension to the model relates to the inclusion of the construct of visitor
experience as an additional antecedent of visitor satisfaction. The visitor experience with the
tourism product is an important basis of memories which are considered to be the “most
significant outcome remaining for tourists” (Coudounaris & Sthapit, 2017, p. 1084). Naturebased attractions such as national parks are important generators of visitor experiences
(Lubbe, du Preez, Douglas & Fairer-Wessels, 2017; Manning, 2001), which are in turn
considered to be an important determinant of satisfaction (Tung & Ritchie, 2011). Visitors have
clear expectations as to the quality and types of services provided and to what degree their
expectations are met after the visit, which determines their satisfaction level (Sivalioglu &
Berkoz, 2012).
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2. Conceptual Development
2.1. Customer Satisfaction
Customer satisfaction is not a novel concept and has been conceptualized a few decades
ago. Among the first definitions of customer satisfaction is that provided by Oliver (1980) who
stated that customer satisfaction is a measure of the discrepancy between the customer’s
expectation before purchasing the service/product and his evaluation of the service/product
after consumption. The author further added that satisfaction is “the summary psychological
state resulting when the emotion surrounding disconfirmed expectation is coupled with the
consumer’s prior feeling about the consumption experience” (Oliver, 1981, p. 27). This
conceptualization of customer satisfaction is rooted in the expectancy disconfirmation theory,
whereby satisfaction of customers’ is determined by a cognitive and affective mechanism
which involves the comparison of the performance of a service to a certain standard (Oliver,
1997). This standard is based on the individual expectation of each customer (Oliver, 2000).
When the performance of the service provider is above what was expected, then positive
disconfirmation happens which therefore results in customer satisfaction (Oliver, 2000). Thus,
customer satisfaction is the extent to which a product or service fails to meet or surpasses
customers’ expectations.
2.2 Service quality
Closely linked to customer satisfaction is the concept of service quality. The service quality
concept is also grounded in the expectancy disconfirmation theory (Gronroos, 1982,
Parasuraman, Zeithaml & Berry, 1985); however, the transaction-specific conceptualisation
has been found to be more appropriate for the service quality construct (Lacobucci, Ostrom &
Grayson, 1995). From the latter’s perspective, service quality is considered to be an
antecedent of customer satisfaction, whereby, customers make a cognitive evaluation of the
performance service attributes in the short term which ultimately influences their overall
experience of the service (Torres, 2014). Numerous empirical studies have demonstrated that
service quality has a direct positive effect on customer satisfaction (Brady, Cronin Jr, & Brand,
2002; Cronin, Brady & Hult, 2000; Nunkoo et al., 2017; Sureshchandar, Rajendran &
Anantharaman, 2002; Wu, 2014). The relationship between service quality and satisfaction
has also been validated in nature-based contexts (e.g. Chen et al., 2011; Lee et al., 2004).
Based on the preceding theoretical and empirical discussion, the following hypothesis is
proposed:
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Hypothesis 1: Service quality perceptions of park visitors positively influences their
satisfaction.
2.3 Consumption Emotions
Consumption emotions is defined as “the subjective feeling states that consumers
experience when purchasing or using a product or a service” (Nunkoo et al., 2017, p. 2983).
Although many conceptualisations of consumption emotions exists, researchers agree that it
comprises of various basic emotions (Lo, Wu & Tsai, 2015). While consumption emotions of
consumers are relevant to all sectors, it holds more prominence for the service sectors, where
consumers engage in consumption for hedonic purposes (Song & Qu, 2017; Wakefield &
Blodgett, 1999). Within nature based tourism, national parks contain environmental and other
natural features, where visitors seek the experience of enjoying the environment and animals
in the quest for authenticity. As Rolston (2003) notes in his article on Life and the Nature of
Life—in Parks, “the park setting accentuates these touchstones, symbols set off from the
everyday life of town and commerce, but quite genuine and authentic, primordially natural” (p.
105). He goes on to argue that park features stimulate human emotions. Studies carried out
in various contexts suggest that consumption emotions is related to satisfaction (e.g. Ladhari,
2009; Ali, Amin, & Cobanoglu, 2016; Ali, Amin, & Ryu, 2016; Ladhari, Souiden & Dufour, 2017;
Nunkoo et al., 2017).
Some other research suggests that consumption emotions are
determined by the level of service quality (e.g. Jang & Namkung, 2009; Vinagre & Neves,
2008; Ladhari, 2009; Nunkoo et al., 2017). However, the theoretical links between service
quality, consumption emotions, and satisfaction remain to be tested in the context of naturebased contexts such as national parks. Accordingly, the following hypotheses are developed:
Hypothesis 2: Consumption emotions of park visitors positively influences their satisfaction.
Hypothesis 3: Service quality perceptions of park visitors positively influences their
consumption emotions.
2.4 Park’s Image
Image is the overall impression left in the minds of the customers (Hu, Kandampully, &
Juwaheer, 2009; Jiang, Ramkissoon & Mavondo, 2016). In a critique of the ACSI model,
Johnson et al. (2001), argued that image is a construct that was omitted in the ACSI. The
researchers recommend that it is an important construct that has to be included in studies on
customer satisfaction. The relationship between the two variables has been validated in a
number of studies (e.g. Andreassen & Lindestad, 1998; Bloemer & de Ruyter, 1998; Ryu, Han,
& Kim, 2008; De Nisco, Papadopoulos, & Elliot, 2017; Nunkoo et al., 2017; Ajami, Elola &
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Pastor, 2018).
In this study therefore, image is proposed as a determinant of visitor
satisfaction. Furthermore, studies have also demonstrated that image is influenced by the
level of service provided by an organization (e.g. Hu et al., 2009; Ryu, Lee & Kim, 2012; Liat,
Mansori, & Huei, 2014; Tosun, Dedeoğlu & Fyall, 2015; Nunkoo et al., 2017). Based on the
preceding discussion, the following hypotheses are developed:
Hypothesis 4: Visitor image of the park positively influences their satisfaction.
Hypothesis 5: Service quality perceptions of park visitors positively influences their image of
the park.
2.5 Perceived Value
Perceived value as a theoretical concept has attracted numerous definitions in existing
literature such that researchers consider it as one of the most ill-defined concept (Carú & Cova
2003; Sánchez-Fernández & Iniesta-Bonilla 2007; Grönroos 2011; Grönroos & Voima 2013).
Nevertheless, most definitions have their grounding in the equity theory which postulates that
customers evaluate what they receive from the product or service against what they give in
terms of monetary and non-monetary resources (Oliver & De Sarbo, 1988).
From this
perspective, Kotler (2003) defines perceived value as “the difference between the prospective
customer’s evaluation of all benefits and all the costs of an offering and the perceived
alternatives” (p. 60). In the case of park visitors, such costs may include monetary payments
such as those related to entrance fees, purchase of equipment, and transportation to and from
the park and other non-monetary sacrifices such as time and effort. Perceived value has been
found to be another significant determinant of satisfaction across various service contexts (e.g.
Choi, Cho, Lee, Lee & Kim, 2004; Chen & Tsai 2007; Chen 2008; Hutchinson, Lai & Wang,
2009; Kuo, Wu, & Deng, 2009; Chang & Wang 2011; Chen & Chen 2010; Kim & Park, 2017;
Leppäniemi, Karjaluoto, & Saarijärvi, 2017).
Hypothesis 6: Perceived value positively influences visitor satisfaction with the park.
In some studies perceived value has also been treated as an outcome variable that is
influenced by the quality of service (e.g. Cronin et al.,2000; Chen & Chen 2010; Ryu et al.,
2012; Nunkoo et al., 2017). Such a relationship has also been validated other contexts such
as theme parks (e.g. Wu, Li, & Li, 2018), heritage sites (e.g. Wu & Li, 2017), and ecotourism
(e.g. Kim & Park, 2017). Research also suggests that perceived value is influenced by
consumption emotions (Hyun, Kim, & Lee, 2011; Deng et al., 2013). However, there is a
paucity of studies that investigate the relationship between service quality, consumption
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emotions and perceived value in nature-based settings. Accordingly, the following hypotheses
are developed:
Hypothesis 7: Service quality perceptions of park visitors positively influences perceived value.
Hypothesis 8: Consumption emotions of park visitors positively influences perceived value.
2.6 Place attachment
Place attachment has received much academic attention from researchers for more than
40 years now (Scannell & Gifford, 2017). It is defined as the emotional bonds that people form
with places that are meaningful to them (Low & Altman, 1992; Scannell & Gifford, 2010). Place
attachment is a concept that holds high prominence in nature-based setting such as national
parks. Such areas are important attractions for visitors who spend time to seek out new
experiences in their interaction with nature (Negra & Manning, 1997, Snepenger, Snepenger,
Dalbey, & Wessol, 2007). Nature-based areas provide several benefits to visitors such as
promoting well-being, restorative effects, and stress reduction (Davis, Green, & Reed, 2009;
Hipp & Ogunseitan, 2011; Ramkissoon, Smith, & Weiler, 2013). As a result, national parks
often become a favourite place holding special meaning for visitors (Ferreira, 2011). As a
result, place attachment in nature-based setting has been found to influence visitor satisfaction
in a number of studies (e.g. Hwang et al., 2005; Ramkissoon et al., 2012, 2013a, 2013b;
Ramkissoon & Movando, 2017; Scannell & Gifford, 2017). Given the theoretical and empirical
evidence in the literature, the following hypothesis is developed:
Hypothesis 9: Place attachment of park visitors positively influences their satisfaction.
Researchers have also attempted to understand what determines place attachment.
Consumption emotion has been found to be an important predictor of place attachment. For
example, Hosany, Prayag, Van Der Veen, Huang, and Deesilatham’s (2017) study found that
place attachment is significantly influenced by positive and negative emotions of visitors. From
a general perspective, relationship theory posits that emotions and consumer attachment to a
particular product or service are theoretically connected (Grisaffe & Nguyen 2011; Orth, Limon
& Rose 2010). Some other studies suggest that service quality (Alexandris, Kouthouris, &
Meligdis, 2006) and image (Hou, Lin, & Morais 2005; Kaplanidou, Jordan, Funk, & Ridinger,
2012; Prayag & Ryan, 2011) influence place attachment. However, such determinants of
place attachment have yet to be tested in nature-based settings such as national parks.
Accordingly, the following hypotheses are proposed:
Hypothesis 10: Consumption emotions of park visitors positively influences their place
attachment.
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Hypothesis 11: Service quality perceptions of park visitors positively influences visitors place
attachment.
Hypothesis 12: Park Image positively influences visitors place attachment.
2.7 Visitor Experience
Pine and Gilmore’s (1998) provided a vision for the new economic era – the experience
economy. Visitors are consumers of the experience destinations or attractions offer (Kim,
Ritchie, Tung, 2010). This concept reflects the vast literature on tourist experience that can
be traced to the early works of Boorstin, MacCannell, and Cohen (Coudounaris & Sthapit,
2017; Kim, Ritchie, & McCormick, 2012; Tung & Ritchie, 2011). In an experience economy,
consumers are in the quest for affective memories, sensation, and symbolism that together
create a holistic and long-lasting personal experience (Hosany & Witham, 2010; Pizam, 2010;
Tung & Ritchie, 2011). From this perspective, Tung and Ritchie (2011) note that planners
should ‘‘facilitate the development of an environment (i.e., the destination) that enhances the
likelihood that tourists can create their own memorable tourism experiences” (p. 1369). The
researchers go on to argue that scholars and managers should understand the essence of
tourism experiences and its antecedents and consequences. Drawing from the empirical and
theoretical evidence from existing literature, this research proposes that the quality of visitor
experience with the park’s products influences their level of satisfaction. For example, Hosany
and Witman (2010) empirically demonstrated that visitor experience conceptualised as
education, entertainment, esthetic, and escapism were significant determinants of satisfaction.
Similar findings have been revealed in other studies (e.g. Kim, 2014; Sipe & Testa, 2017).
Results from existing studies also demonstrate that place attachment and service quality are
important determinants of the visitor experience. For example, Kim’s (2014) study found such
factors as local culture, variety of activities, hospitality, infrastructure, environmental
management, quality of service, and place attachment to be important predictors of the visitor
experience. Accordingly, the following hypotheses are proposed:
H13: Visitor experience with the park positively influences their satisfaction.
H14: Place attachment of park visitors positively influences their visitor experience.
H15: Service quality perceptions of park visitors positively influences their visitor experience.
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3. Research Methodology
3.1 Research Approach
The research design adopted in this study will be developed to make optimum use of the
various research methods available (Kothari, 2004; Hair, Black, Babin, Anderson & Tatham
2006; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007; Malhotra & Dash, 2009; Byrne, 2010; Kline, 2011) in view of
meeting the research objectives. To achieve these objectives, this study will adopt a mixed
methods approach. According to Bryman and Bell (2016), mixing methods enables the
researcher to capitalize on the strengths and offset the weaknesses of each method.
Furthermore, this approach allows the researcher to test what works best for a better
understanding of the phenomenon (Given 2008; Fox & Bayat 2013; Sekaran & Bougie 2013;
Creswell 2014). The combination of both qualitative and quantitative approaches will assist
the researcher in gathering the information required to develop the scale items that need to
be scientifically created, to reflect the true meaning in a specific context (Flick, 2015).
3.2. Selection of Parks
The sample selected for a study should provide a complete understanding of its properties
and characteristics from the population (Fox & Bayat, 2013; Sekaran & Bougie, 2013; Creswell
2014; Bryman & Bell, 2016). Following discussions with SANParks, this organization has
provided the following potential parks for data collection, although the final list of parks for the
study will be finalized after further discussions with SANParks. The following parks have been
provided:

Kruger National Park;

Garden Route Nation Park;

Golden Gate National Park;

Kgalagadi National Park;

Mountain Zebra National Park;

Karoo National Park;

Richtersveld National Park;

Augrabies Falls National Park;

Addo Elephant National Park; and

Table Mountain National Park.
Discussions around timeline, practicality and budget will be considered during this
process. However, a maximum of 5 parks will be sampled. The sampling strategy to select
visitors is yet to be determined and will depend on the parks selected and the existing
information on visitor profile, number of visitors, peak and off-peak visits available at
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SANParks. Participants for the interviews as well as for subsequent surveys will include only
those visitors who have spent at least 24 hours in the park so as to ensure that they have a
full appreciation of the parks’ products, features, and attractions.
3.3.1 Qualitative Research: In-depth Interviews
The research step to be adopted in this study is presented in Figure 2. The first objective
of the study relates to the development of a scale to measure service quality in national parks.
Many studies in the extant literature on service quality have focused on a mixed-methods
approach to develop the items that better reflect service quality in that specific context (e.g.
Parasuraman et al., 1985; 1988; Dabholkar, Thorpe, & Rentz, 1996; Brochado, Rita, &
Gameiro, 2015; Teeroovengadum, Kamalanabhan, & Seebaluck, 2016; Brochado & Pereira,
2017; Lee & Cheng, 2018). The methodology of these studies involved firstly an interview
phase from which the scale items and dimensions of service quality have been identified,
following by a survey to validate the measurement items.
Identification of Service Quality Dimensions and Attributes for Parks
Literature Review/Interviews (Qualitative phase)
Development of Survey Instrument
Operationalization of Variables; Draft Questionnaire; Pilot Testing;
Expert Validation
Objective1
Survey I: Purification of Measurement Scales: Exploratory Factor
Analysis and Reliability
Survey II: Validation of Scales
Confirmatory Factor Analysis
Testing the Structural Model
Structural Equation Model
Calculating the Visitor Satisfaction Index
Objective 2
Objective 3
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Figure 2. The Research Step of the Study
The present study will follow the same scientific principle to develop the scale to measure
service quality in national parks. The first phase of the study therefore, will involve in-depth
interviews with visitors to identify those dimensions of service quality that are relevant to
national parks. Interviews are a powerful data collection strategy as they use one on one
interaction between the researcher and the interviewee to obtain deep, detailed and complex
information (Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2009; Blair, Czaja, & Blair, 2014). Previous studies have
utilized a sample size varying between 5 to twenty participants to extract the dimensions of
service quality (Brochado et al., 2015; Teeroovengadum et al., 2016; Brochado & Pereira,
2017). The sample size for the qualitative phase will therefore be guided by existing literature
as well as the notion of theoretical saturation (Charmaz, 2006). Theoretical saturation in
qualitative research is defined as the stage where fresh data neither provide valuable
additional insights nor reveal new properties of the core theoretical themes (Charmaz, 2006;
Glaser & Strauss, 1967).
3.3.2 Development of the Survey Instrument
The results of the interviews will be analysed using thematic analysis which has been
commonly utilized in previous studies of a similar nature (e.g. Teeroovengadum et al., 2016).
According to Braun and Clarke (2006, p.10), a theme “captures something important about
the data in relation to the research question, and represents some level of patterned response
or meaning within the data set.” There are two main approaches to thematic analysis, namely,
inductive approach and theoretical analysis approach (Braun & Clarke, 2006). For this study
the theoretical thematic analysis is considered to be best suited, given that one of the
objectives of the study is to answer a specific research question, that is, what are the service
quality attributes and dimensions visitors perceive as being important when evaluating the
quality of national parks. The findings from the thematic analysis will be used to develop the
scale items to measure service quality in national parks. The other variables present in the
theoretical model of the study (Figure 1) will be developed following an exhaustive review of
existing literature in the field (e.g. Oh, 1999; Prayag & Ryan, 2012; Ramkissoon et al., 2012;
2013a, 2013b; Deng et al., 2013; Shi et al., 2014; Su et al., 2016; Pizam et al., 2016; Nunkoo
et al., 2017; Oh & Kim, 2017).
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3.3.3 Purification of the Measurement Scale (Survey I)
The items that will be developed to measure service quality and the other constructs will
be tested using a survey with park visitors. The sample size for the survey will be guided by
the requirements for exploratory factor analysis (EFA). Hair et al. (2006) recommend a sample
size of ten respondents for every variable (10:1). EFA is a technique of factor loading into
categories to extract principal latent variables. It is a method that makes use of “taking what
the data gives you” and it comprises of combining observable variables together on a factor
or a number of different factors (Hair et al., 2006, p.104). EFA is extensively utilized in business
research to identify latent constructs and the reduction of a large number of items to a few
factors that explain the co-variation between them (Hair et al., 2006; Tabachnick & Fidell,
2007). It is also used to test for unidimensionality of measurement scales and is often used as
a preliminary step for more advanced testing using structural equation modelling (SEM) (Hair
et al., 2006). This step will also allow the researcher to test the reliability of the scale items to
measure the various constructs. The SPSS software will be utilized to run the EFA and
reliability tests.
3.3.4 Validation of the Measurement Scale (Survey II)
Following the EFA process, the scale items will be validated through a second survey with
park visitors. This set of data will be subjected to a SEM analysis using the Analysis of Moment
Structures (AMOS) software. Nunkoo and Ramkissoon (2012) and Nunkoo, Ramkissoon and
Gursoy (2013) identified the essential issues that need to be considered by researchers when
using SEM: “two-step approach to SEM”, “reliability and validity”, “multivariate normality and
estimation models”, “model evaluation: fit indices”; “post-hoc modifications”; “reporting effect
size”; “decomposition effects” and “sample size”. The sample size will be determined in the
light of the recommendations for effective use of structural equation modelling, but will not be
less than 300 visitors stratified across the remaining parks (Hair et al., 2006; Nunkoo et al.,
2013).
Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) is a method usually used to confirm a priori
hypothesized relationships between a set of indicators and their respective latent variables
(factors) (Kline, 2011). CFA aim to test the extent to which the proposed relationships based
on theory prevail in the data (Hair et al., 2006). The validity of a construct is a vital requirement
for more advanced testing of theory and development (Hair et al., 2006). Therefore, CFA will
be used as a more stringent evaluation of construct validity to ascertain that the
conceptualisation and operationalisation of a latent variable (construct) is captured empirically
15
by its observable variables (indicators/items) (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). CFA is therefore an
essential tool in the process of scale development, where there is a need to ascertain the
validity and reliability of scales developed. Given that the first objective of this research is to
develop a scale to measure service quality in national parks, use of CFA is a pre-requisite in
this study.
3.3.5 Structural Equation Model
The second objective of the study relates to the testing of the structural model (Figure 1).
The structural model consists of the set of relationships between independent variables and
dependent variables (Hair et al., 2006; Kline, 2011). The overall fit of the structural model
confirms the consistency of a theoretical model and the estimated model which is based on
the observed values (Hair et al., 2006). The structural model will be evaluated using a range
of fit indices such as Goodness of Fit Index, Normed Fit Index, Non-Normed Fit Index, Root
Mean Error Square of Approximation, Absolute Goodness of Fit Index and others (Anderson
& Gerbing, 1988; Nunkoo et al., 2013; Nunkoo & Ramkissoon, 2012).
3.3.6 Calculation of the Visitor Satisfaction Index
The third objective of the study is to calculate the visitor satisfaction index. This index will
be computed using the recommendations of Fornell et al., (1996) who developed the ACSI.
To create the index, the following formula will be utilized:
𝑆𝐴𝐴𝑆𝐼 =
∑3𝑖=1 𝑤𝑖 𝑥̅ 𝑖 − ∑3𝑖=1 𝑤𝑖
9 ∑3𝑖=1 𝑤𝑖
×100
Where:𝑤𝑖 represents the standardised regression weight for the i scale item of customer
satisfaction;
𝑥̅𝑖 represents the average perception of the i scale item of customer satisfaction;
∑3𝑖=1 𝑤𝑖 𝑥̅𝑖 represents the sum of the three products of standardized regression weight and the
average score for each item;
∑3𝑖=1 𝑤𝑖 represents the sum of the three standardized regression weights.
16
4. Ethical Considerations
Research that involves human beings must obtain ethical approval in order to ensure
that the study meets minimal required ethical standards (Clough & Nutbrown, 2012).
According to Remler and Van Ryzin (2015), the outlined principles for ethical conduct in
research includes “informed consent and voluntary participation” (p. 455). In order to conduct
this study, permission has been sought from SANParks. A Memorandum of Understanding
(MOU) has been signed between SANParks and the University of Johannesburg (UJ). Due
to the nature and research approach, constant communication with SANParks is pivotal for
data collection and completion of the study. All respondents within the sample will be kept
anonymous.
5. Proposed research schedule
Phase 1
Phase 2
Proposal develop and
Approval

Development of
Survey I Instrument
Secondary Data
collection

Conceptual
Development

Purification of the
Measurement Scale
(Survey I)
Survey I data collection
Fieldwork Preparation

Qualitative – in
depth interviews
development and
data collection

In depth interview
data analysis
YEAR 1
YEAR 1
Phase 3
Validation of the
Measurement Scale
(Survey II)

Data collection
Survey II
Phase 4
Data interpretation and
discussion
Conclusions and
Recommendations
Testing the structural
model
Thesis Submission and
Examination
Calculation of the visitor
index
Thesis Review and Final
Submission
YEAR 2
YEAR 2
17
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