Medici Family
Medici Family
Began in Tuscan Village of Cafaggiolo
 Emigrated to Florence
 First attained wealth and political power in Florence
 An Italian banking family and political dynasty
 Had a major influence on the growth of the Italian
Renaissance
> Patronage of the arts and humanism
> Freed artists from financial concerns
 Called the Godfathers of the Renaissance
> Laid the groundwork for cultural prosperity in
Florence.
> Their major innovations in banking, art, and
architecture persist today.
> One of the wealthiest family in Europe in the 1400s
> Produced great figures such as four popes and two
queens
> Greatest contribution was the patronage of the arts
> Helped fund the Renaissance
 Supported many artist & scientist such as:
> Donatello
> Filippo Brunelleschi
> Leonardo da Vinci
> Michelangelo
> Raphael
> Galileo Galilei
Cosimo de Medici(1389-1464)
 Born: September 27, 1389, Florence, Italy
 Died: August 1, 1464, Villa Medici at Careggi, Florence,
Italy
 Also known as Cosimo the Elder
 Founder of one of the main lines of the Medici Family
 Patron of the arts and humanism
 First Medici to become the leader of the Florence City
 Head of the Medici Bank
Contributions
 Makes the Medici Family the de facto rulers of Florence
 Patron of artist such as Donatello and Brunelleschi
 Financially support Brunelleschi to finished the Duomo
 Work to created peace in Northern Italy
 Put the House of Medici on the map as a great power in
Europe
 Controlled the government and distributed political jobs
 Founded the first public library
 Had many church and monasteries built
Lorenzo de Medici(1449-1492)
 Born: January 9, 1449, Florence, Italy
 Died: April 8, 1492, Villa Medici at Careggi, Florence,
Italy
 Successor of Cosimo de Medici
 Also known as Lorenzo the Magnificent
 Italian Statesman and Banker
 Stimulated the revival and splendor of Italian literature.
Contributions
 Catalyst for an enormous amount of art patronage
 Helped make Florence the center of Italian Renaissance
 Managed to preserve the independence and territorial
integrity of Florence.
 Devoted much of his money to supporting artists,
architects, and writers.
 Supported artist such as
> Leonardo da Vinci
> Botticelli
> Michelangelo
Renaissance Humanism

Worldview centered on the nature and importance of
humanity
 Emerged from the study of Classical antiquity
 Focused not on religion but on what it is to be human
 First began in Italy then spread to the rest of Europe
 Helped ignite the curiosity and desire for knowledge
> That start the beginning of Renaissance
Main Elements
 An interest in studying literature and art from antiquity
 An interest in the eloquent use of Latin and philology
 A belief in the importance and power of education to
create useful citizens
 The promotion of private and civic virtue
 A rejection of scholasticism
 The encouragement of non-religious studies
 An emphasis on the individual and their moral autonomy
 A belief in the importance of observation, critical
analysis, and creativity
 A belief that poets, writers, and artists can lead
humanity to a better way of living
 An interest in the question 'what does it mean to be
human'?
Francesco Petrarch (1304-1374)
 Called the Father of Humanism
 Italian scholar and poet during the Renaissance Period
 Travelled widely in Europe and often acted as an
ambassador
 Has been called “The First Tourist”
 Had a deep fascination with ancient Rome and collected
ancient Latin manuscripts
 Prime mover in the recovery of knowledge from writers
of Rome and Greece
 Helped establish
> lyric poetry
> The sonnet
> The modern Italian language
 Laid the foundations for Renaissance humanism
 Crowned as the poet laureate or official state poet
 Most of his writing’s are about his love for a woman
named Laura
 Most famous for his Canzoniere, a collection of
vernacular poems
Giovanni Boccaccio(1313-1375)
 An Italian poet, writer and scholar
 Father of Italian Literature
 Greatest writer of vernacular Italian prose of the
Medieval period
 His most famous work is Decameron
> Collection of short stories
> Marked a shift toward literature about everyday
people
 Influence of Boccaccio's works was extended to the rest
of Europe
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Leonarfo da Vinci & Raphael
Leonardo Da Vinci
Born on April 15, 1452 at Anchiano
 Died on May 2, 1519 at Cloux
 Caterina di Meo Lippi (Mother)
 Ser Piero (Father)
 Has 12 siblings
Education
 Educated in his father's house
 Compagnia di San Luca in Florence
 Workshop of Andrea del Verrocchio (1435–1488)
Renaissance Man
 Painter
 Architect
 Sculptor
 Draftsman
 Engineer
 Scientist
 Inventor
Famous Artworks
The Last Supper (1495-98)
 Duke of Milan, Ludovico Sforza
 Beatrice d'Este
 Convent of Santa Maria della Grazie in Milan, Italy
 Jesus Christ sharing a final meal with his 12 apostles
before his crucifixion.
 Some of the key techniques used include:
> Linear Perspective
> Chiaroscuro
> Sfumato
> Subtle Details
> Emotional Expression
> Fresco
 The painting process took about three (3) years.
 1495-1498
Mona Lisa (1503-19)
 Known for the subject's enigmatic smile and the artist's
mastery of sfumato technique.
 got stolen on August 21, 1911
 Scholars and historians' interpretations
> Lisa del Giocondo
> Caterina
> Leonardo’s self-portrait
 Painted in a poplar wood panel using the sfumato
technique.
 Measures 30 inches tall by 20 inches wide
 Used several distinctive painting techniques include:
> Sfumato
> Chiaroscuro
> Glazes
> Sfumato overtones
> Fine details
 It took him approximately four years to complete the
painting;
> around 1503 to 1506 or 1507
The Vitruvian Man (1503-19)
 A male figure with outstretched arms and legs, inscribed
within both a circle and a square.
 Drawn using a combination of ink and wash techniques
 Used hatching and cross-hatching.
 not well-documented
 Golden Ratio
 Blend of art and science
 Man to Nature
 Symmetry of universe
Famous Inventions

Parachute (1483)
 A model of Leonardo's parachute
Revolving Bridge (1483)
 A model of Leonardo’s revolving bridge
 Light yet rugged
Famous Sculptures
The Virgin and the Laughing Child (1472)
 Was created around 1472
 The only surviving sculpture
 20-inch-tall sculpture
 Made of red clay
Raffaello Sanzio da Urbino (1483-1520)
 Born on April 6, 1483, in Urbino, Italy
 Died on April 6, 1520, in Rome
 Magia di Battista di Nicola Ciarla (Mother)
 Giovanni Santi (Father)
Education
 The young Raphael was sometimes taken to the Court of
Urbino
 Learned painting from his father
 Said to have received some training from Urbino court
painter Timoteo Viti.
 He trained in the workshop of Perugino.
Famous Artworks
The School of Athens (1509–1511)
 a gathering of famous philosophers, mathematicians, and
scholars.
 Painting Techniques:
> Fresco
>
Linear Perspective
> Chiaroscuro
> Atmospheric Perspective
> Classical Composition
> Realistic Portraiture
 Painted between 1509 and 1511
The Sistine Madonna
 Sistine Madonna is the Virgin Mary appearing with an
infant Jesus
 she bear the symbols:
> virtue
> virginity
> innocence
> purity of spirit
 Painting Techniques:
> Oil on Canvas
> Light and Shadow
> Perspective
> Highly Detailed Figures
> Meticulous Attention to Color
 He painted it in three months.
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Renaissance Period
Donato di Niccolo di Betto Bardi
1386, Florence Italy
 died on December 13, 1466
 worked mostly in Florence
 one of the greatest Italian Renaissance artist
 master of sculpture in;
> marble
> bronze
 home of Mertalli’s
 trained with Lorenzo Ghiberti
 learned;
> metallurgy
> fabrication of metals and other substances
Famous Works
David (1440 – 1460)
 bronze sculpture
 Bargello Museum, Florence
 return of nude sculpture
 depicts humanity's victory
 carving technique
Penitent Magdalene
 wooden sculpture
 Museo dell'Opera del Duomo, Florence
 embodiment of Christian devotion
 innovative technique
The Feast of Herod (1423-1427)
 bronze relief sculpture
 Baptismal font of Siena Cathedral
 presenting the head of John the Baptist
 Linear perspective technique
Saint Mark (1411-1413)
 marble statue
 Orsanmichele Museum, Florence
 away from Gothic style
 known for;
> natural looking pose
> detail to realism
> style not recognized
 contrapposto technique
 encapsulate human;
> personalities
> expression
> confidence
> emotion
Judith and Holofernes (1460)
 bronze sculpture
 Hall of Lilies, Florence
 based from the bible
 assassination of Holofernes by Judith
 flattened out technique
Zuccone (1423-1425)
 marble statue
 Museo dell'Opera del Duomo, Florence
 bald head/ large head
 Biblical prophet Habakkuk
 light and shallow technique
Saint George (1415-1417)
 marble sculpture
 Bargello Museum, Florence
 liberating status from a niche structure
 Schiacciato technique
Impact of Artwork
 Revolutionised sculpture
 Inspires early Italian Renaissance painters
 Greatest sculptor of the early Renaissance

Bridge between classic to modern art
Explored human emotions and expressions
Michelangelo di Lodovico Buonarroti Simoni
 born on March 6, 1475
 died on February 18, 1564
 influenced Western Art
 first artist to dissect a corpse
 one of the greatest artist of all time
 biography was published while alive
 1490 - 1492
 University of Florence
 studied grammar under Francesco da Urbino
 vaguely interested in formal schooling
 fascinated in copying paintings
 workshop of Domenico Ghirlandaio
Famous Works
Creation of Adam (1508- 1512)
 Fresco painting
 Sistine Chapel in Vatican City
 interpreted from Genesis
 God gives life to Adam
 relationship between man and God
 Buon fresco technique
David (1501- 1504)
 Renaissance sculpture
 Academia of Florence
 Biblical figure from the story Genesis
 portrayal of David before the battle
 made from one single block of marble
 symbol of strength and defiance
 Contrapposto technique
Pieta (1499)
 depicting Virgin Mary supporting the body of dead Jesus
 one of the most poignant visual expression in the lives of
Christ and the Virgin
 usually being represented as painting and sculpture
 inspires emotion, faith and imitation
 there's still secrets hidden until this day
St. Peter's Basilica (1626)
 Vatican City
 Most renowned and sacred Christian church in the world
 Its architects are Michelangelo, Gian Lorenzo Bernini,
and Carlo Maderno.
 burial site of St. Peter
 Renaissance and Baroque architectural style
The Last Judgement (1536- 1541)
 Monumental fresco
 Sistine Chapel in Vatican
 depicts second coming of Christ
 shows final judgement of humanity
 explicit depictions of nudity and sexuality
Madonna of Bruges (1501-1504)
 marble sculpture
 portrays Virgin Mary with the Christ Child.
 sculpture leave Italy during his lifetime
 expression and the elegant drapery of her clothing.
 Emotional depth and simplicity
Impact of Artwork
 Development of classical Renaissance
 Inspires;
Contributes
> Mannerist period
> Sculpture
> Counter - reformation period > Painting
> Baroque Period
> Architecture
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COPERNICUS
Nicolaus Copernicus
Real Name: “Mikolaj Kopernik”
 Born on February 19, 1473, in Torun, Royal Prussia
 The founding “Father of Modern Astronomy”.
 Youngest of four children.
 Father: Nicolaus Copernicus Sr., was a well-to-do
merchant
 Polish astronomer and mathematician
 First modern European scientist to propose the
Heliocentric
Theory
Lucas Watzenrode
 Maternal Uncle of Nicolaus Copernicus
 Prominent Cleric and Scholar
 Became Bishop of Warmia (Ermland) in 1489
 Took Nicolaus’s Under his Wings
 Facilitated Copernicus’s Education and Career
 Helped Secure Copernicus’s Financial Stability
 Supported Copernicus’s Advancement in the Church
Copernicus’s Education
UNIVERSITY OF KRAKOW (1491-1496)
 Located in Poland
 Studied Liberal Arts —Astronomy and Astrology
 Left before completing his degree
UNIVERSITY OF BOLOGNA (1496-1501)
 Located in Italy
 Furthered his education in Law, Medicine and Canon
Law
 Made his first Astronomical Observations
 Lived with astronomy professor Domenico Maria
Novara da
Ferrara
UNIVERSITY OF BOLOGNA (1496-1501)
 Introduced by Novara to important books:
 “Epitome of Ptolemy’s Almagest” by Regiomontanus
 “Disputations against Divinatory Astrology” by Pico
della
Mirandola
UNIVERSITY OF PADUA (1501-1503)
 Located in Italy
 Studied Medicine
 Acquired artistic skills
UNIVERSITY OF Ferrara (May 1503)
 Received doctorate in canon law
 Did not study here
Administrative and Medical Roles
 Copernicus returned to Poland after his studies.
 Watzenrode arrange a sinecure for him
 As a church canon, he managed:
~ collecting rents from church-owned lands
~ secured military defenses
~ oversaw chapter finances
~ managed the bakery, brewery, and mills
~ tended to medical needs of fellow canons and his
uncle
Copernicus’s Astronomical Work
Evolution of Planetary Models
Ancient Planetary Modeling Traditions
Aristotle’s Model of the Solar System
 Associated with Aristotle
 Planets move with uniform angular motion on fixed
radii
 Planets carried on unchangeable, material, invisible
spheres
 Predictive model limitations

Ptolemaic Model
 Attributed to Claudius Ptolemy
 Introduced mechanisms to address the limitations of
Aristotle’s model
 Proposed three mechanisms:
~ Eccentrics
~ Epicycles
~ Equants
 Equant concept allowed for non-uniform motion,
breaking with ancient astronomy assumptions.
 Challenge of wobbling spheres and potential collisions
of spheres
 Equant concept allowed for non-uniform motion,
breaking with ancient astronomy assumptions.
 When viewed from Earth, a planet’s motion would
appear non-uniform when not observed from the
equant.
 Challenge of wobbling spheres and potential collisions
of spheres
Marāgheh Solution
 13th-century Persian astronomers
 devised a method using oscillating points
 This approach avoided the need for equants
Copernicus’s Response
 Copernicus learned the Marāgheh method
 Used the Marāgheh insight to address the wobbling
spheres in planetary models
 Concerned with the disagreement among astronomers
about the order of the planets
The Idea of Heliocentrism
 Developed during the last years of Watzenrode's life
(early 16th century)
 Planets in solar system revolve around the Sun
 Precession of the Equinoxes
 Rejected the Geocentric Model
 Annual Orbit
 Had some shortcomings
 Laid the foundation for scientific revolution
The COMMENNTARIOLUS (Little Commentary)
 by Copernicus (1514)
 A small manuscript that was circulated but never printed
 The Sun is at rest and the Earth’s in motion, leading to
an organized planetary order:
 Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn
 Resolved planet ordering issues, but introduces new
challenges.
 Sent Copies to various astronomers
CHALLENGES
~ Abandoning Aristotelian Natural Philosophy
~ Explaining falling objects
~ Integrating Imperfect Earth
~ Unverified Ancient Observations
~ Precession of the Equinoxes
~ Incoherencies in the Theory
THE SEVEN POSTULATES
1. There is no one center in the Universe.
2. The Earth’s center is not the center of the Universe.
3. The center of the universe is near the Sun.
4. The distance from the Earth to the Sun is imperceptible
compared with the distance to the stars.
5. The rotation of the Earth accounts for the apparent daily
rotation of the stars.
6. The apparent annual cycle of movements of the Sun is
caused by the Earth revolving around it.
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COPERNICUS
7. The apparent retrograde motion of the planets is caused
by the motion of the Earth from which one observes.
NARRATIO PRIMA (1540 and 1541, “First Narration”)
 AKA De libris revolutionum Copernici narration prima
 Abstract of Nicolaus Copernicus' heliocentric theory,
written by Georg Joachim Rheticus in 1540.
 Introduction
to Copernicus's major work, De
revolutionibus orbium coelestium (1543)
 First printed publication of Copernicus's theory
 Joint production of Copernicus and Rheticus
 Provided what was missing from the Commentariolus
“De revolutionibus orbium coelestium” of Nicolaus
Copernicus
 Seminal work of Copernicus
 Laid the foundation for modern astronomy
 Used detailed mathematical calculations
 Met some resistance and controversy
 Challenged the geocentric model by Ptolemy
 Publication in 1543, shortly before his death
 “One of the most important scientific works in history”
Publication of “De revolutionibus” of Nicolaus Copernicus
 Rheticus, a professor at Wittenberg, arranged for the
publication in Nürnberg, Germany.
 Johann Petreius, a top printer, was chosen for the job
 Handed over to Andreas Osiander, a theologian and
political figure in Nürnberg.
 Osiander added a preface to the book.
 Officially published in Nuremberg, Germany in 1543
 Tiedemann Giese, a Roman Catholic bishop, demanded a
reprint from Petreius, but the city council refused
 Osiander's role was revealed in Kepler's Astronomia
Nova in 1609.
 The title of the work was changed from "On the
Revolutions of the Orbs of the World" to "Six Books
Concerning the Revolutions of the Heavenly Orbs,"
 The book's transformation into a new philosophy about
the fundamental structure of the universe was not until
Kepler.
Copernicus’s Revolutionary Ideas Reorganized the
Heavens
What Did Nicolaus Copernicus Discover?
 Earth and the planets revolve around the sun
 Major flaws in the work includes:
 concept of the sun as the center of the whole universe
 failure to grasp the reality of elliptical orbits
 “Gregorian” calendar with leap years
 under Pope Gregory XIII in 1582
 still in use today
ALL ABOUT Nicolaus Copernicus
 Copernicus is derived from Koperniki
~ a village in Poland named after tradesmen who mined
and
sold copper
 A polyglot
 Wasn't the first person to suggest heliocentrism,
Aristarchus of Samos
 A lifelong bachelor
 As an official in the Catholic Church, Copernicus took a
vow of celibacy
 Attended 4 universities before earning a degree
 Passed away on May 24, 1543
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Brahe and Kepler
Tycho Brahe
Life & Education
 Born on December 14, 1546 in Knutstorp, in the
Danish region of Scarnia, which is now in Sweden.
 He was kidnapped by his uncle and aunt, Jorgen Brahe
and Inger Oxe
 His uncle finance his education, which began with the
study of law at the University of Copenhagen in 1559–
1562
 Several important natural events turned Tycho from
law to astronomy. The first was the total eclipse of the
Sun predicted for August 21, 1560.
 The professor of mathematics helped him with the
only printed astronomical book available, the
Almagest of Ptolemy
 In 1562 Tycho’s uncle sent him to the University of
Leipzig, where he studied until 1565
 Between 1565 and 1570 (or 1572?) He traveled widely
throughout Europe, studying at Wittenberg, Rostock,
Basel, and Augsburg and acquiring mathematical and
astronomical instruments, including a huge quadrant.
 In April 1566, he got into an argument with a Danish
student who, like him, was studying at the University
of Rostock
 The two students fought a duel with swords, which
resulted in Tycho losing the front of his nose
 A year later, he returned to Denmark, where he began
experimenting with metal fittings to disguise his
nose’s disfigurement.
 In 2010, tests revealed that Brahe's famously "silver"
prosthetic nose was actually made out of brass.
 He committed a serious social offense because he took
a woman who was not born an aristocrat as his partner
 Tycho Brahe died aged 54 on October 24, 1601 in
Prague
 His premature death was probably caused by either a
burst bladder or kidney failure
Works & Contributions
Tycho System
 a theoretical model of the solar system known to us
nowadays as Tychonic System or Tychonian Model Of
The Solar System
 In Tycho's Model of the solar system, the idea of
geocentrism and heliocentrism were combined
 Earth is the center of the universe while the other
planets within the solar system revolve around the sun.
Uraniborg
 In 1571, Brahe constructed a small observatory on
property owned by a relative.
 On November 11, 1572, he suddenly saw a “new star,”
brighter than Venus and where no star was supposed to
be, in the constellation Cassiopeia.
 Tycho’s discovery of the new star in
Cassiopeia in 1572 and his
publication of his observations of it in
De nova stella in 1573 marked his
transformation from a Danish
dilettante to an astronomer with a
European reputation.
De Nova Stella
 In 1575, Brahe built an enormous observatory in an
island offered to him by King Frederick II.
 island of Ven (formerly Hven),
 Tycho called the observatory Uraniborg, after Urania,
the Muse of astronomy or Goddess of the Sky.
Tycho's Instruments
Brass Azimuthal Quadrant
 65 centimeters in radius, was built in 1576 or 1577
 It was one of the first instruments built at Hveen
 was used for observations of the 1577 comet.
The Great Globe
 about 1.6 meter in radius, was over 10 years in the
making.
 This instrument came in service in late 1580.
 it came to be used to record the position of stars
observed by Tycho.
 By 1595 he had 1000 accurately observed stars
inscribed on the globe.
Armillary Sphere
 also known as Spherical Astrolabe
 it is able to physically represent a model of the sky.
 enabling Tycho to develop celestial maps of planetary
movement.
 Tycho's armillary sphere was 1.6 meter in radius and
built in 1581.
Triangular Sextant
 about 1.6 meter in radius, was built in 1582.
 used to measure the angular position of celestial
bodies relative to the horizon.
Great Equatorial Armillary
 This is an armillary sphere reduced to its bare
essentials, and one of Tycho's workhorse instruments.
 It has an estimated accuracy of 38.6 seconds of arc.
 Tycho's great equatorial armillary, 3 meters in
diameter, was built in 1585
Revolving Wooden Quadrant
 Tycho's revolving wooden quadrant, 1.6 meter in
radius, was built in 1586.
 It had an estimated accuracy of 32.3 seconds of arc,
based on eight reference stars.
 used for measuring the altitudes of stars

Revolving Steel Quadrant
 An improvement over Tycho's wooden version
 2 meters in radius, was built in 1588.
 Its estimated accuracy was 36.3 seconds of arc.
Uraniborg Press
 After Tycho Brahe discovered the supernova of 1572,
he gave lectures on astronomy at the University of
Copenhagen.
 Cassiopeia printing press was not equipped to deal
with his new kind of technical scientific publication.
 He decided to build his own printing press on his own
island and called it the URANIBORG PRESS.
 Brahe encountered a paper shortage which required
him to close his printing office.He realized that the
only method was to build his own PAPER MILL.
Impact of his Works & Contributions
 His observations of planetary motion provided the
crucial data for later astronomers like Kepler to construct
our present model of the solar system
 Brahe's ideas about his data were not always correct, but
the quality of the observations themselves was central to
the development of modern astronomy
 Brahe fine-tuned existing designs for his armillary
sphere, which helped astronomers plot orbits
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Brahe and Kepler
Johannes Kepler
Life & Education
 Born on December 27, 1571 in Weil dear Stadt,
Wurttemberg, Germany (Holy Roman Empire.)
 He was known as a German mathematician and
astronomer.
 He was indeed the first to use logarithmic calculation in
important astronomical researches and placed as the
greatest master of calculation of his times.
 He discovered that the Earth and planets travel about the
sun in elliptical orbits and created the three major
fundamental laws of planetary motions.
 He discovered that the Earth and planets travel about the
sun in elliptical orbits and created the three major
fundamental laws of planetary motions.
~ The first law is called the Law of Ellipses
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~ The second law is called the Law of Equal Area
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~ The third law is called the Law of Harmonies
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He also did important work in optics and geometry.
He was the son of Heinrich and Katharina Guldenmann
Kepler.
Physically Damaged, Intellectually Strong. He was a
sickly child and his parents were poor. But his evident
intelligence earned him a scholarship to the University of
Tubingen to study for the Lutheran ministry.
Johannes Kepler was a young boy, he witnessed the
Great Comet of 1577, and an eclipse of the Moon In
1580. It inspired him to spend the rest of his life studying
the heavens.
He is a follower of Copernicus and Galileo
In 1597 Kepler married Barbara Müller. They have 5
children, only one boy and one girl reached adulthood.
And Kepler remarried in 1613 to his new wife Susanna
Reuttinger, The marriage seems to have been happier,
except for the deaths of more of his children.
At thirteen he entered a religious training school at
Adelberg, Germany. After which he graduated to
Maulbronn Monastery.
He was one of the beneficiaries of the ducal scholarship;
it made possible his attendance at the Lutheran Stift, or


seminary, at the University of Tübingen, where he began
his university studies in 1589.
~ He studied mainly theology and philosophy, but also
mathematics and astronomy.
As a university student, he studied the Polish astronomer
Nicolaus Copernicus’ theories of planetary ordering.
~ Maestelin taught Kepler the comparison of the
Ptolemaic system and Copernican system.
~ Maestlin lent Kepler his own heavily annotated copy of
Copernicus’s 1543 book, De revolutionibus orbium
coelestium libri vi (“Six Books Concerning the
Revolutions of the Heavenly Orbs”).
The University of Tübingen recommended Kepler for the
post of the "mathematician of the province" in Graz,
Austria.
~ Kepler himself defended Copernicus' scheme in a
public debate. Unfortunately for him, that ensured that he
would not be offered a faculty position at Tüebingen
when he graduated.
He arrived there in 1594 and began composition of the
Mysterium Cosmographicum and succeeded.
Mysterium Cosmographicum
~An astronomy book by the German astronomer
Johannes Kepler, published at Tübingen in late 1596 and
in a second edition in 1621.
~ He proposed that the universe was made up of a series
of regular polygons inscribed inside each other.
In 1598, Kepler's school in Graz, along with other
Lutheran institutions, was closed down by the young
Archduke Ferdinand of Hapsburg, who had decided to
cleanse the Austrian provinces of the Lutheran heresy.
He served as an assistant to another famous astronomer
named Tycho Brahe, and he even provided his expertise
to Emperor Rudolf II.
~ In January 1600, at the age of 28, Kepler set off for
Prague to see if Brahe would offer him employment.
> As Tycho’s assistant, they fought continuously,
because Tycho refused to share his meticulous
observations with Kepler.
~ Tycho assigned Kepler the task of understanding the
orbit of the planet Mars, the movement of which fit
problematically into the universe as described by
Aristotle and Ptolemy.
~ Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor employs Brahe and
Kepler to start the work on the tables (Rudolphine
Tables).
~ Planetary tables and star catalog published in 1627 by
Johannes Kepler, based principally on the observations
of Tycho Brahe.
~ Planetary tables and star catalog published in 1627 by
Johannes Kepler, based principally on the observations
of Tycho Brahe.
> It is the first catalog to include corrective factors for
atmospheric refraction, and logarithmic tables.
> It is accurate to a few minutes of arc and contains
positions for 1,005 stars and tables and directions for
locating the planets.
Both Tycho and Kepler made significant contributions to
the change in the prevailing worldview of a geocentric
universe. It was the beginning of a systematic study that
transformed Medieval thinking – alchemy became
chemistry and astrology led to astronomy.
Died on November 15, 1630 in Regensburg. His grave
there was destroyed in 1632 by the Swedish army during
the Thirty Years War.
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Brahe and Kepler
Works & Contributions
The Law of Ellipses
 Each planet's orbit about the Sun is an ellipse.
 The Sun's center is always located at one focus of the
orbital ellipse.
 The Sun is at one focus.
 The planet follows the ellipse in its orbit, meaning that
the planet to Sun distance is constantly changing as the
planet goes around its orbit.
The Law of Equal Areas
 The imaginary line joining a planet and the Sun sweeps
equal areas of space during equal time intervals as the
planet orbits.
 The planets do not move with constant speed along their
orbits.
 Their speed varies so that the line joining the centers of
the Sun and the planet sweeps out equal parts of an area
at equal times.
 The point of nearest approach of the planet to the Sun is
termed perihelion.
 The point of greatest separation is aphelion, hence by
Kepler's Second Law, a planet is moving fastest when it
is at perihelion and slowest at aphelion.
The Law of Harmonies
 A planet's orbital period is proportional to the size of its
orbit (its semi-major axis).
The Foundation of Modern Optics
 He discovered how pictures are formed by the eye, kickstarting the field of optics.
 In 1604 Kepler wrote a book titled Astronomia Pars
Optica, earning him the title of founder of modern optics.
~ In this book he documented his observations,
experiments and formulas accurately depicting the
process of refraction within the eye.
 He was in fact the first person to correctly explain how
light travels through the lens of the eye and then
refracted and bent towards a precise focal point.
The Keplerian Telescope
 An instrument for viewing distant objects, the basis for
the modern refractive telescope.
 Its eyepiece, or ocular, is a convex lens placed in back of
the focus, the point at which the parallel light rays
converge; and the instrument produces an inverted image
that can be projected or made visible.
 One of such telescopes was the famous Keplerian
Telescope. Made in 1611, three years after the discovery
of the first telescope in the Netherlands.
 This telescope was different from all others because it
used a convex eyepiece lens that enabled viewers to see a
much larger field of view and gave better eye relief.
 However, it inverted the image which. This telescope
design was also famous for its ability to reach much
larger magnification levels that Galilean telescope,
although that process demanded significant increase of
focal length between lenses
 With the telescope in his hand, Kepler managed to come
to several large discoveries. He wrote a short piece
“Conversation with the Starry Messenger” in which he
confirmed findings of Galileo (4 moons of Jupiter).
 He wrote about theoretical uses of double-convex
converging lenses and double-concave diverging lenses,
and much more
The Heliocentric Model
 He Was The First To Publish A Defense of The
Heliocentric Model.
The first major astronomical work of Johannes Kepler,
Mysterium Cosmographicum (The Cosmographic
Mystery) was published in 1596.
 The work primarily tried to justify the six known planets
and their distances from the sun in terms of the five
Platonic solids.
 Despite the flaw of its main thesis, it is considered an
important work in astronomy as it got rid of the
remaining defects of the Ptolemaic theory from the
Copernican system.
Astronomia Nova
 It was published in 1609.
 His ten-year-long investigation of the motion of Mars in
his most renowned work, Astronomia nova (New
Astronomy), contained the first two laws of planetary
motion, the Law of Ellipses and the Law of Equal Areas.
Harmonice Mundi (Harmonies of the World)
 It was published in 1619.
 It contained Kepler’s third law, which brought together
more than two decades of investigations into the
archetypal principles of the world: geometrical, musical,
metaphysical, astrological, astronomical, and those
principles pertaining to the soul.
Impact of his Works & Contributions
The 3 laws of planetary of motion
 The three laws of planetary motions provided a crucial
framework for understanding how planets move in their
orbits around the Sun. They replaced the earlier, less
accurate models of planetary motion which is the
Ptolemaic system and the Copernican system.
 Kepler's laws supported and confirmed the heliocentric
model proposed by Copernicus, which states that the
Earth and other planets orbits around the Sun.
Influenced other scientists
 Kepler's laws became the foundation for Isaac Newton's
creation of the law of universal gravitation. He used
Kepler's observations to formulate his own laws of
motion and gravitation, leading to a comprehensive
understanding of celestial mechanics.
 Kepler's work provided a foundation for subsequent
astronomers to build upon. His work influenced Galileo
Galilei who furthered our understanding of the cosmos.
Keplerian Telescope
 Kepler's work played a role in the development of more
accurate astronomical instruments and observational
techniques. That improved the measurements and further
advancements in our understanding of the universe. His
Keplerian Telescope that helped Galileo on seeing other
stars and planets.

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GALILEO GALILEI
EARLY SCIENTIST AND ASTRONOMERS DURING
THE RENAISSANCE PERIOD
 Nicholaus Copernicus
 Tycho Brahe
 Johannes Kepler
 Isaac Newton
 Galileo Galilei
Galileo Galilei
 He is a natural philosopher
> Because of his observation about the movement of the
universe, world works and the real world.
> Sciences of motion
 Astronomer
> Because of his revolutionary telescopic discoveries.
Such as,
- Craters and mountains in the moon
- Jupiter’s moon
- Stars of milky way
> Because of his invention of telescope.
 Mathematician
> Because of his contribution into the development of
scientific method
GALILEO’S LIFE
 Born in Pisa, Italy
 He is the oldest of the 6 siblings.
 He remained a single status even though he’s actually
married.
 He is an Italian Physicist
 A famous artist because of his inventions and consequent
astronomical observations.
GALILEO’S TITLES
 He is the “Father of Modern Astronomy”
> was the first to use a refracting telescope to make
important astronomical discoveries.
 He is the “Father of Modern Science”
> his work, experimentation and observation is
recognized in the process of forming the scientific
method for investigating the nature.
 He is the “Father of Modern Physics”
> major contribution to finding the motion of bodies and
the development of the telescope.
 He is the “Father of Scientific Method”
> Experimentation and observation is used for
investigating the facts and laws of nature.
GALILEO’S EDUCATION
 Study in a Jesuit monastery
> He is a religious person
 He study medicine (1581)
> His fathers wish
> There is more money in medicine
 Prefer to study Mathematics (1585)
> Interest and love in math
> Wants to become a mathematics teacher
WHY DOES GALILEO LOVE MATH?
 Galileo began teaching math privately in Florence
 Public actions
 Books and sharing his thoughts
 Invention of mathematical compass
 Write some mathematical books
GALILEO’S INVENTION AND INNOVATIONS
 Telescope
 Galilean Compound Microscope
 Pendulum clock
 Galilean Geometric and Military Compass
 Thermometer
GALILEI
IMPACT OF GALILEO’S INVENTIONS IN OUR
MODERN LIFE
 Telescope
 Microscope
 Thermometer
GALILEO’S CONTRIBUTION IN ASTRONOMY
Craters and mountains on the Moon
 able to use the length of the shadows to estimate the
height of the lunar mountains, showing that they were
similar to mountains on Earth.
The phases of Venus
 changing crescent phases like those of the moon
Jupiter’s moons
The stars of the Milky Way
 made up of thousands of individual stars.
Sunspots
 which appear to be dark in color.
SOME OF GALILEO’S BOOKS
Starry Messenger (1610)
 In Latin: “Sidereus Nuncius”
 Contained observations of the moon’s surface and
descriptions of a multitude of new stars in the Milky
Way
De Motu (1589)
 In english: “The Older Writings on Motion”
 A series of essays on the theory of motion which he
never formally published
The Little Balance (1586)
 In Latin: “La Bilancetta”
 He described an accurate balance for weighing things in
air and water, in which the part of the arm on which the
counter weight was hung was wrapped with metal wire
 After Galileo began publishing papers about his
astronomy discoveries, he was called to rome to answer
charges brought against him by the inquisition
> The Catholic Church, which was very powerful and
influential in Galileo’s day
> Strongly supported the theory of a geocentric universe
 Galileo was accused of being a heretic
> he was cleared of charges of heresy, but was told that
he should no longer publicly state his belief
GALILEO’S CONFLICT WITH THE CATHOLIC
CHURCH
 In 1632, he published a book that stated, among other
things, that the heliocentric theory of Copernicus was
correct.
> Galileo was once again called before the Inquisition
and this time was found guilty of heresy.
> Galileo was sentenced to life imprisonment in 1633.
 In 1992, under Pope John Paul II, the Vatican issued an
official statement admitting that it was wrong to have
persecuted Galileo.
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Isaac Newton
Isaac Newton (1642-1727)
He was born on December 25, 1642 prematurely and
barely survived
 Birthplace: Woolsthorpe, England.
 His mother Hannah Ayscough, remarried a well-to-do
minister, Barnabas Smith.
 Newton was elected as a member of parliament for the
University of Cambride in 1689
 President of the Royal Society
> Queen Anne knighted him in 1705.
 Astronomers had realized that the Earth itself was a
planet.
> It revolves around the sun like any other planet.
 Newton developed an explanation of planetary motion.
> The planets must obey the same physical laws that are
observed on Earth.
 Newton realized that the answer was gravity.
 Newton developed a mathematical formulation of gravity
> It explained both the motion of a falling apple and that
of the planets in 1665 or 1666.
 Newton returned to Lincolnshire to Woolsthorpe Manor.
 As Newton sat in the farm’s orchad, an apple fell from
one of the trees.
 Newton began to analyze the forces that caused the apple
to constantly fall directly to the ground.
 He described his time off as “the prime of my age for
invention.
Law of Universal Gravitation
 It states that every object in the Universe attracts every
other object with a force.
Directly proportional
 Force and to the product of the masses
Inversely proportional
 Force and to the square of the distance between them
In symbols:

Where:
Fg = gravitational force
m1 = mass of object 1
m2 = mass of object 2
G = gravitational constant = 6.7 x 10^11 N−m^2/kg^2
r = distance
 Newton was able to show mathematically that the only
orbits permitted were exactly those described by
Kepler’s laws.
 The attractive force between all masses is what keeps the
planets in orbit
Laws of Motion
Law of Inertia
 It states that an object at rest remains at rest and an
object in motion continues to move at a constant velocity
unless it is acted upon by an external force.
 Any moving object in space has a tendency to travel in a
straight line at the same speed forever.
 The force of gravity causes the moving planets to travel
in elliptical orbits around the sun.
Law of Acceleration
 It states that the acceleration (caused by the net force) of
an object is directly proportional to the net force and
inversely proportional to the mass of an object
Law of Interaction
 It states that when the first object exerts a force on a
second object, the second will exert the same force on
the first but in the opposite direction.
Application of Law of Universal Gravitation and Laws of
Motion in Planetary motion
PLANETARY MOTION
 It deals with how forces and solid bodies interact,
including planets floating in the vacuum of space and
helped on how to explain the movements of the planets
around the sun in our solar system.
Law of Ellipses
Law of Equal Areas
Harmonic Law
Law of Universal Gravitation
 This law helps in finding the masses of earth, sun, and
other objects in the universe.
 This law helps in predicting the tides which were due to
the gravitational pull of the moon on earth
 The law of universal gravitation can explain why the
moon doesn't crash or collide with Earth.
Laws of Motion
Law of Acceleration
 The sun will experience much less acceleration because
of its size and mass.
Law of Interaction
 Whenever one body exerts force upon a second body, the
second body exerts an equal and opposite force upon the
first body.
Other Information
 Newton was also responsible for developing many of the
concepts of visible light.
 Newton's contribution to mathematics (calculus) and
science.
 Newton created a telescope that used mirrors instead of
glass lenses.
 Newton died in his sleep in 1727, at the age of 84
 “If I have seen further, it is by standing on the shoulders
of giants”
 Newton was explaining that his ideas didn’t come from
him alone.
 He relied on the ideas of those who came before him.
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Isaac Newton

When Newton used the word “giant” , he meant people
who were giants in the scientific community
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First Industrial Revolution
WHAT AND WHEN DID THE FIRST INDUSTRIAL
REVOLUTION START?
England
 The first country where industrial related productions
have commenced.
 In the late 17th and in the beginning of 18th century
> there were enormous socio-economic changes in
England which collectively known as the Industrial
Revolution (IR).
The First Industrial Revolution or simply Industrial
Revolution
 It was a more relentless and universal success. Marked as
major turning point in history
 It is the transition and development of industries such as;
> from human and animal labour technology into
machinery,
>new chemical manufacturing and iron production
processes,
> improved efficiency of water power,
> the increasing use of steam power,
> the development of machine tools.
 Iron and textile industries played central roles in the
Industrial Revolution
Reasons why the Industrial Revolution began in Great
Britain
INVENTIONS AND INNOVATIONS
 Many of the most important inventions and innovations
that powered the revolution were created in England.
 Initial developments occurred in the cotton industry with
the development of the spinning jenny, water frame, and
spinning mule
AN AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTION
 England had been an agricultural nation for centuries
 Farmers experimented livestock breeding
 In 1700s - Wealthy landowners bought up smaller farms
and enclosed their larger lands with fences.
Natural Resources
 It has an abundant supply of three “factors of production”
factors of production are land, labor, and capital.
 Land - Land in this sense is not just open land for
industry to build on.
 It also means the natural resources needed for
industrialization.
 Labor - Labor represents a large workforce for the
industries.
 Capitol – Capitol is the money needed to fund industry.
A STABLE GOVERNMENT AND ECONOMY
 Life in country was relatively peaceful
 the political system of England encouraged trade and
entrepreneurship.
Before the Industrial Revolution in Britain
 Most people lived in small villages. They travelled on
foot or by horses through small paths. Illness was
common because of inadequate food, poor hygiene, use
of polluted water, and non-existence of sewage system.
As a result, life expectancy was very short.
 People used handmade tools powered by people or
animals
 People wove textiles only by hand but after the IR
greatly increased output of machine-made goods.
During The Industrial Revolution in Britain
 The average income and standard of living of common
citizens have not increased.
 The more people joined factory, the farmers population
declined
INVENTIONS AND INVENTORS IN THE FIRST
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
The Industrial Revolution Inventions and Inventors
 1750 – 1900
 forever changed the way people in Europe and the
United States lived and worked
 inventors and their creations played a pivotal role in
shaping this new society
SPINNING AND WEAVING
SPINNING JENNY
 Invented circa 1764 by James Hargreaves.
 The machine drew thread from eight spindles
simultaneously.
 Contrasted with the single-spindle operation of the
traditional spinning wheel.
 James Hargreaves was granted a patent in 1770 for the
Spinning Jenny.
WATER FRAME
 First fully automatic spinning machine invented by
Richard Arkwright (1769).
 Powered by a waterwheel for continuous operation.
 Produced stronger and larger thread quantities than the
Spinning Jenny.
 Required placement in large buildings near fast-running
streams.
 Utilized child laborers for spinning operations.
SPINNING MULE
 Invented by Samuel Crompton around 1779.
 Combined features of Spinning Jenny and Water Frame
 Efficiently produced both fine and coarse yarn.
 Allowed a single operator to manage over 1,000 spindles,
boosting productivity.
 Samuel Crompton faced financial exploitation and
underpayment for his invention.
STEAM ENGINE
WATT’S STEAM ENGINE
 Improved steam engines in 18th century
 Increased efficiency and adaptability for industrial use
Applications of Watt's steam engine:
 Powered paper mills, flour mills, cotton mills, iron
mills, distilleries
 Used in canals and waterworks
 Contributed to his wealth
STEAM LOCOMOTIVE
 Invented by Richard Trevithick in 1803
 Utilized high-pressure steam for efficiency
 Quickly replaced Watt's less-efficient designs in
industrial applications
 George Stephenson: Developed Locomotion and Rocket
locomotives
 Stephenson's innovations enabled faster passenger rail
travel
Late 19th-century railway improvements:
 Andrew J. Beard's Jenny coupler: Automated train car
coupling.
 Elijah McCoy's lubricating device: Kept steam engines
running without frequent stops.
STEAMBOATS AND STEAMSHIPS
 Robert Fulton's North River Steamboat: Revolutionized
US river travel.
 The Savannah (1819): First steamship to cross the ocean.
 19th-century steamships: Faster, bigger ships changed
global travel.
 "Atlantic Ferry" service: Made regular Atlantic Ocean
travel possible with fast steamships.
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First Industrial Revolution
HARNESSING ELECTRICITY
ELECTRIC GENERATORS AND ELECTRIC
MOTORS
 Fulton's 1807 Steamboat: Early success in US river
travel.
 The Savannah 1819: First steam-powered ocean voyage.
 19th-century steamships: Faster, bigger ships transform
travel and trade.
 "Atlantic Ferry" service: Easier Atlantic transport due to
speedy steamships.
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS AND TRAMWAYS
 Electric motors and generators were key for electric
trains and lighting development.
 Electric railways and trams started in the late 19th
century, showing electric motors' practical use.
 London's subway had the first electric section in 1890, a
milestone in electric transport and lighting tech.
THE INCANDESCENT LAMP
 1878-79: Swan and Edison invent the practical electric
light bulb.
 Edison gets the credit for developing power systems,
making it usable.
 Over 50 years, electric light bulbs replace gas and
kerosene lamps in cities.
 1881: Latimer patents a better filament, making bulbs
last longer.
 Latimer's idea makes electric lighting cheaper and
spreads faster.
TELEGRAPH AND TELEPHONE
THE TELEGRAPH
 In 1869, Samuel Morse allowed communication by wire
using electricity
 Samuel F.B. Morse created Morse Code using dots and
dashes to communicate from East coast to the
Mississippi
TELEPHONE
 Telephone invention (1876) by Alexander Graham Bell
 Bell's phone used coils and reeds to transmit sound
through electric current
 First call in Bell's lab to summon assistant Thomas
Watson
 First words spoken: "Mr. Watson—Come here—I want
to see you"
INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINE AND
AUTOMOBILE
THE INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINE
 Étienne Lenoir's 1859 engine used coal gas and air as
fuel.
 Nikolaus Otto's 1878 four-stroke cycle improved
efficiency and durability, replacing steam engines.
 Gottlieb Daimler's 1885 engine was the first gasolinepowered version based on Otto's design.
 Rudolf Diesel introduced a more efficient diesel engine
using heavy oil.
 Diesel engines found widespread use in locomotives,
heavy machinery, and submarines.
THE AUTOMOBILE
 Gasoline-powered engine: Ideal for small vehicles,
efficient, and lightweight.
 Daimler and Karl Benz: Made the first motorcycle and
car in 1885, early pioneers.
 1890s: Auto industry starts, serving rich customers with
advanced cars in Europe and the US.
 Henry Ford's assembly line: Changed car production in
the early 20th century.
Model T: Affordable for the average American, a gamechanger in transportation.
GROWTH IN THE AGRICULTURAL SECTOR
THE STEEL PLOW
 Invention by John Deere in 1837
 Lighter and stronger design compared to earlier plows
 Ability to break up tough prairie soil in the American
Midwest
 Improved efficiency in farming due to reduced friction
 Enhanced capability to cultivate more land per day
THE MECHANICAL REAPER
 Invented by Cyrus McCormick in 1831
 Significantly enhanced harvesting compared to manual
scythes
 Automated the cutting and threshing processes
 Quadrupled the daily grain harvest
 Replaced labor-intensive, millennia-old harvesting tool
MULTIPLE-EFFECT EVAPORATOR
 Norbert Rillieux's invention (1846)
 Big impact on the sugar industry, especially in Louisiana.
 Cut fuel use in sugar production.
 Better sugar yields and quality.
 Lowered costs for Louisiana sugar plantations.
SYNTHETIC PRODUCTION
 George Washington Carver: American agronomist
 Promoted crop rotation for soil nutrient restoration
 Developed hundreds of new uses for crops (peanuts,
soybeans, sweet potatoes)
 Created products like milk and oil substitutes, paper, and
wood stains
 Reduced overreliance on cotton monoculture in the
South
COSMETICS AND WEAR
THE SEWING MACHINE
 Elias Howe and Isaac Singer introduced practical sewing
machines in 1846.
 These machines revolutionized garment production by
increasing speed and efficiency.
 The innovation made fashionable clothing more
affordable and accessible.
 Sewing machines later became a common household
appliance
THE SHOE-LASTING MACHINE
 Jan Ernst Matzeliger's shoe-lasting machine (invented in
1883)
 Enabled mass production of shoes
 Increased daily shoe production to up to 700 pairs
 Contrasted with the limited output of skilled artisans
 Expanded accessibility of inexpensive shoes to a wider
audience
ANILINE DYES
 Invention in 1856 by William Henry Perkin
 Transformation of the textile industry with mass
production of brightly colored fabrics
 Shift from natural source-derived dyes with limited color
options, especially mauve
 Increased affordability and accessibility of colorful
clothing
 Recognition from Queen Victoria for the innovation
HAIR PRODUCTS
 Madam C.J. Walker's cosmetics and hair products
development (early 1900s)
 Extensive marketing efforts by Madam C.J. Walker
 Network of sales agents for her products

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First Industrial Revolution
Transition from small-scale production to mass
availability of cosmetics
 Increased accessibility of hair products and cosmetics for
a broader audience
OTHER INVENTIONS:
 1794 – Eli Whitney (Cotton gin) use: increased the speed
of separating the cotton seeds from the fiber.
 1860 – Karl Von Drais (Velocipede) the first
commercially successful two-wheeler steerable human
powered device.
PRODUCTS MANUFACTURED IN THE FIRST
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
Products
 Cotton / Wool
 Cloth and Tapestry
 Steam Power
 Iron
ESTABLISHMENT OF FACTORY IN THE FIRST
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
TRANSITION FROM COTTAGE INDUSTRIES:
 Before the Industrial Revolution, most production
occurred in small-scale cottage industries, where
individuals or families crafted goods by hand in their
homes.
 The shift towards factories began with the mechanization
of production processes, as inventors created machinery
to perform tasks more efficiently than manual labor.
Invention of Machinery:
 Key inventions, such as the spinning jenny, water frame,
and power loom, revolutionized textile manufacturing.
These machines increased production rates and prompted
the need for centralized production facilities.
Water and Steam Power:
 Factories were initially powered by water wheels,
located near rivers or streams, to harness water power for
machinery. Later in the Industrial Revolution, the
development of steam engines allowed factories to be
situated away from water sources, providing greater
flexibility in location.
FACTORY SYSTEM:
 The factory system emerged, bringing together large
numbers of workers and multiple machines under one
roof. This centralized approach allowed for greater
coordination and increased efficiency in production.
 Factories became hubs for mass production, where
workers operated machines to produce goods on a much
larger scale than was possible through manual labor.
TEXTILE MILLS AND COAL MINES:
 Textile mills, particularly in regions like England, were
among the first to adopt factory production methods.
Cotton spinning and weaving processes were
mechanized, boosting textile output.
 Coal mines also adopted factory-like structures, using
steam engines to pump water and extract coal more
efficiently.
IMPACT ON SOCIETY:
 The establishment of factories had profound social
implications. It changed traditional work patterns, as
people transitioned from agrarian and craft-based
livelihoods to factory-based employment.
 The working conditions in early factories were often
harsh, leading to labor movements and calls for workers'
rights and improved conditions.
Living condition of workers in the first industrial
revolution
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Poor workers were often housed in cramped, grossly
inadequate quarters
Working conditions were difficult and exposed
employees to many risks and dangers,
Burning of coal, generated smoke and soot that was
dense enough to block sunlight.
There were many occupational hazards. Mechanization
involved dangerous equipment, & there were frequent
injuries.
K
K