PHILOSOPHY- FINALS (1ST SEMESTER)
UNIT 4 - LESSON 1: “I think, therefore, I am”
What do I know that is true about myself?
Philosophers value nothing more than knowing the truth. It is this premium placed not just on
any sort of knowledge, but on true knowledge that makes philosophy so rigorous—for there are
many things that we can know, but not everything is true
RENÉ DESCARTES
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17th French philosopher
Father of Modern Philosophy in the West
Process of skepticism or doubt
Philosophically known as CARTESIAN DOUBT
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systematically and methodically disbelieved everything until he could get at a point of
which there was absolutely no doubt
only accepting the beliefs that he couldn’t doubt to be true
“It was through the senses that Descartes began this process of doubting. He realized that our
senses—despite being the most available and common way for us to know the world—are often
faulty. If our senses failed us in the past, then, for Descartes, it becomes much harder to trust
them, this is what he coined as the Causal Theory”
CAUSAL THEORY
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holds that the transaction between the perceiver and the world should be analyzed
primarily in terms of the causal relation underlying that transaction.
For example, someone's concept of why eating is important is caused by or based on
that person's real-world experiences with the act of eating.
He proposes the idea that everything we know, everything we perceive with our senses, could
all really be just an illusion created by some sort of evil genius.
Eureka moment: He could be deceived by his senses and by an evil genius, but he could not
doubt the fact that he was doubting.
COGITO, ERGO SUM
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emphasizes the idea that our existence is validated through our actions and experiences
rather than solely through our thoughts.
LESSON 2: Knowing Myself
How do I know myself? How can I know myself?
SHIP OF THESEUS
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A scenario in which all the parts of a ship are replaced gradually and one at a time,
poses this question: Is the vessel that exists after the replacements the same ship as the
vessel that existed before the replacements?
The ship of Theseus is the 'same' ship, because the formal cause, or design, does not
change, even though the matter used to construct it may vary with time.
SELF
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In ancient Greece, some philosophers believed that our idea of the self is formed by
essential and accidental properties
Essence: Human Being
Accidence: External/Material features (e.g., hair, beard, nails, etc.) - There is an essential
quality that is necessary for us to be called human or a person. Cutting your nails, growing your
beards, changing these qualities doesn’t really change the fact that you are you.
DAVID HUME
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Scottish Philosopher
He argued that there is no such thing as the self
this idea of the “self” is just a bundled-up group of impressions, composed of many
different things—your body, mind, intelligence, personality, emotions, memories, DNA,
mannerisms, and so on.
We are, he argues, ever-changing bundles of impressions. Some of the things in our
bundle change from time to time.
LESSON 3: I am the Subject
What does it mean to be a Subject?
ARISTOTLE
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Ancient Philosopher
all beings have a certain essence that make them what they are.
There exists in each being a set of core properties which are necessary for an object to
be what it is.
EXISTENTIALISM
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There are certain qualities that make things what they are
Man, first and foremost existed and was then tasked with determining his own essence
Existence before Essence
SUBJECT
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I am the one who gives it meaning
I am an actor and not just a spectator
Experiences don’t just happen to me. I play an active role in their occurrence As the
Subject of my existence, I am responsible for creating meaning in my life. But doing so
also means that I have to face my limitations. It is my responsibility to find meaning in
the face of who I know myself to be.
LESSON 4: Human Subjectivity
How can I live as the subject in this world?
SØREN KIERKEGAARD
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Danish philosopher
to exist is to realize oneself through free choice and self-commitment
Kierkegaard believed that existing meant becoming freer in the sense that you strived to be
more and more an individual and less and less a member of a group. That is, you are truly free
if you transcend universality in favor of attaining individuality.
Kierkegaard was a firm believer of Christianity; he believed his life was ultimately finite. God, on
the other hand, was infinite. His goal was to help people relate themselves to God.
THREE STAGES IN THIS RETURN TO GOD
1. Aesthetic – man is governed by impulses and emotion.
2. Ethical – man chooses to accept moral standards as a way to guide his everyday dealings.
3. Faith – it is only natural that he feels tied down and lacks self-sufficiency. It is at this point
that he is tempted to sin, and this is when man should have faith in God.
While it may be tempting to think of Human Subjectivity as having absolute freedom to not only
create meaning but to act as we wish, we must not forget that the freedom to live for something
is often more worthwhile than simply living free from restrictions.
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To sin is slavery, to live a good life is living in freedom
LESSON 5: I am the Object
How am I the Object of this world?
ENGLISH PHILOSOPHER JOHN LOCKE
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He argued that being can be known via their Primary Qualities and Secondary Qualities
1. Primary Qualities are the qualities which Objects have in themselves.
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That is, their meaning does not come from a Subject or a perceiver. Things have certain
qualities that need no perceiver, such as an object’s weight or dimensions, how hard it
is, or how it is shaped.
2. Secondary Qualities are the qualities which Subjects perceive in the Object.
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In this regard, things such as taste, smell, texture, and color are assigned by the
different Subjects such that it isn’t surprising when people have different opinions and
answers.
Going back to you as an Object in this world, it dawns on you that it isn’t always possible to
know all of your Primary Qualities. Furthermore, you have no control over how others assign on
you their Secondary Qualities about you. In this sense, you truly feel how it is to be just another
Object in another Subject’s eyes.
LESSON 6: Human Objectivity
How does the world I live in give meaning to my actions?
MAURICE MERLEAU-PONTY
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early twentieth century French philosopher
gave an important insight into what it means to live a meaningful human existence
Merleau-Ponty realized that there is a difference between Abstract Knowledge and Embodied
Knowledge.
1. ABSTRACT KNOWLEDGE
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is man’s ability to react to a command, whether willed by himself or an outside source.
(e.g. Touch your forehead)
2. EMBODIED KNOWLEDGE
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is knowledge or action which is integrated in lived experience. (a fly would land on your
forehead and would immediately slap or shoo it away)
Man is capable of exhibiting both types of knowledge, but it is the depth of our Embodied
Knowledge that indicates our human experience.
LESSON 7: I, the Subject and the Object
How do I live in a world as both Subject and the Object
GABRIEL MARCEL
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a twentieth century French philosopher
He chose to reflect on the meaning of being and what it means for the self to exist in the
world. In particular, he focused on the body and on our experience of it. He used two
stages of reflection to do this:
1. PRIMARY REFLECTION
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Marcel considers the body as if it were a thing studied by the sciences. In this kind of
reflection, the individual places himself outside of what he is observing. To do this, I
observe that “my body” is just “a body”—it is the body studied by anatomy and biology
and medicine. It moves and operates in a certain way.
2. SECONDARY REFLECTION
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the individual is challenged to place himself within the very framework of what he is
observing, such that he experiences and understands it in a way only he can. In this
way, I observe that this “my body” is strictly mine alone. It is unique and there is none
other like it. Though I may share certain characteristics with others (and especially if I
have a twin), I can confidently say that my thinking self is embodied in only my body and
none other.
A certain paradox when considering the relationship of the self and the body:
A. “I have my body” In the sense that my body is mine and mine alone.
B. “I am my body” because there is no way I can separate myself from it. The self and
the body are not two things that just happened to be attached to each other. Rather, the self that
I have is completely and absolutely embodied.
To make sense of this paradox, I can understand my body as an intermediary between myself
and the world with which I interact. The encounter of the experience between myself and the
world takes place precisely and only because of my body.
“My body in a state of intersubjectivity”
“My body is the appearance and expression of my Subjectivity”
it allows me to direct myself not only to the others and to the world, but also to God
UNIT 5: Humanity as Stewards of the World
LESSON 1: The Wonder of the Universe
What started everything?
With the thick and large volumes of encyclopedias ever published, the knowledge and
information still doesn’t seem to be enough for us to see and understand the big picture. Our
minds didn’t seem to evolve great enough to understand the totality of our existence. This
means that the mystery of the cosmos is the greatest mystery there is.
PRESOCRATICS
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The thinkers who lived before the time of Socrates are tagged as the first official
philosophers. They lived during a time when writers explained the natural events through
mythology
The Sun, the sea, the Earth are all gods.
They knew no rational answer about the existence of the world, they were the first ones
to find these answers in a natural way.
the ancient period in the history of Philosophy is known to be cosmocentric (universecentered)
The Presocratics’ questions focused on the universe or the Cosmos
THALES OF MILETUS
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Thought that the basic element that composes everything is water.
Thales may have a point in his theory as even the human body is mostly composed of
water– although this discovery hasn’t been made yet during his time.
HERACLITUS
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An opposing element to water, fire, was thought to be the basic component
For him, nothing can be made without heat.
fire also symbolizes destruction, death, and impermanence. This led Heraclitus to think
that everything is in a permanent state of flux, that everything is flowing and changing
“You cannot step in the same river twice”
LEUCIPPUS AND DEMOCRITUS
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the first thinkers to conceive of atoms
Atoms, which are invisible to the naked eye, are the basic components of all
According to them, everything can be divided and reduced to these basic invisible
elements.
ANAXIMANDER
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He believed in an element that produces those elements
He called this the apeiron which means the “boundless” or “limitless”. - it is the one that
provides the four basic elements of water, fire, air, and earth which produces everything
in combination of each other.
CARL SAGAN
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an astronomer
requested a photo of the Earth in 1990 by the Voyager 1 spacecraft at a distance of 3.7
billion miles away.
Earth could be seen as a mere Pale Blue Dot, to which Sagan wrote a passage to
remind us of how tiny we all are in this beautiful world.
Sagan prompted his readers to think of the wars the humanity has started and endured
in order to take control of a part of that little dot.
LESSON 2: The Universe in Your Hands
How can a better world affect my life?
Every day, we can find depressing news on the television about how the world is becoming less
and less inhabitable. Many scientists are now trying to look at other planets where humanity
could possibly migrate. This fact entails that there is a responsibility on you, as a human being,
to do what you can in order to save the planet so you can also save yourself.
ST. THOMAS AQUINAS
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a philosopher from the Medieval period, called God as the Summum Bonum or “the
highest good”.
In the study of Ethics, the Summum Bonum is seen as the end goal of life – that people
go on with their lives in search of it.
ST. AUGUSTINE OF HIPPO
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Augustine also saw that a union with God is the object of life.
Augustine’s main point was on his advocate of many virtues that would purify one’s soul
in order to be worthy of a union with God
UTILITARIANISM
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Utilitarianism states that an action is considered right and good if one can get a use or a
utility out of it
This is a form of Consequentialism which is a view that examines the consequence of
an action
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The father of modern Utilitarianism, Jeremy Bentham, thought that man is governed
either by pleasure or pain - the goal of life is to maximize the pleasure and minimize the
pain.
CONFUCIUS
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ancient Chinese philosopher
In his work, the Analects, the wise teacher taught of one of the major ethical guidelines
that is revered until today: The Golden Rule - “What you do not want to be done to you,
don’t do unto others.”
When Confucius was asked by his student on a single word that could be used as a
guideline on how one should live his life, he replied, “reciprocity” - referring to the Golden
Rule.
LESSON 2: The Universe in Our Hands
What can the human race do for the World?
VEGETARIANISM
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the practice of non-consumption of meat and/or products that come from animals like
milk or eggs.
Part of the discussion in environmental ethics is the questioning of the practice of human
beings in the consumption of non-human animals.
PETER SINGER
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argues strongly that it seems non-human animals are facing discrimination equitable to
sexism or racism among human beings, which he called as “speciesism”
in a 2008 documentary called Examined Life, he questioned the morality of a highly
capitalistic society.
This means we could question the morality of being able to purchase highly expensive
designer clothes or bags or shoes, while the money could, instead, be used to feed
malnourished children in Africa, or to install deep wells in places with no access to clean
water, etc.
For Singer, if it is within our capability to alleviate the pain of another, without causing
another form of pain to anyone else or to ourselves, then we have a moral obligation to
alleviate that pain.
DEONTOLOGICAL APPROACH
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This approach rests on the intrinsic value of an action instead of the consequences: like,
caring for the environment is right not because it would result to a better life for us, but
because caring for the environment is the right thing to do by itself.
Doing what is right does not stop when there are no benefits anymore, it doesn’t stop
because it’s not stopping from being right by itself
UNIT 6: Humanity and Responsibility
LESSON 1: Choices: Life's Biggest Mystery
What is the good life?
ETHICS
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In Philosophy, the branch that inquires on how one should live his life
The study of ethics probes into questions of rightness and wrongness or the morality of
our actions
The study of ethics generally inquiries and searches for a standard of moral principles
that would guide man on how he should live his life
This search for guidelines are usually the foundation of the laws being legislated in a
certain society
VIRTUES
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According to Socrates, “knowledge is virtue”
Someone who truly knows what is right would always behave in accordance to a
virtuous action.
What Socrates meant with truly knowing is also having the will to act on what is virtuous.
One may know a virtue in his mind, but if he doesn’t act on it, then it means he lacks the
true understanding, the true knowledge of that virtue.
EUDAIMONIA
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For Aristotle, the main thing man wants to achieve is Eudaimonia- a Greek word that
translates to happiness.
Aristotelian definition of eudaimonia is about human well-being – that man lives a
satisfactory and flourishing life where he is content and fulfilled.
In order to achieve eudaimonia, Aristotle wrote about the Golden Mean – a way of life
that is in balance between extremes: excess and deficiency.
MIDDLE WAY
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in Eastern philosophy, Buddha taught of the Middle Way, which is a path that is
balanced between a life of luxury and excessiveness, and a life of poverty.
These teachings mainly promote a certain virtue: moderation
HEDONISM
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From the Greek word, “hedone”, which translates to “delight”
Hedonism is a form of ethical philosophy that puts the highest importance to satisfying
one’s pleasure – that pleasure is the highest good itself.
What is considered good is that action which would bring the greatest amount of
pleasure since, for hedonists, it is the goal of life.
LESSON 2: Choices in Real Life
Am I free to make choices in life?
STOICISM
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For the stoics, another version of happiness is ataraxia which means tranquility.
This tranquility generally equates to peace of mind that one receives by being in
harmony with nature.
Stoicism is a belief that God is scattered throughout the world, in the form of nature.
This is a belief called pantheism – the view that nature is divine because God or the
gods are within it.
Stoicism puts emphasis on a life that is in accordance with nature and pursues virtues
instead of pleasure.
The result of this pursuit of virtues and the harmonious relationship with nature is
ataraxia.
For stoics, only important desires are virtues.
DIVINE COMMAND THEORY
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The Divine Command Theory or DCT posits that there exists a supreme divine being,
which is God, who is all-knowing (omniscient), all-powerful (omnipotent), and all-good.
Most people who adhere to a certain religion follow their moral standards on the
teachings of that particular belief.
The good life consists of following the absolute commandments of God and letting these
commandments guide one’s actions in order to fulfill the God’s will.
Man, then, will be rewarded in the afterlife through an eternal union with God himself.
God provided man with freewill which man can exercise in different situations.
St. Augustine of Hippo, a known compatibilist of freewill and determinism, maintained the idea
that God truly knows our future. He suggested that there are things that are within man’s
control, and one of them is our will. God may see and know the future, but it is upon man to
choose his actions based on his own freewill. Augustine, then, concludes that the ability of man
to will something does not contradict God’s foreknowledge. And it is on the exercise of freewill,
and the actions man take that God judges him
St. Thomas Aquinas, while God himself is the highest good, man can also pursue the good for
himself. Following Aristotle’s teachings, Aquinas recognized that man pursues happiness in this
world, as well. But, for him, there are two kinds of happiness: the natural happiness that we
can aim for in our life in this world, and the supernatural happiness that we can achieve
through a reflection on the teachings of God and following it. In order to achieve both the natural
and supernatural happiness, Aquinas thought that we would need virtues like faith, justice,
wisdom, temperance, charity, etc. These philosophies propose that you have the ability to
control your choices, which means you can control your life. Whatever ultimate goal you may
have in your life – peace, happiness, or a union with God, it would entirely depend on the
choices you make in real life through a pursuit of virtues, and an exercise of free will.
LESSON 3: The Ethical Questions (and their Obvious Answers)
How can I know the right from wrong actions?
EMMANUEL KANT
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Kant thought that there ought to be a consistent moral theory that cannot stem from
external factors, not even God.
The moral standard of a person must come from within, as a form of an intrinsic value.
Kant prescribed duty. Duty or an obligation to act in certain situations is the basis of
our moral standards. Duty is not just a preference or a feeling towards things.
According to Kant, what is duty for a person who is trapped in a certain situation, must
also be the same duty for anyone who would find themselves in similar situation.
This duty is founded on rationality or the capability of human beings to think and
reason.
For Kant, reason is the bedrock of morality from which duty comes from. If one is
facing a certain situation, he should perform the most reasonable action for that
situation, and it becomes his duty to act reasonably on that situation Kant formulated the categorical imperative, a maxim or principle of morality. The
categorical imperative states: “Act only according to that maxim by which you can
at the same time will that it should become a universal law.”
The categorical imperative means that when you are deciding of an action, you ought to
think of the most rational action that reasonable people would exercise if they are in your
circumstances.
DAVID HUME
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British empiricist
Human beings determine their morality not solely on reason but on sentiments. Hume, as an empiricist, described his observation among human beings that our moral
actions are also based on our feelings or sentiment, and not just on our reason – that we
consider our actions based on sympathy.
UTILITARIANISM
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a form of Consequentialism, focuses on the consequences of an action.
It generally advocates for the maximization of goodness for as much people as
possible.
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Its main proponent, Jeremy Bentham, recognized that both pleasure and pain can be
found in the world.
In terms of moral actions, Bentham thought that the best actions would be the one that
promotes pleasure not of the pain.
LESSON 4: The Ethical Questions (and a lot more Questions)
How do my actions towards others make a reflection of myself?
JOHN STUART MILL
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For Mill, pleasure differs in terms of hierarchy – there are higher forms of pleasure
(which are higher in quality), while there also lower forms of pleasure (which are lower in
quality).
Mill distinguished that the intellectual pleasures are higher than those of sensual
pleasures
Mill thought that the utility we get from higher pleasures should be given a priority when
we are making decisions, which would then result to a quality decision. •
ALBERT CAMUS
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French philosopher and novelist
He formed an existential philosophy with similarities to that of Jean-Paul Sartre.
Camus’ difference was his discussion of the absurdity of life as shown in his essay, The
Myth of Sisyphus.
Sisyphus as a man who was condemned by the gods to roll a boulder up to a hill, only to
have it roll back down as soon as it reaches the peak. Sisyphus keeps going back down
to push the boulder again and again and again. Camus intended it as a metaphor for the
way people live.
Even if he is cursed by the gods to do the same task over and over again for all eternity,
Sisyphus was in charge of his own happiness, and that is what he chose: to be happy
JEAN-PAUL SARTRE
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thought that “man is condemned to be free”
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For him, we are who we create ourselves to be, and everything that has happened to
us, we only have ourselves to blame.
He opposed the idea of putting the blame on the society, on God or fate, because he
believed that human beings are the ones responsible for themselves.
This idea puts us in a position of responsibility – that we cannot just point the finger to
other people because we are the ones who committed a certain action.
When Sartre said that “man is condemned to be free”, he meant that the freedom that
goes with our existence comes with a burden of being responsible for our actions, and
that our freedom to make choices and act on these choices provide meaning in our life,
which is a reflection of who we are
UNIT 7: HUMANITY AND ACTING HUMANELY
LESSON 1: Understanding your Neighbor
How do I make sense of the differences between myself and others?
GABRIEL MARCEL
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Contemporary Existentialist philosopher
Gabriel Marcel believe that there are two kinds of freedom: freedom of choice and
fundamental option
1. Freedom of choice is probably our common sense understanding of
freedom. Essentially, it is the ability to choose between goods. This type of freedom is called
horizontal freedom because when exercising it, we are choosing between more or less similar
goods.
2. Fundamental option is our general direction or orientation in life. This type
of freedom is also called vertical freedom because some values are higher than others. Many
would agree, for example, that valuing education is “higher” in a sense than valuing profit or
monetary gain.
MAX SCHELER
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An early twentieth century German philosopher. He believed that love means preferring
higher values and hate or egoism is the preference of lower values.
For Scheler, the more you choose to act in ways that value learning instead of pleasure,
you are showing love. Conversely, if you choose to value prestige over the opportunity to
help your family, you’re expressing hate and being egotistical.
LESSON 2: Appreciating your Neighbor
How can better appreciate and value the other people in my life?
IMMANUEL KANT
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Kant believed that human beings are ends-in-themselves, that no one exists to simply
be used by other people, as if they were an object.
What Kant meant was that we are rational and autonomous, and so we have the ability
to think about and set our own goals and aspirations.
Sadly, many people—even in the world today—are treated as objects, or what Kant
would call mere means. That is, some people use others without any regard to their
freedom or interests (e.g. Human trafficking, sexual exploitation, and unjust labor)
LESSON 3: Man and His Neighborhood
What can I do to live harmoniously with others?
THOMAS HOBBES
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According to seventeenth century English philosopher, Thomas Hobbes, living in a world
in which we could exercise absolute freedom would be terrifying.
Hobbes argues that this lawless world is the state of nature and that rational beings
would logically want to change such a system.
Freedom is good and it is an undeniable right of every person, but too much freedom—
that is, freedom without countermeasures or security—leads to chaos.
He believed that people imbued with freedom and rationality would realize that there are
more benefits in cooperating with each other than in not cooperating. This is what he
termed a contract or shared agreement between individuals.
We give up some freedoms in order to enjoy the benefits brought about by cooperative
living. You can no longer take anything from that stranger’s house hence he can’t do the
same to you. On the other side of the coin, if you or anyone violates the agreement or
laws, you would also have to accept whatever punishment is waiting for you.
LESSON 4: Man as an Active Neighbor
How do I act humanely towards my neighbors?
VIRTUE THEORY
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The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle proposed the idea of Virtue Theory, which isn’t
exactly a moral code, but more of the notion that good and righteous actions are the
result of a person’s good character.
There is no explicit moral code that needs to determined and followed. Rather, the right
thing to do simply stems from being virtuous.
For Aristotle, having virtue means being able to do the right thing, at the right time, in
the right amount, and in the right way.
Aristotle believes that this “right mix of actions” is simply the Golden Mean between two
extremes. - If we wanted to be virtuous the way Aristotle intended, we’d have to find the
Golden Mean in each situation and respond appropriately
The virtuous thing to do at any given moment changes based on what’s happening. - For
Aristotle, being virtuous was a matter of practice. It’s a way of living that can be learned
only through experience.
You are drawn to others who are virtuous—people who Aristotle considered to be moral
exemplars—and learn to copy or emulate their actions and behavior
LESSON 5: Man as a Proactive Neighbor
How can I affect positive change for the future of myself and others?
JUSTICE
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a number of philosophers have proposed the idea of Justice as Equality is the belief that
everyone, regardless or background, should receive the same kind and amount of
material and economic possessions.
Other philosophers propose a sort of Merit-based Justice, wherein wealth is distributed
according to what each person deserves.
JOHN RAWLS
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A Contemporary American philosopher John Rawls believed that Justice is Fairness,
that it is based on the needs of individuals.
In effect, the inequalities in our social systems should benefit those who are least welloff.
If an individual needs help, he should be given that help in order to get up on his feet
and improve from there
Prepared by:
Thyriz Mae S. Rendon
SciPi Varsity Club, Member
Approved by:
Ms. Janine Dacuno
Adviser, Junior College