19th Century Philosophers
LOOKING AT CONNECTIONS
In the 19th century the philosophies of the Enlightenment
began to have a dramatic effect.
- Philosophers such as Thomas Hobbes and JeanJacques Rousseau influenced new generations of
thinkers
-In the late 18th century a movement known as
Romanticism began; it supported strong emotions as an
authentic experiences
-Key ideas that sparked changes in philosophy were the
fast progress of science.
-Pressures for egalitarianism, and more rapid change in a
period of revolution that would see philosophy change
Immanuel Kant
• Immanuel Kant: (22 April
1724 – 12 February 1804)
• 18th-century German
philosopher
• Regarded as one of the
most influential thinkers of
modern Europe and of the
late Enlightenment.
• Among his most important
works is the Critique of
Practical Reason, which
examines the relation of
epistemology, metaphysics,
and ethics.
MAIN THEORIES
Phenomenalism: people are
incapable of perceiving objects as
they really are.
Theory of Perception: understanding
of the external world comes from
experience and knowledge.
MAIN THEORIES CONTINUED
Theory of Judgment: Humans can
only understand what is going on at
the present time. It is not possible to
predict the future, where humans are
not involved.
Kant’s Ethical Theory: Evil cannot
produce happiness. Good qualities
are human nature.
ISSUES WITH KNOWLEDGE
Kant believed that human knowledge was derived
from two particular sources.
-Sensibility and Understanding
-We are nothing without our senses.
-Prior knowledge + new experiences helps create
understanding.
- Sensibility is simply derived from our senses.
GERMAN IDEALISM
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
• (August 27, 1770 –
November 14,
1831) –German
Philosohper who
is considered one
of the fathers of
German Idealism
HEGEL’S IDEAS
• “Universal Spirit” – similar to Christian God (but is
nonreligious) - All of humanity ruled by its
interconnectedness of this Spirit
• “Thesis” – At any given time in history there is a
predominant set of ideas (example: Agrarian
feudalism is good for a country)
• “Antithesis” – That Thesis is challenged by
another set of conflicting ideas (example:
Capitalism is good for a country)
• “Synthesis” – These clash and a new pattern of
thought emerges. It becomes the new Thesis.
Philosophical Conclusions
1. All periods of history are equal in their
importance
2. All cultures are valuable – they bring
necessary clashes of values and ideas.
• Karl Marx uses Hegel’s ideas as the
foundation of his work
• Marx changes it to say that economic
relationships between social classes are
the driving force for the antithesis.
Sigmund Freud
• (May 6, 1856 – September 23,
1939), was an Austrian
physician who founded the
psychoanalytic school of
psychology.
• Freud is best known for his
theories of the unconscious
mind and the defense
mechanism of repression
• Created the clinical practice
of psychoanalysis dialogue
between a patient and a
psychoanalyst
Karl Marx
• (May 5, 1818 – March 14,
1883) was a 19th-century
philosopher, political
economist, sociologist,
humanist and philosopher.
• Often called the father of
communism
• His approach to history and
sociology is indicated by the
opening line of the The
Communist Manifesto (1848):
“The history of all hitherto
existing society is the history
of class struggles”.
MARXISM:
SOME IMPORTANT KEY CONCEPTS
• Capitalism: not only an economic system but it
is also a political system.
• Class Struggles: Conflict produces class and
inherently class produces conflict.
• Exploitation: Capitalism can only thrive
exploitation of the working class.
• Alienation: Workers are forced to sell their
labour to the Capitalists in order to survive.
SOME IMPORTANT KEY IDEOLOGIES
• Capitalist society is divided into two classes:
The Bourgeoisie(wealthy) and the Proletariat(poor)
• Ideological Control: The ruling classes used their
control of social institutions to gain ideological
dominance.
Jeremy Bentham
• (1748-1832) English
philosopher, “father of
utilitarianism”
• People are motivated by
pleasure and pain-avoidance,
amount of pleasure in the
world should be increased
• Laws should increase the
amount of pleasure in the
community, decrease pain
• Punishment should only be
used when absolutely
necessary and should be
proportional to the offense;
John Stuart Mill
• (20 May 1806 – 8 May
1873)
• British philosopher,
political economist,
civil servant and
Member of Parliament,
was an influential
liberal thinker of the
19th century. He was
an advocate of modern
utilitarianism.
Utilitarianism
• “Actions are right in proportion as they tend to
promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce
the reverse of happiness."
• Mill defines happiness as pleasure and the absence of
pain.
• Argues that pleasure can differ in quality and quantity,
and that pleasures should be weighted more heavily
than baser pleasures.
• People’s achievement of goals and ends, such as
virtuous living, should be counted as part of their
happiness.
Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche
• (October 15, 1844 – August
25, 1900) German
philosopher and philologist
• Wrote critical texts on
religion, morality,
contemporary culture,
philosophy, and science
• Nietzsche's influence
remains vital to
philosophy, notably for
existentialism/ nihilism
EXISTENTIALISM/NIHILISM
Where the good begins.-- Where the poor power of
the eye can no longer see the evil impulse as such
because it has become too subtle, man posits the
realm of goodness; and the feeling that we have
now entered the realm of goodness excites all those
impulses which had been threatened and limited by
the evil impulses, like the feeling of security, of
comfort, of benevolence. Hence, the duller the eye,
the more extensive the good. Hence the eternal
cheerfulness of the common people and of children.
Hence the gloominess and grief - akin to a bad
conscience - of the great thinkers.
from Nietzsche's The Gay Science, s. 53,
The death of God, Nihilism, and
Perspectivism
• The statement "God is dead," occurring in several of
Nietzsche's works (primarily, and perhaps most
notably, in The Gay Science
• a reflection of Nietzsche's concerns about the
development of Western society in the modern age.
• In Nietzsche's view, recent developments in modern
science and the increasing secularization of
European society had effectively "killed" the
Christian God, who had served as the basis for
meaning and value in the West for the previous
thousand years.
Pierre-Joseph Proudhon
-
-
(1809-1865) French politician
- Pamphleteer and activist
- 1848, elected to National Assembly
Twice imprisoned for offenses against the press laws
- 1849, founded People’s Bank
- Opponent of Marx
-
First to adopt the description of “anarchist”
Proudhon’s Anarchy
• On Justice: “Justice is respect, spontaneously felt and
mutually guaranteed, for human dignity, in whatever
person and under whatever circumstances we find it
compromised, and to whatever risk its defense may
expose us.”
• On the State: “The government of man by man is
slavery.”
•
On Society: Without the State, society ruled by
agreements; government of man is replaced by the
administration of things- the social life is “anarchy,”
“federation,” “the Republic.”
•
On Rights : makes a distinction between rights under
Justice and rights under laws
Charles Robert Darwin
• (12 February 1809 – 19
April 1882) English
naturalist.
• proposed and provided
scientific evidence that all
species of life have
evolved over time from
common ancestors
through the process he
called natural selection.
Darwinism
Natural Selection: Random variation
• Many differences between individuals– The struggle
for survival
• Only a minority of offspring survive and reproduce
• They are the ones best adapted to the local ecology–
Survival of the fittest
• Advantageous adaptations passed on to the next
generation