Non-conventional extraction techniques
Ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE)
can change the physical and chemical properties of plant material and induce cavitations causing an
increase in pressure and temperature close to the substrate surface, disrupting cell walls, and
enhancing the release of intracellular compounds into the extraction solvent [89,90].
can also cause swelling of the plant material that can facilitate the extraction of phytochemicals.
improved the extraction of different phytochemicals such as polyphenols and carotenoids.
suitable for thermally labile nutraceuticals because satisfactory extraction can be achieved at
relatively low temperatures [82].
enzyme-assisted extraction (EAE)
utilize enzymes such as cellulases, pectinases, and hemicellulase to break down the plant cell wall,
thereby facilitating the extraction of targeted components from botanical materials [91]
used in the extraction of various components such as protein, phenolics, lycopene, and oils
, it usually takes considerable amount of time, and it may not provide higher extraction efficacy in
comparison with other novel techniques
specific enzymes are needed for different raw materials
materials to effectively break down the cell wall to release target components
include relatively high cost of enzymes and environmental sensitivity regarding the use of these
enzymes
Pulsed electric field (PEF)-assisted extraction
uses an electrical field to induce electroporation
of cell membranes, which results in an increased permeability of extraction solvent into the plant
matrix and extraction efficiency [83
Improve extraction on anthocyanins and tannins
Reuires less time and lower energy cost
Commonly used as pre treatments
Microwave Assisted Extraction
utilizes microwaves to penetrate plant materials and interact with polar molecules
The heat generated internally in the plant materials can cause cell structure disruption, which
facilitates the dissolution of nutraceuticals from the plant matrices (92)
Cell structure discupture facilitate the dissolution of nutranceuticals
Increased temperature leads to enhanced efficacy of extraction (82, 83)
Reduced extraction time and solvent usage
Potential Applications
Antihyperglycemic, Hypoglycemic, and
Lipid-Lowering Effect
M. pruriens L., planted in the Mexican southeast, has proven to be a good source of protein
(23%–38%) and therefore of peptides with biological activity through enzymatic hydrolysis,
resulting in an alternative in the treatment and/or prevention of various metabolic diseases
associated with overweight and obesity (Segura et al., 2013).
The various studies carried out on the hydrolysates and peptide fractions of M. pruriens, show
their biological potential on health and are the scientific basis for the development of more
information about their role in biological media, with the aim of developing functional foods,
incorporating these peptides in specific products, and thus offering to the public products that
provide an additional benefit to their health.
The peptide fraction >10 kDa showed a significant lipid-lowering activity (reduction of
17.08%) after 4 weeks of treatment, but did not present antihyperglycemic or hypoglycemic
Activities
The peptide fraction 1–3 kDa did not present lipid-lowering, antihyperglycemic, or hypoglycaemic
activities
The biological activities presented by the peptide fractions derived from M. pruriens L.
demonstrate that the peptides of dietary origin retain part of their pharmacological properties
after gastrointestinal digestion. Thus, further pharmacological studies are needed to elucidate
the mechanisms of action and bioavailability of the peptide fractions
Cancer Prevention and Treatment
Curcumin is the yellow pigment that is found in the rhizomes of Curcuma longa. This pigment
is the main phytochemical with anticancer properties found in turmeric and belongs to the
family of polyphenols (Henrotin et al., 2013; Basnet and Skalko-Basnet, 2011). In the alcoholic
extraction of turmeric, there are three main types of curcuminoids, these polyphenols are called
curcumin I (diferuloylmethane), curcumin II (desmetoxicurcumin), and curcumin III
(bisdemetoxicurcumin). That said, it is important to take into account that the commercial
extracts of “curcumin” are actually a mixture of the three different curcuminoids, with curcumin
I having the highest concentration (approximately 77%) (Basnet and Skalko-Basnet, 2011).
At present, the anti-cancer potential of curcumin has been intensively investigated, compared
to other phytochemicals, which has allowed much of its intracellular mechanisms to be
defined. The anticancer potential of curcumin is mainly due to its ability to inhibit and/or
activate various intracellular transcription factors, thus regulating the expression of various
proteins that participate in tumor growth and development.
Ginger
Ginger has a large number of metabolites. However, an important part is volatile, so during
cooking or drying this plant volatilizes. Among the nonvolatile bioactive compounds, to
which their pharmacological properties are attributed, are gingerols, shogaols, paradols, and
zingerone (Baliga et al., 2011; Zhang et al., 2017a).
The gingerols (4-gingerol, 6-gingerol, 8-gingerol, and 10-gingerol) are thermolabile bioactive
compounds due to the presence of a β-hydroxy keto group, so that during the dehydration of
ginger they are degraded to shogaols. Both compounds, the gingerols and shogaols, present
different pharmacological, pharmacokinetic, and bioavailability activities, with the gingerols
being more bioactive (Baliga et al., 2011).
10-Gingerol (10-G) has been shown to have the most potent anticancer properties compared
to the other gingerols. These properties are due to different mechanisms of action, among
which are its antioxidant, antiinflammatory capacity, and its ability to modify the genetic
expression and the induction of apoptosis of tumor cells. These mechanisms of action
participate in an important way in the reduction of tumor initiation, promotion, and
progression, being an important agent in chemoprevention and cancer treatment (Zhang et al.,
2017a).
10-G has been shown to have antitumor properties against different cancer cell lines in vitro,
including ovarian, lung, colon, prostate, and cervical cancer, through the induction of
apoptosis and the inhibition of cell proliferation (Zhang et al., 2017a).
In summary, ginger and its bioactive metabolites (10-G and 6-G) present an important
anticancer potential for different cancers through the induction of apoptosis, arrest of the cell
cycle, and inhibition of angiogenesis and metastasis. Clinical studies, despite evaluating its
antiemetic activity and not anticancer properties, have shown that ginger and its metabolite, 6-G, have
biological activities in humans and do not generate toxicity and/or side effects.
Thus, the use of ginger powder or extracts for the complementary treatment of cancer is
useful to reduce the side effects of conventional chemotherapy and could represent an
important strategy to reduce the initiation, promotion, and/or progression of cancer
Moringa oleifera
The concentration of its bioactive compounds varies
depending on the growing region of the plant, since the different environmental conditions
modify its synthesis (Leone et al., 2015).
Among its main active metabolites are myricetin, quercetin, kaempferol, isorhamnetin, rutin,
caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, ellagic acid, ferulic acid, gallic acid, N α-l-rhamnopyranosyl
vincosamide, 4-(α-l-rhamnopyranosyloxy) phenylacetonitrile (Niazirin), benzyl, and sinalbin
(Leone et al., 2015; Rani et al., 2018). However, these are only the main components, as the
leaves have a large number of metabolites with potential biological effect. Due to its broad
content of metabolites, the extract of the leaves is usually used for different studies and not its
metabolites in isolation.
A study conducted by Jung (2014) evaluated the anticancer potential and its mechanisms of
action of an aqueous extract of MO, in several cancer cell lines, including breast, lung, colon,
squamous cell carcinoma, fibrosarcoma, etc. However
In summary, extracts from the MO leaf have been shown to have significant potential as a
chemotherapeutic agent in different cancers, including breast, colon, lung, and pancreas. In
addition, according to in vitro studies, MO leaf extract could be an important sensitizing
agent to the drug cisplatin for the treatment of pancreatic cancer.
Medicinal plants have a large number of bioactive metabolites with anticancer effects through
various mechanisms of action, which affect the different stages of carcinogenesis, so their use
could be effective for chemoprevention and complementary treatment. On the other hand,
some mechanisms of action of the metabolites can favor the response to the chemotherapeutic
agents of modern medicine and reduce the number or intensity of side effects, thus improving
the quality of life of the patient with cancer
Antioxidant protection
defense system operates through a series
of complex networks among vitamins C and E, carotenoids, zinc, copper, selenium, magnesium
dependent
antioxidant enzymes, and other nutraceuticals, which together perform highly integrated
recycling and regeneration reactions to balance and optimize oxidative status.
consumption). Defense mechanisms
to remove the ROS include antioxidants and antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase,
catalase, and glutathione peroxidase, which can be produced endogenously in the body or obtained
from the diet. U
These protective
effects of antioxidants were seen not only in populations with high oxidative stress (smokers) but
also in populations where oxidative stress was not the highest risk factor
modulation of hormones
Phytoestrogens, a group of plant-derived compounds found in various plants,
their ability to
modulate hormone functions, such as inhibiting breast cancer development, increasing bone density,
improving plasma lipid profile, lowering serum cholesterol, and ameliorating menopausal
symptoms [65].
nutraceuticals can improve immune function by helping increase the number and
activity of certain immune cells, such as natural killer cells, T-helper cells, and transferring receptor
IL-2-dependent cells [63].
Anticancer effects
Certain nutraceuticals
activate various upstream signaling pathways and lead to activation of transcription factors such
as nuclear factor-erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), AhR, and pregnane X receptor (PXR), which
results in increased expression levels of phase II and antioxidant enzymes, such as GST, UGT, heme
oxygenase-1, and other cellular defensive enzymes [60].
These enzymes can lead to detoxification
of carcinogens, reduction of free radicals ROS, and removal or repair of oxidative-damaged proteins,
which in turn decrease the risk of carcinogenesis.
anti-inflammatory effects
the inhibition of two important
pro-inflammatory proteins, namely, COX-2 and iNOS, by decreasing their expression levels and/or
inhibiting their enzymatic activities [3].
Both COX-2 and iNOS have been shown to be involved in antigen-stimulated inflammatory
responses.
Other important mechanisms by which nutraceuticals elicit their anti-inflammatory effects include
inhibition of pro-inflammatory cytokines, chemokines, and cell cycle regulatory molecules and
modulation of key signaling pathways and transcription factors† associated with inflammation [57].
Functional Foods
Foods offer beyond nutritional value
such as protecting against disease, preventing
nutrient deficiencies, and promoting proper growth and development1
Associated with number of health benefits
Functional foods can be fortified with bioactive ingredients to increase their nutritional values2.
Some examples of functional foods include foods fortified with vitamins, minerals,
probiotics, or fiber. Nutrient-rich ingredients like fruits, vegetables, nuts, seeds, and
grains are often considered functional foods as well1.
Functional foods can be categorized into two types: conventional and modified1.
Conventional functional foods are natural, whole-food ingredients that are rich in
important nutrients like vitamins, minerals, antioxidants, and heart-healthy fats1.
Modified functional foods have been fortified with additional ingredients such as
vitamins, minerals, probiotics, or fiber to increase their health benefits1.
Here are some examples of conventional functional foods:
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Fruits: berries, kiwi, pears, peaches, apples, oranges, bananas
Vegetables: broccoli, cauliflower, kale, spinach, zucchini
Nuts: almonds, cashews, pistachios, macadamia nuts, Brazil nuts
Seeds: chia seeds, flax seeds, hemp seeds, pumpkin seeds
Legumes: black beans, chickpeas, navy beans, lentils
Whole grains: oats, barley, buckwheat, brown rice
Seafood: salmon, sardines, anchovies, mackerel, cod
Fermented foods: tempeh, kombucha, kimchi, kefir, sauerkraut
Herbs and spices: turmeric, cinnamon, ginger
Beverages: coffee, green tea
Here are some examples of modified functional foods:
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Fortified juices
Fortified dairy products such as milk and yogurt
Fortified milk alternatives such as almond milk
Please note that this is not an exhaustive list. The world of functional foods is vast and
constantly evolving. It’s always a good idea to consult with a healthcare professional
or registered dietitian for personalized advice on incorporating functional foods into
your diet.
[!NOTE] This information is provided for informational purposes only and should not
be considered medical advice. Always consult with a qualified healthcare professional
before making any changes to your diet or lifestyle.
[!REFERENCE] 1: Functional Foods: Definition
Nutraceutical supplements are a broad category of products that are derived from
food sources and provide additional health benefits beyond basic nutrition1. They are
often used to promote general well-being, control symptoms, and prevent diseases1.
Nutraceuticals are not tested and regulated to the same extent as pharmaceutical
drugs2.
Nutraceutical supplements can include dietary supplements, herbal products,
genetically engineered foods, vitamins, and more3. They contain a high concentration
of bioactive compounds derived from natural sources and have physiological benefits
that aid in the prevention and treatment of diseases3.
Products derived
food sources and provide additional health benefits beyond basic nutrition
often used to promote general well-being, control symptoms, and prevent diseases1
can include dietary supplements, herbal products, genetically engineered foods,
vitamins, and more3.
They contain a high concentration of bioactive compounds derived from natural
sources
have physiological benefits that aid in the prevention and treatment of diseases3.
Sources of Natural Bioactive Compounds
Plant tissues
Based on their biosynthetic
origins, plant secondary metabolites can be divided into
5 groups: polyketides, isoprenoids, alkaloids, phenylpropanoids,
and flavonoids (Oksman-Caldentey and Inz´e 2004). These compounds
are synthesized in specialized cell types and only during
a particular growth stage, or under specific seasonal/conditions,
making their extraction and purification quite difficult (Verpoorte
and others 2002). Examples of commercially useful plant secondary
metabolites are carotenoids, terpenoids, alkaloids, phenylpropanoids,
and more specific compounds such as corilagin, ellagic
acid, vinblastine, vincristine, β- and α-farnesene, among others
(S¨ozke and others 2004; Nobili and others 2009; Yang and others
2010a).
Microorganisms
Algae and microalgae
Metabolic engineering (biotransformation/bioconversion)
ure 1. Brief overview of plant-derived bioacti
Limittionss of the study
Most tests are animal studies
Limited human studies has been done
few clinical studies have confirmed their health-promoting potential
necessary to conduct long-term extensive human studies
Future Prospects
Plant diets contain a multifarious collection of bioactive components
It is assumed that about 50,000 dietary components exist, the majority of which are various multivitamins
Oncology treatment has involved the widespread use of herbal medicines as complementary therapy
it may be important to understand and divulge how improved eating habits can make our lives healthier
and can play a significant role in the management and prevention of non-communicable
disorders.
Diets rich in polyphenols would be helpful, and the regular consumption of fruit and vegetables as a healthy habit
may be useful to reduce the risk of chronic degenerative diseases and metabolic syndromes
there is a real necessity for comprehensive research into the application of traditionally used plants as reservoirs
of bioactive ingredients
meticulous research and clinical trials must be performed to confirm low dose efficiency that can provide
information on the mechanism of action inside the human body
Uses of Bioactive Compounds
Food Supplements
Defined by PH FDA as processed
food products that help supplement the diet
May be made from plant, animal, natural, or artificial matter
It may be in form of liquids, capsules, pills, tablets, powders, and gels.
shall not have curative claims or therapeutic claims
"No approved therapeutic claim" shall be indicated in the labels of all food supplements
ategorized as a food supplement
indication is that of “Dietary or Health Supplement;
2) Its concentration per dosage form is less than 105% of the PDRI for fatsoluble vitamins and/or less than 150 percent for water-soluble vitamins;
3) It may be available in both non-pharmaceutical and pharmaceutical dosage
form except parenterals;
4) It is available as either a purified or a natural product; and
5) It contains no additional pharmacologically-active ingredients
Supercritical extraction
described as an environmentally safe technology
due to compounds commonly extracted from natural sources
(Herrero and others 2006). These natural sources could be plants,
food by-products, algae, and microalgae, among others.Moreover,
the goal of this technique is the high selectivity, short times of extraction,
increased pollution prevention, and the use of nontoxic
organic solvents (Wang and Weller 2006)
a fluid is between gas and liquid
because the density of an SF is similar to that of liquid and its viscosity
is similar to that of a gas (Sihvonen and others 1999; Wang
and others 2008). Thus, the supercritical state of a fluid is the
state in which liquid and gas are identical from each other (Wang
and Weller 2006). In addition, SFs have better transport properties
than liquids because it depends on its density which, unlike
liquid solvents, is adjustable by changing pressure and temperature
(Sihvonen and others 1999; Herrero and others 2006).
raw material is placed in an extractor vessel,
which has temperature and pressure controllers to maintain the
desired conditions. Then the extractor vessel is pressurized with
the fluid by a pump. Once the fluid and the dissolved compounds
are transported to separators, the products are collected through a
tap located in the lower part of the separators. Finally, the fluid is
regenerated and cycled or released to the environment (Sihvonen
and others 1999).
Selection of SFs is very important for the development of a SFE
process, and a wide range of compounds can be used as solvents
in this technique (Sihvonen and others 1999).
(ethylene, methane, nitrogen, xenon, or fluorocarbons
Carbon dioxide (CO2) has been
described to ensureminimal alteration of the bioactive compounds
and to preserve their curative or functional properties (Cavero
and others 2006). Supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO2) is an
attractive alternative to organic solvents because it is nonexplosive,
nontoxic, inexpensive, and possesses the ability to solubilize
lipophilic substances, and can be easily removed from the final
products (Wang and Weller 2006; Wang and others 2008; Sahena
and others 2009
Some studies have described different supercritical applications,
usually using CO2 as a SF (see Table 3). Liza and others (2010)
studied the feasibility of the SFE method to extract lipid compounds
such as tocopherols, phytosterols, policosanols, and free
fatty acids from sorghum and the preventive role of these compounds
in many diseases. On the other hand, scientific studies
indicated possible antioxidant effects of many spices such as rosemary,
sage, thyme, and oregano, among others (Cavero and others
2006)
SFE is much used in many industrial applications
including coffee decaffeination, fatty acid refining and the extraction
of essential oils and flavors from natural sources with potential
use in nutraceuticals and functional foods (Wang andWeller 2006;
Daintree and others 2008).
extraction. Moreover,
it has been proved with good success that SFE can be used to
obtain active substances in microparticles as dry powders in which
stability and activity are maintained.
Instant controlled pressure drop-assisted extraction
consists of thermo-mechanical effects induced by subjecting
the raw material for a short period of time to saturated steam
followed by an abrupt pressure drop toward a vacuum (Ben Amor
and Allaf 2009). The pressure-drop applied provokes the autovaporization
of volatile compounds, instantaneous cooling of the
products which stop thermal degradation and expansion of the
cell wall (Allaf and others 2012), thus enhancing the mass transfer
and improving the recovery of the desired compounds. The
auto-vaporization of volatile compounds has made this technology
very suitable for the recovery of essential oils in terms of process
performance and attributes of the final product. A
Moreover, Allaf and others
(2012) found that DIC extracts from orange peels had better essential
oil quality (major oxygenated compounds) and antioxidant
capacity (about 13%) compared with hydrodistillated extracts, the
common way to obtain essential oils
This has been
tested by Ben Amor and Allaf (2009) who identifying the effect of
various operative parameters (vacuum, pressure and temperature),
improved up to 135% the recovery of anthocyanins from Roselle
using water as solvent.
They obtained the highest yield with best kinetics and antioxidant
capacity by coupling both treatments than standard SE
Phenolics and carotenoids are considered the key bioactive or phytochemical
compounds that can help to maintain better human health
very useful for food industrial purposes
such as pigments and health-promoting dietary agents
carotenoids have
now attracted much interest due to their proven strong antioxidative activity, which can
help to reduce the risk of certain chronic diseases
Polyphenols are natural antioxidants that are chiefly derived from medicinal plants
and food
Phenolic acids, flavonoids, and anthocyanins, amongst others, are classes
of polyphenols.
Tannins and flavonoids
such as epicatechin, catechin and gallocatechin are found in the pulp and soluble cell
wall fractions of fruit
Onion (Allium)
contains rich amounts of OSCs, and thanks to these biofunctional components, the regular
consumption of Allium is associated with the prevention of numerous chronic disorders,
such as diabetes, obesity, cardiovascular diseases, and metabolic disorders
Plant peptides or protein fragments are usually smaller than 10 kDa. These peptides
are present naturally or derived from their native/precursor proteins through enzymatic
proteolysis.
Promising Health Beneficial Attributes of Bioactive Components
Phenolic components are known to be primary antioxidative or free radical inhibitory
agents because of their capability to donate hydrogen atoms or electrons [27].
Several bioactive peptides isolated from rice, barley, oat, wheat and cereals have been
revealed to present antihypertensive activity [41,42]. Protease-assisted food protein hydrolysis
can also liberate peptide sequences, which have lipid and cholesterol-lowering
Consumption of Allium vegetables such as leek, garlic and onion have been
reported to protect against cardiovascular diseases, diabetes and several other metabolic
conditions.
Attenuation of Cardiovascular Diseases (CVDs) and Blood Pressure
Plant-derived bioactive compounds such as peptides, polyphenols,
vitamins, oligosaccharides, and fatty acids have cardioprotective properties and can promote
heart health [48]. Comprehensive studies have also concluded that plant-derived
extracts have the capacity to regulate human BP [49,50]. Data from experimental studies
suggest that polyphenols derived from grapes can lower the risk of atherosclerosis through several mechanisms,
including reducing low density lipoprotein (LDL) oxidation.
The results confirmed that 30 days’ consumption of pasta supplemented
with 6% of _-glucan resulted in considerable reduction in the risk of LDL cholesterol
and cardiovascular diseases (CVD)
Anti-Cancer
Chlorogenic acid
(CGA) is a dietary polyphenol that has several important biological capacities
has been reported to act as an anti-cancer agent by encouraging various human cancer
cells linked to apoptosis, for example lung cancer cells and leukemia [92]. A study by
Afshari et al. evaluated the anti-cancerous properties of eggplant extract on the human
gastric cancer cell line. The authors concluded that eggplant extract had a stronger toxic
impact on human gastric cancer cell than the normal cell line. Eggplant has rich contents
of phenolic constituents and potent antioxidative properties, which could be effective in
the detoxification of free radicals.
Plant derivatives such as polyphenols can recover the negative
or unhealthy epigenetic mutations in cancer cells, impede tumorigenesis development,
prevent metastatic development, or sensitize tumor cells to radio- and chemotherapy [93].
Nevertheless, while diet-based interventions aiming to target epigenetic pathways are
definitely promising, the translation of these scientific findings into clinical or public health
practices still remains a challenging aspect [90
Flavonoids from fruit and vegetables are reported to
inhibit the NF-_B pathway that is thought to regulate inflammation, angiogenesis, cell
proliferation, cell transformation, and the invasion/metastasis and survival of cancer cells.
Principally, anthocyanins, flavanones, chalcones, isoflavones, and flavonols, which are
derived from legumes, fruits, spices, nuts and vegetables, function as negative regulators
of cell signaling pathways that mediate pro-inflammatory responses, promoting the prevention
of cancer. They could, therefore, be used as a treatment strategy for cancer [94].
Furthermore, plant-derived carotenoids and terpenoids have been confirmed to possess
anti-cancerous and anti-inflammatory attributes. They suppress NF-_B signaling pathways,
which are key modulators in the pathogenesis of tumor and inflammatory disorders [95].
A recent ex vivo study by Dobani et al. 2021 evaluated the protective effects of bioactive
compounds (polyphenolics) derived from raspberries against colon cancer
Anti-Diabetes
A research study by Cheng et al. reported
that Rutgers Scarlet Lettuce (RSL) polyphenol-rich aqueous extract could be used as a
potential anti-diabetic agent. RSL extract (RSLE) at the dose 100 or 300 mg/kg was found
to improve the glucose metabolism in high-fat diet induced obese mice after 28 days of oral
administration. Moreover, in vitro treatment of H4IIE rat hepatoma cells with chlorogenic
acid and RSLE suggested the dose-dependent prevention of glucose production. Overall,
the results suggested that RSLE had anti-diabetic attributes during in vivo and in vitro
trials [66]. Other research activities reported the potential of quinoa-derived bioactive
peptide fractions as anti-diabetic agents. In vitro findings confirmed that three bioactive
peptide fractions from 11S seed storage globulin B showed inhibitory activities against
_-glucosidase, _-amylase, and dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DPP-IV) enzymes
Gut Health
A recent clinical study of
51 adults by Hidalgo-Liberona et al. confirmed the potential of polyphenols to modulate
gut health and prevent unhealthy/pathological situations that are associated with distorted
intestinal permeability (IP). The results suggest that reduced polyphenol bioavailability
due to IP may be attributed to disturbances in the phase II methylation processes and
metabolism of intestinal microbes. Moreover, it was determined that metabolites derived
from microbiota may possibly be liable for the biological action provoked by polyphenols
in the age-linked disturbance of IP [103].
The study concluded that oolong tea extracts have the potential to modulate intestinal microbiota
and confer health benefits to the host. In a fourteen-month dietary interventional
study, extract of grape pomace (rich in phenolic compounds) affected gut microbiota modulation
in rats. The study concluded that the grape pomace extract enhanced the beneficial
bifidobacteria population, while in the control subjects, grape pomace consumption reduced
the abundance of Clostridium sensu stricto (cluster I) [74]. Another study evaluated the
potential of proanthocyanidins derived from grape seed to modulate gut microbiota and
intestinal barrier integrity by means of a weaned piglet model [75]. It was concluded that
the piglets given proanthocyanidins presented enhanced growth performance, significantly
decreased diarrheal occurrence, reduced intestinal permeability, and enriched mucosal
morphology. Furthermore, proanthocyanidins improved the antioxidant indices in intestinal
mucosa and serum, while also enhancing occludin (intestinal barrier gene) expression.
Lipids Profile Regulation
Flavonoids and phenolic components have important
properties that can regulate lipid equilibrium [107,108]. Anthocyanins extracted from
eggplant peels were investigated for their antihyperlipidemic activity in rats. The study
claimed that anthocyanins from eggplant peel significantly reduced the levels of very
low-density lipoprotein (VLDL), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), serum total
cholesterol, and triglyceride in rat model, whereas the high-density lipoprotein cholesterol
(HDL-C) were significantly improved [79]. It has been argued that adding eggplant-derived
anthocyanins to the diet can reduce obesity by reducing serum cholesterol and triglycerides
and improving concentrations of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol [2]. Natural
plant sterols such as phytosterols are used as functional food ingredients due to their
extensive range of potential attributes for promoting health, such as blood cholesterol
reducing activity and decreasing intestinal absorption of cholesterol. Due to their structural
resemblance with cholesterol, these components prevent cholesterol solubilization in the intestine,
which leads to decreased absorption. Moreover, they can compete with low-density
lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol to cause a reduction in low-density lipoprotein cholesterol
levels inside blood vessels [27,109
Oxidative Stress and Brain Health
Carotenoids have been reported to promote good health thanks to their exceptional physiological efficacy
as pro-vitamins and their potential by way of antioxidative reactions, particularly in
scavenging singlet oxygen. Moreover, they can reduce disease risks, specifically certain
types of cancers that are now a growing problem worldwide [27]. A recent article reported
that bioactive molecules such as phytosterols and terpenes have the potential to ameliorate
neuroinflammation and other neurodegenerative illnesses [113]. Furthermore, there is
evidence that grape juice and other fruit and vegetable extracts are immense sources of
antioxidants, which can decrease the impact of oxidative stress associated with aging,
resulting in improved brain functions [114]. Lu et al. confirmed the promising attributes
of the phytoestrogen secoisolariciresinol diglucoside (SDG) with regard to the health of
Caenorhabditis elegans. The authors found that SDG can prolong the lifespan of C. elegans
by up to 22.0%, decrease the lethality of oxidative stress and heat, reduce body movement
decline linked to age, assuage dopamine nervous deterioration encouraged by 6 hydroxydopamine
(6-OHDA), and reduce the toxicity of A_ protein in C. elegans [115]. Resveratrol,
a polyphenol in red wine, is a well-researched biomolecule that is reported to improve
brain health by acting as an inhibitor of beta amyloid protein aggregation [116,117