Essential Vocab for SAT Reading 1 Introduction This is not a traditional vocab list. Many of the entries on this list are concepts to be understood rather than mere words to be memorized. Nevertheless, you should get familiar with them, because they appear often on the test, and if you are encountering them for the first time, you will have a difficult time comprehending the passages in which they appear. ep .c o m This list has been broken into three sections. The first includes words and terms that come up often in humanities passages. The second includes words and terms that come up often in science passages. The third includes words that come up often in questions and answer choices. These categories are for your convenience, but they are not mutually exclusive. Just because a word appears in the humanities section, for instance, does not mean it could not also come up in a science passage. rs pr Looking through this list, you may notice many words or terms with which you are already familiar. This isn't supposed to be a list of obscure or difficult words. It's a list of words that come up often, so you shouldalready know most of them. But they are here because in my many years of teaching, I have encountered intelligent students like you who haven't known them and have lost points on the test as a result. iv yl ea g ue m en to You may also notice that some of the definitions seem inaccurate or incomplete. There are two reasons for this. First, many of the words on this list have more than one definition. The objective of this list is to familiarize you with usages that are most likely to appear on the test rather than to provide a comprehensive explanation of all the ways a particular word or term can be used. In some cases, these are not the usages you are most likely to encounter in normal life. That’s because the test makers frequently use secondary (or tertiary) meanings of everyday words to force you to pay attention to context. The second reason is that many of the concepts on this list are very complicated. I have tried to simplify them for your convenience, and that means excluding nuance and detail. While these explanations may not be precise enough to satisfy your biology or economics teacher, they should be sufficient background for the SAT. Finally, although all the words and terms listed here have come up on real tests in the past and could come up again, if you don't have the time to memorize them all, I suggest focusing on the highlighted ones. 2 Essential Words and Terms in Humanities Passages Abolish: to formally put an end to a system, practice, or institution. In the context of U.S. history, this usually refers specifically to slavery. The noun form is abolition. A person involved in the abolition movement is an abolitionist. In his newspaper, William Lloyd Garrison advocated to abolish slavery. Amendment: a modification or addition, often in the context of a legal document. The verb form is amend. Under Bush, the tax code was amended to benefit large companies. Appeal: to apply to a higher court for a reversal of the decision of a lower court. The case was appealed to the Supreme Court. Appoint: to assign a position to someone. The person who is assigned the position is called an appointee. The president appointed over a hundred new judges to federal courts. Authoritarian: involving strict obedience to authority, especially that of the government, at the expense of personal freedom. A system of government with these characteristics is called authoritarianism. Bias: prejudice in favor of or against a thing, person, or group, usually in a way considered to be unfair. A person or action that has bias is called biased. Bill: a draft of a proposed law. The members of Congress debated the Civil Rights Bill. Blue State / Red State / Swing State: On the U.S. political map, blue represents the Democratic Party and red represents the Republican party. As a result, the term blue state is often used to refer to a state that supports the Democratic Party, while the term red state is often used to refer to a state that supports the Republican Party. A swing state is one with a roughly even mix of democrats and republicans, and could end up voting for either party. Branches of Government: The federal government of the United States is divided into three branches: legislative, executive, and judicial. (For more information on these branches, see their respective entries.) This division is sometimes referred to as the separation of powers. It was intended to prevent any single branch of government from becoming too powerful. Consequently, each branch holds certain powers over the other branches, a phenomenon called checks and balances. The founders of the United States were very concerned that a federal government with unchecked powers would limit the freedom of the states and the citizens, a scenario they had experienced under the colonial rule of Britain. 3 Boycott: to withdraw from commercial or social relations with (a country, organization, or person) as a punishment or protest. The Montgomery Bus Boycott put pressure on the city of Montgomery to end segregated seating. Capitalism: an economic and political system in which a country's trade and industry are controlled by private owners for profit, with little or no government intervention. The adjective form is capitalist. Most economists agree that the capitalist system has generally been effective at generating wealth and innovation, at least to an extent, but has also contributed to rising economic inequality. ep .c o m Censorship: the suppression of speech, public communication, or other information, on the basis that such material is considered objectionable. The verb form is censor. China relies on censorship to suppress information about the Tiananmen Square massacre. Civilian: a person not in the armed services or the police force. American troops killed thousands of civilians during the Vietnam War. en to rs pr Civil Rights: A class of rights that protect individuals' freedom from infringement by governments, social organizations, and private individuals. They ensure one's entitlement to participate in civil and political life without discrimination or repression. One common topic on the test is the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 60s, in which figures like Martin Luther King Jr. advocated for the equal rights of African Americans. ea g ue m Civil War: A war between the citizens of a country rather than against another country. In the American Civil War, which took place from 1861-1865, the Union (North), which wanted to abolish slavery and preserve the nation, defeated the Confederacy (South), which wanted the freedom to hold slaves. iv yl Cold War: A period of tension between the United States, the most powerful proponent of capitalism, and the Soveit Union, the most powerful proponent of communism, and their respective allies. The Cold War began in the late 1940s and ended in 1991, with the collapse of the Soviet Union. Colony: an area under the control of another country, typically a distant one. Before the United States was a country, the area was made up of 13 colonies under the control of England. This system is known as colonialism. Common: shared or done by more than one. Their common desire for peace led representatives of both sides to meet, despite the tensions. Communism / Socialism: Socialism and Communism are related economic and political ideologies. Both place great value on creating a more equal society and removal of class privilege. However, while Socialism is compatible with democracy and liberty, generally seeking 4 to reduce inequality through democratic process, Communism emphasizes government control of the economy to attain greater equality, often at the expense of individual liberty. Contemporary: occuring in the same time period. In most contexts, it is synonymous with modern or recent. Contemporary historians view Columbus as a divisive figure.When used as a noun, contemporary means a person living at the same time period as another. Charlotte Bronte and Jane Austin were contemporaries. Constitution: the supreme law of a country. In context, this often refers to the U.S. Constitution. The U.S. Constitution was written in 1787, but many amendments have been added to it since then. The first ten amendments, ratified in 1791, are known as the Bill of Rights, and guarantee such rights as the freedoms of speech, assembly, and worship. Other important amendments include the 13th Amendment, which abolished slavery, the 14th Amendment, which guarantees all citizens equal protection under the law, and the 19th Amendment, which expanded suffrage to include women. If something is deemed legal under the constitution, it is called constitutional. If it goes against the constitution, it is called unconstitutional. Conventional: common or traditional. The noun form is convention. Degrade: to deteriorate, weaken, or lower in dignity. Government corruption degrades our democracy. Delegate: a person sent or authorized to represent others, in particular an elected representative sent to a conference. The delegates at the Second Constitutional Convention struggled to agree on a compromise. Democracy: a form of government by the whole population or all the eligible members of a state, typically through elected representatives. The adjective form is democratic. Note that American politicians often use the term democracy as a synonym for freedom, so you may also encounter that meaning on the test. Depression / Recession: A recession is a period of economic decline, often marked by high unemployment. A depression is similar, but more severe and/or longer lasting. The term often refers to the Great Depression of the 1930s. Dictatorship: a form of government in which one person or a small group possesses absolute power without effective constitutional limitations. The person who holds power in such a system is known as a dictator. Disparity: a significant difference or inequality. The president spoke sternly about the economic disparity between different regions of the country. 5 Doctor: to tamper with or alter, often in a dishonest or illegal manner. The historian doctored the evidence to support her claim. Doctrine: a set of beliefs. Earnest: sincere and serious. Egalitarianism: the principle that all people are equal and deserve equal rights and opportunities. The adjective form is egalitarian. Obama’s egalitarian education policies were criticized by conservatives. ep .c o m Electoral College: a complicated and controversial system through which the President of the United States is elected. Recently, this has resulted in several situations where the winner of the election was not the winner of the popular vote. pr Emancipate: to liberate or set free. The noun form is emancipation. Unfortunately, for most slaves, emancipation did not lead to social or economic progress. en to rs Enfranchise: to give the right to vote. The noun form is enfranchisement. The respective antonyms are disenfranchise and disenfranchisement. Although the 14th amendment provided men of all races the right to vote, many African Americans remained essentially disenfranchised due clauses in state laws that required voters to pass literacy tests. ue m Executive Branch: the branch of government that carries out and enforces laws. It includes the president, vice president, and other agencies. ea g Exploit: to make use of, often by treating someone unfairly in order to benefit from their work. The noun form is exploitation. iv yl Externality: a side effect of an activity or economic transaction that affects other parties, either in a positive or negative way. For example, cigarette smoking has a negative externality because people other than the buyer or seller of a cigarette have to endure the second-hand smoke. Founding Father: a person who starts or helps to start a movement or institution, often one involved in the creation of the United States. Federal Government: the national government of a country, as opposed to a regional government such as state or municipal government. Free Trade: international trade left to its natural course without tariffs, quotas, or other restrictions. 6 GDP (Gross Domestic Product): the value of all the final goods and services produced in a specific time period in a specific place. This is the most common measurement of an economy’s size. Gerrymandering: the manipulation of the boundaries of voter districts to give one party an advantage in elections. The verb form is gerrymander. Goods vs. Services: In economics, a good refers to a physical product that can be bought and sold, such as a computer or a hamburger, while a service is an action that can be bought or sold, such as a haircut or a class with the world’s greatest teacher, Nathan. Hierarchy: a system of organization in which people or groups are ranked one above the other. The adjective form is hierarchical. Traditional Korean society was very hierarchical, with most privileges and power reserved for the scholar-gentry class known as the yangban. Ideology: a system of ideas or beliefs. The adjective form is ideological. Motivated by extreme ideologies, some terrorists' ambitions to inflict mayhem seem unlimited. Implication: a conclusion that can be drawn from something, although it is not explicitly stated. An important implication of Malka Older's novel is that technology can help inform the public. Incentive: something that motivates someone to do something. The verb form is incentivize. Something that motivates someone not to do something is a disincentive. Graphic warning labels on cigarette cartons are a disincentive to smokers. Indigenous: native to or naturally occurring in a place. This term can be used to describe groups of people as well as species. Cortez and his fellow conquistadors killed and tortured indigenous people who refused to convert to Catholicism. Inferior: lower in quality or status. In the Spanish colonies, indigenous people were considered inferior to Europeans. Inflation: a general increase in prices over time. In contrast, a decrease in prices is called deflation. Infrastructure: the basic physical and organizational structures and facilities (e.g. buildings, roads, power supplies) needed for the operation of a society or enterprise. Judicial Branch: the branch of government that interprets the meaning of laws, applies laws to individual cases, and decides if laws violate the Constitution. The highest authority in the judicial branch is the Supreme Court, which is composed of justices. The Supreme Court has the power to decide whether a law is constitutional. 7 Legislation: a law or set of laws. To legislate is to make laws. The senator introduced legislation that would protect the environment. Legislative Branch: the branch of government in charge of making laws. It is made of Congress and other agencies. Congress has two chambers: the House of Representatives and the Senate. Members of the House of Representatives (Representatives) and the Senate (Senators) are voted into office by citizens in each state. ep .c o m Liberal / Conservative: The terms liberal and conservative refer to political ideologies. Those with liberal views (liberals) tend to support progressive reforms, especially those seeking greater social and economic equality. Those with conservative views (conservatives) tend to hold traditional beliefs and values and support regressive policies that will benefit the wealthy and powerful. pr Left-Wing / Right-Wing: the terms left-wing and right-wing represent opposite ends of the political spectrum. Left-wing connotes liberal while right-wing connotes conservative. Someone in between might be described as a centrist. en to rs Lobby: to seek to influence (a politician or public official) on an issue. A person who lobbies can be called a lobbyist. It was speculated thatBush's decision to bomb Iraq was influenced by the millions of dollars he received from oil industry lobbyists. ue m Monarchy: a form of government in which a monarch (such as a king or queen) is head of state for life or until abdication, and power is usually transferred through inheritance. ea g Monopoly (related terms: monopolize) The exclusive possession or control of an industry or resource. The verb monopolize refers to the action of taking such control. iv yl Nature: the basic features or personality of something or someone. The nature of the experiment is highly innovative. Oppress: to burden with cruel or unjust restraints. The noun form is oppression. The adjective form is oppressive. Britain's oppressive policies inspired the American colonies to band together and revolt. Partisanship / Bipartisanship: partisanship is characterized by a lack of cooperation between rival political parties. Bipartisanship (in the context of a two-party system) is the opposite, as it involves the cooperation of both parties. The adjective forms are partisan and bipartisan. The antonym of partisan is nonpartisan. 8 Per Capita: per person. This can be added to other measurements. For instance, if China and the United States have similar GDP, the GDP per capita in the United States would be much higher because the population is smaller. Precedent: an earlier event or action that is regarded as an example or guide in subsequent similar circumstances. If a circumstance is completely unique, it can be called unprecedented. In recent history, the COVID-19 pandemic was an unprecedented situation, so many governments were unprepared to respond. Protectionism: the economic policy of restricting imports from other countries through methods such as tariffs, quotas, and other government regulations. The adjective form is protectionist. Public vs. Private Sector: the public sector is the part of the economy that is run by the state. The private sector is the part of the economy that is run by individuals and companies (generally for profit) and is not state controlled. Ratify: to formally agree to (a treaty, contract, or agreement), making it officially valid. The noun form is ratification. Reason: the power of the mind to think, understand, and form judgments. Some believe that humans are the only animal with the power of reason. Republic: a state in which supreme power is held by the people and their elected representatives. In the context of American documents "the republic" may refer to the United States. Revolution: a forcible overthrow of a government or social order, in favor of a new system. One revolution that comes up on the test often is the American Revolution, which occurred in colonial North America between 1765 and 1783. In this revolution the American colonies, angered by high taxes and a lack of liberties, fought for independence from England. Secede: to withdraw formally from membership in a union or alliance. The noun version is secession. On the test, this most often refers to the secession of southern states from the United States in response to the election of Abraham Lincoln, who sympathized with the abolition movement, which sparked the Civil War. Segregation: the enforced separation of groups, often racial groups. Segregation between black and white people was common in the American south before the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 60s. The verb form is segregate. The respective antonyms are desegregation and desegregate. Sovereignty: the authority to self-govern without interference. The adjective form is sovereign. The protesters in Hong Kong demanded sovereignty from China. 9 Sphere: an area of activity or expertise. Before the mid 20th century, most American’s believed that the women's sphere was in the home. Station: a position or rank. In feudal society, it was nearly impossible to rise above one's station. Status quo: the current state of affairs, the way things have been traditionally. Malcolm X refused to accept the status quo and fought for reform. m Subjugation: to bring under domination or control, especially by conquest. The noun form is subjugation. The invaders had soon subjugated most of the native population. ep .c o Subordinate: lower in rank or position. The noun form is subordination. Second wave feminists protested against the subordination of women in the workplace. en to rs pr Subsidy: money granted by the government to assist an industry or business so that the price of a product may remain low or competitive. The verb form is subsidize. The government should subsidize college education to make it more affordable to youth from low income families. ue m Succession: the inheritance of a title, position, etc. The verb form is succeed. Queen Victoria was succeeded by Edward VII. ea g Suffrage: the right to vote. In historical documents, this often refers specifically to the right of women to vote. One who fights for the right to vote can be called a suffragist. Susan B Anthony was one of the most famous leaders of the women’s suffrage movement. yl Suppress: to restrict the activities of a person or group. The noun form is suppression. Voter suppression has allowed Republicans to win elections in districts with a Democratic majority. iv Two Party System: a two-party system is a party system in which two major political parties dominate the political landscape. In the United States, those two parties are the Democratic Party (often referred to as the Democrats) and the Republican Party (often referred to as the Republicans or the GOP). For the past several decades, the Democratic Party has pursued liberal interests, while the Republican Party has pursued conservative interests. Tariff: a tax on imported or exported goods. Theocracy: a form of government in which religious leaders have control of the state. The adjective term is theocratic. 10 Totalitarianism: A system of government that is centralized and dictatorial and requires complete subservience to the state. The adjective form is totalitarian. Tyranny: a system of cruel and oppressive government or rule. The leader of such a system is a tyrant. Revolutionaries like Thomas Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton considered King George a tyrant. Uphold: to confirm or support (something which has been questioned). The Supreme Court upheld the ruling of the lower court. Usurp: to take a power or position unfairly or by force. One who takes power in such a way is called a usurper. Richard usurped the throne. Vitality: liveliness or energy. Nathan's daughter Isabella is full of vitality, and is always laughing and smiling. Voter Turnout: the percentage of eligible voters who cast a ballot in an election. Want: a lack or absence. The protagonist suffered due to a want of affection from her parents. 11 Essential Words and Terms in Science Passages Anomaly: something that deviates from what is standard, normal, or expected. Antibiotic: a substance that kills bacteria, usually in order to prevent the infections they cause. m Atom: the smallest unit of ordinary matter that forms a chemical element. An atom can be broken down into three main parts – protons, neutrons, and electrons. Each of these parts has an associated charge, with protons carrying a positive charge, electrons having a negative charge, and neutrons possessing no net charge. The term nucleus refers to the positively charged central core of an atom, consisting of protons and neutrons and containing nearly all its mass. ep .c o Artificial Intelligence (AI): intelligence demonstrated by machines, in contrast to the natural intelligence displayed by humans and animals. pr Avian: related to birds. en to rs Big Bang: the rapid expansion of matter from a state of extremely high density and temperature that according to current cosmological theories marked the origin of the universe. ue m Camouflage: an animal's natural coloring or form that enables it to blend in with its surroundings. The white fur of polar bears provides camouflage against the snow. ea g Carbon Dating: a method for determining the age of an object containing organic material by using the properties of radiocarbon, a radioactive isotope of carbon. iv yl Carbon Footprint: the amount of carbon dioxide and other carbon compounds emitted due to the consumption of fossil fuels by a particular person, group, etc. Climate change activists like Al Gore have urged the public to reduce their carbon footprint. Catalyst: a substance that causes or enables a chemical reaction. Carcinogen: a substance that causes cancer. The adjective form is carcinogenic. Cardiovascular: relating to the circulatory system, which comprises the heart and blood vessels. Chromosome: a structure in most living cells that carries genetic information in the form of genes. Chronic: lasting for a long time or recurring. 12 Climate Change: a change in global or regional climate patterns, in particular a change apparent from the mid to late 20th century onwards and attributed largely to the increased levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide produced by the use of fossil fuels. This phenomenon is sometimes referred to as global warming because it has included a rise in temperatures in many areas. Conclusive: decisive or convincing; serving to prove a case. The antonym is inconclusive. Though scientists believe that the moon was formed by fragments of the earth dislodged in a collision, the evidence remains inconclusive. Control Group / Experimental Group: An experimental group receives the treatment whose effect researchers wish to study, whereas a control group does not. Generally, they are identical in all other ways. The purpose of the control group is to provide a basis for comparison. Consensus: a general state of agrement. The consensus among modern paleontologists is that birds are descendants of dinosaurs. Correlation: a mutual relationship or connection between two or more factors. The adjective form is correlated. Scientists are careful to note that correlation does not mean causation. A positive correlation means that two or more factors tend to move in the same direction. A negative correlation means that two or more factors tend to move in opposite directions. This is also known as an inverse relationship. If two factors have no clear relationship, they can be described as uncorrelated. DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid): a self-replicating material that is present in nearly all living organisms as the main constituent of chromosomes. It is the carrier of genetic information. Domesticate: to tame (an animal) and keep it as a pet or for farm produce. The noun version is domestication. Dominant vs. Recessive: individuals receive two versions of each gene, one from each parent. If the two versions are different, one will be expressed, the dominant gene. The other, known as the recessive, will not be expressed. Double-Blind: A double-blind study or experiment is one in which neither the participants nor the experimenters know who is receiving a particular treatment. This procedure is utilized to prevent bias in research results. Dynamic: characterized by change or activity. A team of engineers studied the dynamic response of the bridge in response to varying loads. 13 Echolocation: the location of objects by reflected sound, in particular that used by animals such as dolphins and bats. Ecosystem: a community of living organisms and nonliving components within a particular environment, interacting as a system. Emission: the production and discharge of something, such as gas, light, or radiation. The verb form is emit. m Empirical: based on observation or experience, often through experimentation. Thompson and Singh's research provided empirical evidence that conservatives are more likely to believe fake news than liberals. ep .c o Enzyme: a substance produced by an organism that acts as a catalyst for a specific reaction. pr Epidemic / Pandemic: an epidemic is a widespread occurrence of an infectious disease in a community at a particular time. A pandemic is an epidemic that occurs over a larger region, crossing international boundaries and usually affecting a large number of people. en to rs Eradicate: to remove or destroy completely. The noun form is eradication. ue m Erosion: the gradual destruction or diminution of something, often by wind, water, etc. This word can also be used figuratively in the context of humanities passages. The verb form is erode. ea g Evolution: a change in the hereditary characteristics of a population over successive generations. These characteristics are the expressions of genes that are passed on from parent to offspring during reproduction. iv yl Extinction: the complete demise of a species. The adjective to describe such a species is extinct. Today, the general consensus among paleontologists is that most dinosaurs became extinct due to an asteroid. Field Research: research conducted in a real world environment rather than in a lab or artificial setting. Food Chain: a hierarchical series of organisms each dependent on the next as a source of food. Fossil Fuels: natural fuels such as oil, coal, gas, formed in the geological past from the remains of living organisms. In recent decades, fossil fuels have been criticized for causing pollution and contributing to climate change. 14 Gene: a unit transferred from a parent to offspring that determines some characteristic of the offspring. The adjective form is genetic. The complete set of genes in an organism can be called a genome. Geological: relating to the earth's physical structure and substance. GMO (genetically modified organism): an organism whose genetic material has been altered using genetic engineering techniques. While GM foods are generally more efficient to produce than organic foods and are deemed safe by the scientific community, some consumers are concerned about their health impact. Greenhouse Gasses: gases in Earth's atmosphere that trap heat. They let sunlight pass through the atmosphere, but they prevent the heat that the sunlight brings from leaving the atmosphere. Consequently, they contribute to global warming. Half-life: the time required for a quantity to reduce to half of its initial value. The term is commonly used to describe radioactive decay. Hereditary: determined by genetic factors and therefore able to be passed on from parents to their offspring or descendants. Cystic fibrosis is among the most common fatal hereditary diseases. Homoniod: a primate of a group that includes humans, their fossil ancestors, and certain apes. Homogeneous: alike or identical. M ost people don’t realize that the vast majority of bananas are genetically homogeneous. Hormones: chemical substances that help control how cells and organs do their work. The adjective form is hormonal. Hypothesis: a proposed explanation made on the basis of limited evidence as a starting point for further investigation. The term hypothetical can describe something that is based on hypothesis, or more generally, something that doesn't actually exist in the real world. For now, the idea of uploading a human brain into a computer is merely hypothetical. Immune System: a network of cells and proteins that defends the body against infection. The immune system keeps a record of every germ it has ever defeated so it can recognise and destroy the microbe quickly if it enters the body again. Inhibit (related terms: inhibitor, inhibition) To hinder, restrain, or prevent (an action or process). Cold inhibits plant growth. Innate: inborn; arising naturally. Humans possess an innate propensity for music. 15 Invasive Species: an invasive species is most often a non-native species that spreads from a point of introduction to negatively alter its new environment. Lunar: related to the moon. Marine: related to the ocean. Metabolism: the process through which the body converts food into energy. The adjective is metabolic. m Microbe: a microorganism, especially a bacterium causing disease. ep .c o Migration: the geographical movement of an individual or group. The researchers observed the migration of puffins over a ten year period. en to rs pr Natural Selection: the process through which populations of living organisms adapt and change. Individuals in a population are naturally variable, meaning that they are all different in some ways. This variation means that some individuals have traits better suited to the environment than others. These individuals are more likely to reproduce, which means that their traits get passed on, driving evolution. ue m Nature vs. Nurture: the nature versus nurture debate involves whether human behavior is determined by the environment or by a person's genes. ea g Nervous System: a system made up of the brain, spinal cord, and all the nerves. The nerves transmit messages through the body, so the brain can interpret them and take action. yl Neuron: a cell in the brain or other part of the nervous system that carries impulses. iv Nocturnal / Diurnal: a nocturnal animal is most active at night. A diurnal animal is most active during the day. Null Result: a result in which the proposed outcome or relationship is absent. Offspring: the child or children of a person or animal. Ozone Layer: a region of Earth's atmosphere that absorbs most of the Sun's ultraviolet radiation. In recent decades, there has been a lot of concern about the depletion of the ozone layer due to human activities. Panacea: a total cure or solution. 16 Parasite: an organism that lives inside another organism and exploits it for survival. Pervasive: widespread or common. The noun form is pervasiveness. Pesticide: a chemical that kills insects and other organisms harmful to crops. Photosynthesis: a process used by plants and other organisms to convert light energy into chemical energy which can be used for growth and other activities. Placebo Effect: a phenomenon in which some people experience a benefit after the administration of an inactive "look-alike" substance or treatment. This substance, or placebo, has no known medical effect. Primate: a group of mammals that includes humans, apes, and similar species. Propensity: an inclination or tendency to behave in a particular way. It has been observed that children who play violent games have a greater propensity for antisocial behavior. (Drug) Resistance: a condition that arises when germs like bacteria and fungi develop the ability to defeat the drugs designed to kill them. Seismic: relating to earthquakes or other vibrations of the earth and its crust. Solar: related to the sun. Static: characterized by a lack of change. Species populations have remained static over the past decade. Susceptible: likely to be harmed by a particular thing. Smokers are more susceptible to cancer. Sustainable: able to be maintained at a certain rate or level. In the 21st century, it refers generally to the capacity for the environment and human civilization to co-exist. The noun version is sustainability. Symbiosis: a close relationship between two species, typically to the advantage of both. The adjective form is symbiotic. Synthetic: made by chemical synthesis (the combination of chemicals), especially to imitate a natural product. Synthetic leather is cheaper than real leather, and doesn't require cattle to produce. Tectonics: large-scale movement related to the earth's crust. 17 Terrestrial: related to the earth. In contrast, extraterrestrial means beyond the earth, space. Theoretical: based on theory rather than direct observation. Until recently, the existence of the Higgs Boson was merely theoretical. Thermal: related to heat. Geothermal energyhas been used for thousands of years in some countries for cooking and heating. Trial: a test or round of an experiment. In the first trial, participants were asked to complete a puzzle while listening to music. ep .c o m Vaccine: a substance that provides immunity or helps protect against a disease. The verb form is vaccinate. pr Variable: something that changes. In an experiment, an independent variable is directly manipulated by the experimenter. The dependent variable is what the experimenter observes. The objective of the experiment is to determine the effect of a change in the independent variable on the dependent variable. en to rs Vertebrate: a species of animal that has a backbone. An animal without backbone is called an invertebrate. iv yl ea g ue m Yield: to produce or generate. For both species studied, additional exposure to sunlight did not yield more rapid growth. 18 Essential Words and Terms in Questions & Answers Advocate: to publicly recommend or support. The author advocated for freedom of press. Ambivalence: the state of having mixed feelings or contradictory ideas about something or someone. The adjective form is ambivalent. Analogous: similar, comparable in certain respects. The events of Orwell’s Animal Farm are analogous to those of the Russian Revolution. Anticipate: to predict or expect. The effect was stronger than the researchers had anticipated. Assertion: a confident and forceful claim. The verb form is to assert. Bolster: to strengthen or provide support for (an argument). Challenge: to dispute the truth or validity (of something). The author challenged the assumption that early humans evolved exclusively in Africa. Comprehensive: complete; including all or nearly all elements or aspects of something. Nathan has provided dozens of students comprehensive support on their college applications. Concede: to admit that something is true or valid, especially an opposing argument or counterpoint. The noun form is concession. The author conceded that genetically modified foods are probably no more dangerous than organic foods. Condemn: to express complete disapproval of something, typically in public. The noun form is condemnation. Contend: to assert. The noun version is contention. Counterclaim: a claim that goes against the main claim or argument. Decisive: conclusive or final; settling an issue. Decisive evidence has emerged, ending the debate about the origins of the fossil. Denounce: to publicly declare to be wrong or bad. Sanders denounced the U.S. military's use of chemical weapons on children in Cambodia and Vietnam. Despondent: depressed, sad, in low spirits. Detrimental: harmful. Excessive smartphone usage is detrimental to sleep. 19 Discredit: to prove false; to damage the reputation of someone or something. The author aimed to discredit the theory that the manuscript was written by Ortega. Disdain: contempt or strong disapproval. Dismiss: to ignore or reject, often without serious consideration. The press dismissed the president’s claims of voter fraud. Disparage: to regard as being of little worth or inferior. Nathan disparaged the SAT textbook, which was full of mistakes and bad advice. ep .c o m Distinction: a difference or contrast between similar things or people. The verb form is distinguish. The adjective form is distinct. pr Elaborate: to develop or present in detail. The author elaborated on the proposal in her manifesto. rs Entrenched: firmly established and difficult or unlikely to change. en to Enumerate: to list or mention one by one. The noun form is enumeration. The author enumerated the benefits of autonomous vehicles. ue m Explicit / Implicit: If something is explicit, it is stated clearly and directly. If something is implicit, it is stated indirectly or implied. ea g Facilitate: to cause, encourage, or make easier. The internet has facilitated communication between diverse populations. iv yl Feasible: possible to do easily or without an unreasonable amount of effort. Nathan’s students complained that it wasn’t feasible to learn every term on this list. Former / Latter: In a list of two, the term former refers to the first and the term latter refers to the second. Foster: to encourage or promote the development (of something). Frank: honest, direct, and blunt. The doctor gave a frank assessment and did not attempt to hide the seriousness of her patient's condition. Fundamental: basic or essential. The fundamental structure of the human brain is similar to that of other primates. 20 Idealistic: involving noble or high-minded principles, but often not practical or realistic. Someone with idealistic views can be called an idealist. Indifference: a lack of interest, opinion, or concern. The adjective form is indifferent. Indignation: anger or annoyance provoked by what is perceived as unfair treatment. The adjective form is indignant. Irreconcilable: unable to coexist; unable to be resolved. The notion of time travel is irreconcilable with our current laws of physics. Ironic: contrary or opposite to expectations. The noun form is irony. Maintain: to assert. The senator maintains that legalisation of recreational drugs will increase tax revenue. Mar: to spoil or damage, and thus render less perfect. Her happiness was marred by regret. Misconception: an incorrect belief or attitude. Mitigate: to make (a problem) less severe, serious, or painful. Optimism / Pessimism: optimism is a belief or hope that an outcome will be positive, favorable, or desirable. Pessimism is a belief or hope that an outcome will be negative, unfavorable, or undesirable.the adjective forms.are optimistic and pessimistic. Outspoken: frank in stating one's opinions, especially if they are critical or controversial. Pragmatic: dealing with things sensibly and realistically in a way that is based on practical rather than theoretical considerations. Profess: to claim that one has (a quality or feeling), especially when this is not the case. Prudent: marked by wisdom; showing consideration for the consequences of an action. Qualify: to make (a statement or assertion) less absolute or extreme. The noun form is qualification. The adjective form is qualified. The author qualified her argument by recognizing the validity of some counterpoints. Refute: to prove (a statement or theory) false. Relate: to tell (a story). The author related an anecdote about her experiences in South Africa. 21 Reservations: hesitance or doubt about the appropriateness of an action. Some generals voiced reservations about making air strikes on civilian neighborhoods. Resignation: the acceptance of something undesirable but inevitable. The adjective form is resigned. The verb form is resign. He expressed resignation about his loss in the upcoming election. Revere: to deeply respect. Though condemned by the elite, Jackson was revered by uneducated farmers. m Scrutinize: to examine carefully and critically, often in search of flaws. The noun form is scrutiny. ep .c o Skepticism: doubt or disbelief. The noun form is skeptical. A skeptical person can be called a skeptic. pr Speculate: to make a guess or prediction. The noun form is speculation. The adjective form is speculative. The author speculated about the future of AI. en to rs Subjective / Objective: subjective means based on personal feelings, tastes, or opinions. Objective means not influenced by personal feelings or opinions in considering and representing facts. ue m Substantiate: to support, often with evidence. The adjective form is substantiated, and its antonym is unsubstantiated. Katz offered no evidence to substantiate his claim. ea g Tentative: uncertain, unconfirmed, or temporary. Until more studies can be conducted, the findings are only tentative. iv yl Undermine: to weaken or go against (a theory, argument, belief, etc). The new evidence undermined traditional assumptions about language acquisition. Underscore: to emphasize. The author underscored the need for bipartisanship. 22
