GEC14
LITERATURE OF THE WORLD
PREPARED BY:
MARIA CHARNILENE R. PALMA
AFRO-ASIAN LITERATURE
AFRICAN LITERATURE
African literature, literary works of the African continent. African literature consists of
a body of work in different languages and various genres, ranging from oral literature to
literature written in colonial languages (French, Portuguese, and English).
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Oral literature, including stories, dramas, riddles, histories, myths, songs,
proverbs, and other expressions, is frequently employed to educate and entertain
children. Oral histories, myths, and proverbs additionally serve to remind whole
communities of their ancestors' heroic deeds, their past, and the precedents for
their customs and traditions. Essential to oral literature is a concern for
presentation and oratory. Folktale tellers use call-response techniques. A griot
(praise singer) will accompany a narrative with music.
Some of the first African writings to gain attention in the West were the poignant
slave narratives, such as The Interesting Narrative of the Life and Adventures of
Olaudah Equiano or Gustavus Vassa, the African (1789), which described vividly
the horrors of slavery and the slave trade. As Africans became literate in their own
languages, they often reacted against colonial repression in their writings. Others
looked to their own past for subjects. Thomas Mofolo, for example,
wrote Chaka (tr. 1931), about the famous Zulu military leader, in Susuto.
Since the early 19th cent. writers from western Africa have used newspapers to air
their views. Several founded newspapers that served as vehicles for expressing
nascent nationalist feelings. French-speaking Africans in France, led by
Léopold Senghor, were active in the négritude movement from the 1930s, along
with Léon Damas and Aimé Césaire, French speakers from French Guiana and
Martinique. Their poetry not only denounced colonialism, it proudly asserted the
validity of the cultures that the colonials had tried to crush.
After World War II, as Africans began demanding their independence, more African
writers were published. Such writers as, in western Africa, Wole Soyinka,
Chinua Achebe, Ousmane Sembene, Kofi Awooner, Agostinho Neto, Tchicaya u
tam'si, Camera Laye, Mongo Beti, Ben Okri, and Ferdinand Oyono and, in eastern
Africa, Ngugi wa Thiong'o, Okot p'Bitek, and Jacques Rabémananjara produced
poetry, short stories, novels, essays, and plays. All were writing in European
languages, and often they shared the same themes: the clash between indigenous
and colonial cultures, condemnation of European subjugation, pride in the African
past, and hope for the continent's independent future.
In South Africa, the horrors of apartheid have, until the present, dominated the
literature. Es'kia Mphahlele, Nadine Gordimer, Bessie Head, Dennis Brutus, J. M.
Coetzee, and Miriam Tlali all reflect in varying degrees in their writings the
experience of living in a racially segregated society.
Much of contemporary African literature reveals disillusionment and dissent with
current events. For example, V. Y. Mudimbe in Before the Birth of the Moon (1989)
explores a doomed love affair played out within a society riddled by deceit and
corruption. The Zimbabwean novelist and poet Chenjerai Hove (1956–2015),
wrote vividly in English and his native Shona of the hardships experienced during
the struggle against British colonial rule, and later of the hopes and
disappointments of life under the rule of Robert Mugabe. In Kenya Ngugi wa
Thiong'o was jailed shortly after he produced a play, in Kikuyu, which was
perceived as highly critical of the country's government. Apparently, what seemed
most offensive about the drama was the use of songs to emphasize its messages.
The weaving of music into the Kenyan's play points out another characteristic of
African literature. Many writers incorporate other arts into their work and often
weave oral conventions into their writing. p'Bitek structured Song of Iowino (1966)
as an Acholi poem; Achebe's characters pepper their speech with proverbs
in Things Fall Apart (1958). Others, such as Senegalese novelist Ousmane
Sembene, have moved into films to take their message to people who cannot
read.
JAPANESE LITERATURE
Nara Period
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Japanese literature traces its beginnings to oral traditions that were first recorded
in written form in the early eighth century after a writing system was introduced
from China. The Kojiki (Record of Ancient Matters) and Nihon shoki (Chronicle of
Japan) were completed in 712 and 720, respectively, as government projects. The
former is an anthology of myths, legends, and other stories, while the latter is a
chronological record of history. The Fudoki (Records of Wind and Earth), compiled
by provincial officials beginning in 713, describe the history, geography, products,
and folklore of the various provinces.
The most brilliant literary product of this period was the Man'yoshu (Collection of
Ten Thousand Leaves), an anthology of 4,500 poems composed by people ranging
from unknown commoners to emperors and compiled around 759. Already
emerging was a verse form comprising 31 syllables (5-7-5-7-7) known as tanka.
In 905 the Kokin wakashu or Kokinshu (Collection of Poems from Ancient and
Modern Times) was published as the first poetry anthology commissioned by an
emperor; its preface paid high tribute to the vast possibilities of literature.
Heian Period
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In the resplendent aristocratic culture that thrived early in the eleventh century, a
time when the use of the hiragana alphabet derived from Chinese characters had
become widespread, court ladies played the central role in developing literature.
One of them, Murasaki Shikibu wrote the 54-chapter novel Genji monogatari (Tale
of Genji) [in early 11 century, ca 1008], while another, Sei Shonagon, wrote
Makura no soshi (The Pillow Book), a diverse collection of jottings and essays
[around 996]. Others also wrote diaries and stories, and their psychological
portrayals remain fresh and vivid to present-day readers. The appearance of the
Konjaku monogatari (Tales of a Time That Is Now Past) around 1120 added a new
dimension to literature. This collection of more than 1,000 Buddhist and secular
tales from India, China, and Japan is particularly notable for its rich descriptions of
the lives of the nobility and common people in Japan at that time.
Kamakura-Muromachi Period
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In the latter half of the twelfth century warriors of the Taira clan (Heike) seized
political power at the imperial court, virtually forming a new aristocracy. Heike
mono-gatari (The Tale of the Heike), which depicts the rise and fall of the Taira
with the spotlight on their wars with the Minamoto clan (Genji), was completed in
the first half of the thirteenth century [before 1219]. It is a grand epic deeply
rooted in Buddhist ethics and filled with sorrow for those who perished, colorful
descriptions of its varied characters, and stirring battle scenes. In former times the
tale was narrated to the accompaniment of a Japanese lute. The Shin kokin
wakashu (New Collection of Poems from Ancient and Modern Times), an
anthology of poetry commissioned by retired Emperor Go-Toba, was also
completed around this time [ca 1205]; it is dedicated to the pursuit of a subtle,
profound beauty far removed from the mundane reality of civil strife.
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This period also produced literature by recluses, typified by Kamo no
Chomei 's Hojoki (An Account of My Hut) [1212], which reflects on the
uncertainty of existence, and Yoshida Kenko 's Tsurezuregusa (Essays in
Idleness) [ca 1330], a work marked by penetrating reflections on life. Both works
raise the question of spiritual salvation. Meanwhile, the profound thoughts and
incisive logic of the Shobogenzo (Treasury of the True Dharma
Eye) [before 1237], one of the first Buddhist texts written in Japanese rather than
Chinese, marked a major development in Zen thought. The Taiheiki (Chronicle of
the Great Peace), depicting the 50 years from 1318 to 1367 when two rival
imperial courts struggled for power, is a valuable historical record, while
the noh plays perfected by Kan'ami and his son Zeami are of great literary
value. Zeami 's Fushi kaden (The Transmission of the Flower of Acting
Style) [1400] is a brilliant essay on dramatic art.
Edo Period
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Around this time the function of literature as a means of social intercourse
broadened. Composing renga (successive linked verses by several people forming
a long poem) became a favorite pastime, and this gave birth to haikai (a sort of
jocular renga) in the sixteenth century. It was the renowned seventeenth century
poet Matsuo Basho who perfected a new condensed poetic form of 17 syllables (57-5) known as haiku, an embodiment of elegant simplicity and tranquility.
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In the Genroku era (1688-1704) city-dwelling artisans and merchants became the
main supporters of literature, and professional artists began to appear. Two giants
emerged in the field of prose: Ihara Saikaku, who realistically portrayed the life of
Osaka merchants, and Chikamatsu Monzaemon, who wrote joruri, a form of
storytelling involving chanted lines, and kabuki plays. These writers brought
about a great flowering of literature. Later Yosa Buson composed superb haiku
depicting nature, while fiction writer Ueda Akinari produced a collection of gothic
stories called Ugetsu monogatari (Tales of Moonlight and Rain) [1776].
Meiji Period to present
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In the Meiji era (1868-1912) unification of the written and spoken language was
advocated, and Futabatei Shimei 's Ukigumo (Drifting Clouds) [1887] won
acclaim as a new form of novel. In poetry circles the influence of translated foreign
poems led to a "new style" poetry movement, and the scope of literary forms
continued to widen. Novelists Mori Ogai and Natsume Soseki studied in Germany
and Britain, respectively, and their works reflect the influence of the literature of
those countries. Soseki nurtured many talented literary figures. One of them,
Akutagawa Ryunosuke, wrote many superb novelettes based on his detailed
knowledge of the Japanese classics. His suicide in 1927 was seen as a symbol of
the agony Japan was experiencing in the process of rapid modernization, a major
theme of modern Japanese literature.
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Naturalism as advocated by Emile Zola dominated Japan's literary world for the
first decade of the twentieth century. This school of literature, as represented by
Shimazaki Toson, is noted for the "I novel," a style of novel typical of Japan. A
number of pre-World War II literary currents, such as proletarian literature and
neo-sensualism, petered out during the war but later regained strength,
generating a diverse range of works.
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In 1968, Kawabata Yasunari became the first Japanese to win the Nobel Prize for
literature, and Oe Kenzaburo won it in 1994. They and other contemporary
writers, such as Tanizaki Jun'ichiro, Mishima Yukio, Abe Kobo, and Inoue Yasushi,
have been translated into other languages. In the last few years works by the
remarkably active postwar-generation writers Murakami Ryu (who won the
Akutagawa Prize), Murakami Haruki, Yoshimoto Banana, and others have also
been translated into many languages and have gained tremendous popularity.
CHINESE LITERATURE
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Ancient literature is a precious cultural heritage of China's several thousand years
of civilization. The Book of Songs, a collection of 305 folk ballads of the Western
Zhou Dynasty and the Spring and Autumn period, compiled in the sixth century
B.C., is China's earliest anthology of poetry.
Qu Yuan of the Warring States Period, China's first great poet, write Li Sao (The
Lament), and extended lyric poem. The Book of Songs and Li Sao are regarded as
classics in Chinese literary history. Later, different literary styles developed in
subsequent dynasties.
There were pre-Qin prose, magnificent Han fu (rhymed prose), and the yuefu folk
songs of the end of the Han Dynasty. Records of the Historian, written by Sima
Qian of the Han Dynasty, is respected as a model of biographical literature, and
The Peacock Flies to the Southeast represents the magnificent yuefu folk
songs. These are all well known among the Chinese people.
The Wei and Jin Dynasties (220-420) were a great period for the production of
poetry. The poems written by Cao Cao, a statesman and man of letters of that
time, and by his sons Cao Pi and Cai Zhi, are fervent and vigorous. They are
outstanding forerunners of the progressive literature of later generations. The
Tang Dynasty gave birth to a great number of men of letters. The Complete Tang
Poems is an anthology of more than 50,000 poems.
Representative poets include Li Bai, Du Fu, and Bai Juyi, who are the pride of the
Chinese people. The Song Dynasty is well known for its ci (lyric). Song lyricists
may be divided into
two groups. The first, best represented by Liu Yong and Li Qingzhao, is known as
the "gentle school"; the second, the "bold and unconstrained school," is best
represented by Su Shi and Xin Qiji.
The most notable achievement of Yuan Dynasty literature was the zaju, poetic
drama set of music. Snow in Midsummer by celebrated playwright Guan Hanqing
and The Western Chamber written by another zaju master, Wang Shipu, are
masterpieces of the ancient drama.
The Ming and Qing dynasties saw the development of the novel. The Three
Kingdoms by Luo Guanzhong, Outlaws of the Mars by Shi Nai'an, Journey to the
West by Wu Cheng'en, and A Dream of Red Mansions by Cao Xueqin are the four
masterpieces produced in this form during this period. They have been celebrated
for centuries for their rich historical and cultural connotations and unique style.
The new cultural movement that emerged in the 1920s was an anti-imperialist and
anti-feudal movement. Progressive writers, represented by Lu Xun, gave birth to
modern Chinese literature. The most outstanding representative works of this era
are the novels The Diary of a Madman and The True Story of Ah Q by Lu Xun, the
poetry anthology The Goddesses by Guo Moruo, the novel Midnight by Mao Dun,
the trilogy novels Family, Spring and Autumn by Ba Jin, the novel Camel
Xiangzi by Lao She, and the plays Thunderstorm and Sunrise by Cao Yu.
The founding of New China in 1949 serves as a signpost for the beginning of
contemporary Chinese literature. Works of this period reflect the hard struggle
and tremendous sacrifices during the long War of Liberation, and eulogize the
selflessness displayed in the building of socialist New China.
The representative works are the novels Red Crag by Luo Guangbin and Yang
Yiyan, Song of Youth by Yang Mo, The Hurricane by Zhou Libo and Builders of a
New Life by Liu Qing. During the 10-year "cultural revolution" (1966-1976),
literature was deliberately hamstrung, leaving a desolate literary wasteland.
But since the reform and opening to the outside world started in 1978, literary
creation has entered a new period. Some works of the early period of the new era
mainly described the emotional wounds the people suffered during the "cultural
revolution." The main works include The Wound by Lu Xinhua, The Blood-stained
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Magnolia by Cong Weizi, Mimosa by Zhang Xianliang, A Small Town Called
Hibiscus by Gu Hua and The Snowstorm Tonight by Liang Xiansheng.
Some works are called works "seeking the roots," for example, Red Sorghum by
Mo Yan, Black Steed by Zhang Chengzhi and Troubled Life by ChiLi. In recent
years, a diversifying tendency has appeared in literary works. Those with
historical themes include The Young Son of Heaven by Lin Li, Zeng Guofan by
Tang Haoming, Emperor Yongzheng by Eryue He and Mending the Crack in the
Sky by Huo Da. Making a Decision by Zhang Ping and Farewell to the Bitter
Winter by Zou Yuezhao reflect current real life.
INDIAN LITERATURE
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Indian literature is arguably one of the oldest and richest literature in the world.
Additionally, the oldest works of the Indian literature include oral transmission of
knowledge. India is a country with huge diversity and accommodates people from
different cultural backgrounds. With over 22 official languages, the country has
produced literature from all the languages. However, the earliest form of literature
majorly consists of texts in the Sanskrit language. In addition to this, the
traditions of the Hindu writings and texts tend to dominate the literature of the
country. The earliest form of Indian literature dates back to 1500-1200 BCE.
Additionally, the Sanskrit literature includes Rig Veda, which is a collection of
literature. Further, three other Vedas also exist. The Indian literature also includes
works like epics such as Ramayana, the Mahabharata, etc. These are some of the
sacred texts in the Hindu culture. The list of Hindu literature is a never ending list.
However, with the passing of time, literature from different languages also came
into existence.
Tamil Sangam Literature and Its History and Significance
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While Classic Sanskrit Literature developed during the first few centuries of the
first millennium BCE, so did the Pali Canon and Tamil Sangam literature.
Additionally, the Tamil Sangam literature is also an integral part of the Indian
literature since the very ancient times. It spans over more than 2000 years now. It
is additionally known for its poetic nature, the philosophical texts as well as the
secular vision of the writers.
The works of Tamil writers is inclusive of the social, economical as well as political
aspects of the Tamil history. Additionally, the Tamil Sangam literature is mostly by
people belonging from South India. The oldest work of literature which is able to
survive from that period is Tolkappiyam, a work on the Grammar of Tamil.
Moreover, the Tamil Sangam literature that is known to the historians today is
known to evolve during the Third Sangam.
Conclusion
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India, as a country, plays an integral and significant contribution to the literature
world. Additionally, Rabindranath Tagore, the Bengali writer, is the first Indian to
win the Nobel Prize in the field of literature. He received the award for his work
‘Gitanjali’ in 1920. More importantly, in recent times, one could see more women
coming up in the field. Some of them are Arundhati Roy, the author of ‘God Of
Small Things’, Jhumpa Lahiri and Shobha Dey. Additionally, they are all award
winning writers. While Arundhati Roy is a Booker Prize winner for the same book,
Jhumpa Lahiri is a Pulitzer Prize winner.
ARABIAN LITERATURE
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Arabic literature emerged in the 5th century and flourished during the Islamic
Golden Age (mid-7th century through the mid-13th century). It was influenced by
Al Quran, Muslims’ holy book, which is considered the finest piece of Arabic
writing.
The Arabic translation movement began in Egypt during Muhammad Ali Pasha’s
reign (1805-1848) while forming his army. Among the most prominent translators
during that time was Rifa’a al-Tahtawi, who translated many scientific books for
the army’s use.
Later, the Pen League of authors emerged and the works of these members, like
Gibran and al-Rihani, quickly spread across the Middle East. Gibran not only
published works in both Arabic and English, but also self-translated some of his
works, such as Sand and Foam.
Furthermore, other members of the league who contributed to the translation
movement, pushed Arabic literature to new horizons. Starting with the adaptations
of foreign plays, which began with Maroun al-Naqqash’s adaptation of Moliere and
Najib Haddad’s translations of Corneille, Hugo, Dumas, and Shakespeare. The
most remarkable adaptations of foreign dramas were done by Muhammad Othman
Jalal who localized Molière’s Paul and Virginie.
Writings by French authors were the first foreign texts to attract Arabic readers
and the early translated novels were famous French works, such as Alexandre
Dumas’s Le Comte de Monte, Cristo and Jules Verne’s Cinq Semaines en Ballon.
Arabic literature became known to English readers when works of prominent
authors, such as Naguib Mahfouz, Yusuf Idris and Tayyeb Salih, were translated.
Denys Johnson-Davies, one of the most renowned Arabic-to-English literary
translators, translated novels, plays, short stories and poetry for over 40 years,
which played a very important role in introducing Arabic literature all over the
world. In Egypt, the American University in Cairo Press played a similar role
supporting the translation of Arabic literature, and later, a range of publishers in
the UK contributed to that.
Several writers, such as Abdul Rahman Munif and Tayeb Salih, and both Alaa Al
Aswany’s The Yacoubian Building and Rajaa al-Sanea’s Girls of Riyadh managed to
attract Western attention during the early 20th century.
In 1988, Egyptian novelist Naguib Mahfouz was awarded the Nobel Prize for
Literature which shed light on Arabic literature and caused more literary works to
become available in other languages, including works written by Arab authors in
French. The establishment of the International Prize for Arabic Fiction has caused
the profile of Arabic writing coming from across the Arab world to rise.
The growing readership for Arabic literature was also influenced by political
struggles. Now, Arabic is the fourth most translated language in U.S. It is quite a
challenging task to localize Arabic literature, due to the complexity of the language
and the diverse regional dialects, but it is definitely worth it.
HEBREW LITERATURE
Hebrew literature consists of ancient, medieval, and modern writings in the Hebrew
language. It is one of the primary forms of Jewish literature, though there have been
cases of literature written in Hebrew by non-Jews. Hebrew literature was produced in
many different parts of the world throughout the medieval and modern eras, while
contemporary Hebrew literature is largely Israeli literature. In 1966, Agnon won the
Nobel Prize for Literature for novels and short stories that employ a unique blend of
biblical, Talmudic and modern Hebrew, making him the first Hebrew writer to receive
this award.
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Aramaic (Arāmāyā, Syriac: is a family of languages or dialects belonging to ‫)ܐܝܡܪܐ‬
the Semitic subfamily of the Afroasiatic language family. More specifically, it is part of
the Northwest Semitic group, which also includes the Canaanite languages such as
.Hebrew and Phoenician
Hebrew literature, consists of ancient, medieval, and modern writings in the Hebrew
language. It is one of the primary forms of Jewish literature, though there have been
cases of literature written in Hebrew by non-Jews.Hebrew literature was produced in
many different parts of the world throughout the medieval and modern eras, while
contemporary Hebrew literature is largely Israeli literature.
Ancient Hebrew Literature, begins with oral literature of the Leshon Hakodesh on the
Holy Language since very ancient times and with teaching of Abraham the first of the
Biblical Patriach of Israel. Beyond comparison the most important word inancient hebrew
is the hebrew bible (Tanakh)
o the mishna is the primary rabbinic codification of laws as derived from the
torah, it was written in the mishnais Hebrew.
Medieval Hebrew Literature, During the medieval period, the majority of Jewish and
Hebrew literature was composed in Islamic North Africa, Spain, Palestine, and the Middle
East. Many works of medieval philosophical literature such as Maimonedes' Guide to the
Perplexed and The Kuzari, as well as many works of fiction, were written in JudeoArabic. Works of rabbinic literature were more often written in Hebrew, including: Torah
commentaries by Abraham ibn Ezra, Rashi and others; codifications of Jewish law, such
as Maimonides' Mishneh Torah, the Arba'ah Turim, and the Shulchan Aruch; and works
of Musar literature (didactic ethical literature) such as Bahya ibn Paquda's Chovot haLevavot (The Duties of the Heart). Much medieval Jewish poetry was written in Hebrew,
including liturgical piyyutim in Palestine in the seventh and eighth centuries by Yose ben
Yose, Yanai, and Eleazar Kalir. These poems were added to the Hebrew-language liturgy.
This liturgy was compiled in book form as "the siddur" by rabbis including Amram Gaon
and Saadia Gaon. Later Spanish, Provençal, and Italian poets wrote both religious and
secular poems; particularly prominent poets were Solomon ibn Gabirol, Yehuda Halevi,
and Yehuda al-Harizi. Most were also active in translating Jewish rabbinic and secular
literature from Arabic into Hebrew.
Modern Hebrew literature, In addition to writing traditional rabbinic literature in
Hebrew, modern Jews developed new forms of fiction, poetry, and essay-writing, which
are typically called "Modern Hebrew Literature."
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WRITERS
Meir Halevy Letteris (1800–1871)
In 1852, during a period in which he faced financial difficulties, he agreed to edit an
edition of the masoretic text of the Hebrew Bible. In 1866 he produced a revised edition
for a Christian missionary organization, the British and Foreign Bible Society. This
revision was checked against old manuscripts and early printed editions, and has a very
legible typeface. It is probably the most widely reproduced text of the Hebrew Bible in
history, with many dozens of authorised reprints and many more pirated and
unacknowledged ones.This revised edition became very popular, and was widely
reprinted in both Jewish circles (often accompanied by a translation on facing pages)
and in Christian circles (with the addition of the New Testament).
Solomon Judah Loeb Rapoport (1790–1867)
After various experiences in business, Rapoport became rabbi of Tarnopol (1837) and of
Prague (1840). He was one of the founders of the new Wissenschaft des Judentums
movement. His chief work was the first part of an (unfinished) encyclopaedia (Erekh
Millin, 1852). Equally notable were his biographies of Saadia Gaon, Nathan (author of
the Arukh), Hai Gaon, Eleazar Kalir and others. • After the fashion in rabbinic circles,
Rapoport was known by an acronym "Shir", formed by the initial letters of his Hebrew
name Shelomo Yehuda Rapoport (Shir literally means "song" in Hebrew)
Nachman Krochmal (1785–1840)
A philosopher, theologian, and historian. He began the study of the Talmud at an early
age. At age fourteen he was married, according to the custom of the time, to the
daughter of the wealthy merchant Habermann. He then went to live with his father-inlaw at Zhovkva, near Lemberg, where he devoted himself entirely to his studies,
beginning with Maimonides' The Guide for the Perplexed, and studying other Hebrew
philosophical writings.
Joseph Perl (1773–1839)
Revealer of Secrets, first published in 1819, is an epistolary novel by Joseph Perl, a
proponent of Jewish emancipation and Haskalah. It is often considered the first modern
novel in Hebrew. The book purports to be a collection of letters between various hasidic
rabbis, but is actually a satire of their teachings. It is an unusual book in that it satirizes
the language and style of early hasidic rabbis writing in Hebrew, which was not the
vernacular of the Jews of its time. To make his work available and accessible to his
contemporaries, Perl translated his own work into Yiddish. It is currently in print only in
an English translation, by Dov Taylor, published by Westview Press.
The Bible
Parable of the Good Samaritan, The parable of the Good Samaritan is a didactic story
told by Jesus in Luke 10:25–37. It is about a traveler who is stripped of clothing,
beaten, and left half dead alongside the road. First a priest and then a Levite comes by,
but both avoid the man. Finally, a Samaritan comes by. Samaritans and Jews generally
despised each other, but the Samaritan helps the injured man. Jesus is described as
telling the parable in response to the question from a lawyer, "And who is my neighbor
?" whom Leviticus Lev 19:18 says should be loved.
The Story of Ruth, The book of Ruth is the Narrative of a love story, yet also has some
important Genealogy. The timeline of this book is intertwined during the period of the
Judges. It was written about 1046-1035 B.C. Key personalities include Ruth, Naomi, and
Boaz. Its purpose was to demonstrate the kind of love, and faithfulness that God desires
for us. It shows the difference between what happens when a nation does not follow in
obedience to the covenant of God (Judges), and when God’s people follow in faithfulness
within the covenant (Ruth).
The Parable of the Prodigal Son, In the story, a father has two sons. The younger
son asks for his inheritance and after wasting his fortune (the word "prodigal" means
"wastefully extravagant"), becomes destitute. He returns home with the intention of
begging his father to be made one of his hired servants, expecting his relationship with
his father is likely severed. The father welcomes him back and celebrates his return. The
older son refuses to participate. The father reminds the older son that one day he will
inherit everything. But, they should still celebrate the return of the younger son because
he was lost and is now found.
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The “Parable of the Talents”, in Matthew 25:14–30 tells of a master who was leaving
his house to travel, and, before leaving, entrusted his property to his servants.
According to the abilities of each man, one servant received five talents, the second
servant received two talents, and the third servant received one talent. The property
entrusted to the three servants was worth 8 talents, where a talent was a significant
amount of money. Upon returning home, after a long absence, the master asks his three
servants for an accounting of the talents he entrusted to them. The first and the second
servants explain that they each put their talents to work, and have doubled the value of
the property with which they were entrusted; each servant was rewarded:
The Story of Joseph, The story of Joseph is found in the Book of Genesis, from Genesis
37 though Genesis 50. Joseph’s saga is both expansive and integral to the overall
narrative of the Israelites’ descent into Egypt. His progression from dream-interpreting
shepherd to minister of Egypt is one of the more layered and elaborate stories in the
Torah.
PHILIPPINE LITERATURE
Philippine literature had evolved much before colonization. It is full of legends and tales
of colonial legacy. Mexican and Spanish dominance over the land and the people, over
varying periods of time, witnessed the incorporation of English, Spanish, Filipino and
native languages, to express ideology and opinion. Literature in the Philippines
developed much later than in most other countries. Evidence reveals the use of a script
called Baybayin that flourished in 1521. Baybayin was used to write about legends, in
Luzon, during Spaniard domination.
HISTORY OF PHILIPPINE LITERATURE
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The literature of the Philippines is predominantly a reflection of the influence of the
Spaniards on the indigenous culture and traditions. The people of Manila and
native groups within the Philippines used to write on bamboo and the arecaceae
palm. They used knives for inscribing the ancient Tagalog script. The literature
thus preserved was limited to the seventeen basic symbols of the language. With
just three vowels and consonantal symbols that had predetermined, inherent
sound, the literature handed down was in a 'raw' state and needed to be
developed.
The Tagalog language script that was used initially to preserve and hand down
literature, was limited to a diacritical mark or 'kudlit' that further modified
pronunciation and writing. The dot, line or arrow head was either placed above or
below the symbol. The literature thus preserved has played a very important role
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in the public schooling arena and the rise of the educated class. 'Ilustrados' such
as José Rizal and Pedro Paterno contributed to important Spanish literary work in
the Philippines and subsequently, Philippine Classical Literature. The cultural elite
penned a number of historical documents. Literature in the Philippines also
includes various national anthems, revolutionary propaganda and nationalist
articles. Most of the literature of the land was initially in the Spanish language and
the contributions were profound writings by Marcelo H. Del Pilar and Claro M.
Recto, among a host of others. Philippine literature was preserved well through
private publications like 'Plaridel' and the first Spanish newspaper 'El Boletín de
Cebú' and 'Flora Sentino', by Orlando Agnes.
Literature in the Philippines was developed and preserved by native Filipino
intellectuals. Isidro Marfori, Enrique Fernandez Lumba, Cecilio Apostol, Fernando
Ma. Guerrero, Jesús Balmori, Flavio Zaragoza Cano and Francisco Zaragoza played
a major role in the preservation of the stories handed down in time. Writers such
as Castrillo, Fernandez, Rivera, Licsi and Estrada also spent a major part of their
lives in the documentation of 'by-word-of-mouth' hand-downs. Columns and
articles in newspapers such as El Renacimiento, La Vanguardia, El Pueblo de Iloilo,
La Democracia and El Tiempo and magazines such as 'Independent' and 'Philippine
Review' kept the legacies alive in Spanish and English.
Many of the world's best short stories are native to the Philippines. When the
Filipino writers began using the English language for artistic expression, they took
the original works of the Philippines to the west. The folk tales and epics were, in
time, put into written word along with poems and chants that were the legacies of
the ethnolinguistic groups. Literary work now available includes articles on Spanish
conquest, native cultural heritage, pre-colonial literature and traditional narratives.
Another very interesting segment of Philippine literature includes inspiring
speeches and songs. This segment has effectively maintained the mystifying
characteristic of Philippine epics and folk tales. The narratives and descriptions of
various magical characters, mythical objects and supernatural are surreal,
distinctly adhering to the ideologies and customs of the natives.
Ethno-epics such as Biag ni Lam-ang or the Life of Lam-ang, Agyu or Olahing,
Sandayo of Subanon, Aliguyon, the Hudhud and Labaw Donggon are great
examples of assimilated styles and language variations. Today, Philippine literature
reflects national issues through political prose, essay writing and novels. Novels by
Jose Rizal, El Filibusterismo and Noli Me Tangere patronize the revival of the rich
folk tradition.
ENGLISH LITERATURE AND CONCLUSION (MCRP)
(REFERENCES)