BACKGROUND OF CHINA 1912 Formation of GMD by Sun Yatsen 1919 The May 4 Movement Creation of the CCP July 1921 1923 First United Front (GMD-CCP alliance) 1925 Death of Sun Yatsen 1926 The Northern Expedition 1927 The Shanghai Massacre 1928-34 The Jiangxi Soviet 1934-35 The Long March 1935-45 Creation of the Yanan Soviet - The May 4 Movement 1919 4 May 1919: started as a demonstration of about 5000 university students in Beijing Fuelled by the sustained feeling of resentment in China against Japan in particular and imperialist occupiers in general Demonstrations spread to Shanghai and other parts of China Joined by shopkeepers, industrial workers and other urban employees Nationwide boycott of Japanese goods Result: • Encouraged radical ideas • Strengthened the GMD • Founding of the CCP First United Front 1923 A marriage of convenience Both the CCP and GMD were revolutionary parties that believed no revolution was possible unless the warlords were destroyed Sun Yatsen was on good terms with the Comintern and willing to cooperate The CCP was initially too small to act on its own Death of Sun Yatsen 1925 - A significant political moment as it released the anti-Communist forces in the GMD which Sun had previously supressed (he believed the CCP could be easily absorbed into the GMD) - Chiang Kaishek, who succeeded Sun, believed the Communists were a threat that had to be crushed - However, before tackling the Communist threat, the warlords were another obstacle that stood in Chiang and the GMD’s way The Northern Expedition 1926 - Two aims: destroying the warlords and the Communists - Campaign against the warlords brutal fighting between the GMD and CCP against the warlords - Chiang began to openly attack the Communists in 1927, after he was confident in the warlords’ defeat dismissed CCP officials, arrested several Comintern advisors etc. - Communists were slow to react as the Comintern emphasised that the United Front must be maintained at all costs - Stalin believed that the CCP was incapable of achieving their own revolution without the GMD - Mao was one of the leading Communists that backed the formation of the United Front however, official accounts suggest he always suspected Chiang of evil intent - Marked the collapse of the first United Front The Shanghai Massacre / The White Terror 1927 - The climax of the conflict between the GMD and CCP - There was a powerful trade union movement in Shanghai led by Zhou Enlai, and a workers’ army - Chiang colluded with secret societies such as the Green Gang to launch an attack on the Communists - Supported by Shanghai’s industrialists and merchants who were also keen on crushing the trade unions - Chiang’s troops engaged in an orgy of killing dragged out and executed thousands of Communists and their sympathisers - The violence of the GMD on the Communists was brutal decapitation, gouging eyes out, burning - Similar anti-Communist coups were carried out in other cities CCP’s reaction - Started armed insurrection in urban and rural areas in preparation for a revolution - Autumn Harvest Uprising 1927 led by Mao in Hunan was one of the most notable attempts of CCP resistance • Mao only managed to gather a small army of a few thousand to fight against the GMD • A complete failure as this army was never enough to threaten the Nationalist units in Changsha where most of the uprising took place - All CCP campaigns, including the Autumn Harvest Uprising failed - The GMD succeeded as the CCP were near extinction - The remaining Communists fled to the rural mountainous areas of Jiangxi The Jiangxi Soviet 1928-34 - Mao developed his own ideology/form of Communism i.e. Maoism - Strayed away from the Soviet Marxist orthodoxy and defied the Comintern’s instructions - Mao believed in rural/peasant revolution rather than urban revolution saw great potential in the peasantry Party struggles - The Futian Incident 1930 • Beginning of Mao’s hallmark – ruthlessness • Purge of the rival unit within the Jiangxi Red Army • Targeted those suspected of being GMD agents or Li Lisan (a Moscow-trained Communist who pushed for the Comintern) supporters • Used torture to force confessions out of victims and secret police - Even after the Futian Incident, Mao still faced much opposition from members of the ‘Twenty-eight Bolsheviks’ – mainly Bo Gu and Wang Ming - Both of them caused considerable trouble for Mao by isolating him - Mao survived the criticism as he was an outstanding CCP leader (military skills), unrivalled knowledge of the Chinese The GMD’s extermination campaigns 1930-34 - Chiang was still intent on completely destroying the CCP - Adopted a series of encirclement campaigns, under advice from German advisors, aimed at denying resources to the Communists until they broke - They squeezed the Communists to into an ever-shrinking area through ariel bombing, followed by blocking roads and waterways leading into the CCP’s territory - By 1934, the CCP suffered a series of serious defeats - Mao realised continued efforts to defend the Jiangxi base was suicidal - Unlike some CCP members who were prepared to stay and die heroes, Mao and a group of Reds (Mao’s Communists) decided to flee Jiangxi No fixed destination was selected as their main aim was to escape This departure became known as the Long March The Long March - After a year of desperate marching, the communists finally reached sanctuary in Yanan in Shaanxi province - It was a legendary and extraordinary feat - Covered over 6000 miles - Crossed 11 provinces, 18 mountain ranges, 24 rivers and numerous desert areas - Fought 15 pitched battles and almost daily skirmishes against the GMD forces - Occupied over 60 towns and cities - Out of the 100 000 who set out, only 20 000 survived to reach Yanan Course - The Zunyi meeting 1935 • A crucial party gathering held at Zunyi • Critical event that led to the rise of Mao as the leader • Mao exposed the urban Communists as being out of touch with the CCP’s real needs • Accused them of bringing the party to its present crisis by abandoning the successful guerrilla tactics used in the countryside for pitched battles in the urban areas • Majority of party members supported Mao, marking the end of dominant proMoscow influence - Dispute over route that should be taken • Zhang Guotao insisted on moving westwards towards Xinjiang, to bring them closer to Russian protection • Mao insisted the agreed northern route towards Shaanxi should be maintained • Zhang broke away but after some months, admitted his proposed route was impossible • He abandoned it and re-joined Mao’s contingent Outcome - A legend of Communist heroism was created - Harmed the GMD’s reputation - Mao emerged from it with the greatest prestige, although he was not the only leader of the Long March - Mao’s rise to leadership of CCP with credit to the Zunyi meeting in particular, and his competent judgement of the route which should be taken - By the time they reached Yanan, Mao had achieved a remarkable supremacy in the military and political counsels of the CCP Yanan Soviet - Mao developed his political theories - It was from Yanan that the Red Army went out into the countryside to impose Communism on the local people - The Communists were still subject to intermittent attacks from the GMD forces at their Yanan base - Resisting GMD pressure was made easier due to the Xian Incident Background to the Xian Incident Japan committed its first open act of aggression on China – the invasion and occupation of Manchuria in 1931 - Over the next 5 years, Japan continued to push into other Chinese provinces they had every intention for a full-scale occupation - Chiang believed China was too large for the Japanese to occupy without exhausting themselves, and that a war would definitely lead to Japanese defeat - As a result, Chiang’s response was low-key and passive • His approach was to trade space to buy time giving ground to Japan to overstretch their resources and allow China to build up its own strength - His approach was subject to a lot of opposition, even within the party and the ranks - His reputation was worsened when he agreed with the Japanese to withdraw GMD forces from Beijing and to recognise the newly occupies provinces as ‘autonomous regions’ to be administered by pro-Japanese officials - Chiang’s actions were seen as craven culmination of deep dissatisfaction with Chiang The Xian Incident 1936 - The CCP persuaded Zhang Xueliang, whose warlord father was killed by the Japanese, to commit himself to the anti-Japanese struggle and to use his contacts with the Nationalists to embarrass Chiang - Troops under Zhang’s orders seized Chiang on his visit to Xian - Chiang was handed over to Zhou Enlai, Mao’s closest colleague - Zhou offered to spare Chiang’s life if he ended all persecution of the CCP and led a genuine resistance against the Japanese - Upon agreement, the second GMD-CCP United Front was formed against the Japanese Outcome of the Xian Incident - The CCP’s decision to spare Chiang’s life would seem surprising since Chiang spent years trying to annihilate them - However, this calculated risk showed that CCP was willing to forgo party advantage for the sake of the nation - They showed their prime motivation was their love for China a major propaganda victory - This also undermined the GMD’s claim to be the sole representative of the nation - The CCP gained a temporary respite to build up their strength - The Chinese Civil War 1946-49 - WWII came to an end in 1945, earlier than Chiang had expected - Chiang predicted that by the end of WWII he would be the victor over Japan and China - However, the location of the Japanese resulted in them formally submitting to the Communists - The Americans hoped the CCP and GMD could come together • Although they declared themselves willing to accept a truce, the truth was they were preparing for a civil war against each other • Both Mao and Chiang were unwilling to compromise in the end - With the breakdown of the GMD-CCP truce, the Chinese civil war ensued in 1946 - The civil war in detail was complicated but the 3 main phases were: • The GMD’s attempt to crush the Communist bases in Manchuria and northeastern China (1946-47) the first step on GMD’s agenda • The CCP’s successful resistance to these attacks • - The CCP moving south to take the previously-Nationalist held areas of central and southern China (1947 onwards) The end of the civil war is marked by Chiang’s flee to Taiwan in 1949 RISE OF CCP 1914 - 1949 IMPACT OF WAR 1914 Outbreak of WWI 1. Impact of WWI 1.1 Japan’s 21 Demands 1915 1937 - With the outbreak of WWI in 1914, the Western powers Rectification were preoccupied with the war effort 1942 Campaign - As such, Japan had the opportunity to strengthen its grip End of Sinoon China 1945 Japanese war - The Japanese presented Yuan Shikai with the ‘21 Outbreak of Demands’ Chinese Civil 1946 War • A set of impositions that would destroy China’s Communist independence 1949 victory • Japanese advisors in political, military and financial affairs • Police departments to be jointly administered by Chinese and Japanese • China to purchase a fixed amount of munition from Japan (50% or more of what China needed) China appealed to the Western powers for support but received little help • Japan supported the Allies in WWI from 1914 onwards, while China only entered in 1917 gave Japan precedence over China in the eyes of the Westerners • After minor changes to the clauses, the Western powers felt the 21 demands were reasonable, and should be accepted by China Yuan accepted the 21 Demands to keep on good terms with Japan and the West Yuan’s surrender created a violent outburst of anger in China demonstrations and strikes in multiple Chinese provinces All main sections of the Chinese community engaged in open and spontaneous defiance students, traders, lawyers, teachers, and even local officials The Japanese and the Republican government in China received the same amount of resentment Rise of CCP • This created an atmosphere of dissatisfaction with the new Republican government • Gave the Chinese a reason to want a more capable and radical government Outbreak of SinoJapanese war - - - 1.2 Paris Peace Conference / Versailles Conference 1919 Prior to the Paris Peace Conference, the Allies already treated the Chinese with disdain Although Chinese efforts in WWI were significant, the Allies still saw the Chinese as mere coolies who were forced to clean up the war damage in Europe - - - - - At the Paris Peace Conference, the Allies decided that Germany’s Chinese territories (Shandong) would be transferred to Japan This broke the promise that the Allies made to China, which convinced them to enter the war The Chinese refused to accept the terms, but their protest was simply ignored From the Versailles Conference, the Chinese hoped to: • Have Shandong returned to China • Cancel the 21 Demands • Withdraw foreign concessions None of them were fulfilled When the Chinese received the news of the Versailles Conference, there was an explosion of anger The Chinese were outraged due to: • The government’s inability to prevent the humiliation of China • The refusal of the West to extend self-determination to China • Japan’s continued aggression in China Led to a series of protests, also known as the 4 May Movement 4 May Movement 1919-25 • Marked by the first day of violent demonstration in Beijing following China’s humiliation at Versailles • A display of the resentment towards the Republic government, Japan and imperialist occupiers in general • Government ministers were physically attacked, and anti-Japanese boycotts were organised in Beijing and Shanghai • The protests quickly spread to many provinces where demonstrations and strikes occurred Rise of CCP • China’s humiliation caused growing doubts of the ability of the Republic government • Political instability provided the appropriate circumstance for more people to turn to revolutionary theory due to the failure of Republicanism, revolutionary theory seemed more appealing • It also gave radicals a fertile opportunity to spread their propaganda • The 4 May Movement was crucial in setting the foundation for revolutionary parties creation of CCP and reorganisation of GMD 2. Impact of WWII 2.1 Consolidation of the CCP The GMD bore the major brunt of the fighting With the GMD preoccupied with the Sino-Jap war, the persecution of the Communists ceased The war undermined the foundation of the GMD They were driven out of major cities, where most of their political and financial support lay, by the Japanese GMD officials in the countryside were left militarily and politically defenceless their authority was destroyed With the cities occupied, the Japanese did not have the manpower to effectively control the rural areas - Being based in rural Yanan, the CCP was experienced in working in the villages and adept at guerrilla warfare Rise of CCP • With the Japanese mostly concentrated in the cities, and the collapse of GMD authority in the countryside CCP bases multiplied • The CCP expanded their military and political influence through vast areas of the countryside in China • The CCP gained the support of millions of peasants • It is plausible to say that the Sino-Jap war created conditions essential for Communist victory (according to Maurice Meisner) THE WEKNESSES OF THE GMD 1. Unwillingness of the GMD to resist Japan - Chiang always prioritised destroying the Communist over Japanese resistance • Even with Japan’s seizure of Manchuria in 1931 and their continued aggression in other Chinese provinces - Chiang believed the Japanese would never be able to conquer such a vast country such as China • Any attempt to do so would result in a full-scale war, and the defeat of Japan - As a result, Chiang’s response was low-key and passive • His approach was to trade space to buy time giving ground to Japan to overstretch their resources and allow China to build up its own strength - Chiang only began a genuine resistance against the Japanese in 1937 after the Xian Incident - Following the incident at the Marco Polo Bridge in1937, Chiang’s refused to make any more concessions, and declared a state of total war against Japan powerful symbol of China’s will to fight - However, Chiang’s resolve was to wax and wane as his principal aim was still defeating the Communists - Rise of CCP • The GMD’s passive approach towards Japanese aggression exposed their unwillingness to defend China • This diminished their reputation as nationalists, and portrayed them as lacking patriotism for the nation • The GMD lost support the Chinese turned to other parties • This created the appropriate circumstance for the CCP to gain power 2. Inability of the GMD to defend China - China experienced a series of defeats in the initial stages of the war • By 1938, Beijing, Shanghai, Ghangzhou and Nanjing had fallen to Japan • The GMD was forced to withdraw their capital and move west up the Yangzi River to Chongqing - The Japanese saw themselves as a superior race and the Chinese as swine or creatures - The Chinese endured immense suffering during the war as the Japanese treated them with savagery and total contempt - The rape of Nanjing 1937 • One of the worst atrocities of 20th century warfare • After the city fell to the Japanese, they engaged in a month-long programme of terror and murder • - - 3. - - 300 000 Chinese people were slaughtered during the one-month period, in ways which were completely barbaric • 20 000 females were serially raped regardless of age; many were so sexually abused that they died or if not, were executed • Half the city was burned to ashes The GMD was reluctant to face the Japanese head on • There were few pitched battles between the Chinese and Japanese forces • To avoid being overwhelmed by the Japanese forces, the Chinese fought a guerrilla war • As a result, cities and urban areas, especially GMD-held areas, suffered from Japanese air strikes • Chongqing suffered such heavy aerial attack that it was the most bombed city in 20th century warfare Rise of CCP • This showed the GMD’s inability to resist the Japanese • The GMD lost support the Chinese turned to other parties • This created the appropriate circumstance for the CCP to gain power • On the basis of the anti-Japanese nationalist program, the Communists were able to mobilise peasants contributed to the success of the CCP during the Yanan era Inflation crisis in 1941 Arguable that the most significant reason for the failure of the GMD was inflation China had been experiencing a mild rise in prices throughout the Republican period However, in 1941 prices began to rise uncontrollably This soaring inflation was initially caused by the Japanese occupation of China’s most prosperous and productive provinces, after 1937 After 1945, the cost of maintaining an army of 5 million troops accounted for 80% of the government’s expenditure The bulk of the government’s revenue was used military expenditure which meant no significant in the domestic economy was made The GMD adopted inefficient measures to control hyperinflation: • imposed severe taxes on individuals and companies • nationalised China’s private banks and finance houses • borrowed heavily from abroad • recklessly printed money increased the issue of paper currency as it became worthless Effects of GMD measures: • A drastic fall in the value of money intensified by the huge military expenditure • The GMD was in the impossible position of attempting to pay its increasing domestic and foreign debts with money that was becoming worthless • After 1945, inflation rates reached astronomical heights and by 1949, China’s monetary system collapsed o The unstable currency meant that food prices had no consistent value and varied by as much as 300% from one city to another o With money being worthless, barter became the norm China was returning to primitivism • - The GMD’s financial bankruptcy prevented them from addressing other problems even if they had to will to do so Rise of CCP • Financial failure demoralised the people and discredited the GMD • The GMD failed to win the wholehearted support of the Chinese people • The inability and growing unpopularity of the GMD led the people to seek a party that could meet their needs 4. Military weakness of the GMD 4.1 Corrupt military leaders - There was personal rivalry amongst Chiang’s generals • Most of them put their personal interests before those of the NRA - Key NRA officers were willing to betray the cause by becoming PLA informants, and disclosing details on NRA troop positions and movements • Occurred during the Manchurian campaign - 4.2 Military weakness of Chiang Chiang appointed commanders based on their personal loyalty to him, rather than their military skills This led to GMD’s military weaknesses: • Commanders lacked tactical skills o The commanders did not study PLA’s troop dispositions and disregarded local condition careless planning, and thoughtless issuing of orders • Soldiers lacked combat skills o Ordinary soldiers were poorly trained o They lacked necessary knowledge on how to use their weapons, and the basics of maintaining lines of communication in the field o Badly led by their officers • Commanders lost morale o The overall Nationalist morale was cripplingly low o Commanders began as complacent and ended as defeatist 5. Corruption in the GMD - The GMD under Chiang became a small party of social and political elites - It drew support from bankers and merchants of urban China who tended to despise or ignore the impoverished peasants - The GMD depended on donations and tax revenue from this numerically small but extremely influential class • 90% of the GMD’s revenue came from Shanghai, China’s largest international port and money market - The GMD became reliant on deals with the shady elements of Chinese society - This resulted in corruption as the GMD practiced nepotism and partiality - This corruption contradicted the principles that the GMD was supposedly built on • Chiang wrote a book in 1943 calling on people to suppress selfish thought and join his party in a great movement of moral regeneration - Effect • Undermined the credibility of the GMD • • • Impossible for the people to reconcile Chiang’s requests in his book his words were hollow The GMD did not represent the masses, but just a small group of elites Loss of support of peasants THE STRUGGLE FOR MANCHURIA 1. Chiang’s tactical error - Rushing to fight and secure Manchuria was Chiang’s main error which all the following military problems stemmed from - Many of Chiang’s military advisors were against sending major armies to Manchuria • The supply lines necessary to keep his armies fully equipped were not established • This made NRA troops vulnerable to counterattack in a region that was both hostile and relatively unknown to the Nationalists • Instead, they advised Chiang to consolidate his power in central and southern China, where his real strength lay - Chiang ignored them and sent the GMD’s major forces into Manchuria ½ million of Chiang’s best troops - Chiang went ahead with the Manchurian campaign as: • Regaining Manchuria would be an early knockout blow to the CCP rapid and successful end to war • Manchuria was the most industrially advanced region in China - The Communists survived the attacks and even turned GMD bases, such as Harbin, into strongholds - Chiang’s forces found themselves under counterattack - In the parts of Manchuria they held, Chiang appointed non-Manchurian, corrupt GMD officials worsened the situation • They disregarded ways of the local people and alienated them • They also ignored their rights and opinions abused their power - As such, there was widespread resistance from the peasants to the GMD’s attempt to enforce control - Rise of CCP • The peasants increasingly sided with the CCP • The CCP exploited the peasants’ widespread resistance to the GMD by presenting themselves as defenders of the people 2. Successful CCP resistance - The CCP lessened the GMD threat by disrupting the NRA’s movement and communication - They sabotaged the region’s railway lines, telegraph and telephone lines which seriously disrupted NRA’s movement of troops and supplies • Thousands of miles of railway line were ripped up • This was mostly done by the locals widespread GMD resistance - For example: The Liaoshen campaign (September – November 1948) - The Liaoshen campaign is known as the climax of the fight in Manchuria - Changchun and Shenyang were the last Nationalist bases in Manchuria • Taking these cities would bring the entire of Manchuria under Communist control - - - Both the GMD and CCP saw the importance of Jinzhou, a Nationalist-held junction on the railway linking Beijing to Changchun and Shenyang Chiang sent nearly a quarter of a million NRA troops to defend it The NRA troops were subjected to a constant rain of PLA shells and savage fighting, which eventually overwhelmed them Chiang’s refusal to surrender Changchun although they were surrounded by the PLA, resulted in: • The people of Changchun were starved and even resorted to cannibalism Changchun eventually surrendered after a two-month siege, with many NRA officers joining the PLA with insider GMD details The fall of Changchun and destruction of the Nationalist rail link left Shenyang isolated Despite advice to withdraw from Shenyang, Chiang resolved to defend the city by sending in relief forces They were outflanked and cut off by rapidly moving PLA units Shenyang was soon surrounded by the Communists With many NRA officers deserting the Nationalist resistance and food supplies cut off, Shenyang surrendered in November 1948 Rise of CCP (result of the Liaoshen campaign) Lost 400 000 troops Left behind huge supply dumps, heavy artillery and tanks which were vital for the following southern advance Destroyed the GMD remnants in Manchuria The whole of Manchuria under CCP control Emboldened the CCP and showed they were capable of achieving victory through military means MAO’S LEADERSHIP - One of the most significant factors in securing Communist victory - Mao transformed the PLA army from a rural guerrilla force to a modern army capable of conducting a modern war - Mao was willing to press on with three major campaigns from 1948 to 1949 even though • This was warfare on a scale never previously seen in China • Mao’s commanders doubted the PLA could sustain war on such a large scale - Mao overcame these doubts and guided his armies to a series of victories which essentially secured Communist victory - One of the campaigns was: The Huaihai campaign - The Huaihai campaign followed right after the Liaoshen campaign - Chiang moved towards Xuzhou, a key junction that linked central provinces to the GMD capital of Nanjing and the great port of Shanghai - Having just fought in Manchuria, PLA commanders feared engaging in another battle was too risky - However, Mao ignored them and ordered the PLA not to wait for reinforcements but to use the men and weaponry available to attack Xuzhou - This was another Communist victory as Xuzhou surrendered after a few months • The NRA lost over 200 000 men • Vast quantities of mainly high-quality American equipment had fallen into the hand of the PLA • The CCP now dominated central and northern China, known as China’s ‘heart’ Rise of CCP - This shows Mao’s ability as a military leader - His power of command and burning belief in his own judgement led the CCP to eventual victory CCP’S STRONG SUPPORT BASE 1. Importance of the peasantry - A key belief of Mao was that China’s revolution must come from the peasantry - During the first United Front, the GMD and CCP adopted to urban revolution, as directed by the Comintern - Mao quickly realised this was based on a false reading of China - Based on population distribution, the real China was rural not urban • Rural areas accounted for almost 90% of the population • The great mass of Chinese people were peasants living in the countryside - Mao was unimpressed by traditional Marxism and began to modify Marxism to fit the situation in China Maoism - Mao believed in the revolutionary potential of the peasantry - At Jiangxi Soviet, Mao began recruiting peasants into the ranks of the party at a rate unmatched in any other CCP-held areas 2. CCP’s ability to win mass support - Unlike the Chiang, Mao placed great emphasis on the peasantry - Mao offered involvement in the genuine aspirations of the nation and sympathy with the masses of the Chinese peasantry - In CCP-held areas, the Communists created political structures which were basic but for the first time created effective administration in the countryside - The popularity of CCP was mainly due to their land reform policy • Peasants were encouraged to seize the property of their hated landowners and publicly degrade them murder of one million landlords between 1945 and 1949 • However, when support from the gentry was needed, the CCP was prepared to guarantee landowners’ rights Counter - CCP’s land reform policy brought justice to the countryside by ending landlord exploitation, but its purpose was to fiercely enforce Communist control - Although the CCP’s propaganda claim that the support of the liberated people won the war, there were a few genuine and sustained popular uprisings - Despite having many followers, whether their support was genuine can be questioned • Fear was a far more potent factor than enthusiasm in bringing recruits to the Communist cause • Brutal methods were used for uncooperative regions END OF THE CIVIL WAR - With the capture of Tianjin, the road to Beijing from both north and south was open to the PLA - In talks between Mao and the Nationalist governor of Beijing, Mao declared that unless he surrendered and gave orders for the NRA troops to vacate Beijing, the city would be bombarded at all costs - The governor then accepted the terms and on 16 January 1949, the evacuation of NRA forces began With Beijing as a Communist possession, the final year was a mopping up exercise for the CCP The crossing of the Yangzi River by the PLA in April 1949 was another symbolic moment People’s Republic of China was formally declared by Mao at the entrance of the Forbidden City in Beijing on 1 October 1949 Most significant factor for Communist victory - The CCP claims that Mao had a carefully planned path to victory - In reality at the start of the civil war, Mao’s essential aim was to survive and consolidate power in CCP-held areas - Communist victory truly lay in Mao’s opportunism • It was Chiang’s multiple mistakes that Mao took advantage of in defeating the Nationalists
