2020 Manual for
Railway
Engineering
CHAPTER 4
4arema
CHAPTER 4
RAIL1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Part/Section
Description
Page
1
Design of Rail. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1 Recommended Rail Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-1-1
4-1-1
2
Manufacture of Rail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1 Specifications for Steel Rails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Rail Handling Guidance for Shippers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-1
4-2-3
4-2-26
Joining of Rail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1 General Characteristics of a Rail Joint. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Joint Bars and Assemblies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3 Rail Drillings, Bar Punchings and Bolts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4 Specifications for Quenched Carbon-Steel Joint Bars, Microalloyed Joint Bars,
and Forged Compromise Joint Bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5 Specification for Heat-Treated Carbon Steel Track Bolts and Carbon-Steel Nuts . . . . . . . . .
3.6 Specifications for Spring Washers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.7 Application of Rail Bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.8 Specifications for Bonded Insulation Rail Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.9 Specifications for Non-Bonded Encapsulated/Partially Encapsulated Insulated Rail Joints .
3.10 Specification for the Quality Assurance of Electric-Flash Butt Welding of Rail . . . . . . . . . . .
3.11 Specification for Fabrication of Continuous Welded Rail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.12 Inspection and Classification of Second Hand Rail for Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.13 Specification for the Quality Assurance of Thermite Welding of Rail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-3-1
4-3-4
4-3-5
4-3-13
Maintenance of Rail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1 Field, Rail Flaw Identification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 Identification of Rail Surface Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3 Recommended Minimum Performance Guideline for Rail Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-4-1
4-4-5
4-4-66
4-4-80
3
4
1
4-3-15
4-3-20
4-3-29
4-3-32
4-3-36
4-3-44
4-3-49
4-3-52
4-3-59
4-3-63
The material in this and other chapters in the AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering is published as recommended practice to
railroads and others concerned with the engineering, design and construction of railroad fixed properties (except signals and
communications), and allied services and facilities. For the purpose of this Manual, RECOMMENDED PRACTICE is defined as a
material, device, design, plan, specification, principle or practice recommended to the railways for use as required, either exactly as
presented or with such modifications as may be necessary or desirable to meet the needs of individual railways, but in either event, with
a view to promoting efficiency and economy in the location, construction, operation or maintenance of railways. It is not intended to
imply that other practices may not be equally acceptable.
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
4-i
1
3
TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONT)
Part/Section
Description
Page
4.4
Recommended Qualifications for Operator Performing Ultrasonic Testing of Rail or Track
Components. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5 Recommended Procedures for Operator Performing Ultrasonic Testing of Rail or Track
Components. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.6 Recommended Calibration Rails for Rail Flaw Detection System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.7 Recommended Repair of Defective or Broken Rail in CWR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.8 Rail Grinding Best Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.9 Beveling or Slotting of Rail Ends (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.10 Reconditioning Rail Ends (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.11 Recommended Practices for Rail/Wheel Friction Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-4-88
4-4-92
4-4-100
4-4-103
4-4-119
4-4-120
4-4-120
5
Miscellaneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1 Rail Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-5-1
4-5-1
6
Commentaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-6-1
Chapter 4 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-G-1
4-4-85
INTRODUCTION
The Chapters of the AREMA Manual are divided into numbered Parts, each comprised of related documents
(specifications, recommended practices, plans, etc.). Individual Parts are divided into Sections by centered
headings set in capital letters and identified by a Section number. These Sections are subdivided into Articles
designated by numbered side headings.
Page Numbers – In the page numbering of the Manual (4-2-1, for example) the first numeral designates the
Chapter number, the second denotes the Part number in the Chapter, and the third numeral designates the
page number in the Part. Thus, 4-2-1 means Chapter 4, Part 2, page 1.
In the Glossary and References, the Part number is replaced by either a “G” for Glossary or “R” for References.
Document Dates – The bold type date (Document Date) at the beginning of each document (Part) applies to the
document as a whole and designates the year in which revisions were last made somewhere in the document,
unless an attached footnote indicates that the document was adopted, reapproved, or rewritten in that year.
Article Dates – Each Article shows the date (in parenthesis) of the last time that Article was modified.
Revision Marks – All current year revisions (changes and additions) which have been incorporated into the
document are identified by a vertical line along the outside margin of the page, directly beside the modified
information.
Proceedings Footnote – The Proceedings footnote on the first page of each document gives references to all
Association action with respect to the document.
Annual Updates – New manuals, as well as revision sets, will be printed and issued yearly.
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
4-ii
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4
Part 1
Design of Rail1
— 2019 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section/Article
1.1
Description
Recommended Rail Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Page
4-1-1
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
4-1-1
4-1-2
4-1-3
4-1-4
4-1-5
4-1-6
4-1-7
4-1-8
Description
115 RE Rail Section. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
119 RE Rail Section. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
132 RE Rail Section. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
133 RE Rail Section. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
136 RE Rail Section. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
136 TW Thick Web Rail Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
141 RE Rail Section. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Generic Rail Template . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Page
4-1-2
4-1-3
4-1-4
4-1-5
4-1-6
4-1-7
4-1-8
4-1-9
SECTION 1.1 RECOMMENDED RAIL SECTIONS
Except for specific purposes, such as repair rail, insulated joint replacement, and special trackwork, AREMA recommends
that the purchase of new rail be limited to the 115, 136 and 141 pound sections shown in Figure 4-1-1, Figure 4-1-5, and
Figure 4- 1-6.
Figure 4-1-2, Figure 4-1-3 and Figure 4-1-4 are shown for informational purposes.
1
References, Vol. 16, 1915, pp. 397, 1117; Vol. 49, 1948, pp. 375, 614; Vol. 54, 1953, pp. 1177, 1413, Vol. 63, 1962, pp. 498, 768; Vol. 92, 1991, p. 49; Vol.
96, p. 28.
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
4-1-1
Rail
1. Rail Area (square inch)
3.8861
3.0362
4.2947
11.2171
Head
Web
Base
Whole Rail
2. Rail Weight (lb/yd) (based on specific gravity of rail steel = 7.84)
114.3757
3. Moment of Inertia about the neutral axis
65.5
4. Section modulus of the head
Section modulus of the base
18.0
21.9
5. Height of neutral axis above base
2.99
6. Lateral moment of inertia
10.7
7. Lateral section modulus of the head
Lateral section modulus of the base
7.88
3.89
Figure 4-1-1. 115 RE Rail Section1
1
References, Vol 16, 1915, pp. 399, 1117; Vol. 35, 1934, pp. 875, 1144; Vol 38, 1937, pp. 251, 635; Vol 48, 1947, pp. 660, 908; Vol. 54, 1953, pp. 1177; Vol.
63, 1962, pp. 498, 768; Vol. 92, 1991, p. 49.
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
4-1-2
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Design of Rail
1
3
1. Rail Area (square inch)
Head
Web
Base
Whole Rail
4.3068
3.0363
4.2946
11.6378
2. Rail Weight (lb/yd) (based on specific gravity of rail steel = 7.84)
118.6657
3. Moment of Inertia about the neutral axis
71.4
4. Section modulus of the head
Section modulus of the base
19.4
22.8
5. Height of neutral axis above base
3.13
6. Lateral moment of inertia
10.8
7. Lateral section modulus of the head
Lateral section modulus of the base
8.16
3.94
8. Height of shear center above base
1.51
9. Torsional rigidity is ‘KG’ where G is the modulus of rigidity and
K = (error for K greater than 10%)
5.11
4
Figure 4-1-2. 119 RE Rail Section1
1
References Vol. 72, 1971, p. 160; Vol. 92, 1991, p. 49
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4-1-3
Rail
1. Rail Area (square inch)
Head
Web
Base
Whole Rail
2. Rail Weight (lb/yd) (based on specific gravity of rail steel = 7.84)
3. Moment of Inertia about the neutral axis
4. Section modulus of the head
Section modulus of the base
5. Height of neutral axis above base
6. Lateral moment of inertia
7. Lateral section modulus of the head
Lateral section modulus of the base
4.3480
3.6151
4.8701
12.8332
130.7972
86.8
22.0
27.3
3.182
14.2
9.50
4.75
Figure 4-1-3. 132 RE Rail Section
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
4-1-4
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Design of Rail
1. Rail Area (square inch)
Head
Web
Base
Whole Rail
4.7279
3.4645
4.8757
13.0681
2. Rail Weight (lb/yd) (based on specific gravity of rail steel = 7.84)
133.2498
3. Moment of Inertia about the neutral axis
86.2
4. Section modulus of the head
Section modulus of the base
22.3
26.9
5. Height of neutral axis above base
3.20
6. Lateral moment of inertia
14.4
7. Lateral section modulus of the head
Lateral section modulus of the base
9.62
4.81
8. Height of shear center above base
1.57
9. Torsional rigidity is ‘KG’ where G is the modulus of rigidity and
K = (error for K greater than 10%)
5.69
Figure 4-1-4. 133 RE Rail Section1
1
References, Vol. 90, 1989, p. 48; Vol. 92, 1991, p. 49.
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4-1-5
Rail
136RE
1. Rail Area (square inch)
Head
Web
Base
Whole Rail
2. Rail Weight (lb/yd) (based on specific gravity of rail steel = 7.84)
3. Moment of Inertia about the neutral axis
4. Section modulus of the head
Section modulus of the base
5. Height of neutral axis above base
6. Lateral moment of inertia
7. Lateral section modulus of the head
Lateral section modulus of the base
4.8186
3.6380
4.8696
13.3262
135.8826
94.2148
23.7310
28.1878
3.4239
14.4556
9.8421
4.82
Figure 4-1-5. 136 RE Rail Section1
1
References, Vol. 63, 1962, pp. 498, 768; Vol. 92, 1991, p. 49; Vol. 96, p. 28.
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
4-1-6
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Design of Rail
1
1
1. Rail Area (square inch.)
Head
Web
Base
Whole Rail
4.8186
7.6712
4.8696
17.3594
2. Rail Weight (lb/yd)
177.0063
3. Moment of Inertia about the neutral axis
100.6808
4. Section modulus of the head
Section modulus of the base
5. Height of neutral axis above base
3
25.3674
30.1115
4
3.3436
6. Lateral moment of inertia
16.2256
7. Lateral section modulus of the head
Lateral section modulus of the base
11.0472
5.4058
136 TW - Thick Web Rail Section
Figure 4-1-6. 136 TW Thick Web Rail Section
1
References, Vol. 55, 1954, pp. 775, 1098; Vol. 63, 1962, pp. 500, 768; Vol. 92, 1991, p. 49.
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4-1-7
Rail
141 RE
1. Rail Area (square inch.)
Head
Web
Base
Whole Rail
2. Rail Weight (lb/yd) (based on specific gravity of
rail steel = 7.84)
3. Moment of Inertia about the neutral axis
4. Section modulus of the head
Section modulus of the base
6. Lateral moment of inertia
14.91
140.7002 7. Lateral section modulus of the head
Lateral section modulus of the base
9.74
4.97
100.44 8. Height of shear center above base
1.88
5.3724
3.5547
4.8701
13.7972
25.24 9. Torsional rigidity is ‘KG’ where G is the
28.97
modulus of rigidity and
K = (error for K greater than 10%)
5.97
Figure 4-1-7. 141 RE Rail Section
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
4-1-8
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Design of Rail
W2
W3
R2
R3
R1
W2
S1
R4
H5
XXXRE
H3
S2
R6
H4
R5
R7
W4
R5
S1
(Ex. 1:40)
DETAIL A
SCALE 10 : 1
R8
CL OF R8 & R9
H1
NEUTRAL AXIS
1
R9
CL
R10
3
NA
S3
R11
H2
4
W1
R12
NOTES:
1. ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN INCHES UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED.
2. ALL RADII ARE ASSUMED TANGENT TO ADJACENT FEATURES
3. WHOLE NUMBER AND FRACTIONAL DIMENSIONS ARE ONLY USED FOR EXACT DIMENSIONS
4. DECIMAL DIMENSIONS SHOWN TO LESS THAN THREE DECIMAL PLACES ARE ASSUMED TO BE EXACT
5. H4 MEASURES TO THE END POINT OF A LINE ORIGINATING FROM THE CENTER OF R8, PASSING
THROUGH THE INTERSECTION OF R7 AND R8, AND TERMINATING AT THE RAIL CENTER LINE.
6. MAXIMUM HEAD WIDTH (W2)IS MEASURED BETWEEN VERTICAL LINES TANGENT TO R5.
7. H5 DEFINES THE POINT OF TANGENCY BETWEEN THE SLOPE (S1) AND THE ADJACENT GAGE CORNER
RADIUS (R4 OR R3). PROFILES WHERE R4 IS OMITTED SHOULD LIST H5 AS A REFERENCE DIMENSION.
Figure 4-1-8. Generic Rail Template
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4-1-9
Rail
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK.
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
4-1-10
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4
Part 2
Manufacture of Rail
— 2020 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section/Article
Description
Page
2.1 Specifications for Steel Rails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.1 Scope (2016) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.2 Manufacture (2016). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.3 Chemical Composition and Mechanical Properties (2016) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.4 Section Intentionally Blank (2016) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.5 Section (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.6 Branding and Stamping (2019). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.7 Hydrogen Elimination (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.8 Ultrasonic Testing (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.9 Interior Condition/Macroetch Standards (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.10 Surface Classification (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.11 Length (2017). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.12 Drilling (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.13 Workmanship (2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.14 Acceptance (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.15 Markings (2017). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.16 Loading (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.17 Supplementary Requirements (1988). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.18 Appendix 1 (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.19 Appendix 2 (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.20 Appendix 3 (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-3
4-2-3
4-2-4
4-2-4
4-2-11
4-2-11
4-2-12
4-2-13
4-2-13
4-2-14
4-2-17
4-2-17
4-2-18
4-2-19
4-2-22
4-2-23
4-2-23
4-2-24
4-2-25
4-2-25
4-2-26
2.2 Rail Handling Guidance for Shippers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1 Scope (2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.2 Safety (2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.3 Inspection (2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.4 Loading (2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.5 Unloading at Destination (2020) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-26
4-2-26
4-2-26
4-2-26
4-2-26
4-2-27
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
4-2-1
1
3
Rail
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
Description
Page
4-2-1
4-2-2
Determining Internal Hardness of High Strength Rail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-9
Design of Special Letters and Numbers on a 10 Degree Angle for Rail Stamps,
No Sharp Corners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-13
4-2-3 Sample A location in rail head - Shaded area denotes area to be analyzed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-16
4-2-4 Side Elevation of Rail Uniform Upsweep Tolerance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-20
4-2-5 Side Elevation of Rail Uniform Upsweep Tolerance at Rail Ends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-20
4-2-6a Top View of Rail Lateral (Horizontal) Line Tolerance at Rail Ends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-20
4-2-6b Top View of Rail Lateral (Horizontal) Line Tolerance at Rail Ends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-20
4-2-7 Top View of Uniform Lateral Sidesweep Tolerance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-20
4-2-8 Rail - Web Saw Cut Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-22
4-2-9 Definition of Rail Cross Sectional Areas for Macroetch Evaluation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-29
4-2-10 Hydrogen Flakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-30
4-2-11 Hydrogen Flakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-31
4-2-12 Pipe – Any Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-32
4-2-13 Pipe – Any Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-33
4-2-14 Central Web Streaking Extending Into the Head or Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-34
4-2-15 Central Web Streaking Extending Into the Head or Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-35
4-2-16 Streaking Greater than 2-1/2 inches in Length. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-36
4-2-17 Streaking Greater than 2-1/2 inches in Length. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-37
4-2-18 Scattered Central Web Streaking From the Web Into the Head and Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-38
4-2-19 Scattered Segregation Extending More Than One Inch Into the Head or Base . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-39
4-2-20 Subsurface Porosity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-40
4-2-21 Inverse or Negative Segregation Having a Width Greater Than 1/4 inch and Extending More Than
1/2 inch Into the Head or Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-41
4-2-22 Streaking Greater than 1/8 inch in the Head From Radial Streaks, Radial Cracks, Halfway
Cracks, or Hinged Cracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-42
4-2-23 Other Defects That Could Cause Premature Failure (i.e., Slag, Refractory, etc.) . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-43
4-2-24 Segregation Extending Into the Head or Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-44
4-2-25 Segregation Extending Into the Head or Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-45
4-2-26 Segregation Greater than 1/8 inch Wide in the Head or Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-46
4-2-27 Scattered Central Web Segregation Extending Into the Head and Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-47
4-2-28 Gage for Rail Height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-48
4-2-29 Gage for Head Width. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-49
4-2-30 Gage for Web Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-50
4-2-31 Gage for Verticality/Asymmetry - Minus Rail Gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-51
4-2-32 Gage for Verticality/Asymmetry - Plus Rail Gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-52
4-2-33 Gage for Base Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-53
4-2-34a Measuring Fishing Standoff When Template is Loose Vertically . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-54
4-2-34b Measuring Fishing Standoff When Template Does Not Touch Web . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-55
4-2-35 Fishing Template AREMA 115RE and 119RE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-56
4-2-36 Fishing Template AREMA 132RE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-57
4-2-37 Fishing Template AREMA 133RE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-58
4-2-38 Fishing Template AREMA 136RE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-59
4-2-39 Fishing Template AREMA 141RE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-60
4-2-40 Head Radius Gage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-61
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
4-2-2
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Manufacture of Rail
LIST OF TABLES
Table
Description
Page
4-2-1-3-1a.Product/Chemical Analysis Table for Carbon Rail Steel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-1-3-1b.Product/Chemical Analysis Table for Low Alloy Rail Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-1-3-2a.Rail Hardness Table for Carbon Rail Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-1-3-2b.Rail Hardness Table for Low Alloy Rail Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-1-3-3a.AREMA HRC to HB Conversion for Rail Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-1-3-4a.Tensile Properties Table for Carbon Rail Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-1-3-4b.Tensile Properties Table for Low Alloy Rail Steel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-2 Section Tolerances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-3 Macrographs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-4 Gage Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-5
4-2-6
4-2-7
4-2-7
4-2-9
4-2-10
4-2-11
4-2-11
4-2-28
4-2-28
SECTION 2.1 SPECIFICATIONS FOR STEEL RAILS1
— 2016 —
2.1.1 SCOPE (2016)
1
a. These specifications cover steel tee rails weighing 115 lb/yd and over for use in railway track.
b. Drawings of recommended rail sections are shown in Part 1, Design of Rail, Figure 4-1-1 through
Figure 4-1-6.
c.
These specifications cover steel tee rails produced from two steel chemistries as defined in this section:
Plain Carbon Rail Steel (Table 4-2-1-3-1a.) and Low Alloy Rail Steel (Table 4-2-1-3-1b.).
3
d. Plain Carbon Rail Steel and Low Alloy Rail Steel chemistries can be produced to achieve different levels
of mechanical properties (tensile strength and hardness) in the supplied rail. In this specification, these
different levels of mechanical properties are divided into three categories: Standard Strength Rail,
Intermediate Strength Rail, and High Strength Rail.
1
e.
ASTM Specifications A 1, A 2, and A 759 are referenced for tee rails weighing 60 lb/yd and over, girder
rails, and crane rails, respectively.
f.
Supplementary requirements Paragraph 2.1.17.1 and Paragraph 2.1.17.2 shall apply only when specified
by the purchaser.
References, Vol. 3, 1902, pp. 204, 208; Vol. 5, 1904, pp. 465, 469; Vol. 6, 1905, p. 183; Vol. 7, 1906, pp. 549, 573; Vol. 10, 1909, part 1, pp.
374, 393; Vol. 11, 1910, part 1, pp. 237, 255; Vol. 12, 1911, part 1, p. 467; Vol. 12, 1911, part 2, p. 12; Vol. 13, 1912, pp. 853, 1017; Vol. 14,
1913, pp. 181, 1103; Vol. 15, 1914, pp. 158, 375; Vol. 16, 1915, p. 1117; Vol. 21, 1920, pp. 1070, 1447; Vol. 26, 1925, pp. 619, 1413; Vol. 31,
1930, pp. 1455, 1770; Vol. 32, 1931, pp. 347, 816; Vol. 34, 1933, pp. 606, 821; Vol. 37, 1936, pp. 426, 991; Vol. 38, 1937, pp. 216, 635; Vol. 40
1939, pp. 596, 738; Vol. 43, 1942, pp. 575, 704; Vol. 47, 1946, pp. 373, 625; Vol. 52, 1951, pp. 596, 824; Vol. 54, 1953, pp. 1177, 1413; Vol.
55, 1954, pp. 775, 1098; Vol. 57, 1956, pp. 786, 1088; Vol. 58, 1957, pp. 962, 1248; Vol. 63, 1952, pp. 501, 768; Vol. 64, 1963, pp. 498, 690;
Vol. 65, 1964, pp. 521, 851; Vol. 68, 1967, p. 408; Vol. 69, 1968, p. 356; Vol. 71, 1970, p. 223; Vol. 75, 1974, p. 479; Vol. 80, 1979, p. 82; Vol.
85, 1984, p. 13; Vol. 87, 1986, p. 69; Vol. 89, 1988, p. 71; Vol. 92, 1991, p. 58; Vol. 93, 1992, p. 57; Vol. 94, pg. 67; Vol. 94, p. 54; Vol. 96, p.
29, Vol. 97, p. 37. Reapproved with revisions 1996.
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4-2-3
4
Rail
2.1.2 MANUFACTURE (2016)
a. The steel shall be made by either of the following processes: basic oxygen or electric furnace.
b. The steel shall be cast by a continuous process, or by other methods agreed by purchaser and
manufacturer.
c.
Rails shall be furnished in the as-rolled (carbon and low alloy), or head hardened (in-line or off-line
processes) conditions.
2.1.3 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES (2016)
2.1.3.1 Chemical Composition
a. The chemical composition of a rail steel, determined as prescribed in Paragraph d, shall be within the
limits found in the Product/Chemical Analysis Table. The specified compositions for Carbon Rail Steel
and Low Alloy Rail Steel can be found in Table 4-2-1-3-1a. and Table 4-2-1-3-1b., respectively.
b. Finished material representing the heat may be product tested. The product analysis shall be within the
limits for product analyses specified in Paragraph a.
c.
The chemical composition limits of alloy high-strength rail steel grades not shown in current
Product/Chemical Analysis Tables are subject to agreement of the purchaser and manufacturer.
d. Separate analyses shall be made from test samples representing the front, middle (optional), and back of
the heat preferably taken during pouring of the heat. Determination may be made chemically or
spectrographically. Any portion of the heat meeting the chemical analysis requirements of Paragraph a
may be applied.
e.
Upon request by the purchaser, samples shall be furnished to verify the analysis as determined in
Paragraph d.
f.
The analysis, most representative of the heat (clear of the transition zone for continuous cast steel), shall
be recorded as the official heat analysis, but the purchaser shall have access to all chemical analysis
determinations.
g. Rail heats shall be tested for hydrogen content using a sampling/analytical method or a direct
measurement method. The testing shall be performed during the continuous casting process. Hydrogen
content1 shall be recorded and available for review or reporting at the request of the purchaser. The
producer shall define the method used to determine hydrogen content, which of the following methods
are used for hydrogen removal, and present evidence of applicable procedures used to control the final
rail hydrogen.
• Vacuum Degassing.
• Bloom Controlled Cooling.
• Rail Controlled Cooling.
1
As a result of the use of different methods and reporting procedures, the comparison of hydrogen levels between various rail producers
may not be appropriate.
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
4-2-4
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Manufacture of Rail
h. Product analysis limits may be applied only in testing for chemical composition after the rail
manufacturing process is completed and will not supersede chemical composition limits done for the
same heats when the steel is in the molten state.
Table 4-2-1-3-1a. Product/Chemical Analysis Table for Carbon Rail Steel
Elements
Chemical Analysis
Weight Percent
Standard, Intermediate
Notes
and High Strength
Miminum
Carbon
1
Manganese
Maximum
Product Analysis,
Weight Percent
Allowance Beyond Limits of
Specified Chemical Analysis
Under
Miminum
Over
Maximum
0.74
0.86
0.04
0.04
0.75
1.25
0.06
0.06
Phosphorus
2
0.020
0.008
Sulfur
3
0.020
0.008
Silicon
0.10
Nickel
0.60
1
0.05
0.25
Chromium
1
0.30
Molybdenum
1
0.060
Vanadium
0.010
Aluminum
0.010
Other
0.02
3
4
Note 1: The chemical composition will be subject to the requirements listed, except as
approved in writing by the purchaser. Any alteration of the chemical composition may
require modification of welding procedures.
4
Note 2: Up to 5% of the order may exceed 0.020 if purchaser and supplier agree, but in
no case may the phosphorus exceed 0.025.
Note 3: Up to 5% of the order may exceed 0.020 if purchaser and supplier agree, but in
no case may the sulfur exceed 0.025.
Note 4: Additional elements may be included in the chemistry and the chemical
anaylsis when agreed upon by the purchaser and the supplier.
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4-2-5
Rail
Table 4-2-1-3-1b. Product/Chemical Analysis Table for Low Alloy Rail Steel
Chemical Analysis
Weight Percent Note 1
Elements
Notes
Standard Strength
Minimum
Maximum
Intermediate and
High Strength
Minimum
Maximum
Carbon
0.72
0.82
0.72
0.82
Manganese
0.80
1.10
0.70
1.25
Phosphorus
2
0.020
0.020
Sulfur
3
0.020
0.020
Chromium
0.25
0.40
0.40
0.70
Silicon
0.10
0.50
0.10
1.00
Nickel
5
0.15
0.15
Molybdenum
0.050
0.050
Vanadium
0.010
0.010
Aluminum
0.005
0.005
0.40
0.40
Copper
5
Other
4
Product Analysis,
Weight Percent
Allowance Beyond
Limits of
Specified Chemical
Analysis
Under
Minimum
Over
Maximum
Note 1: The chemical composition will be subject to the requirements listed, except as approved in writing
by the purchaser. Any alteration of the chemical composition may require modification of welding
procedures.
Note 2: Up to 5% of the order may exceed 0.020 if purchaser and supplier agree, but in no case may the
phosphorus exceed 0.025.
Note 3: Up to 5% of the order may exceed 0.020 if purchaser and supplier agree, but in no case may the
sulfur exceed 0.025.
Note 4: Additional elements may be included in the chemistry and chemical analysis when agreed upon by
the purchaser and the supplier.
Note 5: Copper content between 0.30 and 0.40 shall be acceptable if the ratio of nickel to copper > 1 : 3.
2.1.3.2 Surface Hardness
a. Rails shall be produced as specified by the purchaser within the limits found in the Rail Hardness Table.
The surface hardness limits for Carbon Rail Steel and Low Alloy Rail Steel can be found in Table 4-2-1-32a. and Table 4-2-1-3-2b., respectively.
b. The Brinell hardness test, using a tungsten carbide indenter, shall be performed on a piece of rail at least
6 inches long cut from a rail of each heat of steel or heat-treatment lot, or from a ground/milled
transverse sample cut from the 6 inch piece above. A test report shall be furnished to the purchaser.
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
4-2-6
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Manufacture of Rail
(1) The test shall be made on the side or top of the rail head after decarburized material has been
removed to permit an accurate determination of hardness. Alternately, the test may be made on the
prepared transverse ground/milled sample no less than 0.375 inch in from all rail surfaces.
(2) The test shall otherwise be conducted in accordance with ASTM E10, “Standard Test Method for
Brinell Hardness of Metallic Materials,” latest version.
c.
If any test result fails to meet the specifications, two additional checks shall be made on the same piece.
If both checks meet the specified hardness, the heat or heat treatment lot meets the hardness
requirement. If either of the additional checks fails, two additional rails in the heat or lot shall be
checked. Both of these checks must be satisfactory for the heat or lot to be accepted. If any one of these
two checks fails, individual rails may be tested for acceptance.
d. If the results for off-line head hardened rails fail to meet the requirements of Paragraph a, the rails may
be retreated at the option of the manufacturer, and such rails shall be re-tested in accordance with
Paragraph b and Paragraph c.
Table 4-2-1-3-2a. Rail Hardness Table for Carbon Rail Steel
Type of Rail
Minimum Surface Brinell Hardness, HB
Standard Rail
310
Intermediate Strength Rail
350
High Strength Rail
370
1
Note 1: Hardness specified above shall be maintained in the head area only.
Note 2: A fully pearlitic microstructure shall be maintained in the head.
Note 3: If 410 HB is exceeded, the microstructure through the head shall be
examined at 100X or higher for confirmation of a fully pearlitic microstructure in
the head.
3
Note 4: No untempered martensite shall be present within the rail.
4
Table 4-2-1-3-2b. Rail Hardness Table for Low Alloy Rail Steel
Type of Rail
Minimum Surface Brinell Hardness, HB
Standard Strength Rail
310
Intermediate Strength Rail
325
High Strength Rail
370
Note 1: Hardness specified above shall be maintained in the head area only.
Note 2: A fully pearlitic microstructure shall be maintained in the head.
Note 3: If 410 HB is exceeded, the microstructure through the head shall be examined at
100X or higher for confirmation of a fully pearlitic microstructure in the head.
Note 4: No untempered martensite shall be present within the rail.
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4-2-7
Rail
2.1.3.3 Internal Hardness of High-Strength Rail
a. The internal hardness of high-strength rail of any rail steel grade shall be determined on a transverse
specimen cut from the head and at least 6 inches from the end of the rail. The specimen shall be ground
or milled so that the transverse surfaces are parallel.
b. The hardness shall be determined at intervals of not greater than 0.125 inch along traverses 1, 2, and 3
and at positions 4 and 5 as shown in Figure 4-2-1. Hardness gradient of high strength rail along lines 1, 2
and 3 shall be gradual towards the center of the rail, with no sharp drop or discontinuity. Traverse 2 can
extend into the web of the rail (X + 1.6 inch) upon agreement between the purchaser and the
manufacturer.
c.
The hardness test shall be conducted by Rockwell (ASTM E18)1. The results can also be reported in
Brinell (using AREMA HRC to HB Conversion Table 4-2-1-3-3a.).
d. Brinell hardness readings can be used to determine the hardness value at specific point locations,
maintaining a minimum spacing in accordance with ASTM E10.
e.
Carbon High Strength Steel: The hardness at a depth of 0.6 inch on lines 1, 2, and 3 and at points 4 and
5 of (depth of 0.375 inch) Figure 4-2-1 shall be 352 HB or higher for high strength rail.
f.
Low Alloy High Strength Steel: The hardness at a depth of 0.875 inch on lines 1, 2 and 3 shall be 341 HB
or higher. See Figure 4-2-1.
g. The testing frequency shall be one test per heat or 10,000 feet of rail, whichever is the smaller amount of
rail.
h. If any test specimen fails to meet the required hardness, two additional test specimens shall be obtained
from the same lot and tested. If both meet the requirements, the lot shall be accepted. If one of the
specimens fails to meet the requirements, two additional rails from the lot shall be sampled and tested.
Both of these tests must be satisfactory for the lot to be accepted. If one of the tests is unsatisfactory,
individual rails may be sampled and tested for acceptance.
i.
1
If the results for off-line head hardened rail fail to meet the requirement, the rails represented by the
test may be re-treated and re-tested.
ASTM E18 Standard Test Method for Rockwell Hardness and Rockwell Superficial Hardness of Metallic Materials.
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
4-2-8
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Manufacture of Rail
X
115#
119#
¾”
0.750”
27/32”
0.844”
132#
25/32”
0.781”
133#
7/8”
0.875”
136#
7/8”
0.875”
140#
15/16”
0.938”
141#
1”
1.000”
1
Figure 4-2-1. Determining Internal Hardness of High Strength Rail
Table 4-2-1-3-3a. AREMA HRC to HB Conversion for Rail Steels
HRC
HB
HRC
HB
HRC
HB
20
244
30
306
41.8
400
21
250
31
314
42
402
22
255
32
321
43
411
23
261
33
328
44
420
24
267
34
336
45
429
25
273
35
344
46
439
26
280
36
351
47
448
27
286
37
359
48
458
28
293
38
368
49
468
29
300
39
376
50
478
40
384
3
4
HB = 165.77 + 2.3597HRC + 0.0777HRC2
Developed by AREMA Committee Four specifically for rail steel.
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4-2-9
Rail
2.1.3.4 Tensile Properties
a. Rails shall be produced as specified by the purchaser within the limits found in the pertinent Tensile
Properties Table. The tensile property limits for Carbon Rail Steel and Low Alloy Rail Steel can be found
in Table 4-2-1-3-4a. and Table 4-2-1-3-4b., respectively.
b. One longitudinal tension test specimen shall be taken from the gage corner of the rail head, centered ½
inch from the gage side and ½ inch from the running surface.
c.
The specimen shall be 0.5 inch diameter and shall be tested per ASTM A370, Standard Test Methods and
Definitions for Mechanical Testing of Steel Products.
d. Except as provided in Paragraph e, the test frequency shall be one test for each heat for the first one
hundred heats, one test for every fifth heat for the second hundred heats and one test for every tenth
heat thereafter for heats furnished to the same manufacturing practice. In addition, a minimum of one
tensile test per order may be furnished at the customer’s request, from a heat supplied on the order.
e.
For high-strength rail of all steel grades, the testing frequency shall be one test per heat or 10,000 feet of
rail, whichever is the smaller amount of rail.
f.
If any test specimen fails because of a malfunction of the test equipment or a flaw in the specimen, it
shall be discarded and another one taken.
g. If a test specimen fails to meet the required tensile properties, two additional test specimens shall be cut
from rails from the same lot and tested. If both meet the requirements, the lot shall be accepted. If one
of the tests fails to meet the requirements, two additional rails from the lot shall be sampled and tested.
Both of the tests must be satisfactory for the lot to be accepted. If one of these tests is unsatisfactory,
individual rails may be sampled and tested for acceptance.
h. If the results for off-line head hardened rail fail to meet the requirements, the rails represented by the
test may be re-treated and re-tested.
Table 4-2-1-3-4a. Tensile Properties Table for Carbon Rail Steel
Description
Standard
Intermediate Strength
High-Strength
74.0
105.0
120.0
Tensile Strength, ksi, minimum
142.5
155.0
171.0
Elongation in 2 inches, percent,
minimum
10 Note 1
10
10 Note 1
Yield Strength, ksi, minimum
Note 1: Up to 5% of the order may be less than 10% elongation if purchaser’s authorized representative and
supplier agree, but in no case may the elongation be less than 9%.
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
4-2-10
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Manufacture of Rail
Table 4-2-1-3-4b. Tensile Properties Table for Low Alloy Rail Steel
Standard
Intermediate
Strength
High-Strength
Yield Strength, ksi, minimum
74.0
80.0
120.0
Tensile Strength, ksi, minimum
142.5
147.0
171.0
Elongation in 2 inches, percent,
minimum
10 Note 1
8.0
10 Note 1
Description
Note 1: Up to 5% of the order may be less than 10% elongation if purchaser’s authorized
representative and supplier agree, but in no case may the elongation be less than 9%.
2.1.4 SECTION INTENTIONALLY BLANK (2016)
2.1.5 SECTION (2003)
Table 4-2-2. Section Tolerances
Tolerance, Inches
Description
Rail
Plus
Minus
Trackwork Rail
Plus
Minus
Height of rail (measured within one foot from end)
0.030
0.015
0.030
0.015
Width of rail head (measured within one foot from end)
0.025
0.025
0.015
0.015
Thickness of web
0.040
0.020
0.040
0.020
Asymmetry of head with respect to base
0.050
0.050
0.030
0.030
Width of base
0.040
0.040
0.030
0.030
Flange height
0.025
0.015
0.015
0.015
Note 1: Base concavity shall not exceed 0.010 inch. Convexity is not permitted.
Note 2: No variation will be allowed in dimensions affecting the fit of the joint bars, except that the fishing
template may stand out not to exceed 0.060 inch laterally and 0.030 inch vertically open (when
measured as per Figure 4-2-34aa and Figure 4-2-34bb.
Note 3: All four corners of the rail base shall have the radii according to the drawing ±1/32 inch. Any
disputes shall be analyzed on an Optical Comparator.
Note 4: The section of the rails to be used in AREMA trackwork shall conform to the design specified by
the purchaser subject to the tolerances listed under trackwork rail above.
Note 5: Head radius to be within (±) 2 inches per Figure 4-2-40.
Note 6: On up to 5% of the order, the height of the rail plus tolerance can be between 0.030 and 0.040
inches, if the purchaser’s authorized representative and the manufacturer agree. This exception
does not apply to trackwork rail.
Note 7: Trackwork tolerance rail: No variation will be allowed in dimensions affecting the fit of the joint
bars, except that the fishing template may stand out not to exceed 0.030 inch laterally and 0.015
inch vertically open (when measured as per Figure 4-2-34aa and Figure 4-2-34bb).
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4-2-11
1
3
4
Rail
2.1.6 BRANDING AND STAMPING (2019)
a. Branding shall be rolled in raised characters on the side of the web of each rail at a minimum of every 16
feet in accordance with the following requirements:
(1) The data and order of arrangement of the branding shall be as shown in the following typical brand.
136
RE
Manufacturer 2003
(Weight)
(Section)
(Mill Brand)
III or 3
(Year Rolled) (Month Rolled)
(2) The method of Hydrogen Elimination shall be located in the brand as Article 2.1.7.b when a
Hydrogen Elimination method other than Vacuum Treated (VT) is used.
(3) The design of letters and numerals are determined by the manufacturer. The manufacturer must
have a minimum two letter code to distinguish that mill.
b. The web of each rail shall be hot stamped a minimum of 3 times per rail (short rails must contain a
minimum of one full stamp) on the side opposite the brand, and shall not occur within 2 feet of either
end of rails, and in accordance with the following requirements:
(1) The data shall be shown in the following typical stamping. The height of the letters and numerals
shall be ⅝ inch.
SS, IS, HH, LA, IH, or LH
297165
PSTU
12
(Heat Number) (Rail Letter) (Strand and Bloom
(Rail Type)
Number)
SS = Carbon Standard Strength
IS = Carbon Intermediate Strength
(Head Hardened)
HH = High Strength (Head
Hardened)
LA = Low Alloy Standard Strength
IH = Low Alloy Intermediate
Strength
LH = Low Alloy High Strength
(Head Hardened)
BC
(Method of Hydrogen
Elimination, if
indicated in
stamping)
(2) Rails from continuous cast blooms shall be identified by a designation for heat number, strand
number, and bloom number. The rail shall be identified by an alphabetical designation beginning
with “P”, and succeeding “S”, “T”, “U”, etc., consecutively, or any other identification of the position
of the rail within the cast, as agreed between the purchaser and manufacturer.
NOTE: Strand and bloom numbers may be joined or may be coded at the manufacturer’s option.
(3) The ⅝ inch stamped characters shall have a flat or radius face (0.040 inch to 0.060 inch wide) with
bevels on each side so as not to produce metallurgical stress risers. The letters and numbers shall be
on a 10 degree angle from vertical and shall have rounded corners. The stamping shall be between
0.020 inch and 0.060 inch in depth along the center of the web. The design shall be as shown in
Figure 4-2-2.
(4) High-strength rail shall be identified in accordance with Paragraph 2.1.15a.
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4-2-12
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Manufacture of Rail
Figure 4-2-2. Design of Special Letters and Numbers on a 10 Degree Angle for
Rail Stamps, No Sharp Corners
1
2.1.7 HYDROGEN ELIMINATION (2001)
a. The rail shall be free from shatter cracks.
b. The above shall be accomplished by at least one of the following processes:
3
• Control Cooling of Rails (CC) (See Article 2.1.18).
• Control Cooling of Blooms (BC).
• Vacuum Treated (VT).
4
• Such other processes as will meet the conditions of paragraph a (OP).
2.1.8 ULTRASONIC TESTING (2001)
a. Rails shall be ultrasonically tested for internal imperfections subject to the provisions of, Step b through,
Step h.
b. Full length of the rail shall be tested using in line ultrasonic testing equipment provided by the
manufacturer except, if agreed to between purchaser and manufacturer, rails may be tested in
accordance with supplementary requirement Paragraph 2.1.17.2. The rail shall be free from rough
surfaces, loose scale or foreign matter which would interfere with the ultrasonic detection of defects.
Testing shall be done when the rail temperature is below 150 degrees F.
c.
The calibration test rail shall be a full section rail of the same section as that being tested. The test rail
shall be long enough to allow calibration at the same rate of speed as the production rail.
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AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4-2-13
Rail
d. The size, shape, location and orientation of calibration references to be placed in the test rail shall be
agreed upon by the purchaser and manufacturer. At least one reference shall be put into the test rail to
represent each search unit in the system.
(1) The in-line testing system sensitivity level, using the calibration rail, shall be adjusted to detect a
minimum 1/16 inch diameter defect anywhere in the sound path in the head, a minimum of 3/32 inch
diameter in the web, and longitudinal imperfections exceeding 2 inch length and greater than 1/16
inch depth occurring in the base.
(2) Any indication equal to or greater than the references specified in, paragraph (1) when scanning the
rail at the production speed shall be cause for initial rejection. A record shall be made of each suspect
rail. This record shall be available to the purchaser’s inspector.
e.
The calibration rail shall be run through the ultrasonic testing equipment at the start of each shift or at
least once each 8 hour operating turn and additionally at any section change or at any indication of
equipment malfunction. A record shall be maintained by the manufacturer of each time the calibration
test rail is run through the test system. This record shall be available to the purchaser’s inspector.
f.
In the event of a calibration failure, all rails processed since the last successful calibration shall be
retested.
g. The suspect rail may be retested using manual nondestructive testing techniques before final rejection.
The testing criteria of the manual nondestructive retesting shall be in accordance with, Step d. The
method of inspection shall be agreed to between purchaser and manufacturer.
h. Rejected rails shall be cut back to sound metal as indicated by the ultrasonic testing subject to the length
restrictions in Paragraph 2.1.11. The cut shall be a minimum of 12 inches from any indication.
2.1.9 INTERIOR CONDITION/MACROETCH STANDARDS (2003)
2.1.9.1 Sample Location and Frequency
a. Continuous Cast Steel. A test piece shall be macroetched representing a rail from each strand from the
beginning of each sequence and whenever a new ladle is begun, which is the point representative of the
lowest level in the tundish (i.e. the point of lowest ferrostatic pressure.) One additional sample from the
end of each strand of the last heat in the sequence shall also be tested. A new tundish is considered to be
the beginning of a new sequence.
b. Upon receipt the purchaser has the right to examine any rail from any part of a heat at his option, and if
the purchaser determines that the rail sample selected is rejectionable, the entire heat shall be
reevaluated according to Paragraph 2.1.9.4.
2.1.9.2 Sample Preparation
a. A full transverse section of the rail can be cut by abrasive or mechanical means as long as care is
maintained in preventing metallurgical damage.
b. The face to be etched shall have at least a 125 microinch finish.
c.
The sample shall be degreased and totally immersed in a hot (160 degrees to 180 degrees F) one to one
mixture, by volume, of concentrated hydrochloric acid (38 volume percent) and water to sufficiently etch
the specimen. Etching time shall be between ten and twenty minutes. The solution surface shall be at
least one inch above the etched surface.
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AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Manufacture of Rail
d. Upon removal from the bath, the sample shall be rinsed and brushed under hot water and dried. The
sample shall not be blotted dry. A rust inhibitor may be applied to the etched face at the request of the
purchaser.
2.1.9.3 Macroetch Evaluation
According to Figure 4-2-9, the areas of cross section shall be defined as head, web, and base. Schematic
descriptions of some rejectionable conditions are depicted in Figure 4-2-10 through Figure 4-2-27. Photographs
of rejectionable conditions are presented in Paragraph 2.1.19.
2.1.9.3.1 Rejectionable Condition – Continuous Cast
a. Hydrogen flakes (Figure 4-2-10 and Figure 4-2-11).
b. Pipe; any size (Figure 4-2-12 and Figure 4-2-13).
c.
Central web streaking extending into the head or base (Figure 4-2-14 and Figure 4-2-15).
d. Streaking greater than 2-2 inches in length (Figure 4-2-16 and Figure 4-2-17).
e.
Scattered central web streaking from the web into the head and base (Figure 4-2-18).
f.
Scattered segregation extending more than one inch into the head or base (Figure 4-2-19).
1
g. Subsurface porosity (Figure 4-2-20).
h. Inverse or negative segregation having a width greater than ¼ inch and extending more than 2 inch
into the head or base (Figure 4-2-21).
i.
Streaking greater than ⅛ inch in the head from radial streaks, radial cracks, halfway cracks, or hinged
cracks (Figure 4-2-22).
j.
Other defects that could cause premature failure (i.e. slag, refractory, etc.) (Figure 4-2-23).
3
2.1.9.4 Retests
a. If any specimen fails to meet the macroetch standard for interior quality, two additional samples of rail
representative of the same strand shall be obtained.
b. These retests shall be taken from positions selected by the manufacturer and the material from between
the two retest positions shall be rejected.
c.
If any retest fails, testing shall continue until acceptable internal quality is exhibited.
d. All rails represented by failed tests shall be rejected.
e.
Short Rails – If finished rail from the beginning of a strand shows defects, it shall be cut back through
successive rails to sound metal and accepted as short rail, subject to the requirements of Article 2.1.11.
2.1.9.5 Magnified Inspection
a. In the event that there is a question of the seriousness of the indication, further examination may be
performed at higher magnification.
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4-2-15
4
Rail
b. Inspect sample with stereo microscope up to 5X.
c.
A polished sample may be inspected at 100X for metallographic interpretation.
2.1.9.6 Interior Condition / Microcleanliness Standards
2.1.9.6.1 Sample Frequency
The metallurgical cleanliness of the rail steel shall be determined from samples taken from the finished rail
section. A minimum of every tenth heat must be tested. The purchaser reserves the right to require 100%
testing of all heats should it be deemed necessary.
2.1.9.6.2 Sample Size and Location
A minimum of three one-inch long full section samples per heat tested shall be taken, one from the end of the
first acceptable rail, one from the end of a rail representing the approximate middle of the heat, and one from
the end of the last acceptable rail. Test specimens will be sectioned and surface analyzed as shown in Figure 42-3.
2.1.9.6.3 Sample Preparation and Evaluation
Each 3/4" by 3/4" section (Sample A) shall be carefully prepared and evaluated according to ASTM Standard
Practice E45, Method A. Each individual metallographic sample shall have a maximum average rating of 2 and
a maximum individual rating of 3 for any inclusion type, thin or heavy. Results shall be made available to the
purchaser upon request.
Figure 4-2-3. Sample A location in rail head - Shaded area denotes area to be analyzed
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
4-2-16
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Manufacture of Rail
2.1.10 SURFACE CLASSIFICATION (2003)
Rails which do not contain surface imperfections in such number or of such character as will, in the judgment
of the purchaser, render them unfit for recognized uses, shall be accepted.
2.1.10.1 Hot Marks
a. Rails with hot marks such as from shearing, scabs, pits, or hot scratches greater than 0.020 inch in depth
shall be rejected.
b. Rails with guide marks in the head greater than 0.020 inch deep or greater than 0.062 inch wide shall be
rejected.
2.1.10.2 Cold Scratches
a. Rails with longitudinal cold scratches, formed below 700 degrees F, exceeding 36 inches in length and/or
0.010 inch in depth shall be rejected.
b. Rails with transverse cold scratches, formed below 700 degrees F, which exceed 0.010 inch in depth shall
be rejected.
2.1.10.3 Protrusions
a. Rails with any protrusion of excess metal extending from the surface of the rail, such as could be caused
by a hole in the roll or a roll parting in the web shall be rejected if the protrusion affects the fit of the
joint bar or causes the fishing template to stand out more than 1/16 inch laterally.
1
b. Rails with any protrusion in the web greater than 1/16 inch high and greater than 2 square inch in area
shall be rejected.
c.
No protrusion of excess metal shall be allowed on the head or the base of the rail.
2.1.10.4 Surface Conditioning
3
a. Surface imperfections may be corrected only by grinding and only with the purchaser’s approval.
b. If the purchaser agrees to surface conditioning, a plan containing a specific description of the work to be
performed must be furnished by the manufacturer to the purchaser for approval. The plan must ensure
that no metallurgical damage is done to the rail.
4
2.1.11 Length (2017)
a. The standard length of rails shall be 39 feet and/or 80 feet, when corrected to a temperature of 60
degrees F. Other standard lengths may be specified by the purchaser.
(1) (HS) The use of 80 foot or longer rail is preferred for high speed rail. The use of rail 240 feet or
longer is recommended. Up to 7% of the order may contain shorter lengths of rail.
b. Up to 10 percent of standard length rail of the total tonnage accepted from each individual rolling will be
accepted in shorter lengths as follows:
Standard Length of Order:
80 feet
Permissible Short Lengths:
78
36
74
33
39 feet
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4-2-17
Rail
Standard Length of Order:
80 feet
39 feet
70
30
66
60
39
c.
Variations from the specified length will be permitted as follows:
Length > 40 Length  40
Undrilled
-0, +6 inch
-0, +4 inch
Drilled one end
-0, +6 inch
-0, +4 inch
Drilled both ends
±7/8 inch
±7 /16 inch
d. Standard short length variations other than those set forth in, paragraph b and paragraph c may be
established by agreement between the purchaser and manufacturer.
e.
Lengths of rails shall be designated with proper color paint as set forth in Article 2.1.15.
2.1.12 DRILLING (1995)
a. The purchaser’s order shall specify the amount of right-hand drilled and left-hand drilled rails, drilledboth-end rails and undrilled (blank) rails desired. The right-hand or left-hand end of the rail is
determined by facing the side of the rail on which the brand (raised characters) appears.
(1) When right-hand and left-hand drilling is specified, at least the minimum quantity of each indicated
by the purchaser will be supplied.
(2) Disposition of short rails which accrue from left-hand drilled, right-hand drilled, and undrilled
(blank) rail production, and which are acceptable in accordance with paragraph b shall be
established by agreement between the purchaser and the manufacturer.
b. Circular holes for joint bolts shall be drilled to conform to the drawings and dimensions furnished by the
purchaser.
(1) A variation of nothing under and 1/16 inch over in the size of the bolt holes will be permitted.
(2) A variation of 1/32 inch in the location of the holes will be permitted.
(3) The drilling process shall be controlled so as not to mechanically or metallurgically damage the rail.
c.
Dressing of drilled rails shall be as follows:
(1) Chamfer the entrance and exit sides of the holes. Aim for 1/32 inch minimum chamfer at an aim
45 degree angle.
(2) Bevel grind the radius and sides of the rail head 1/16 inch back (+1/32 inch, –0 inches) by ⅛ inch
down (+1/16 inch, –0 inches) when looking at the rail face.
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
4-2-18
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Manufacture of Rail
2.1.13 WORKMANSHIP (2017)
2.1.13.1 Rail Straightness
a. Rails shall be straightened cold in a press or roller machine to remove twists, waves and kinks until they
meet the surface and line requirements specified, as determined by visual inspection.
b. When placed head up on a horizontal support, rails that have ends higher than the middle will be
accepted, if they have a uniform upsweep, the maximum ordinate of which does not exceed ¾ inch in any
80 feet as illustrated in Figure 4-2-4.
c.
The uniform surface upsweep at the rail ends shall not exceed a maximum ordinate of 0.020 inch in
3 feet and the 0.020 inch maximum ordinate shall not occur at a point closer than 18 inches from the rail
end as illustrated in Figure 4-2-5.
(1) (HS) The uniform surface upsweep at the rail ends shall not exceed a maximum ordinate of 0.015
inch in 3 feet and the 0.015 inch maximum ordinate shall not occur at a point closer than 18 inches
from the rail end as illustrated in Figure 4-2-5 (HS)
d. Surface downsweep and droop shall not be accepted.
e.
Deviations of the lateral (horizontal) line in either direction at the rail ends shall not exceed: (1) a
maximum mid-ordinate of 0.020 inch in 3 feet using a straight edge and of 0.010 inch at the end quarter
point as illustrated in 2-6a; (2) a maximum of 0.040 inch measured by the tangent offset method at the
end of the rail as illustrated in 2-6b
(1) (HS) Deviations of the lateral (horizontal) line in either direction at the rail ends shall not exceed:
(1) a maximum midordinate of 0.015 inch in 3 feet using a straight edge and of 0.008 inch at the end
quarter point as illustrated in 2-6a (HS).; (2) a maximum of 0.030 inch measured by the tangent
offset method at the end of the rail as illustrated in 2-6b(HS)
f.
Uniform lateral sidesweep in any 80 feet shall not exceed ¾ inch as illustrated in Figure 4-2-7.
1
3
g. When required, proof of compliance with, paragraph b shall be determined by string (wire) lining, and a
straightedge and taper gage shall be used to determine rail end surface and line characteristics specified
in paragraph c, paragraph d and paragraph e.
h. Rails shall be hot sawed, cold sawed, milled, abrasive wheel cut, or ground to length, as specified by
purchaser on purchase order, with a variation in end squareness of not more than 1/32 inch allowed. The
method of end finishing rails shall be such that the rail end shall not be metallurgically or mechanically
damaged.
i.
If the rail shows evidence of twist while being laid head up on the final inspection bed, it will be checked
by inserting a taper or feeler gage between the base and the rail skid nearest the end. If the gap exceeds
0.060 inch the rail will be rejected. Alternatively, a twist gage may be used and if the rail exceeds 1.5
degrees in 80 feet the rail will be rejected. Rejected rails may be subject to straightening.
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4-2-19
4
Rail
80’-0”
0.020 MAX.
Figure 4-2-4. Side Elevation of Rail Uniform
Upsweep Tolerance
Figure 4-2-5. Side Elevation of Rail Uniform
Upsweep Tolerance at Rail Ends
0.020 MAX.
0.010 MAX.
Figure 4-2-6a. Top View of Rail Lateral (Horizontal)
Line Tolerance at Rail Ends
0.040
MAX.
Figure 4-2-6b. Top View of Rail Lateral (Horizontal)
Line Tolerance at Rail Ends
80’-0”
Figure 4-2-7. Top View of Uniform Lateral Sidesweep Tolerance
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
4-2-20
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Manufacture of Rail
2.1.13.2 Evaluation of Residual Stresses in Rail
a. Purpose of the Test
(1) Manufacturing practices can induce residual stresses in rail that may result in web cracking or web
distortion in service if the service stresses have sufficient magnitude and if stress risers exist. The
purpose of the test shall be to evaluate the magnitude of these residual tensile or residual
compressive stresses in the rail web.
(2) The web saw cut test shall be the primary method used to evaluate the magnitude of the residual
stresses in rail.
b. Web Saw Cut Test Procedure
(1) Rail shall meet the below requirements of a web saw cut test conducted on a fully roller-straightened
rail sample of a regular production rail. The rail ends not affected by the roller straightening process
shall not be used for the test. For those production rails that are not roller-straightened, the rail
shall also meet the following requirements of a web saw cut test.
(2) The test sample shall be 24" (0.61 m) in length and cut from a production rail. The sample end face
furthest from the rail end shall be punch marked with two central, vertically aligned sharp cone
pointed marks as shown in Figure 4-2-8. The initial vertical distance between these two punch
marks shall be measured with a calibrated vernier caliper and recorded. An alternate method shall
be to use a calibrated caliper to measure the initial height of the dl burred end of the rail to be sawcut. The caliper measurement shall be taken at a distance no more than 0.25" (6 mm) from the rail
end at the vertical centerline of the rail. The caliper point locations shall be marked and this
measurement shall be recorded.
c.
1
(3) The web of the test sample shall be saw cut as shown in Figure 4-2-8 for a distance (L) of 16" (400
mm). The cut shall take place along the neutral axis in the web. If the rail closes during the saw cut,
sufficient material shall be removed from the mouth of the saw cut to prevent the top portion of the
rail from touching the bottom portion of the rail. The sawing process shall use procedures so as not
to induce distortion or heating of the rail.
3
(4) Immediately after cutting, the distance between the two vertical punch marks shall again be
measured with the vernier caliper and recorded. For the alternate method the rail height shall be remeasured by placing the caliper points at the same position as previously measured on the top and
base of the rail. This value should be recorded. For either procedure, the value after subtracting the
final measurement from the initial measurement is called the vertical displacement (d). The vertical
displacement may be a positive or negative value depending upon whether the longitudinal and
vertical residual tensile stresses of the rail sample are in tension (+) or compression (-).
4
Rail Acceptance Criteria
(1) Any rail demonstrating a vertical displacement (+ or -) of greater than 0.148" (3.75 mm) shall be
rejected.
(2) For fully-hardened rails, that have significantly higher fracture toughness properties in the web of
the rail, an alternate acceptance criteria based on stress intensity and fracture toughness
measurements can be used. If the stress intensity level is less than the fracture toughness level the
rail shall be acceptable.
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AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4-2-21
Rail
d. Retest Criteria
(1) Any rail that does not meet the acceptance criteria in Paragraph c (1) shall be accepted if a steel
wedge forced into the mouth of the saw cut generates crack propagation and completed fracture
through either the base or head of the rail.
(2) Alternately, any rail that does not meet the acceptance criteria in Paragraph c (1) shall be accepted if
two additional rails from the same week’s production are secured, saw cut tested and pass the
acceptance criteria.
e.
Testing Frequency
Residual stresses within rails are generated in critical locations of each manufacturer's process. Rail
manufacturers are encouraged to develop and demonstrate a statistically sound continuous monitoring
test for control of their critical processing steps during production of rail. These monitoring tests shall
demonstrate to the satisfaction of the rail customer the existence of a positive correlation between the
continuous process monitoring and the finished rails' acceptance saw cut test measurements. During
development of this monitoring process, a saw cut test shall be taken at a frequency of one rail per 24
hours for a two-week period. Also, if major changes occur in the critical rail manufacturing processes in
the course of production, tests must be taken at a frequency of one rail per 24 hours for a one-week
period of that change. Once these steps have been taken, a rail shall be tested at a continuous frequency
of at least one rail per week.
Figure 4-2-8. Rail - Web Saw Cut Test
d = displacement
L = saw cut length
2.1.14 ACCEPTANCE (2007)
a. To be accepted, the rails offered must fulfill all the requirements of these specifications.
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
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Manufacture of Rail
b. Those rails which fail to fulfill all requirements of these specifications but which upon agreement
between purchaser and manufacturer are suitable for specific uses shall be classified as “Industrial
Quality” (IQ) rails and be identified as specified in Article 2.1.15.g.
c.
The rail producer shall furnish to the purchaser the following records of inspection and shipment by the
method and in the form agreed upon between the purchaser and the producer.
(1) The chemical analysis of the rails shipped, listed by heat number, and the specified chemical analysis
elements. (See Paragraph 2.1.3.)
(2) The Brinell hardness of the rails shipped by heat numbers, and the hardness pattern for hardened
rails as agreed upon by purchaser and manufacturer. (See Paragraph h.)
(3) The method of hydrogen elimination.
(4) A shipping statement of the rails shipped which will include the number of pieces of each length, and
the total tons shipped in each vehicle (rail car or ship).
(5) A statement that all rails supplied meet the ultrasonic requirements. (See Paragraph 2.1.8.)
(6) A statement that all macroetched samples representing the rails supplied meet the Macroetch
requirements. (See Paragraph 2.1.9.)
2.1.15 MARKINGS (2017)
1
a. High-strength rails shall be marked by either a metal plate permanently attached to the neutral axis, hot
stamped, or in the brand which gives the manufacturer, type and/or method of treatment. Heat treated
rail shall be paint-marked orange. Alloy rail shall be paint-marked aluminum color. (HS) High speed
rails shall be paint marked blue.
3
b. Non AREMA (Industrial Quality) rails shall be paint-marked yellow.
c.
Short rails (less than 80 feet) shall be paint-marked green.
d. Trackwork rails shall be paint-marked white.
e.
Rail length shall be painted on the end faces or in a manner acceptable to the purchaser or manufacturer.
f.
Individual rails shall be paint-marked only one color, according to the order listed above.
g. Industrial Quality (IQ) rails shall be permanently identified by grinding diagonally through every “RE”
or other designation within the rails’ branding. Each designation brand shall be ground or milled
diagonally from the top right-hand corner to the bottom left-hand corner, a minimum of 1/4” in width
and to within 0.010” of the parent rail web surface.
2.1.16 LOADING (1993)
All rails shall be handled carefully to avoid damage and shall be loaded with the branding on all rails facing the
same direction. Rails of different markings shall not be intermixed in loading, but shall be segregated and
loaded head up. If there are not enough rails of one marking for a full car, smaller groups consisting of tiers of
different markings as approved by the purchaser, may be loaded onto one car.
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4-2-23
4
Rail
2.1.17 SUPPLEMENTARY REQUIREMENTS (1988)
The following supplementary requirements shall apply only when specified by the purchaser in the inquiry,
order, and contract.
2.1.17.1 End Hardening
The drilled ends may be specified to be end hardened. When so specified, end hardening and chamfering shall
be in accordance with paragraph a through paragraph g.
a. End-hardened rails may be hot stamped with letters “CH” in the web of the rail ahead of the heat
number.
b. Water shall not be used as a quenching medium except in oil-water or polymer-water emulsion process
approved by the purchaser.
c.
Longitudinal and transverse sections showing the typical distribution of the hardness pattern produced
by any proposed process shall, upon request of purchaser, be submitted for approval before production on
the contract is started.
d. The heat-affected zone defined as the region in which the hardness is above that of the parent metal
shall cover the full width of the rail head and extend longitudinally a minimum of 12 inches from the
end of the rail. The effective hardness zone 2 inch from the end of the rail shall be at least 3 inch deep.
e.
The hardness measured at a spot on the center line of the head 3 inch to 2 inch from the end of the rail
shall show a Brinell hardness number range of 341 to 401 when decarburized surface has been removed.
A report of hardness determination representing the product shall be given to the purchaser or his
representative.
f.
The manufacturer reserves the right to retreat any rails which fail to meet the required Brinell hardness
number range.
g. Chamfering rail ends shall be done in such a manner as will avoid formation of grinding cracks.
2.1.17.2 Manual Ultrasonic Testing
a. The rail may be specified by the purchaser to be ultrasonically tested for internal imperfections subject
to the provisions of paragraph b.
b. Manual Ultrasonic Test of Web at the Rail Ends for Weld Plant Application.
(1) Manual End testing shall be performed using standard ultrasonic testing equipment acceptable to
the purchaser and manufacturer.
(2) The search unit shall be a standard dual element crystal or similar transducer acceptable to the
purchaser and manufacturer.
(3) The calibration test block shall be of the following characteristics: Material 4340 AISI Steel/Nickel
plated, manufactured in accordance with ASTM E428. As an alternate, reference standards may be
fabricated from a section of rail as agreed upon between the purchaser and manufacturer.
(4) Dimensions of the calibration test block and calibration references shall be agreed upon by the
purchaser and manufacturer. (For calibration reference the recommended thickness of the block
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
4-2-24
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Manufacture of Rail
should approximate the thickness of the rail web and contain a 1/16 inch flat bottom hole drilled to
one-half the thickness.)
(5) Calibration of the instrument shall be performed before the commencement of testing, every 100 rail
ends thereafter, and after any test delay exceeding 30 minutes.
(6) When the search unit is coupled to the calibration test block, the indication height from the
calibration reference shall serve as a reference level for the test. (Recommended reference levels
should appear from 40% to 80% of the maximum height on the display graticule.)
(7) Couplant shall be distributed over the entire web area at least 12 inches from the end of the rail and
the search unit moved over the entire area in vertical and/or horizontal sweeps.
(8) An indication equal to or exceeding the reference level shall be cause for rejection.
(9) Rejected rails may be cut back to sound metal as indicated by the ultrasonic testing, subject to the
length restrictions in Paragraph 2.1.11.
2.1.18 APPENDIX 1 (1993)
Inasmuch as the controlled cooling of rails has proved a successful method for the elimination of hydrogen, the
following procedure is presented as one which will meet the requirements of Paragraph 2.1.7, paragraph a.
a. All rails shall be cooled on the hot beds or runways until full transformation is accomplished and then
charged immediately into the containers. In no case should the rail be charged at a temperature below
725 degrees F.
1
b. The temperature of the rails before charging shall be determined at the head of the rail at least 12 inches
from the end.
c.
The cover shall be placed on the container immediately after completion of the charge and shall remain
in place for at least 10 hours. After removal or raising of the lid of the container, no rail shall be removed
until the temperature of the top layer of rails has fallen to 300 degrees F or lower.
d. The temperature of an outside rail or between an outside rail and the adjacent rail in the bottom tier of
the container, at a location not less than 12 inches nor more than 36 inches from the rail end, shall be
recorded. This temperature shall be the control for judging rate of cooling.
e.
The container shall be so protected and insulated that the control temperature shall not drop below 300
degrees F in 7 hours for rails 100 lbs per yd in weight or heavier from the time the bottom tier is placed
in the container and 5 hours for rails of less than 100 lbs per yd in weight. If this cooling requirement is
not met, the rails shall be considered control-cooled, provided that the temperature at a location not less
than 12 inches from the end of a rail at approximately the center of the middle tier does not drop below
300 degrees F in less than 15 hours.
f.
The manufacturer shall maintain a complete record of the process for each container of rails.
2.1.19 APPENDIX 2 (1994)
These photomacrographs are intended to supplement the Macroetch standards presented in Paragraph 2.1.9
and depict rejectionable conditions. The macrographs are presented in the order found in Table 4-2-3.
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4-2-25
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4
Rail
2.1.20 APPENDIX 3 (2004)
The figures in this paragraph represent drawings of gages for determining compliance with AREMA rail section
tolerances per Article 2.1.4. The gage drawings are presented in the order found in Table 4-2-4.
SECTION 2.2 RAIL HANDLING GUIDANCE FOR SHIPPERS
— 2017 —
2.2.1 SCOPE (2017)
This specification provides guidance for loading and shipping 39 foot to 80 foot length steel tee rails from the
manufacturer to the end user for use in railway track.
2.2.2 SAFETY (2017)
When handling rail, ensure the work area is clear and that no one is standing in a position where they may be
struck by the rail being loaded. Handle rail only using equipment approved for rail handling. Verify that
grapples and other lifting equipment are properly designed for handling rail. Equipment should be inspected
before each use.
2.2.3 INSPECTION (2017)
2.2.3.1 Inspect rail handling equipment prior to loading rail to ensure all equipment is in good working
condition. Maintain equipment inspection records.
2.2.3.2 Visually inspect rail cars and containers prior to loading rail. Clean cars or containers as needed
prior to loading rail.
2.2.4 LOADING (2017)
2.2.4.1 In addition to this specification, rail should be loaded in accordance with Association of American
Railroads (AAR) requirements including the Open Top Loading Rules, and any additional requirement of
the railway or other end user. The AAR open top loading rules specify the minimum requirements for the
following:
a. Brake wheel clearance
b. Separators
c.
Filler Blocks
d. Encircling Bands
e.
Tie Down Straps
f.
Strap Corner Protectors
g. Chocks
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4-2-26
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Manufacture of Rail
2.2.4.2 When loading ensure that rail branding (raised letters) face the same direction on each car in
accordance with Section 2.1.16. Place proper dunnage and banding as required. Install spreaders evenly
to accommodate the length of rails being loaded. As each tier is completed, confirm that bases of rails do
not overlap and that bases are not resting on tie-downs or debris.
2.2.4.3 If drilled rails are included in the shipment, they are to be kept together in the shipment unless
otherwise specified (ex. pre-planned strings). In cases where the drilled rails are kept together and do not
fill a full car, one car may contain the remainder of drilled rail and sufficient blank rail to fill the car to its
capacity.
2.2.4.4 Rails are to be placed equidistant from bulkheads with their ends aligned vertically and horizontally
with the exceptions noted in 2.2.4.5.
2.2.4.5 When rails of varying lengths are to be loaded, longer rails must be placed on the bottom and
shorter rails placed on the top. In no case may rail be loaded which is more than 5 feet longer than the rail
below it. The mixing of rail length is to be kept to a minimum.
2.2.4.6 Spreader bars or similar railroad approved lifting devices are recommended when lifting rails
longer than 45 feet as single lifting points may cause the rail to kink or bend at that location.
2.2.5 UNLOADING AT DESTINATION (2020)
2.2.5.1 Inspect the shipment prior to unloading to verify that no rail has shifted or was damaged during the
shipping process.
1
2.2.5.2 Prior to unloading conduct a job safety briefing with employees to be involved in the unloading
process to review the risks and hazards of the task.
2.2.5.3 Inspect all equipment to be used for rail unloading. Check for signs of wear and damage. Verify the
equipment is designed and approved for rail handling. Document equipment inspections where required.
2.2.5.4 Remove and dispose of banding.
3
2.2.5.5 Begin unloading rail using approved equipment, lifting at proper lifting points.
2.2.5.6 Spreader bars or similar railroad approved lifting devices are recommended when lifting rails
longer than 45 feet as single lifting points may cause the rail to kink or bend at that location.
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4-2-27
4
Rail
Table 4-2-3. Macrographs
Figure
4-2-9
Rail Specification
Paragraph
Rejectionable Condition
Definition of rail cross sectional areas for macroetch evaluation.
4-2.1.9.3
4-2-10 and 4-2-11 Hydrogen flakes.
4-2.1.9.3.1a
4-2-12 and 4-2-13 Pipe; any size.
4-2.1.9.3.1b
4-2-14 and 4-2-15 Central web streaking extending into the head or base.
4-2.1.9.3.1c
4-2-16 and 4-2-17 Streaking greater than 2-2 inches in length.
4-2.1.9.3.1d
4-2-18
Scattered central web streaking from the web into the head and base. 4-2.1.9.3.1e
4-2-19
Scattered segregation extending more than one inch into the head or
base.
4-2.1.9.3.1f
4-2-20
Subsurface porosity.
4-2.1.9.3.1g
4-2-21
Inverse or negative segregation having a width greater than 3 inches 4-2.1.9.3.1h
and extending more than 2 inches into the head or base.
4-2-22
Streaking greater than ⅛ inches in the head from radial streaks,
radial cracks, halfway cracks, or hinged cracks.
4-2-23
Other defects that could cause premature failure (i.e. slag, refractory, 4-2.1.9.3.1j
etc.).
4-2.1.9.3.1i
4-2-24 and 4-2-25 Segregation extending into the head or base.
4-2-26
Segregation greater than ⅛ inches wide in the head or base.
4-2-27
Scattered central web segregation extending into the head and base.
Table 4-2-4. Gage Drawings
Figure
Title
4-2-28
Gage for Rail Height
4-2-29
Gage for Head Width
4-2-30
Gage for Web Thickness
4-2-31
Gage for Verticality/Asymmetry - Minus Rail Gauge
4-2-32
Gage for Verticality/Asymmetry - Plus Rail Gauge
4-2-33
Gage for Base Width
4-2-34a and 4-2-34b
Measuring Standoff When Template is Loose Vertically and Measuring Fishing
Standoff When Template Does Not Touch Web
4-2-35
Rail Fishing Gage AREMA 119RE
4-2-36
Fishing Surface Gage, AREMA 132RE
4-2-37
Fishing Surface Gage, AREMA 133RE
4-2-38
Fishing Surface Gage, AREMA 136RE
4-2-39
Rail Fishing Gage, AREMA 141RE
4-2-40
Head Radius Gage
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
4-2-28
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Manufacture of Rail
1
3
4
Figure 4-2-9. Definition of Rail Cross Sectional Areas for Macroetch Evaluation
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4-2-29
Rail
Figure 4-2-10. Hydrogen Flakes
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
4-2-30
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Manufacture of Rail
1
3
4
Figure 4-2-11. Hydrogen Flakes
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4-2-31
Rail
Figure 4-2-12. Pipe – Any Size
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
4-2-32
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Manufacture of Rail
1
3
4
Figure 4-2-13. Pipe – Any Size
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4-2-33
Rail
Figure 4-2-14. Central Web Streaking Extending Into the Head or Base
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
4-2-34
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Manufacture of Rail
1
3
4
Figure 4-2-15. Central Web Streaking Extending Into the Head or Base
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4-2-35
Rail
Figure 4-2-16. Streaking Greater than 2-1/2 inches in Length
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
4-2-36
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Manufacture of Rail
1
3
4
Figure 4-2-17. Streaking Greater than 2-1/2 inches in Length
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4-2-37
Rail
Figure 4-2-18. Scattered Central Web Streaking From the Web Into the Head and Base
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
4-2-38
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Manufacture of Rail
1
3
4
Figure 4-2-19. Scattered Segregation Extending More Than One Inch Into the Head or Base
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4-2-39
Rail
Figure 4-2-20. Subsurface Porosity
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
4-2-40
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Manufacture of Rail
1
3
4
Figure 4-2-21. Inverse or Negative Segregation Having a Width Greater Than 1/4 inch and
Extending More Than 1/2 inch Into the Head or Base
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4-2-41
Rail
Figure 4-2-22. Streaking Greater than 1/8 inch in the Head From Radial Streaks,
Radial Cracks, Halfway Cracks, or Hinged Cracks
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
4-2-42
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Manufacture of Rail
1
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4
Figure 4-2-23. Other Defects That Could Cause Premature Failure (i.e., Slag, Refractory, etc.)
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4-2-43
Rail
Figure 4-2-24. Segregation Extending Into the Head or Base
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
4-2-44
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Manufacture of Rail
1
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4
Figure 4-2-25. Segregation Extending Into the Head or Base
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4-2-45
Rail
Figure 4-2-26. Segregation Greater than 1/8 inch Wide in the Head or Base
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
4-2-46
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Manufacture of Rail
1
3
4
Figure 4-2-27. Scattered Central Web Segregation Extending Into the Head and Base
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4-2-47
Rail
Figure 4-2-28. Gage for Rail Height
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
4-2-48
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Manufacture of Rail
1
3
4
Figure 4-2-29. Gage for Head Width
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4-2-49
Rail
Figure 4-2-30. Gage for Web Thickness
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
4-2-50
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Manufacture of Rail
1
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4
Figure 4-2-31. Gage for Verticality/Asymmetry - Minus Rail Gauge
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4-2-51
Rail
Figure 4-2-32. Gage for Verticality/Asymmetry - Plus Rail Gauge
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
4-2-52
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Manufacture of Rail
1
3
4
Figure 4-2-33. Gage for Base Width
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4-2-53
Rail
Figure 4-2-34a. Measuring Fishing Standoff When Template is Loose Vertically
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
4-2-54
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Manufacture of Rail
1
3
4
Figure 4-2-34b. Measuring Fishing Standoff When Template Does Not Touch Web
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4-2-55
Rail
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
UNLESS OTHERW ISE SPECIFIED:
REMOV E ALL BURRS AND SHARP EDGES
DIMENSIONS ARE IN INCHES
TOLERANCES ON:
ANGLES +/- 1°
.X X DECIMALS +/- .005
.X XX DECIMALS +/- .001
.X XXX DECIMALS +/- .001
FISHING TEMPLATE
AREMA 115RE AND 119RE
Figure 4-2-35. Fishing Template AREMA 115RE and 119RE
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
4-2-56
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Manufacture of Rail
1
3
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
4
UNLESS OTHERW ISE SPECIFIED:
REMOV E ALL BURRS AND SHARP EDGES
DIMENSIONS ARE IN INCHES
TOLERANCES ON:
ANGLES +/- 1°
.X X DECIMALS +/- .005
.X XX DECIMALS +/- .001
.X XXX DECIMALS +/- .001
FISHING TEMPLATE
AREMA 132RE
Figure 4-2-36. Fishing Template AREMA 132RE
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4-2-57
Rail
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
UNLESS OTHERW ISE SPECIFIED:
REMOVE ALL BURRS AND SHARP EDGES
DIMENSIONS ARE IN INCHES
TOLERANCES ON:
ANGLES +/- 1°
.X X DECIMALS +/- .005
.X XX DECIMALS +/- .001
.X XXX DECIMALS +/- .001
FISHING TEMPLATE
AREMA 133RE
Figure 4-2-37. Fishing Template AREMA 133RE
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
4-2-58
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Manufacture of Rail
1
3
4
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
UNLESS OTHERW ISE SPECIFIED:
REMOV E ALL BURRS AND SHARP EDGES
DIMENSIONS ARE IN INCHES
TOLERANCES ON:
ANGLES +/- 1°
.X X DECIMALS +/- .005
.X XX DECIMALS +/- .001
.X XXX DECIMALS +/- .001
FISHING TEMPLATE
AREMA 136RE
Figure 4-2-38. Fishing Template AREMA 136RE
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4-2-59
Rail
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
UNLESS OTHERW ISE SPECIFIED:
REMOV E ALL BURRS AND SHARP EDGES
DIMENSIONS ARE IN INCHES
TOLERANCES ON:
ANGLES +/- 1°
.X X DECIMALS +/- .005
.X XX DECIMALS +/- .001
.X XXX DECIMALS +/- .001
FISHING TEMPLATE
AREMA 141RE
Figure 4-2-39. Fishing Template AREMA 141RE
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
4-2-60
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Manufacture of Rail
1
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4
Figure 4-2-40. Head Radius Gage
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AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4-2-61
Rail
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK.
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AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4
Part 3
Joining of Rail
— 2020 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section/Article
Description
Page
3.1 General Characteristics of a Rail Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-3-4
3.2 Joint Bars and Assemblies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-3-5
3.3 Rail Drillings, Bar Punchings and Bolts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-3-13
3.4 Specifications for Quenched Carbon-Steel Joint Bars, Microalloyed Joint Bars, and
Forged Compromise Joint Bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.1 Scope (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.2 Manufacture (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.3 Chemical Composition (2019) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.4 Tensile Properties (2016) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.5 Bending Properties (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.6 Test Specimens (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.7 Number of Tests (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.8 Retests (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.9 Workmanship (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.10 Surface Condition (2019) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.11 Marking and Stamping (2020) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.12 Inspection (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.13 Rejection (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.14 Rehearing (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-3-15
4-3-15
4-3-15
4-3-15
4-3-16
4-3-17
4-3-17
4-3-17
4-3-18
4-3-18
4-3-18
4-3-19
4-3-19
4-3-19
4-3-19
3.5 Specification for Heat-Treated Carbon Steel Track Bolts and Carbon-Steel Nuts . .
3.5.1 Scope (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.2 Chemical Composition (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.3 Ladle Analysis (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.4 Check Analysis (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.5 Mechanical Requirements (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.6 Product Testing (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.7 Re-Heat Treatment (2016) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.8 Tolerances (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.9 Finish (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.10 Threads and Thread Fit (2016) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.11 Heading (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-3-19
4-3-20
4-3-20
4-3-20
4-3-21
4-3-21
4-3-21
4-3-25
4-3-25
4-3-25
4-3-26
4-3-26
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
4-3-1
1
3
Rail
TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONT)
Section/Para
Description
Page
3.5.12 Marking (2020) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.13 Packaging (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-3-26
4-3-27
3.6 Specifications for Spring Washers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6.1 General Scope (1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6.2 Material (1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6.3 Method of Testing (1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6.4 Mechanical Strength and Ductility (1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6.5 Proportion of Tests (1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6.6 Reheat Treatment (1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6.7 Uniformity of Stock (1967). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6.8 Permanent Set (1967). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6.9 Finish (1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6.10 Packing (1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6.11 Branding (1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6.12 Defect Found After Delivery (1953). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6.13 Place of Tests (1953). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6.14 Access to Works (1953). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-3-30
4-3-30
4-3-30
4-3-30
4-3-30
4-3-31
4-3-31
4-3-31
4-3-31
4-3-31
4-3-31
4-3-32
4-3-32
4-3-32
4-3-32
3.7 Application of Rail Bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-3-32
3.7.1 Introduction (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-3-32
3.7.2 Weld Integrity - Preventing Martensite Formation in Welded or Brazed Applications (2011)4-3-33
3.7.3 Application Procedures (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-3-33
3.7.4 Application of Propulsion Rail Bonds Using External Heat (2011). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-3-34
3.8 Specifications for Bonded Insulation Rail Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.8.1 Scope (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.8.2 Engineering Drawings (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.8.3 Inspection (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.8.4 Materials (2020) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.8.5 Workmanship (2020) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.8.6 Dimensional Tolerance (2020) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.8.7 Qualification Testing (2020) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.8.8 Acceptance (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.8.9 Packaging and Handling (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.8.10 Marking (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-3-37
4-3-37
4-3-37
4-3-37
4-3-37
4-3-38
4-3-39
4-3-39
4-3-43
4-3-44
4-3-44
3.9 Specifications for Non-Bonded Encapsulated/Partially Encapsulated Insulated Rail
Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.9.1 Scope (2018) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.9.2 Engineering Drawings (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.9.3 Inspection (2018) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.9.4 Materials (2018) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.9.5 Workmanship (2018) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.9.6 Qualification Testing (Only) (2018) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.9.7 Acceptance (2018) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.9.8 Packaging and Handling (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.9.9 Marking (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.9.10 Appendix 1 – Method of Slow Bend Test (2018). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-3-44
4-3-44
4-3-44
4-3-44
4-3-45
4-3-45
4-3-46
4-3-48
4-3-48
4-3-48
4-3-48
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
4-3-2
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Joining of Rail
TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONT)
Section/Para
Description
Page
3.10 Specification for the Quality Assurance of Electric-Flash Butt Welding of Rail . . . .
3.10.1 Scope (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.10.2 Requirements (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.10.3 Procedures (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-3-49
4-3-49
4-3-49
4-3-50
3.11 Specification for Fabrication of Continuous Welded Rail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.11.1 Scope (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.11.2 Rail Requirements (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.11.3 Manufacturing Requirements (2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.11.4 Inspection Requirements (2009). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-3-52
4-3-52
4-3-53
4-3-53
4-3-56
3.12 Inspection and Classification of Second Hand Rail for Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.12.1 Scope (2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.12.2 Inspection (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.12.3 Pick Up of Released Rail (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.12.4 Reconditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.12.5 Rail Surface Condition (2009). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.12.6 Preparation for Welding (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.12.7 Other (2009). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-3-59
4-3-59
4-3-60
4-3-60
4-3-60
4-3-60
4-3-61
4-3-61
3.13 Specification for the Quality Assurance of Thermite Welding of Rail . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.13.1 Scope (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.13.2 Manufacture (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.13.3 Weld Integrity Requirements (2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.13.4 Weld Integrity Test Procedures (2016) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.13.5 Frequency of Testing (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-3-64
4-3-64
4-3-64
4-3-64
4-3-66
4-3-67
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
4-3-1
4-3-2
4-3-3
4-3-4
4-3-5
4-3-6
4-3-7
4-3-8
4-3-9
4-3-10
4-3-11
4-3-12
4-3-13
4-3-14
Description
3
Page
Joint Bar Assembly for 115 RE and 119 RE Rail (115 RE shown) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3-6
Joint Bar Assembly for 115 RE and 119 RE Rail (115 RE shown) With Increased Wheel Flange
Clearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3-7
Joint Bar and Assembly for 132 RE, 136 RE and 141 RE Rail (132 RE Shown) . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3-8
Joint Bar Assembly for 132-6-41 RE Rail (132 RE shown) With Increased Wheel Flange
Clearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3-9
Joint Bar and Assembly for 133 RE Rail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3-10
Joint Bar and Assembly for 140 RE Rail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3-11
Recommended Head Easement for Joint Bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3-12
Recommended Rail Drillings and Bar Punchings for 115 RE, 119 RE, and
133 RE, Utilizing 1 Inch Track Bolts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3-14
Recommended Rail Drillings and Bar Punchings for 132 RE, 136 RE, 140 RE Rails, and 141 RE Rails
and Joint Bars, Utilizing 1-1/8 Inch Track Bolts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3-14
Standard 2 Inch Gage Length Tension Specimen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3-24
Oval Neck Track Bolt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3-28
Track Nuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3-29
Minimum Recommended Spacing from Rail End . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3-35
Minimum Recommended Spacing from Joint Bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3-36
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
1
4-3-3
4
Rail
LIST OF FIGURES (CONT)
Figure
4-3-15
4-3-16
4-3-17
4-3-18
4-3-19
4-3-20
4-3-21
4-3-22
Description
Page
Minimum Recommended Bond-to-Bond Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Elevation of Joint Showing Misalignment Tolerance in Vertical Alignment per Article 3.8.6.2
Elevation of Joint Showing Misalignment Tolerance in Vertical Alignment per Article 3.8.6.2
Plan View of Joint Showing Misalignment Tolerance in Horizontal Alignment per
Article 3.8.6.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Alternative Rolling Load Test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Loading Arrangement for the Slow Bend Test for Deriving the Modulus of Rupture . . . . . . .
Tolerances for Inspection of Relay Rail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tolerances for Inspection of Welded Rail New and Main Line Relay Rail. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-3-36
4-3-41
4-3-41
4-3-41
4-3-47
4-3-51
4-3-58
4-3-59
LIST OF TABLES
Table
4-3-1
4-3-2
4-3-3
4-3-4
4-3-5
4-3-6
4-3-7
4-3-8
4-3-9
4-3-10
4-3-11
4-3-12
4-3-13
4-3-14
4-3-15
4-3-16
4-3-17
4-3-18
Description
Page
Recommended Rail Drillings, Bar Punchings and Track Bolts for 115 RE,
119 RE, 132 RE, 133 RE, 136 RE, 140 RE and 141 RE Rails and Joint Bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chemical Composition Quenched Carbon-Steel and Forged Compromise Joint Bars . . . . . . .
Chemical Composition Microalloyed Joint Bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chemical Composition Requirements for Bolts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chemical Composition Requirements for Nuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mechanical Requirements of Bolts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hardness Requirements for Nuts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Proof Load and Tensile Strength Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dimensions of Machined Test Specimens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Proof Load Requirements for Nuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bolt and Nut Marking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Oval Neck Track Bolt Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Track Nut Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Washer Strength Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tolerances for Assembled Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Weld Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Frequency of Testing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rail Grading Classification by Wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-3-13
4-3-16
4-3-16
4-3-20
4-3-20
4-3-21
4-3-21
4-3-23
4-3-23
4-3-24
4-3-27
4-3-28
4-3-29
4-3-30
4-3-39
4-3-50
4-3-52
4-3-62
SECTION 3.1 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF A RAIL JOINT1
— 2006 —
A rail joint should fulfill the following general requirements:
a. It should so connect the rails that they will act as a continuous girder with uniform surface and
alignment.
1
References, Vol. 7, 1906, pp. 655, 657; Vol. 16, 1915, pp. 729, 1145; Vol. 38, 1937, pp. 216, 635; Vol. 50, 1949, pp. 484, 795; Vol. 54, 1953,
pp. 1178, 1413; Vol. 62, 1961, pp. 590, 952. Reapproved with revisions 1961.
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b. Its resistance to deflection should approach, as nearly as practicable, that of the rail to which it is to be
applied.
c.
It should prevent vertical or lateral movement of the ends of the rails relative to each other, and unless
otherwise specified, it should permit longitudinal movement necessary for expansion and contraction.
d. It should be as simple and of as few parts as possible to be effective.
e.
Each rail joint, insulated joint and compromise joint shall be of a structurally sound design and
dimensions for the rail on which it is applied.
f.
In worn rail territory, high clearance joint bars, as shown in Figures 3-2 and 3-4, may be used to provide
additional wheel flange clearance.
SECTION 3.2 JOINT BARS AND ASSEMBLIES
For joint bars and assemblies refer to Figure 4-3-1 through Figure 4-3-7.
1
3
4
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
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Figure 4-3-1. Joint Bar Assembly for 115 RE and 119 RE Rail (115 RE shown)1
1
References, Vol. 48, 1947, pp. 661, 908; Vol. 54, 1953, pp. 1178, 1414; Vol. 63, 1962, pp. 500, 768; Vol. 92, 1991, p. 49.
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
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1
3
4
Figure 4-3-2. Joint Bar Assembly for 115 RE and 119 RE Rail (115 RE shown) With Increased Wheel
Flange Clearance
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
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Figure 4-3-3. Joint Bar and Assembly for 132 RE, 136 RE and 141 RE Rail (132 RE Shown)1
1
References, Vol. 48, 1947, pp. 661, 908; vol. 54, 1953, pp. 1178, 1414; vol. 63, 1962, pp. 500, 768; Vol. 92, 1991, p. 49.
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
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1
3
4
Figure 4-3-4. Joint Bar Assembly for 132-6-41 RE Rail (132 RE shown) With Increased Wheel Flange
Clearance
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
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Figure 4-3-5. Joint Bar and Assembly for 133 RE Rail1
1
References, Vol. 92, 1991, p. 49.
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
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AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
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1
3
Figure 4-3-6. Joint Bar and Assembly for 140 RE Rail1
4
1
References, Vol. 57, 1956, pp. 784, 1088; Vol. 63, 1962, pp. 500, 768; Vol. 92, 1991, p. 49.
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4-3-11
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Figure 4-3-7. Recommended Head Easement for Joint Bars1
1
References, Vol. 54, 1953, pp. 1178, 1414; Vol. 60, 1959, pp. 874, 1166; Vol. 63, 1962, pp. 500, 768; Vol. 92, 1991, p. 49.
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
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SECTION 3.3 RAIL DRILLINGS, BAR PUNCHINGS AND BOLTS1
For rail drillings, bar punchings and bolts refer to Table 4-3-1 and Figure 4-3-8 through Figure 4-3-9.
Table 4-3-1. Recommended Rail Drillings, Bar Punchings and Track Bolts for
115 RE, 119 RE, 132 RE, 133 RE, 136 RE, 140 RE and 141 RE Rails and Joint Bars
Dimensions in Inches
Description
115 RE and
119 RE
133 RE
132 RE, 136
RE and 141
RE
140 RE
Rail Drillings
a
2-7/8
3
3-3/32
3
b
3-1/2
3-1/2
3-1/2
3-1/2
c
6
6
6
6
d (Note 1)
6
6
6
6
Bar Punchings
4-Hole Bar
e
7-1/8
7-1/8
7-1/8
7-1/8
f
6
6
6
6
g
2-7/16
2-7/16
2-7/16
2-7/16
h
7-1/8
7-1/8
7-1/8
7-1/8
i
6
6
6
6
j
6
6
6
6
k
2-7/16
3-7/16
2-7/16
2-7/16
m
36
38
36
36
1
6-Hole Bar
3
Track Bolt
D
1
1
1-1/8
1-1/8
L
6
6
6
6
I
2-1/4
2-1/4
2-1/4
2-1/4
4
Note 1: This drilling to be omitted for 4-hole bars.
1
References, Vol. 37, 1936, pp. 462, 996; Vol. 48, 1947, pp. 656, 908; Vol. 49, 1948, pp. 376, 614; Vol. 54, 1953, pp. 1179, 1414; Vol. 55, 1954,
pp. 777, 1098; Vol. 63, 1962, pp. 500, 768; Vol. 92, 1991, p. 49.
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
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Figure 4-3-8. Recommended Rail Drillings and Bar Punchings for 115 RE, 119 RE, and
133 RE, Utilizing 1 Inch Track Bolts
Figure 4-3-9. Recommended Rail Drillings and Bar Punchings for 132 RE, 136 RE, 140 RE Rails, and 141 RE
Rails and Joint Bars, Utilizing 1-1/8 Inch Track Bolts
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
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AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
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SECTION 3.4 SPECIFICATIONS FOR QUENCHED CARBON-STEEL
JOINT BARS, MICROALLOYED JOINT BARS, AND
FORGED COMPROMISE JOINT BARS1
— 2019 —
3.4.1 SCOPE (1994)
These specifications cover quenched carbon steel joint bars, microalloyed joint bars, and forged compromise
joint bars for general use in standard railroad tracks.
3.4.2 MANUFACTURE (2005)
a. Melting Practice – The steel shall be made by any of the following processes: open hearth, basic oxygen,
or electric furnace.
b. The steel shall be cast by a continuous process, or by other methods agreed upon by the purchaser and
the manufacturer.
c.
Heating and Quenching – Quenched carbon steel joint bars and forged compromise joint bars shall be
uniformly heated for punching, slotting, shaping and forging, and subsequently quenched. Maximum
depth of decarburized layer of forged bars shall not exceed 0.040 inch.
d. Microalloyed joint bars shall be produced from hot rolled steel sections. Bars shall be sheared or sawed
cold, and holes shall be drilled. No reheating and quenching is required.
1
3.4.3 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION (2019)
3.4.3.1 Composition
a. The chemical composition of the quenched carbon-steel joint bars and forged compromise joint bars,
determined as prescribed in Paragraph 3.4.3.2.a, shall be within the limits shown in Table 4-3-2.
b. The chemical composition of the microalloyed joint bars, determined as prescribed in Paragraph
3.4.3.2.a, shall be within the limits shown in Table 4-3-4 or within a chemical composition agreed upon
by the purchaser and manufacturer
c.
Finished material representing the heat may be product tested. The product analysis should be within
the limits for product analyses specified in Tables 4-3-2 and 4-3-4.
3.4.3.2 Heat or Cast Analysis
a. Separate analysis shall be made from test samples representing one of the first and one of the last three
continuously cast blooms or billets, preferably taken during the pouring of the heat. Determinations
may be made chemically or spectrographically. Any portion of the heat meeting the chemical analysis
requirements of Tables 4-3-2 and 4-3-4 may be applied. Additionally, any material meeting the product
analysis limits shown in Tables 4-3-2 and 4-3-4 may be applied against the customer's order after testing
such material.
1
Adopted, Vol. 37, 1936, pp. 436, 994; Reference, Vol. 25, 1924, pp. 406, 1283; Vol. 52, 1951, pp. 598, 824; Vol. 54, 1953, pp. 1178, 1413; Vol.
58, 1957, pp. 963, 1248; Vol. 63, 1962, pp. 501, 768; Vol. 64, 1963, pp. 499, 690; Vol. 68, 1967, p. 408; Vol. 70, 1969, p. 197; Vol. 87, 1986, p.
80; Vol. 94, p. 70.
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4
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b. The first heat analysis shall be recorded as the official analysis, but the purchaser shall have access to all
chemical analysis determinations.
c.
Upon request by the purchaser, samples shall be furnished to verify the analysis as determined in
paragraph a.
Table 4-3-2. Chemical Composition Quenched Carbon-Steel and Forged Compromise Joint Bars
Element
Chemical
Analysis Weight
Percent
Product Analysis
Weight Percent Allowance
Beyond Limits of Specified
Chemical Analysis
Under Minimum
Limit
Over
Maximum Limit
0.35 to 0.60
0.040
0.040
Manganese
1.20 max
N/A
0.060
Phosphorous
0.040 max
N/A
0.008
Sulfur
0.050 max
N/A
0.008
Carbon
Table 4-3-3. Chemical Composition Microalloyed Joint Bars
Element
Chemical
Analysis Weight
Percent
Product Analysis
Weight Percent Allowance
Beyond Limits of Specified
Chemical Analysis
Under Minimum
Limit
Over
Maximum Limit
0.20 to 0.40
0.040
0.040
Manganese
1.60 max
N/A
0.060
Phosphorous
0.040 max
N/A
0.008
Sulfur
0.050 max
N/A
0.008
Vanadium
0.15 max
N/A
0.010
Carbon
3.4.4 T ENSILE PROPERTIES (2016)
a. The material shall conform to the following requirements:
Standard
High Strength
Tensile strength, minimum psi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100,000
140,000
Yield point, minimum psi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70,000
110,000
Elongation in 2, minimum percent . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
12
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Standard
High Strength
Reduction of area, minimum percent . . . . . . . . . . . 25
25
Charpy V-notch at -40° F, ft. lb. (avg. value). . . . . . N/A
15
b. The yield point shall be determined by the drop of a beam or halt in the gage of the testing machine
operated at a cross-head speed not to exceed 1/8 inch per minute. The tensile strength shall be
determined at a speed of head not to exceed 1 ½ inches per minute.
3.4.5 BENDING PROPERTIES (2006)
3.4.5.1 Small Specimen Bend Test
The bend test specimen specified in Paragraph 3.4.6 shall stand being bent cold through 90 degrees without
cracking on the outside of the bent portion around a pin the diameter of which is not greater than three times
the thickness of the specimen.
3.4.5.2 Full Section Bend Test
If preferred by the manufacturer and approved by the purchaser, the following bend test may be substituted for
or performed in addition to that described in Article 3.4.5.1. A complete finished bar shall stand being bent cold
through 45 degrees without cracking on the outside of the bent portion around a pin the diameter of which is
not greater than three times the greatest thickness of the section. The test fixture used shall bend the bar
laterally about its center, with the outside surface of the bar being placed on the opposite side from the bending
pin.
1
3.4.6 T EST SPECIMENS (2005)
Tension and bend test specimens shall be taken from the middle of the head at the center of the finished bars.
Tension test specimens shall be machined to the form and dimensions shown in Figure 4-3-10. Bend test
specimens may be 1/2 inch square in section or rectangular in section with two parallel faces as rolled and with
corners rounded to a radius not over 1/16 inch.
3
The gage length, parallel section and fillets shall be as shown in Figure 4-3-10. Tests shall be conducted in
accordance with ASTM A49
NOTE:
4
The ends of the tension test specimens shall be of a shape to fit the testing machine and to
ensure axial loading.
3.4.7 NUMBER OF TESTS (1993)
a. One tension test and one bend test shall be made from each lot of 1,000 bars or fraction thereof, but not
less than one test for each heat on each day on which quenched carbon steel bars are heated and
quenched, or on which microalloyed joint bars are sheared or sawed.
b. If any test specimen shows defective machining or develops flaws it may be discarded and another
specimen substituted.
c.
If the percentage of elongation of any tension test specimen is less than specified in Article 3.4.4 and any
part of the fracture is more than 3/4 inch from the center of the gage length, as indicated by scribe
scratches marked on the specimen before testing, a retest of additional specimen shall be allowed as per
Article 3.4.8.
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3.4.8 RETESTS (1993)
a. If any tensile property of any tension test specimen is less than that specified, and any part of the
fracture is outside the middle third of the gage length, as indicated by scribe scratches marked on the
specimen before testing, a retest shall be allowed.
b. If the results of an original tension specimen fail to meet the specified minimum requirements and are
within 2000 psi of the required tensile strength, within 1000 psi of the required yield point, or within two
percentage units of the required elongation, a retest shall be permitted on two random specimens for
each original tension specimen failure from the lot. If all results of these retest specimens meet the
specified requirements, the lot shall be accepted.
c.
If a bend test fails for reasons other than mechanical reasons or flaws in the specimen as described in
paragraph d and e, a retest shall be permitted on two random specimens from the same lot. If the results
of both test specimens meet the specified requirements, the lot shall be accepted. The retest shall be
performed on test specimens that are at air temperature but not less than 60 degrees F.
d. If any test specimen fails because of mechanical reasons such as failure of testing equipment or improper
specimen preparation, it may be discarded and another specimen taken.
e.
If any test specimen develops flaws, it may be discarded and another specimen of the same size bar from
the same lot substituted.
f.
For quenched joint bars – If the results of the mechanical tests of any test lot (retests included) do not
conform to the requirements specified, the manufacturer may retreat such lot not more than twice, in
which case two additional tension tests and two additional bend tests shall be made from such lot, all of
which shall conform to the requirements specified.
3.4.9 WORKMANSHIP (1993)
The bars shall be smoothly rolled, or forged, true to template and shall accurately fit the rails for which they
are intended and shall provide a true alignment of the gage and running surfaces of the two rails being
connected. (Head easement is recommended per Figure 4-3-7, View C) The bars shall be either sheared or
sawed to length, and the punching or drilling, and slotting shall conform to the dimensions specified by the
purchaser. A variation of ±1/32 inch from the specified size of holes, or ±1/16 inch from the specified location of
holes, and of ±1/8 inch from the specified length of joint bar will be permitted. Any variation from a straight
line in a vertical plane shall be such as will make the bars high in the center. The camber in either plane shall
not exceed 1/32 inch in 24 inch bars and 1/16 inch in 36 inch bars.
3.4.10 SURFACE CONDITION (2019)
a. The material shall be free from injurious defects and shall have a workmanlike finish.
b. Joint bars shall be manufactured in a manner such that the processes utilized will minimize the
occurrence and depth of surface conditions such as laps, seams and rolled in scale.
c.
In the highest stress areas of the joint bar, typically the head and toe, the depth from the bar surface for
laps, seams and rolled in scale shall not exceed 0.010 inches. On all other surfaces of the bar, the depth of
these surface features shall not exceed 0.020 inches.
d. Examination to be performed on polished transverse metallographic specimens examined at a minimum
of 100X magnification.
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3.4.11 MARKING AND STAMPING (2020)
a. The name or brand of the manufacturer, the site of manufacture (if multiple), the rail section
designation, and the year of the manufacture shall be either hot stamped on the side of each of the bars
or rolled in raised letters and figures on the side of each of the bars. All non-applicable rail section
markings shall be removed in a permanent non-damaging manner.
b. For quenched bars, a serial number representing the heat shall be hot stamped on the outside of the web
of each bar, near one end.
c.
Each compromise joint bar shall also have the rail sections shown at each end along with the word
“Gage” or “Out” to indicate on which side of the rail the bar is to be used. (If the compromise joint bars
are interchangeable, the words gage and out will be omitted.)
3.4.12 INSPECTION (1993)
The inspector representing the purchaser shall have free entry, at all times while work on the contract of the
purchaser is being performed, to all parts of the manufacturer’s works which concern the manufacture of the
material ordered. The manufacturer shall afford the inspector, without charge, all reasonable facilities to
satisfy him that the material is being furnished in accordance with these specifications. All tests (except check
analyses) and inspection shall be made at the place of manufacture prior to shipment, unless otherwise
specified, and shall be so conducted as not to interfere unnecessarily with the operation of the works.
3.4.13 REJECTION (1993)
1
a. Material failing to meet the requirements of these specifications will be rejected.
b. Unless otherwise specified, any rejection based on tests made in accordance with Paragraph 3.4.3.1b
shall be reported to the manufacturer within five working days from the receipt of samples by the
purchaser.
c.
Material that shows injurious defects subsequent to its acceptance at the manufacturer’s works will be
rejected, and the manufacturer shall be notified.
3
3.4.14 REHEARING (1993)
Samples tested in accordance with Paragraph 3.4.3.1.b that represent rejected material shall be preserved for
two weeks from the date of the test report. In case of dissatisfaction with the results of the tests, the
manufacturer may request a rehearing within that time.
SECTION 3.5 SPECIFICATION FOR HEAT-TREATED CARBON STEEL
TRACK BOLTS AND CARBON-STEEL NUTS1
— 2016 —
1
Sections of this specification have been reprinted with kind permission from SAE J429 (C) 1999 and from SAE J995 (C) 1999, SAE
International.
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
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3.5.1 SCOPE (2007)
a. This specification covers the material and mechanical requirements for heat-treated carbon-steel track
bolts and carbon-steel track nuts, in diameters from 7/8 to 1-1/8 inches.
b. Heat-treated carbon-steel track bolts shall be produced to either a Grade 5 or Grade 8 designation in
conformance with the chemical requirements, mechanical requirements, and in general as far as
applicable to the latest issue of the Society of Automotive Engineers Specification SAE J429 for
Mechanical and Material Requirements For Externally Threaded Fasteners.
c.
Carbon-steel nuts shall be produced to either a Grade 5 or Grade 8 designation in conformance with the
chemical requirements, mechanical requirements, and in general as far as applicable to the latest issue
of the Society of Automotive Engineers Specification SAE J995 for Mechanical and Material
Requirements For Steel Nuts.
3.5.2 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION (2007)
a. Bolts shall be made of steel conforming to the description and chemical composition requirements in the
table below:
Table 4-3-4. Chemical Composition Requirements for Bolts
Grade
of
Steel
Element (%)
Material and Treatment
C
P
S
Min.
Max.
Max.
Max.
5
Medium carbon steel, quench and tempered
0.28
0.55
.030
.050
8
Medium carbon alloy steel, quench and tempered 0.28
0.55
.030
.050
Note: Boron additions are not permissible under this specification.
b. Nuts shall be made of steel conforming to the description and chemical composition requirements in the
table below:
Table 4-3-5. Chemical Composition Requirements for Nuts
C
Mn
P
S
Max.
Min.
Max.
Max.
5
0.55
0.30
0.05
0.15
8
0.55
0.30
0.04
0.05
Grade of Steel
3.5.3 LADLE ANALYSIS (2007)
a. An analysis of each heat of steel shall be made to determine the percentage of carbon, manganese (if
applicable), phosphorus and sulphur.
b. The analysis prescribed in Section 3.5.3.a above shall be made by the manufacturer from test samples
taken during the pouring of each heat or melt. The chemical composition thus determined shall be
reported to the purchaser or his representative and shall conform to the requirements specified in
Section 3.5.2.
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3.5.4 CHECK ANALYSIS (2007)
a. An analysis may be made by the purchaser from a finished bolt representing each heat or melt. The
phosphorus content thus determined shall not exceed that specified in Section 3.5.2 by more than 25
percent.
3.5.5 MECHANICAL REQUIREMENTS (2007)
a. Bolts produced under this specification shall conform to the mechanical requirements listed in Table 4-36 below for that grade of bolt. Grade designations are by number where increasing number represents
increasing tensile strength.
Table 4-3-6. Mechanical Requirements of Bolts
Full Size Bolts
Bolt Nom.
Grade Dia.
No.
in.
Surface
Core Hardness
Hardness
Machine Test Specimens
Red.
of
Area
Min.
%
Rockwell
30N
Max.
Min.
Max.
14
35
54
C25
C34
Proof
Load
Psi
Yield
Tensile
Tensile
Elong.
Strength Strength
Strength
Min.
Min.
Min.
Psi
%
Psi
Psi
85,000
120,000
92,000
120,000
Rockwell
5
7/8
to
1
5
>1
to
1-1/8
74,000
105,000
81,000
105,000
14
35
50
C19
C30
8
7/8
to
1-1/8
120,000
150,000
130,000
150,000
12
35
58.6
C33
C39
1
3
b. Nuts produced under this specification shall conform to the hardness requirements listed in Table 4-3-7
below for that grade of bolt. Grade designations are by number where increasing number represents
increasing tensile strength.
4
Table 4-3-7. Hardness Requirements for Nuts
Nut Grade
Nominal Nut Size (in.)
Min. Hardness
Max. Hardness
5
7/8 to 1-1/8
-
32 HRC
8
7/8 to 1
26 HRC
34 HRC
8
Over 1 to 1-1/8
26 HRC
36 HRC
3.5.6 PRODUCT TESTING (2007)
3.5.6.1 Core Hardness
a. The hardness of the bolts shall be determined at mid-radius of a transverse section through the threaded
portion of the bolt taken at a distance of one diameter from the end of the bolt. The reported hardness
shall be the average of four hardness readings taken at 90 degrees to one another.
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b. The sample preparation of test specimens and the performance of the hardness test shall be in
conformance with the requirements of SAE J429 and J417, latest editions.
c.
To meet the requirements of this test, the hardness shall not exceed the maximum hardness, nor be less
than the minimum hardness specified in Table 4-3-6 for the applicable grade of bolt.
3.5.6.2 Surface Hardness
a. Surface hardness readings of bolts shall be conducted on the ends or unthreaded shanks that have been
prepared by lightly grinding or polishing to insure accurate reproducible readings.
b. The sample preparation of test specimens and the performance of the hardness test shall be in
conformance with the requirements of SAE J429, J417 and J121, latest editions.
c.
To meet the requirements of this test, the surface hardness shall not exceed the maximum hardness
specified in Table 4-3-6 for the applicable grade of bolt.
d. Surface hardness readings of nuts shall be conducted on the top or bottom nut face halfway between the
major diameter of the thread and one corner, or on a wrench face one third of the distance from corner to
the center of the wrench face.
e.
Hardness tests on nuts shall be conducted in accordance with SAE J417. In preparing the testing
surface, sufficient material shall be removed to assure the elimination of any decarburization or other
surface irregularities.
3.5.6.3 Proof Load (Optional)
Proof load testing shall be performed when specified by the purchaser.
a. Bolts that have a minimum tensile strength as specified in Table 4-3-8 of 100,00 lb. or less, and are less
than 8” in length or 8 bolt diameters (whichever is greater) must be proof load tested full size.
b. Bolts shall be proof loaded by stressing a bolt with a specified load that the bolt must withstand without
permanent set.
c.
The overall length of the bolt shall be measured between conical or ball centers on the centerline of the
bolt, using mating centers on the measuring anvils. The bolt shall be marked so that it can be placed in
the measuring fixture in the same position for all measurements. The measurement instrument shall be
capable of measurement to 0.0001 in. The bolt shall be placed in the fixture of the tensile testing
machine so that six complete threads are exposed between the grips. The bolt is then axially loaded to
the proof load specified for the applicable bolt diameter, thread series and grade designation as indicated
in Table 4-3-8 and the load retained for a period of 10 seconds. The load will then be removed and the
overall length of bolt measured again.
d. The speed of testing as determined from a free running cross-head, shall not exceed 0.12 inch/minute.
e.
The sample preparation of test specimens and the performance of the bolt proof load test shall be in
conformance with the requirements of SAE J429.
3.5.6.4 Axial Tensile Strength
Bolts that have a minimum tensile strength as specified in Table 4-3-8 of 100,00 lb or less and are less than 8”
in length or 8 bolt diameters (whichever is greater) must be axially tensile tested full size.
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Table 4-3-8. Proof Load and Tensile Strength Requirements
Nominal
Diameter
and threads
per in.
Grade 5
Grade 8
Stress
Area
Proof
Min. Tensile
Proof
Min. Tensile
in.2 Load (lb.) Strength (lb.) Load (lb.) Strength (lb.)
7/8 - 9
0.462
39,300
55,400
55,400
69,300
1-8
0.606
51,500
72,700
72,700
90,900
1-1/16 - 8
0.694
51,400
72,900
83,300
104,100
1-1/8 - 7
0.763
56,500
80,100
91,600
114,400
3.5.6.4.1 Full Size Testing:
a. A bolt shall be placed in the tensile testing machine and axial loading applied until failure occurs. The
speed of the testing as determined with a free running cross head, shall not exceed 1 inch per minute.
b. To meet the requirements of this test:
(1) The bolt shall not fracture before having withstood the minimum tensile load specified for the
applicable bolt diameter, thread series and grade as indicated in Table 4-3-8.
(2) The ultimate failure location shall occur in the body or threaded section and not at the junction of
the head and shank of the bolt.
1
3.5.6.5 Testing of Machined Specimens
a. Bolts to be tested for either proof load or tensile strength requirements, that require machined specimen
testing, shall be conducted using test specimens machined from the bolt.
b. Bolts 7/8 in. to 1-1/8 in. in diameter shall have their shanks machined to the dimensions of a standard
0.500 inch round, 2 inch gage length test specimen concentric with the axis of the bolt as per Table 4-3-9
below.
c.
The manufacturer shall leave the bolt head and threaded section intact as shown in Figure 4-3-10 below.
The specimen shall be placed in the testing machine holders in such a manner to ensure that the applied
load is axial.
Table 4-3-9. Dimensions of Machined Test Specimens
Nominal bolt
diameter
(in.)
7/8 to 1-1/8
Gage
Length
(in.)
G
Diameter
parallel
section
(in.)
D
2.000±0.005 0.500±0.010
Length
parallel
section
(in.)
A
Recommended
fillet radius
(in.)
R
Min.
fillet
radius
(in.)
R
2.25
0.375
0.125
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AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4-3-23
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Rail
Figure 4-3-10. Standard 2 Inch Gage Length Tension Specimen
d. The test specimens shall be tensile tested, and the yield strength, tensile strength, elongation and
reduction of area determined. To meet requirements, the test specimen must have a yield strength,
tensile strength, elongation and reduction of area equal to or greater than the values indicated for the
applicable bolt diameter and grade designation in Table 4-3-6.
3.5.6.6 Nut Proof Load Test
a. Nuts covered by this specification shall withstand the proof load specified for the applicable nut grade,
nominal diameter and thread series. The proof load to be applied is indicated in Table 4-3-10.
b. The nut shall be assembled on a threaded, hardened mandrel. The specified proof load for that nut shall
be applied against the nut in an axial direction. The nut shall resist this load without failure by stripping
and shall be removable from the mandrel by the fingers after the load is released.
Table 4-3-10. Proof Load Requirements for Nuts
Grade 5
Grade 8
Proof
Load
(lb.)
Proof
Load
(lb.)
0.462
55,400
69,300
1-8
0.606
72,700
90,900
1-/16 - 8
0.694
72,900
104,100
1-1/8 - 7
0.763
80,100
114,400
Nominal
Diameter
and threads
per in.
Stress
Area
(in.2)
7/8 - 9
3.5.6.7 Bend Test
a. In addition to the above tests, a full size carbon-steel track bolt shall withstand being bent cold through
45 degrees without cracking on the outside of the bent portion, around a pin whose diameter is not
greater than the diameter of the bolt. Should the bend test specimen break in the threaded portion of the
bolt, one retest shall be allowed.
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3.5.6.8 Number of Tests
a. One of each of the following: core hardness, surface hardness, bolt proof load, bolt axial tension, nut
proof load (strip test) and bend test, shall be made from each lot of 50 kegs of bolts or fraction thereof.
b. If any test specimen shows defective machining or develops flaws, it may be discarded and another
specimen substituted.
c.
If the percentage of elongation or reduction of area, of any test specimen is less than that specified in
Table 4-3-6 and any part of the fracture is more than ¾ inch from the center of the gage length, as
indicated by scribe marks on the specimen before testing, a retest shall be allowed.
3.5.7 RE-HEAT TREATMENT (2016)
a. If the results of any of the physical tests do not conform to the requirements of this specification, the
manufacturer may re-heat treat the non-threaded lot not more than twice. Re-heat treatment of the
threaded bolts is not permitted.
b. Should the manufacturer elect to re-heat treat a non-conforming lot, the tests specified in Article 3.5.6
shall be repeated in duplicate and all tests must conform to the requirements specified.
3.5.8 TOLERANCES (2007)
1
a. The bolts and nuts shall conform to the dimensions specified in Table 4-3-12 and Table 4-3-13
respectively, subject to the following variations:
(1) The nominal diameter of the bolts shall be taken as the overall diameter of the threads.
(2) The diameter of the rolled threads shall not exceed the diameter of the shank by more than 1/16 inch
for bolts 7/8 inch in diameter and under, nor more than 3/32 inch for bolts 1 inch in diameter and
over.
3
b. The following tolerances (in inches) shall apply to finished nuts and bolts:
Shank diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . +1/64 or –1/32
Neck dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ±0.0313”
4
Length under head. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ±1/8"
Height and diameter of head. . . . . . . . . ±0.0625”
Nut-Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . –0.05  thread diameter of bolt
Nut-Height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ±(0.016  thread diameter of bolt + 0.012)
3.5.9 FINISH (2007)
a. Both the bolts and the nuts shall be neatly formed and free from fins, nicking or other injurious defects.
The head of the bolt shall be concentric with the shank, with the underside at right angles to the axis of
the bolt. The bolts and nuts shall have a workmanlike finish.
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3.5.10 THREADS AND THREAD FIT (2016)
a. The threads on bolts must be cold rolled after heat treatment.
b. The threads on nuts and bolts shall conform to the latest issue of the American National Standards
Institute, Unified Screw Thread Requirements, ANSI B1.1, Course Thread Series, UNC, with the
tolerances and allowances in accordance with Class 2A for external threads (bolts) and Class 2B for
internal threads (nuts).
c.
The threaded portion of the bolts shall be coated with a metal preservative, and before packaging, the
nuts shall be screwed onto the bolts with enough turns to hold them in place until used.
d. The grade of the nut supplied must be equal to or greater than the grade of bolt.
e.
The bolts and nuts must be free of un-tempered martensite.
3.5.11 HEADING (2007)
a. Bolts may only be headed by method of upsetting and/or extrusion.
3.5.12 MARKING (2020)
a. A letter or brand indicating the manufacturer and month and year of manufacture shall be located on
the top of the head and may be either raised or depressed. It shall be pressed onto the head when the bolt
head is formed.
b. Grade 5 and Grade 8 bolts shall have grade identification markings as shown in Table 4-3-11. Grade 5
bolts shall have 3 markings 120 apart and Grade 8 bolts shall have 6 markings 60 apart. Markings shall
be located on top of the head and may be raised or depressed.
c.
Grade 5 and 8 nuts shall have a letter or brand indicating the manufacturer and the month and year of
manufacture.
d. Grade 5 and Grade 8 nuts shall have grade identification markings as shown in Table 4-3-11. Grade 5
nuts shall have two depressed circumferential lines 120 apart, and Grade 8 nuts shall have two
depressed circumferential lines 60 apart. The circumferential lines shall conform to the following
dimensions:
Nut to fit bolt diameter
line width
line length
line depth
7/8 in.
0.03
0.08
0.01
1 in. or greater
0.03
0.12
0.01
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Table 4-3-11. Bolt and Nut Marking
Grade 5
Grade 8
Bolt Marking
Nut Marking
3.5.13 PACKAGING (2007)
1
a. All containers shall be marked by the manufacturer as follows:
(1) Name of manufacturer
(2) Size of bolt (both diameter and length)
3
(3) Grade designation for both bolt and nut
(4) Weight of filled container
4
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AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4-3-27
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H
Head
R2
r1
r2
O
R1
0.50
0.5625
0.6250
Neck
P
V
Length
Under
Head
L
1.2813 0.4688 0.0625 1.1563 0.4375 1.0625 1.0313
1.4844 0.5469 0.0625 1.3906 0.5156 1.2188 1.1875
1.6875 0.6250 0.0625 1.6250 0.5938 1.3750 1.3438
0.4375
0.50
0.5625
Min.
Thread
Length
I
Same
as
above
Same
as
above
Same as above
1-7/8
2-1/8
2-3/8
1/2 body Same as
Under 7”, in
2
2-1/4”
dia. of body dia. steps of 1/4”
From 7” to 10” 2-1/2”
bolt
bolt
in steps of 1/2”
r3
Additional Sizes Now in Use But Not Recommended for New Designs
1.4844 0.5469 0.0625 1.3906 0.5156 1.2188 1.1875
1.6875 0.6250 0.0625 1.6250 0.5938 1.3750 1.3438
1.8906 0.7031 0.0625 1.8594 0.6719 1.5313 1.50
A
10
9
8
9
8
7
Threads
Per
Inch
Notes: All dimension given in inches.
Tolerances: Length (L) ±1/8”, Neck (O adn R1) ±0.0313”, Head (A and H) ±0.0625”, R2 ±0.0175”
In ordering bolts, specify the nominal diameter, “D”, over the threads and not the body diameter.
13/16
15/16
1-1/16
7/8
1
1-1/8
Nom.
Dia.
Over
Thread
D
Table 4-3-12. Oval Neck Track Bolt Dimensions
Figure 4-3-11. Oval Neck Track Bolt
Rail
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AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Joining of Rail
Figure 4-3-12. Track Nuts
Table 4-3-13. Track Nut Dimensions
Nominal
Diameter
Width Across Flats (W)
D
Nominal
Max.
Min.
7/8
1
1-1/8
1.4375
1.6250
1.8125
1.4375 1.3940
1.6250 1.5750
1.8125 1.7560
13/16
15/16
1
1-1/16
1-1/8
1.2500
1.5000
1.5000
1.6250
1.6875
1.2500
1.5000
1.5000
1.6250
1.6875
Thickness (U)
Nominal
0.8750
1.0000
1.1250
Max.
Min.
0.9010 0.8330
1.0280 0.9560
1.1550 1.0790
1.2120
1.4500
1.4500
1.5750
1.6310
Chamfer
(Optional
Nut Only)
1
E
0.2500
0.3750
0.5000
3
0.2500
0.3750
0.3750
0.3750
0.5000
Notes: All dimensions given in inches.
A 25 degree chamfer is standard.
4
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SECTION 3.6 SPECIFICATIONS FOR SPRING WASHERS1 2
— 1967 —
3.6.1 GENERAL SCOPE (1967)
These specifications prescribe the physical properties intended for the material of the spring washers
purchased and state in detail the method of testing for providing their fulfillment.
3.6.2 MATERIAL (1967)
Material for spring washers shall be of steel, manufactured by the electric furnace, open-hearth, basic oxygen or
crucible process.
3.6.3 METHOD OF TESTING (1967)
Test specimens shall be interposed between the platens of a compression machine of approved design, equipped
with a deflection recorder calibrated to 0.001 inch and located so that readings are recorded from approximately
the center of the platens, and shall be subjected to the preliminary load of 20,000 lb three successive times, the
washer each time being completely released to its free height.
3.6.4 MECHANICAL STRENGTH AND DUCTILITY (1967)
a. After application of the preliminary loads, the washer shall again be compressed to test load in Col. 2 of
Table 4-3-14 and the load shall be released by opening the platens through the prescribed distance,
Col. 3, for respective sizes of spring washers for bolts in Col. 1. A reactive spring pressure of not less than
the limits of the loads in Col. 4 shall then be required.
b. Ductility shall be determined by twisting one end of a finished spring washer through 90 degrees without
sign of fracture, while the other end is held securely in a vise, as follows:
(1) Fasten one-fourth of the length of the coil from one end between the jaws of a vise.
(2) Grip one-fourth of the length of the coil from the other end between the jaws of a wrench.
Table 4-3-14. Washer Strength Test
1
2
Spring Washers for
Bolt Diameter
Inches
Applied Load
Pounds
Platens Released
from Loads by
Distances
Inches
Minimum Reactive
Spring Pressure
Pounds
3/4
7/8
1
1-1/16
1-1/8
1-1/4
20,000
20,000
20,000
20,000
20,000
20,000
0.025
0.025
0.030
0.030
0.030
0.030
2,500
2,500
5,000
5,000
5,000
5,000
These specifications have been prepared and are recommended for the use of roads purchasing spring washers. This recommendation of
these specifications, however, does not imply any recommendation for or against the use of spring washers. Reapproved with revisions
1967
References, Vol. 34, 1933, pp. 635, 823; Vol. 49, 1948, pp. 378, 614; Vol. 54, 1953, pp. 1180, 1414; Vol. 62, 1961, pp. 587, 952; Vol. 64, 1963,
pp. 499, 690; Vol. 68, 1967, p. 409.
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(3) Rotate the wrench, thus causing the end of the coil to describe a circle about the middle point of the
coil as a center so that open ends of washer shall pass each other.
c.
Spring washers shall be heat-treated by oil quenching and tempering.
3.6.5 PROPORTION OF TESTS (1967)
a. Tests shall be made of 3 specimens selected by the inspector at random from each lot of 15,000 finished
spring washers for bolts less than 1 inch in diameter or from each lot of 10,000 finished spring washers
for bolts 1 inch or more in diameter. The 3 test specimens from each lot or fraction thereof shall be tested
for reactive pressure and ductility, and if all specimens meet the specification requirements the lot will
be accepted.
b. If 1 of the 3 test specimens should fail, 2 more specimens shall be selected from the same lot and if both
meet the specification requirements the lot will be accepted. If 1 or both fail the lot will be rejected.
c.
If 2 of the first 3 specimens selected from a lot should fail, all the washers from that lot shall be rejected.
3.6.6 REHEAT TREATMENT (1967)
a. If the results of the physical tests do not conform to the requirements specified, the manufacturer may
reheat-treat each lot, but not more than 3 additional times, unless authorized by the purchaser, and
retests shall be made as specified in Article 3.6.5.
1
b. No lot which has failed to pass the tests shall be offered for further test until after the spring washers in
that lot have been retreated.
3.6.7 UNIFORMITY OF STOCK (1967)
Uniformity in size of steel stock used in making spring washers and the dimensions around which the spiral is
coiled are desirable. In cross section the faces of the finished spring washer which bear against the joint bar and
the nut must be parallel.
3
3.6.8 PERMANENT SET (1967)
Previous to offering any lot of spring washers for inspection, each individual piece shall have been subjected as
a part of the routine manufacturing process to shock or pressure sufficient to cause permanent set and any
individual pieces defective through seams, quenching cracks, etc., shall be discarded.
3.6.9 FINISH (1967)
All finished pieces must be clean, smooth, without burrs or rough edges, of uniform size, with well-shaped
symmetrical coil and cross section, free from injurious mechanical defects, and be finished in a first class,
workmanlike manner.
3.6.10 PACKING (1967)
The finished spring washers shall be packed in securely hooped kegs or well fastened boxes. Containers shall be
left open until the inspection is completed.
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3.6.11 BRANDING (1967)
a. Identification will be by the manufacturer’s marks.
b. Spring washers shall be individually marked for identification.
c.
Containers shall be marked as follows:
(1) Name of manufacturer.
(2) Size of spring washer (bolt size over thread, width and thickness).
(3) Number of spring washers.
3.6.12 DEFECT FOUND AFTER DELIVERY (1953)
Spring washers to the extent of 5%, or more of the order which show injurious defects subsequent to their
acceptance at the place of manufacture or sale will be rejected and returned to the manufacturer who must pay
the freight charges both ways, and replace the defective spring washers with new ones, fulfilling the
requirements of the specifications.
3.6.13 PLACE OF TESTS (1953)
All tests and inspection shall be so conducted as not to interfere unnecessarily with the operation of the mill,
and shall be made at the place of the manufacturer prior to shipment.
3.6.14 ACCESS TO WORKS (1953)
Inspectors representing the purchaser shall have free entry to the works of the manufacturers at all times
while the contract is being executed, and shall have all reasonable facilities afforded them by the manufacturer
to satisfy them that the spring washers are furnished in accordance with the terms of these specifications.
SECTION 3.7 APPLICATION OF RAIL BONDS
— 2011 —
3.7.1 INTRODUCTION (2006)
Applications of pin connected, welded or brazed bonds are currently being used for signal bonding. When such
bonds are used, they are usually applied to the field side of the rail head within the confines of the joint bars, to
promote increased signal protection in case of rail-in-joint failures. Application of pin connected bonds, welded
or brazed bonds outside of the joint bars is also currently being used in special track work, where it is not
practicable to apply them within the joint bar limits.
NOTE: Welded bonds and high-temperature brazings create untempered martensite that could, under certain
conditions, lead to fatigue cracking and rail failure. Therefore, the application of such bonds, regardless of
where applied, should be used with caution.
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3.7.2 WELD INTEGRITY - PREVENTING MARTENSITE FORMATION IN WELDED OR
BRAZED APPLICATIONS (2011)
The application of rail bonds using external heat that raises the local temperature above ~1330°F, such as
exothermic welding, traditional welding, or brazing can cause martensite in the heat affected zone of the rail as
the mass of the rail will act as a heat sink with rapid cooling. Martensite is formed when cooling occurs too
quickly.
The presence of martensite increases the probability that microscopic cracks may form, which in time and
depending on the loading can lead to rail failure. The only way to ensure no formation of martensite is to
preheat to a minimum of 700°F, with subsequent slow cooling of the area heated. Since there are several
manufacturers of welded and brazed bonds, the manufacturer’s instructions need to be carefully followed.
Propulsion rail bonds, which utilize the same external heat processes as a means of rail attachment, create
martensite when the rail is not properly preheated and post-heated. The “NOTE” in Section 3.7 and the
warning in Article 3.7.1 are also applicable to propulsion bonds, which are applied using these processes.
Reference Article 3.7.4 and AREMA Communications & Signals Manual, Part 8.1.31 and Part 8.1.33 for
recommended application. (The terms propulsion bond and traction bond may be used interchangeably).
3.7.3 APPLICATION PROCEDURES (2009)
If preheating, post heating and controlled cool down are impractical or not possible, it is recommended that
these requirements be followed
1
a. Do not apply bond wires to the base of any rail.
b. Head Bonds: Apply bond wires to the field side of the head within the limits of joint bars (or within the
confines of binder rails, braces in special track work such as frogs, crossing diamonds etc.).
c.
Web Bonds: When web bond wires are required, apply them to the rail at the neutral axis.
3
d. If an initial bonding attempt fails to yield an acceptable connection or if the bond is replaced for any
other reason, the application of a subsequent welded or brazed bond attempt must be made according to
manufacturer’s instructions while following these guidelines:
(1) Head Bonds:
(a) Attempting to bond rail that has been turned and has curve wear may affect adhesion to the rail
and the bond wire’s integrity.
(b) If the head bond is located in an area of minimal stress, such as within the confines of the joint
bar, it is permissible to remove the original bond by grinding to parent rail steel. Then the new
bond can then be made in the same location according to manufacturer’s instructions. Other
head bond applications are to be spaced according to manufacturer, outside of the heat affected
zone of original.
(2) Web Bonds:
(a) Space new bond wires away from an existing web bond or previous bond location. Original bond
should be left in place.
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(b) Where there is a web bond on one side of the rail, when practical avoid placement of another web
bond on the opposite side that is directly across from existing bond wire or a previous bond
location.
It is noted that there are several types of bond wire systems available. All wire applications that involve either
the removal of material via drilling and grinding or an elevated temperature application such as welding,
brazing or soldering methods can impact the structure of the rail. Rail structural requirements should be
taken into account when choosing a methodology. Bond wire application processes that do not introduce
localized heat zones; do not damage the rail; or reduces these effects should be considered.
3.7.4 APPLICATION OF PROPULSION RAIL BONDS USING EXTERNAL HEAT (2011)
3.7.4.1 Scope
This specification covers the application of propulsion bonds using external heat. Design criteria for bond wire,
wire size and welding material are covered under AREMA Communications & Signals Manual, Part 8.1.31 and
Part 8.1.33. General recommendations for applying welded or brazed bonds to rail are detailed in Article 3.7.2.
3.7.4.2 Introduction
Propulsion bonds are connections made to the rail for the primary purpose of carrying propulsion current
required for operating rail cars that utilize electrical traction systems. These same bonds can also be
components in the signaling system (non-propulsion) utilized both for transferring electrical track circuit
current and providing safety features such as broken rail protection. Additionally, some of these connections
are made to non-running rails, which are also known as contact rails, 3rd rails, 4th rails, or guard rails. Do not
apply propulsion bond wires to the base of any running rail. A running rail is any rail which carries rolling
stock or other wheel loads.
3.7.4.3 Application
The information, recommendations, and warnings detailed for track signal connections and joint bonds in
Article 3.7.1 are applicable to propulsion bonds. The recommendations that are additions or exceptions to
Article 3.7.1 are noted below. If preheating, post heating and controlled cool down are impractical or not
possible, it is recommended that these requirements be followed.
3.7.4.4 Rail Head Propulsion Bonds
Rail head propulsion bonds are electrical connections made to the head of the rail within the confines of the
joint bar for the purposes of carrying propulsion current in accordance with AREMA Communications &
Signals Manual, Part 8.1.31 Recommended Design Criteria for Copper Based Welded-Type Propulsion RailHead Bonds. The following recommendations should be followed when making these connections:
a. The edge of the weld should be a minimum of 2 inches [51 mm] from the end of the rail.
b. Rebonding is permissible within the confines of the joint bar as outlined in Article 3.7.3.
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Figure 4-3-13. Minimum Recommended Spacing from Rail End
3.7.4.5 Rail Web Propulsion Bonds
Rail web propulsion bonds are electrical connections made to the web of the rail at the neutral axis for the
purpose of carrying propulsion current (negative return current) in accordance with AREMA Communications
& Signals Manual, Part 8.1.33 Recommended Design Criteria for Copper Based Exothermically Welded-Type
Propulsion Rail-Web Bonds and Track Circuit Connections. The following recommendations should be followed
when making these connections:
1
a. Vertical bond placement should be centered ±1/8 inch [3 mm] from the neutral axis.
b. Horizontal bond placement should be a minimum of 5 inches [124 mm] between the end of the joint bar
and the closest edge of the weld, 7 inches [178 mm] is typical.
c.
3
Leave the original bond when rebonding, if possible.
d. Bonds should be spaced a minimum of 4 inches [102 mm] apart, center-to-center, including back-to-back
bonding applications.
4
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AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4-3-35
Rail
Figure 4-3-14. Minimum Recommended Spacing from Joint Bar
Figure 4-3-15. Minimum Recommended Bond-to-Bond Spacing
(Head of rail removed for clarity)
3.7.4.6 Non-Running Rails
a. It is permissible to make exothermic or braze connections to any location on a non-running rail. This
includes the base of the rail.
b. Crop rail to remove all propulsion bonds attached to the base of non-running rails prior to any reuse as a
running rail. The entire weld and heat affected zone must be removed prior to reuse.
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SECTION 3.8 SPECIFICATIONS FOR BONDED INSULATION RAIL JOINTS1
— 1996 —
3.8.1 SCOPE (1996)
These specifications cover the design, materials, fabrication and in-plant testing of bonded insulated rail joints.
3.8.2 ENGINEERING DRAWINGS (1996)
The manufacturer shall submit to the purchaser, for approval, drawings showing the material description,
dimensions, fabrication tolerances and assembly methods where required.
3.8.3 INSPECTION (1996)
a. The purchaser’s authorized representatives shall have free entry to the manufacturer’s plant to inspect
the processing and testing of all bonded insulated joints and/or their components. The manufacturer
shall provide test specimens to satisfy the purchaser that the bonded insulated joints and/or their
components are being supplied in accordance with this specification. Results of all required qualification
tests, acceptance tests and production inspections shall be made available to the purchaser prior to
shipment unless otherwise stated by the purchaser.
b. The manufacturer shall provide the purchaser with necessary copies of his quality assurance manual, for
the purchaser’s review and approval. Upon request, the manufacturer shall provide the purchaser with
access to documentation of the active use and findings of the quality assurance procedures.
1
3.8.4 MATERIALS (2020)
3.8.4.1 General
3
All bonded insulated joints and/or components shall be new and conform to the requirements specified herein
unless otherwise specified by the purchaser. All materials shall conform to the dimensional requirements for
the rail section specified by the purchaser.
3.8.4.2 Full Contact Joint Bars
Joint bars for bonded insulated joints shall conform to the configuration of the rail section specified by the
purchaser with allowances being made for the insulating material to be used and shall be fabricated from
material which meets or exceeds the mechanical properties and workmanship requirements of the current
AREMA “Specification for Quenched Carbon Steel Joint Bars, Microalloyed Joint Bars and Forged Compromise
Joint Bars” except as noted below. The fishing height of the joint bar with insulation shall be controlled to
within +0 inch to – 1/32 inch of the rail section specified. The contact surface of the joint bars adjacent to the
rail shall be smooth and straight within a tolerance of ± 1/32 inch using a 36 inch straight edge. No branding or
other raised surfaces shall be permitted on the contact surfaces. All holes shall be deburred, to a minimum 1/32
inch and conform to the size, tolerances and locations specified by the purchaser.
3.8.4.3 Rail
When prefabricated bonded insulated joints are ordered, and rail is furnished by the manufacturer, the rail
used in fabricating the bonded insulated joints shall conform to the chemical composition, mechanical
1
References, Vol. 97, p. 43.
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properties, and workmanship requirements of the current Section 2.1, Specifications for Steel Rails or the
appropriate rail specification indicated by the purchaser. The use of high-strength rails for bonded insulated
joints is recommended. The rail shall be saw cut with a variation in end squareness of not more than 1/32 inch.
The lengths and drilling of each rail shall be as specified by the purchaser. All burrs from sawing and drill shall
be removed. Where so specified by purchaser, rail holes and rail ends may also be chamfered per the railroad
specification. Adjacent sawed ends of the rail shall be joined by bonded insulated joint bars. All raised letters,
numerals, etc. within the joint area shall be removed by grinding, to conform to the existing rail section prior to
joint assembly. Although not recommended, should standard rail be specified by the purchaser, end hardening is
recommended and shall be in accordance with Section 2.1, Specifications for Steel Rails, Paragraph 2.1.17.1.
3.8.4.4 Insulating Materials
All insulation materials shall have electrical characteristics such that completed joints will meet or exceed the
dielectric requirements of the AREMA Communications and Signals Manual, Part 8.5.1. and the Electrical
Tests specified in Part 8.5.1. End post size shall be as specified by the purchaser with a thickness tolerance of ±
1/32 inch.
3.8.4.5 Fasteners
The bonded insulated joint shall be designed to be joined together with an adhesive and bolted together with
one of the two following methods; bolted together with the required number of high-strength bolts of a
diameter to be specified by the purchaser or with a swaged pin connection of the appropriate number and
diameter. Every other fastener shall be reversed with the nut or collar on the opposite side of the rail, unless
otherwise specified by the purchaser. The bolts, nuts, pins, collars and washers, if required shall conform to the
chemical and mechanical requirements of ASTM Specification A490 or A325, A354 or SAE Grade 8 as
applicable, and have Class 2A and 2B thread fits.
3.8.4.6 Adhesive
The structural adhesive used as the bonding agent shall produce a minimum lap shear strength of 3,500 psi at
75 degrees F as per test prescribed in ASTM D-1002 (metal to metal). Adhesive shall be capable of meeting the
above requirements for a period of one year from date of manufacture when stored as specified by the
manufacturer. A corrosion inhibitor shall be included in the adhesive formulation.
3.8.5 WORKMANSHIP (2020)
3.8.5.1 General
The glue-bonded insulated joint is an assembly of insulating materials, steel and adhesive. Its design is for
these dissimilar materials to perform as a homogeneous product. To accomplish this, care must be taken to
ensure that quality control procedures are used and that no voids exist in the joint area.
3.8.5.2 Contact Surfaces
The steel contact surfaces of the bars and rail shall be cleaned to bright metal by an approved method such as
sand blasting or metallic grit blasting. All grit and other residues must be removed from the steel contact
surfaces to be bonded.
3.8.5.3 Adhesive
Enough adhesive must be used to completely cover the entire contact surfaces of the joint bars and rail and
allow some excess adhesive to be squeezed out along the entire perimeter of the joint, when the joint is
assembled. Any excess adhesive should be dressed around the perimeter of the joint bars and used to seal the
edges of the bolt or swaged fastener heads and nuts or collars. The assembled joint shall be cured in accordance
with the manufacturer’s recommendations.
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3.8.5.4 Rail Ends and Bolt Holes
Sharp edges and burrs shall be removed by grinding. The bolt holes shall be free of sharp edges, burrs, loose
scale (where so specified), shavings and other foreign matter.
3.8.5.5 Fastener Torque
Fasteners must be tightened to the required torque, following manufacturer’s suggested sequence and
procedures and those of the purchaser. Fastener torque does not apply to swaged fasteners.
3.8.6 DIMENSIONAL TOLERANCE (2020)
3.8.6.1 Overall Straightness
Assembled joints shall not deviate from a straight line by more than the tolerances provided in Table 4-3-15.
The deviation from a straight line must be reasonably uniform. Kinks are unacceptable except as provided in
Article 3.8.6.2.c.
Table 4-3-15. Tolerances for Assembled Joints
Length of Rail and Joint
Maximum mid-ordinate from a straight line for
either side sweep or upsweep
10’-20’
>20’– 30’
>30’ – 40’
3/16”
1/4”
3/8”
1
For assembled joints of lengths greater than 40’, tolerance shall be as agreed upon between purchaser and
manufacturer.
3.8.6.2 Joint Area
a. The vertical alignment of the assembled joint shall be level, within a tolerance of .060 inch on a projected
plane, as measured with a 36 inch straight edge. Dip shall not be permitted. See Figure 4-3-16 and
Figure 4-3-17.
3
b. The horizontal alignment of the assembled joint shall be straight, within a tolerance of 0.040 inch as
measured with a 36 inch straight edge. See Figure 4-3-18.
c.
Vertical offset between the two rail ends shall not exceed 0.030 inch. Horizontal offset (kink) shall not
exceed 0.020 inch.
3.8.7 QUALIFICATION TESTING (2020)
3.8.7.1 General
a. Three bonded insulated joints shall be tested by the material components manufacturer as follows: two
bonded insulated joints shall be tested as specified in Article 3.8.7.2 and the remaining bonded insulated
joint shall be tested first in accordance with Article 3.8.7.3 then subjected to a test as specified in
Article 3.8.7.4. After completion of the rolling load test, the joint shall be resubjected to the electrical
resistance test.
b. Qualification testing shall not commence until the engineering drawings are approved by the purchaser.
For each design and/or material change, the material components manufacturer shall be required to
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perform these qualification tests only on a one-time basis unless otherwise agreed upon by both the
manufacturer and the purchaser.
c.
If the bonded insulated joint being purchased has been previously qualified, the manufacturer shall
provide access to the test results to subsequent purchasers. If the manufacturer makes any changes in
the materials or the design, the manufacturer shall requalify the new joint through the testing
prescribed herein before production is resumed.
3.8.7.2 Longitudinal Compression Test (For Qualification Only)
a. Two bonded insulated joints, with 36 inches long joint bars, shall be assembled per manufacturer’s
recommendations. Two pieces of rail of the prescribed rail section, each 2 feet long, shall be utilized for
each joint. Each joint assembly shall then be sawed in half where the rails are butted together. The
sawing shall be done in a manner which will prevent overheating and damage to the bonding agent, and
the cut shall be perpendicular to the centerline of the top of the rail with a tolerance of ±1 degree. The
sawn ends of the bars at one end of the test piece, and the end of the rail at the other, shall have fair
bearing in the test machine to ensure that the loading and reaction are through the centroid of the rail,
and parallel to its axis.
b. Load shall be applied parallel to the running surface of the rail in increments of 25,000 pounds. Each
load increment shall be maintained constant until the longitudinal deflection of the rail ceases before
increasing the load by the next increment.
c.
The load shall be increased in these increments until a total load of 650,000 lb is attained for rail weights
of 132lb or greater, or failure occurs. For rails less than 132lb, a total load of 600,000 lb shall be used. At
each increment of loading, the load and differential movement of the rail and joint bars, measured to
0.001 inch, shall be recorded. If an alternate method of performing this test is used, it shall be submitted
to the purchaser for prior approval. The loads indicated in this test are for an 18 inch half joint.
d. The acceptance criterion for the longitudinal compression test shall be as follows: At no time shall any of
the bonded insulated joints show any indication of slippage during or before the total prescribed load for
the rail section involved is applied to the joint. At the completion of the test, after the load on the rail has
been released, the relative position of the rail and joint bar shall be within 0.020 inch of its original
value.
3.8.7.3 Electrical Resistance Test
3.8.7.3.1 General
A rail joint shall be fully assembled in accordance with manufacturer’s recommendations on two lengths of rail
for an electrical resistance test. The dry rail and joint assembly shall be supported on dry nonelectrical
conducting material.
3.8.7.3.2 Megohmmeter Test (For Qualification and In-plant Acceptance)
Apply 500 volts, D.C. rail to rail and each rail to one bar, each test for a duration of five (5) seconds according to
either of the following:
a. Method 1: Measure the actual current flow (I) through the joint to the nearest 0.1 microampere and
record. Calculate the resistance (R) using the formula:
500  volts 
R  ohms  = ----------------------------- where 1 megohm = 1,000,000 ohms, or
I  amps 
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Figure 4-3-16. Elevation of Joint Showing Misalignment Tolerance in Vertical Alignment
per Article 3.8.6.2
1
3
Figure 4-3-17. Elevation of Joint Showing Misalignment Tolerance in Vertical Alignment
per Article 3.8.6.2
4
Figure 4-3-18. Plan View of Joint Showing Misalignment Tolerance in Horizontal Alignment per
Article 3.8.6.2
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b. Method 2: Use a megohmmeter that reads directly in megohms (resistance).
The acceptance criterion for these tests shall be a minimum resistance of ten (10) megohms.
3.8.7.3.3 High Potential Test (Qualification only, and for spot checks as specified by the customer.)
Apply 3000 volts, 60 Hz, A.C. RMS, rail to rail which shall be held for a duration of not less than 60 seconds, or
as specified by purchaser.
The acceptance criterion shall be that there shall be no flashover or puncture through the insulation which is
evident by the failure to maintain voltage through the time stipulated.
3.8.7.4 Rolling Load Test (For Qualification Only)
The bonded joint shall be mounted on a 33 inch stroke rolling load test machine and supported on 36 inch
centers with the join centered between supports.
a. A wheel load of 44,000 lb shall be applied to the rail. The stroke shall have a range of 33 inches, centered
as shown on Figure 4-3-19. The load on the rail shall be applied for 2,000,000 cycles and the deflection of
the rail at the centerline of rail shall be measured and recorded when the wheel load is over both points
A and B for every 500,000 cycles and recorded to the nearest 0.001 inch.
b. An alternative method of testing the joint is allowed as shown below:
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1
3
4
3.8.7.5 Acceptance Criteria
At all times the deflection of the bonded insulated joint shall not exceed 0.065 inch.
3.8.8 ACCEPTANCE (1996)
To be accepted, all prefabricated bonded insulated joints and bonded insulated joint materials must fulfill all of
the requirements of this specification.
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3.8.9 PACKAGING AND HANDLING (1996)
a. The proposed method of packaging, handling and loading for all items shall be submitted to the
purchaser for approval before production is begun.
b. Prefabricated bonded insulated joints shall be handled and loaded in a manner that will not damage the
insulated joint or the rail.
3.8.10 MARKING (1996)
a. Date of manufacture, name of manufacturer, rail section and metallurgy shall be marked on the joint
such that it will remain during the life of the joint.
b. Rail shall be marked with paint as to length of finished plug, and color coded as to metallurgy. Colors to
be as agreed upon between purchaser and manufacturer.
SECTION 3.9 SPECIFICATIONS FOR NON-BONDED ENCAPSULATED/PARTIALLY
ENCAPSULATED
INSULATED RAIL JOINTS1
— 2018—
3.9.1 SCOPE (2018)
These specifications cover the design, materials, fabrication, and in-plant testing of non-bonded
encapsulated/partially encapsulated insulated rail joints for current AREMA rail sections.
3.9.2 ENGINEERING DRAWINGS (1996)
The manufacturer shall submit to the purchaser, for approval, drawings showing the material description,
dimensions, fabrication tolerances and assembly methods where required.
3.9.3 INSPECTION (2018)
a. The purchaser’s authorized representatives shall have free entry to the manufacturer’s plant to inspect
the processing and testing of all non-bonded encapsulated/partially encapsulated insulated joints and/or
their components. The manufacturer shall provide test specimens to satisfy the purchaser that the nonbonded encapsulated/partially encapsulated insulated joints and/or their components are being supplied
in accordance with this specification. Results of all required qualification tests and production
inspections shall be made available to the purchaser prior to shipment unless otherwise stated by the
purchaser.
b. The manufacturer shall provide the purchaser with necessary copies of the manufacturer’s quality
assurance manual, for the manufacturer’s review and approval. Upon request, the manufacturer shall
provide the purchaser with access to documentation of the active use and findings of the quality
assurance procedures.
1
References, Vol. 97, p. 49.
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3.9.4 MATERIALS (2018)
3.9.4.1 General
All encapsulated/partially encapsulated joints and/or components shall be new and conform to the
requirements specified herein unless otherwise specified by the purchaser. All materials shall conform to the
dimensional requirements of the rail section specified by the purchaser.
3.9.4.2 Core Bars
Core bars shall be fabricated from material that meets or exceeds the mechanical properties and workmanship
requirements of the current AREMA Specifications for Quenched Carbon-Steel Joint Bars, Microalloyed Steel
Bars and Forged Compromise Joint Bars, except as noted below. Alternate types of core bars may be used if
approved by the purchaser.
3.9.4.3 Tolerances for Finished Bars
The fishing height of the joint bar with insulation shall be controlled within +0 inches to –1/32 inch of the rail
section specified. The contact surface of the joint bars adjacent to the rail shall be smooth and straight to within
±1/32 inch on the horizontal plane using a 36 inch straight edge. Any variation from a straight line in the
vertical plane shall be to make the joint bars high in the center by up to 1/32 inch maximum. No branding or
other raised surfaces shall be permitted on the contact surfaces. All bolt holes shall conform to location
specified by the purchaser. Bolt hole tolerances shall be as stated in AREMA Section 3.4, Article 3.4.9,
Workmanship (1993).
1
3.9.4.4 Insulating Materials
All insulation materials shall have electrical characteristics such that completed joints will meet or exceed the
dielectric requirements of the AREMA Communications and Signals Manual, Part 8.5.1. and the Electrical
Tests specified in Part 8.5.1. End post size shall be as specified by the purchaser with a thickness tolerance of ±
1/32 inch.
3
3.9.4.5 Fasteners
The non-bonded encapsulated/partially encapsulated joint shall be designed to be bolted together with heat
treated oval neck track bolts or other fasteners as specified by the purchaser of a diameter and grade to be
specified by the purchaserof a diameter and grade to be specified by the purchaser. Washer plates, if required,
shall permit every other bolt to be reversed with the nut or fastening on the opposite side of the rail, unless
otherwise specified by the purchaser. The nuts, bolts and lock washers shall conform to AREMA design
requirements and to AREMA Section 3.5 Specification for Heat-Treated Carbon Steel Track Bolts and CarbonSteel Nuts, unless otherwise specified.
3.9.5 WORKMANSHIP (2018)
3.9.5.1 General
The non-bonded encapsulated/partially encapsulated insulated joint is an assembly of insulating materials and
steel. Its design is for those dissimilar materials to perform as a homogeneous product. To accomplish this, care
must be taken that quality control measures are used.
3.9.5.2 Surface Preparation of Core Bars
The surface of the core bars that will be coated shall be cleaned to bright metal by an approved method such as
sand blasting or metallic grit blasting. All grit and other residues must be removed from the steel surfaces to be
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coated. Surface preparation shall be as such to promote optimum adhesion of the encapsulation to the core bars
and prevent any, cracking, splintering, bulging or delamination of the encapsulation.
3.9.6 QUALIFICATION TESTING (ONLY) (2018)
3.9.6.1 General
Two encapsulated/partially encapsulated insulated joints shall be tested by the material components
manufacturer as follows: one encapsulated/partially encapsulated joint shall be tested first in accordance with
Article 3.9.6.2, then subjected to a test as specified in Article 3.9.6.3. After completion of the rolling load test,
the joint shall be resubjected to the electrical resistance test. The remaining insulated joint shall be submitted
to slow bend test as specified in Article 3.9.6.4.
3.9.6.2 Electrical Resistance Test
3.9.6.2.1 Assembly and Support
A rail joint shall be fully assembled in accordance with manufacturer’s recommendations on two lengths of rail
for an electrical resistance test. The dry rail and joint assembly shall be supported on dry nonelectrical
conducting material.
3.9.6.2.2 Megohmmeter Test
Apply 500 volts D.C. rail to rail. Each test will be for a minimum duration of five seconds and there shall be a
minimum resistance of 10 megohms.
3.9.6.2.3 High Potential Test
Apply 3000 volts, 60 Hz, A.C., RMS, rail to rail. Each test will be for a duration of not less than 60 seconds
without flashover or puncture between all metallic parts and other metallic parts insulated therefrom.
3.9.6.3 Rolling Load Test (For Qualification Only)
NOTE: Loads specified in this section apply to current AREMA rail sections only.
a. The encapsulated/partially encapsulated joint shall be assembled on two full section rails of the specified
section, with fastenings as specified by the purchaser, and the bolts torqued to the purchaser’s standard
specified torque. The resulting assembly shall be mounted on a 33 inch stroke rolling load test machine
and supported on 36 inch centers with the load centered between supports.
b. A wheel load of 44,000 pounds shall be applied to the rail. The stroke shall have a range of 33 inches,
centered as shown on Figure 4-3-20. The load on the rail shall be applied for 2,000,000 cycles and the
deflection at the center line of the rail shall be measured and recorded when the wheel load is over points
A and B for every 500,000 cycles and recorded to the nearest 0.001 inch.
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c.
Alternate ways of testing the joint dynamically may be submitted to the purchaser for approval. An
alternative method of dynamically testing the joint is as shown below:
1
3
4
Figure 4-3-19. Alternative Rolling Load Test
3.9.6.3.1 Acceptance Criteria
On completion of rolling load test the joint shall show no evidence of material failure. Maximum acceptable
deflection shall be as agreed upon between the purchaser and the manufacturer.
3.9.6.4 Slow Bend Test
3.9.6.4.1 Applicability
a. A slow bend test is useful for evaluating the overall strength and stiffness of joints for rails as shown in
AREMA Chapter 4, Part 1, Section 1.1.
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b. In general, the determination of whether a product such as encapsulated/partially encapsulated joint
bars of a particular type will give satisfactory performance in track can only be made by in-track
experience; but the slow bend test is useful, in particular, in determining whether the structural
properties of the core bar are adequate.
3.9.6.4.2 Test Method
Standard test method used with 132/136RE encapsulated/partially encapsulated joints is shown in
Article 3.9.10. In cases where the purchaser buys more 132/136RE bars than any other, the purchaser may
choose to accept or reject all sections of bars based on results from the 132/136RE section. If the purchaser does
not use 132/136RE bars, acceptance/rejection criteria shall be as agreed between the supplier and purchaser.
3.9.6.4.3 Bending Strength
When tested in standard slow bend test machine using method shown in Paragraph 3.9.10, no damage or
permanent deflection shall appear in 132/136RE bars applied to full section 136RE rail under 50 kips of vertical
loading, or under 12 kips of horizontal loading.
3.9.6.4.4 Stiffness
At maximum vertical loading of 50 kips elastic deflection of the rail joint assembled as per Paragraph 3.9.6.4.3
shall not exceed 0.8 inch in the vertical direction. At maximum lateral loading of 12 kips, elastic deflection of
the rail joint so assembled shall not exceed 0.7 inch in the lateral direction.
3.9.6.4.5 Causes for Rejection
Besides failure to meet any of the criteria given in Paragraph 3.9.6.4.3 and Paragraph 3.9.6.4.4, any breakage,
cracking, splintering, bulging, delamination or visible permanent kinking of the joint, or any obvious kink or
change of slope of the load/deflection curve will be considered evidence of damage and will be cause for
rejection.
3.9.7 ACCEPTANCE (2018)
To be accepted, all encapsulated/partially encapsulated joints and components thereof must be shown to have
fulfilled all requirements of this specification.
3.9.8 PACKAGING AND HANDLING (1996)
Packaging shall be done on the basis of one kit per carton, and shall be in accordance with the manufacturer’s
standard packaging and handling methods, unless otherwise specified by the purchaser.
3.9.9 MARKING (1996)
Month and year of manufacture, name of manufacturer and rail section or sections fitted shall be marked on
encapsulated insulated joint bars so it will remain during the life of the joint.
3.9.10 APPENDIX 1 – METHOD OF SLOW BEND TEST (2018)
a. Test shall be run on new joints of size and type prescribed by the manufacturer for use on 136 RE rail,
using bolts specified by the manufacturer.
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b. Joint(s) shall be assembled on two sections of new 136RE rail to current AREMA specification, in
accordance with manufacturer's plans and directions. Bolts shall be tightened to torque prescribed by
the manufacturer.
c.
Rail shall be supported on 72 inches span, with joint centered between supports, and central static
loading applied. For vertical load tests, dial gages shall record vertical deflection at points located 3
inches on either side of the central loading point and on the center of the rail base. For lateral loading
tests, load shall be applied at center of span through rail neutral axis, and deflections at rail head and at
edge of rail base shall be measured by dial gages located 3 inches on either side of loading point.
d. After taking initial dial gage readings, vertical load shall be applied in increments of 5 kips and
deflections on the two dial gages shall be recorded for each increment. The average of the two deflection
readings shall be plotted against load to produce a vertical load/deflection curve.
e.
After taking initial readings, lateral load shall be applied in increments of one kip and deflections on the
four dial gages shall be recorded for each load increment. The average of the four deflection readings
shall be plotted against load to produce a lateral load/deflection curve.
f.
Vertical and lateral load tests shall be conducted separately; i.e. vertical and lateral loads shall not be
applied to the joint at the same time during the test.
g. Some nonlinearity of the load-deflection curve may be observed under the initial loading cycle, due to
initial set of the plastic encapsulation material and bedding-in of the joint against the rail. When agreed
between manufacturer and purchaser, retest may be made by cycling the joint up to the full specified
vertical and lateral load five times, retightening the bolts to specified torque and doing the prescribed
vertical and lateral load-deflection tests over again.
SECTION 3.10 SPECIFICATION FOR THE QUALITY ASSURANCE OF
ELECTRIC-FLASH BUTT WELDING OF RAIL1
1
3
— 1993 —
3.10.1 SCOPE (1994)
This specification covers mechanical properties, dimensional tolerances, and test procedures necessary for
assuring quality of electric-flash butt welds of all rails manufactured to current AREMA specifications. The
following is intended to cover initial process qualification and routine quality assurance requirements and
procedures.
3.10.2 REQUIREMENTS (1994)
3.10.2.1 Bond Integrity
The bond between the two joining rail ends shall contain no more than one ⅛ inch diameter discontinuity.
1
References, Vol. 94 (1994), p. 58.
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3.10.2.2 Magnetic Particle Inspection
Magnetic particle inspection techniques when applied to rail welds shall meet the AREMA Specification for
Fabrication of Continuous Welded Rail.
3.10.2.3 Hardness Criteria
a. No welds shall have hardness values greater than 400 BHN or 43 Rc.
b. Hardness within the weld shall be within 30 BHN points or 5 Rc of parent rails head hardness except
at decarburized centerline and at the spherodized edge of the heat affected zone.
3.10.2.4 Dimensional Tolerances
All welds shall meet the AREMA Specification for Fabrication of Continuous Welded Rail.
3.10.2.5 Microstructure
a. The desired microstructure is 100% pearlite. When untempered martensite occurs, the welding practice
should be altered to pass the bend test
b. No electrode burns allowed (no martensite, no displaced metal, and no transfer of copper at electrode
contact).
3.10.2.6 Slow Bend Tests
All welds shall meet or exceed the appropriate requirements shown in Table 4-3-16.
Table 4-3-16. Weld Requirements
Grade
Soft Carbon (248 BHN min)
Standard Carbon (300 BHN min)
High Strength (341 BHN min)
Modulus of Rupture (lbs/in2) Deflection (inch)
100,000
120,000
125,000
1.5
1.0
0.75
3.10.2.7 Macroetch – Acceptance Criteria
a. The bond line shall be perpendicular to the rail rolling direction.
b. The bond line should not display any areas of excessive acid attack.
3.10.3 PROCEDURES (1994)
3.10.3.1 Bond Integrity
Bond integrity shall be determined from the fracture faces of the slow bend test samples.
3.10.3.2 Magnetic Particle Inspection
Refer to Article 3.10.2.2.
3.10.3.3 Hardness Criteria
a. Rc hardness values or equivalent shall be measured 5 mm below the running surface, on the vertical
longitudinal section at ⅛ inch intervals.
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b. The complete welded zone into the parent rail shall be tested.
c.
The center measurement shall be on the weld bond line.
3.10.3.4 Dimensional Tolerances
Refer to Article 3.10.2.4.
3.10.3.5 Microstructure
a. The micro shall be removed from the section in question.
b. If there are no questionable areas, microstructure evaluation is not necessary.
c.
Micro shall be prepared by standard metallographic procedures to reveal martensite.
3.10.3.6 Slow Bend Test
a. Slow bend tests shall be conducted as shown in Figure 4-3-20.
b. One outboard support shall be able to compensate for any misalignment in the base.
c.
The load rate shall not exceed 100,000#/min.
1
3
4
Figure 4-3-20. Loading Arrangement for the Slow Bend Test for Deriving the Modulus of Rupture
3.10.3.7 Macroetch
a. Macroetch shall be a vertical section taken in the rolling direction along the centerline of the rail and
shall include an unaffected area of each parent rail.
b. Macroetch procedures as specified in Article 2.1.9, shall be followed where applicable.
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
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3.10.3.8 Frequency of Testing
Welds shall be tested to the frequencies found in Table 4-3-17 whenever grade of rail, size of rail or
manufacturer of rail is changed.
Table 4-3-17. Frequency of Testing
Test
Initial Qualification
Quality Assurance
Bond Integrity
1
1 per yr + whatever
the buyer specifies
Macrostructure
1
2 per yr + whatever
the buyer specifies
Hardness
1
1 per yr + whatever
the buyer specifies
As needed
As needed
Dimensions
Every Weld
Every Weld
Magnaflux
Every Weld
Every Weld
1
1 per yr + whatever
the buyer specifies
Microstructure
Slow Bend Test
SECTION 3.11 SPECIFICATION FOR FABRICATION OF CONTINUOUS
WELDED RAIL
— 2009 —
3.11.1 SCOPE (2009)
The specifications recommended herein are intended for use only in the fabrication of continuous welded new
and relay rail for main line service. They are not intended for use in the acceptance or rejection of rails from
the mill. These specifications apply to both fixed plant and in-track electric flash butt welding.
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Joining of Rail
3.11.2 RAIL REQUIREMENTS (2009)
3.11.2.1 New rails shall be in accordance with the latest issue of AREMA Specifications for Steel Rails,
Chapter 4, Part 2.
3.11.2.2 Relay rail shall be examined prior to welding. Rails not meeting the following specifications shall
be rejected.
a. (HS) Relay rail shall not be used for high speed rail
b. Deviations of the lateral (horizontal) line in either direction at the rail ends shall not exceed a maximum
mid-ordinate of 0.030 inch in 3 feet using a straight edge and of 0.023 inch at the end quarter-point as
illustrated in Figure 4-3-21 View A.
c.
The uniform surface upsweep at the rail ends shall not exceed a maximum ordinate of 0.025 inch in 3
feet and the 0.025 inch maximum ordinate shall not occur at a point closer than 18 inches from the rail
end as illustrated in Figure 4-3-21 View B.
d. Surface down-sweep and droop shall not be acceptable.
e.
Rail ends shall not be battered more than 1/8 inch deep from the top surface of the rail when measured at
the rail centerline.
f.
Rail ends shall be saw cut and square to within 1/8 inch both vertically and horizontally.
1
g. Rails ends that have been repaired or built up by welding shall not be electric flash butt welded.
h. The leading edge of any bond wire connections or holes of any type shall not be within four inches of the
centerline of a completed weld.
3
3.11.3 MANUFACTURING REQUIREMENTS (2017)
3.11.3.1 Welding procedures must pass initial process qualification and the routine quality assurance
requirements of Section 3.10, Specification for the Quality Assurance of Electric-Flash Butt Welding of
Rail.
3.11.3.2 Rail End Preparation
4
a. All rails used for electric flash butt welds shall have the scale removed down to bright metal in those
areas of the rails where the welding current-carrying electrodes contact the rail.
(1) (HS) There shall be no grinding on the top of rail head exceeding 0.005 inch. There shall be no
grinding on the head radius exceeding 0.005 inch. There shall be no grinding on the side of the rail
head exceeding 0.010 inch. These shall be measured using a 36 inch straightedge placed on the top of
the rail head, railhead radius or the side of the rail head, longitudinal with the length of rail.
b. If electrode or clamp contact is in the web of the rail, the rail branding must be ground flush to the rail
contour in the area of electrode and clamp contact.
3.11.3.3 Welding Process
a. Electric flash butt welds shall not be made closer than three (3) feet from another weld.
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AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4-3-53
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b. Welding machine clamps, or auxiliary jack clamps, shall never be allowed to clamp onto an existing weld.
c.
When flash butt welding in track, rail anchors, clips, and insulators shall be removed and spikes nipped
for a sufficient distance to allow for free longitudinal movement of the rail during the welding process.
d. When a weld is torch cut for re-weld, or a rail is cropped by torch cutting, the weld must be made as soon
as possible but not to exceed 15 minutes after cutting to prevent deep thermal cracks from forming on
the cut rail end faces. If this cannot be done, the rail ends must be cut back a minimum of 4 inches
before making the weld.
e.
Where jagged, notched or badly mis-matched torch cuts are made on rails for electric flash butt welding,
the end faces shall be pre-flashed to an even or mated condition before setting up rails for preheating and
final flashing. This is to ensure that the entire surfaces of the rail ends are uniformly flashing
immediately preceding upset.
f.
If flashing on electric flash butt welds is interrupted because of malfunction or external reason, during
the progressive final flash, rails shall be re-clamped in the machine and flashing initiated again.
g. It is recommended that progressive final flashing be used leading into upset initiation.
h. Welding current should be maintained into upset initiation.
i.
Upset forces are to be calculated from the rail cross-sectional area and the material being welded.
j.
Full longitudinal upset force without clamp slippage should be maintained through the upset holding
time.
k. All electric flash butt welds shall be upset to a minimum 3/8” using either a fixed distance or upset to
refusal to further plastic deformation.
l.
In the case of in-track electric flash butt closure welding, the weld must be protected from detrimental
forces (typically opposite the upsetting force) until the weld has cooled to 700F or to a different release
temperature designated by the customer.
m. Upset removal shall be performed in such a manner and at such a temperature as to avoid tears and
gouges, minimizing required grinding.
n. Care must be taken to sufficiently protect equipment and rail to ensure a proper weld cycle with no
clamp slippage when operating in inclement weather.
o.
Care must be taken to prevent accelerated cooling of the weld in low ambient temperatures.
p. When required, an air quench operation may be performed to achieve desired surface hardness. The
operation should conform to accepted and tested procedures.
q. It is recommended that a recording device be used with each welding machine to monitor significant
welding parameters. Calibration should be checked on a daily basis.
r.
Each weld record shall be identified with the respective weld number and date of production.
3.11.3.4 Post Weld Alignment
a. Vertical Alignment
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AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Joining of Rail
(1) Vertical offset shall not exceed 0.060 inch in the head.
(2) (HS) Vertical offset shall not exceed 0.025 inch in the rail head. Vertical crown shall not exceed 0.030
inch.
(3) Maximum base offset shall not exceed 0.125 inch.
b. Horizontal Alignment
(1) For new rails, horizontal alignment shall be done in such a manner that any difference in the width
of heads be divided equally on both sides. Where the difference when divided exceeds 0.040 inch and
the gage side is pre-determined, it may be desirable to align the gage side allowing any difference in
the width of the heads to occur on the field side.
(2) For relay rails, horizontal alignment shall be done in such a manner that the webs will be straight
and any difference in the width of the heads finished by grinding.
(3) Horizontal offset shall not exceed 0.040 inch in the head and/or 0.125 inch in the base.
(4) (HS) Horizontal offset shall not exceed 0.030 inch in the rail head. Horizontal kink shall not exceed
0.025 inch, measured on the concaved side
3.11.3.5 Finish Grinding
a. Whenever possible, finish grinding shall be done immediately following the weld process with the weld at
an elevated temperature.
1
b. When finish grinding must be done at ambient temperature, care must be taken to avoid grinding burns
and metallurgical damage.
c.
In general, all sharp edges, burrs, notches, and shear drag fins are to be removed. The rail web shall be
finish ground.
3
d. (HS) Top of rail head, rail head radius and sides of the rail head shall be smooth and blended into parent
metal uniform in appearance and straight in line. A finishing deviation of minus 0.005 inch on the top of
the rail head and corner radius of the parent section of the rail head surface shall be allowed.
e.
For in-track or compromise welds, vertical offset of the rail head shall be finish blended over a ramp of
which the minimum length is determined by the following formula:
Minimum Ramp Length (feet) = Offset (inches )  3( feet )
0.060(inches )
Vertical Offset
0.010 inch
0.020 inch
0.030 inch
0.040 inch
0.050 inch
0.060 inch
f.
Offset Ramp Length
0.50 feet ( 6.0 inch)
1.00 feet (12.0 inch)
1.50 feet (18.0 inch)
2.00 feet (24.0 inch)
2.50 feet (30.0 inch)
3.00 feet (36.0 inch)
While blending the offset ramp, care must be taken to avoid sharp deviations in transition, avoiding
locations of impact loading.
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AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4-3-55
4
Rail
3.11.3.6 Post Weld Straightening
a. For a fixed plant production line, it is recommended that a straightening press be included to help
achieve or improve upon the alignment tolerances as described in Paragraph 3.11.4.3(a) and Paragraph
3.11.4.3(b).
3.11.4 INSPECTION REQUIREMENTS (2009)
3.11.4.1 Electrode Contact Areas
a. The weld and adjacent rail for a distance clearing the electrodes shall be rejected if in the areas of
electrode contact there is not more than 95% of the mill scale removed.
b. Rails showing evidence of electrode burns shall be rejected. An electrode burn is considered to exist
where metal has been displaced.
3.11.4.2 Weld Finish
a. A finishing deviation of not more than 0.005 inch of the parent section of the rail head surface should be
allowed.
b. The sides of the rail head should be finished to 0.010 inch of the parent rail section. If the bottom of the
rail base is to be finished, the rail base should be ground to within 0.010 inch of the lowest rail.
c.
The web zone (underside of head, web, top of base, both fillets each side), shall be finished to within 1/8
inch of parent contour or closer but shall not be deeper than the parent section. Finishing shall
eliminate all surface cracks.
d. All notches created by offset conditions or twisted rails shall be eliminated by grinding to blend the
variations.
e.
All fins on the weld due to grinding and/or shear drag shall be removed prior to final inspection.
3.11.4.3 Alignment Tolerances
a. Surface Alignment
(1) Combined vertical offset and crown camber at ambient temperature shall not exceed 0.060 inch as
shown in Figure 4-3-22 View A.
(a) (HS) Combined vertical offset and crown camber at ambient temperature shall not exceed 0.030
inch as shown in Figure 4-3-22 (HS) View A.
(2) No dip camber at ambient temperature shall be allowed as shown in Figure 4-3-22 View B.
(3) The hot weld tolerance at the inspection station will vary and should be established by practice.
b. Gage Alignment
(1) Combined horizontal offset and horizontal kink camber at ambient temperature shall not exceed
0.060 inch as shown in Figure 4-3-22 View C.
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AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Joining of Rail
(a) (HS) Combined horizontal offset and horizontal kink camber at ambient temperature shall not
exceed 0.030 inch as shown in Figure 4-3-22(HS) View C.
3.11.4.4 Magnetic Particle Inspection Procedure Guidelines (1994)
Magnetic particle inspection techniques, when applied to rail welds, quite often reveal indications that may or
may not be the result of the presence of flaws or injurious defects in the weld.
a. To aid the magnetic particle inspectors in evaluating the quality of rail welds, the following inspection
procedures are suggested:
(1) All butt line indications are to be cut out. (The amount of rail to be cut out and the means of making
the cut are purposely omitted here, since this is intended only as an inspection guideline.)
(2) Indications showing off the butt line (light and fuzzy), should be passed as acceptable, and a notation
made on the inspection record.
(3) Sharp indications outside the butt line, up to 1/8 inch in length, should be passed as acceptable, and a
notation made on the inspection record.
(4) Sharp indications outside the butt line, over 1/8 inch in length, should be cut out and re-welded once.
If a similar indication recurs after re-welding, the disposition of the weld will be made by the welding
plant supervisor.
b. As a further aid in evaluating questionable indications showing up in the weld area, as revealed by
magnetic particle inspection, one or more of the following procedures may be of assistance:
1
(1) Wipe the powder off the indication with a dry rag, and re-check with residual magnetism only (no
power applied to the field.)
(a) If it is a true defect, the powder will gather again, although lighter than before. The weld should
then be cut out and re-welded.
3
(b) If it is a non-injurious condition, the powder will not gather again. Such welds should be passed
as acceptable and a notation made on the inspection record.
(2) Refinish the questionable area with emery cloth or grinder.
4
(a) Re-check with normal magnetic field.
(b) Check further with residual magnetism, as described in Paragraph (1) above, if necessary.
(3) A 5-power magnifying glass may be of assistance in examining questionable indications.
c.
In general, a true flaw or defect in a weld will be revealed as a well defined straight line by magnetic
particle inspection; whereas, a non-injurious condition will usually appear to be relatively indistinct, will
parallel the flow lines of the weld, and may be slightly curved.
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4-3-57
Rail
VIEW ’A’
VIEW ’B’
PLAN VIEW OF RAIL SHOWING LATERAL (HORIZONTAL)
LINE TOLERANCE AT RAIL ENDS (Article 3.11.2.2(a))
ELEVATION VIEW OF RAIL SHOWING UNIFORM
UPSWEEP TOLERANCE AT RAIL ENDS
Figure 4-3-21. Tolerances for Inspection of Relay Rail
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AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Joining of Rail
VIEW ’A’
VIEW ’B’
ELEVATION VIEW OF RAIL SHOWING WELD
MISALIGNMENT TOLERANCE IN VERTICAL
ALIGNMENT (Article 3.11.4.3(a)(1))
ELEVATION VIEW OF RAIL SHOWING WELD
MISALIGNMENT TOLERANCE IN VERTICAL
ALIGNMENT (Article 3.11.4.3(a)(2))
1
3
VIEW ’C’
PLAN VIEW OF RAIL SHOWING WELD MISALIGNMENT
TOLERANCE IN HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
Figure 4-3-22. Tolerances for Inspection of Welded Rail New and Main Line Relay Rail
4
SECTION 3.12 INSPECTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF SECOND HAND
RAIL FOR WELDING
— 2017 —
3.12.1 SCOPE (2017)
This section presents recommendations on the inspection, pick-up and classification of second hand rail. (HS)
Second hand rail shall not be used in high speed track applications.
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4-3-59
Rail
3.12.2 INSPECTION (2009)
A field inspection should be undertaken while the rail is still in service and all rails containing severe engine
burns, rail anchor nicks, excessive wear or corrosion on the rail base or other visible flaws, should be marked
for rejection or a downgraded classification. If possible, a rail flaw detector car should inspect the rail within 10
million gross tons of it being picked up.
3.12.3 PICK UP OF RELEASED RAIL (2009)
Some railroads may choose to pick up rail out-of-face, while others may choose to pick it up in two or more
phases. If the condition of the rail is generally uniform without large variations in reuse classification, it is
recommended that the rail selected for welding be picked up in an out-of-face operation. If the condition of the
rail has large variations in reuse classification, it is recommended that the rail selected for welding be picked up
in one or more phases.
It is recommended that rail selected for welding be picked up in such a manner that the rail wear pattern in the
ensuing continuous welded rail (CWR) strings will remain approximately the same as it was in original service.
One method to keep rails in an orderly manner with respect to their wear patterns is to mark the north or west
rails as 2, 4, 6, etc and the south or east rail as 1, 3, 5, etc.
3.12.4 RECONDITIONING
It is recommended that rails to be welded be reconditioned to improve rail classification and remove sections
prone to cause high maintenance in the relayed position. Reconditioning may include one or more of the
following items:
a. straightening or removing surface bent rail
b. cropping joints
c.
cropping wheel burns, irregular wear or surface fatigue
d. removing unneeded stress risers such as bolt holes, and joints such as conventional and insulated
e.
culling “A” rails from the mix if the rail is ingot cast
f.
removing welds, both field and plant, in poor condition
g. grinding the rail to improve surface condition
3.12.5 RAIL SURFACE CONDITION (2009)
Wheel burns that are repairable, should either be repair welded before the rail is picked up or immediately after
reinstallation.
If the rail is to be reconditioned by grinding, it is recommended that it be performed after reinstallation and
after wheel burns have been repair welded.
Some railroads remove rail, whether jointed or welded, in lengths compatible to the rail carrying trains. Upon
arrival at the welding plant, some roads dismantle the jointed rail. Joint bars, bolts and washers may be
salvaged for reuse. Other roads crop the joints without removing the joint bars. In this case the rail, bars, bolts
and washers are scrapped as a unit.
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AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Joining of Rail
3.12.6 PREPARATION FOR WELDING (2009)
A qualified rail inspector should carefully inspect the rail for head wear, corrosion, base wear, sweep, kinks, or
any other defect that may have escaped detection in the pick up operation. Rail destined for welding into CWR
must be matched with similar rail to have the height and head width within 1/16 inch.
3.12.7 OTHER (2009)
It is recommended that:
• Rail be stored straight and level on a firm base, with each tier supported in at least four places per 39
ft. rail.
• Minimum rail length for welding be not less than 27 ft. after cropping
• Rail be welded to rail of similar metallurgy, heat treatment and manufacture process. For example:
– Control cooled and non controlled cooled should be welded separately
– Continuous cast and ingot cast rail should be welded separately
• Maximum head flow should not exceed ¼ inch on each side if rail shears are to be used to remove weld
upset metal.
• Bolt holes, bond wire holes or welds should be removed by cropping
1
• Cropped rail ends should be inspected for longitudinal type defects such as pipe, horizontal and vertical
split head, split web and head web separation defects.
• Rail be classified according to class as per Table 4-3-18:
3
– Rail classified as Class 1 or 2 may be used in any track without restriction.
– Rail classified as Class 3 may be used in light density mainlines, sidings, and all other tracks.
– Rail classified as Class 4 may be used in yard tracks, industrial tracks and light density spurs.
Note – the attached classification table is not intended for use in classifying “plug” or spot replacement rails, as
these rails should have head wear, rail height and head width that matches the rail to which they are to be
adjoined.
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4-3-61
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Rail
Table 4-3-18. Rail Grading Classification by Wear
Rail
Weight
Side Wear
Lip
Vertical
Wear
One Side
Other Side
Both Sides
141
1/4
1/8
0
3/16
140
3/16
1/8
0
3/16
136
3/16
1/8
0
3/16
133
3/16
1/8
0
3/16
132
3/16
1/8
0
3/16
131
1/8
1/8
0
3/16
122
1/8
1/8
0
3/16
119
1/8
1/8
0
3/16
115
1/8
1/8
0
3/16
112
1/8
1/8
0
3/16
100
1/16
1/8
0
3/16
141
3/8
1/4
0
3/16
140
5/16
1/4
0
3/16
136
5/16
1/4
0
3/16
133
5/16
1/4
0
3/16
132
5/16
1/4
0
3/16
131
1/4
1/4
0
3/16
122
1/4
3/16
0
3/16
119
1/4
3/16
0
3/16
115
1/4
3/16
0
3/16
112
1/4
3/16
0
3/16
100
1/8
3/16
0
3/16
141
5/8
3/8
0
3/16
140
9/16
3/8
0
3/16
136
9/16
3/8
0
3/16
133
9/16
3/8
0
3/16
132
9/16
3/8
0
3/16
131
1/2
3/8
0
3/16
122
7/16
5/16
0
3/16
119
3/8
5/16
0
3/16
115
3/8
5/16
0
3/16
112
3/8
5/16
0
3/16
CLASS 1
CLASS 2
CLASS 3
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Table 4-3-18. Rail Grading Classification by Wear (Continued)
Side Wear
Lip
Rail
Weight
Vertical
Wear
One Side
Other Side
Both Sides
100
1/4
5/16
0
3/16
141
3/4
1/2
1/2
3/16
140
5/8
1/2
1/2
3/16
136
5/8
1/2
1/2
3/16
133
5/8
1/2
1/2
3/16
132
5/8
1/2
1/2
3/16
131
5/8
3/8
3/8
3/16
122
9/16
3/8
3/8
3/16
119
1/2
3/8
3/8
3/16
115
1/2
3/8
3/8
3/16
112
1/2
3/8
3/8
3/16
100
3/8
3/8
3/8
3/16
CLASS 4
1
3
4
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
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Rail
SECTION 3.13 SPECIFICATION FOR THE QUALITY ASSURANCE OF THERMITE
WELDING OF RAIL1
— 2017 —
3.13.1 SCOPE (2003)
3.13.1.1 This specification covers thermite welding of steel tee rails weighing 115 lbs./yd. and over for use
in railway track.
3.13.1.2 For recommended practices for thermite welding of sections of rail other than described in
Paragraph 3.13.1.1 refer to the manufacturer’s instructions for the specific process being used.
3.13.1.3 This specification covers mechanical properties, dimensional tolerances and test procedures
necessary for assuring the quality of thermite welds of all rails manufactured to current AREMA
specifications. The following is intended to cover initial process qualification and routine quality
assurance requirements and procedures.
3.13.2 MANUFACTURE (2003)
3.13.2.1 The thermite weld shall be made according to the manufacturer’s instructions for the specific
thermite welding process being used. Details of such processes are to be obtained from the manufacturer
of the thermite welding kit.
3.13.2.2 Workers who perform thermite welding shall be trained to perform the operation by a qualified
instructor.
3.13.3 WELD INTEGRITY REQUIREMENTS (2017)
3.13.3.1 Ultrasonic Acceptance
The weld between the two joining rail ends shall be accepted if it has no reflective surface greater than 1/8 inch.
3.13.3.2 Visual Acceptance
The outside weld surface shall be free from any detrimental discontinuities as compared to a typical as cast
surface finish.
3.13.3.3 Weld Hardness
The hardness of the weld metal shall be within +/- 30 BHN points of the manufacturer’s specified hardness for
the specific welding kit being used.
1
References, Vol. 82, 1981, p. 75.
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Joining of Rail
3.13.3.4 Weld Finished Dimensional Tolerances of the Railhead
3.13.3.4.1 Vertical Offset
0.060 inch maximum
3.13.3.4.1 (HS) Vertical Offset 0.025 inch maximum
3.13.3.4.2 Horizontal Offset
0.060 inch maximum
3.13.3.4.2 (HS) Horizontal Offset 0.030 inch maximum
3.13.3.4.3 Horizontal Kink
0.025 inch maximum
3.13.3.4.3 (HS) Horizontal Kink 0.025 inch maximum measured on the concave side
3.13.3.4.4 Vertical Crown
+0.060 inch maximum, -0.000 inch maximum
3.13.3.4.4 (HS) Vertical Crown +0.030 inch maximum, -0.000 inch maximum
3.13.3.4.5 Combined Horizontal Offset and Kink
0.060 inch maximum
3.13.3.4.5 (HS) Combined Horizontal Offset and Kink 0.030 inch maximum
3.13.3.4.6 Combined Vertical Offset and Crown
0.090 inch maximum
1
3.13.3.4.6 (HS) Combined Vertical Offset and Crown 0.030 inch maximum
Where an allowable offset or kink exists, taper grinding to create a smooth transition is recommended.
3.13.3.5 Weld Finish
The railhead shall be ground smooth on the running surface and the field and gage sides. The base riser break
off area shall be ground flush with the weld collar. Other than the smoothing of the base riser break off area,
the as cast geometry of the thermite weld should be left intact.
3.13.3.5.a (HS) Top of rail head, rail head radius and sides of the rail head shall be smooth and blended into
parent metal uniform in appearance and straight in line. A finishing deviation of minus 0.005 inch on the
top of the rail head and corner radius of the parent section of the rail head surface shall be allowed. The
base riser break off area shall be ground flush with the weld collar. Other than the smoothing of the base
riser break off area, the as cast geometry of the thermite weld should be left intact.
3.13.3.6 Weld Microstructure
The presence of martensite is not acceptable at any location in the weldment.
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4-3-65
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4
Rail
3.13.3.7 Slow Bend Test Results
Rail Grade
Modulus of Rupture
Deflection
Standard Carbon
110,000 psi minimum
0.90 inch minimum
High Strength
120,000 psi minimum
0.60 inch minimum
3.13.4 WELD INTEGRITY TEST PROCEDURES (2016)
3.13.4.1 Ultrasonic Testing
The thermite weld shall be tested ultrasonically in accordance with the most common industry test practice for
the ultrasonic inspection of rail.
3.13.4.2 Visual Inspection
The thermite weld shall be visually inspected by an experienced inspector familiar with typical as cast surface
finishes. The procedure for visual inspection shall be similar to the procedure for magnetic particle inspection
described in Article 3.11.4.4 of this chapter.
3.13.4.3 Weld Hardness Testing
The thermite weld shall be tested for hardness by the hardness testing method described in Article 2.1.3.2 of
this chapter. The hardness test to verify weld metal hardness is to be taken on the running surface at the center
of the weld fusion zone.
3.13.4.4 Weld Finished Dimensional Tolerance Inspection
The thermite weld is to be inspected for dimensional tolerance using a 3’ straight edge centered on the weld and
a taper gauge.
3.13.4.5 Weld Finish Inspection
The thermite weld shall be visually inspected in addition to the above to verify that the base riser break off area
has been smoothed.
3.13.4.6 Weld Microstructure Testing
If weld metal hardness exceeds 410 BHN, the weld shall be examined at 100X or higher for confirmation of a
fully pearlitic microstructure.
3.13.4.7 Slow Bend Testing
The thermite weld is to be slow bend tested in accordance with the slow bend test procedure described in
Article 3.10.3.6 of this chapter.
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
4-3-66
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Joining of Rail
3.13.5 FREQUENCY OF TESTING (2003)
3.13.5.1 Recent results of destructive testing of weld samples from a proven thermite welding process
accompanied by a certified Quality Assurance batch report for the welding material being used is
acceptable initial process qualification.
3.13.5.2 Quality Assurance testing utilizing non destructive means included in this writing should be made
upon request.
Any process change should be announced by the manufacturer and welds produced and tested for initial
process qualification.
1
3
4
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4-3-67
Rail
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK.
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
4-3-68
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4
Part 4
Maintenance of Rail
— 2017 —
FOREWORD
The section on “Specifications for Heat-Treated Carbon Steel Tee Rails (USS CURVEMASTER) as produced by the United
States Steel Corporation” was deleted in its entirety in 1996.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section/Article
Description
Page
4.1
Field, Rail Flaw Identification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.1
Scope (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-4-5
4-4-5
4.2
Identification of Rail Surface Conditions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.1
Head Checking (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.2
Flaking (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.3
Spalling (2010). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.4
Shelling (2010). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.5
Corrugation (2010). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.6
Corrosion (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-4-62
4-4-62
4-4-64
4-4-66
4-4-68
4-4-70
4-4-72
4.3
Recommended Minimum Performance Guideline for Rail T esting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.1
Introduction (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.2
Performance Guideline for Regular T esting (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.3
Measuring Against the Performance Guidelines (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.4
Verification of Reliability Ratio for Missed Defects (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-4-76
4-4-76
4-4-76
4-4-78
4-4-79
4.4
Recommended Qualifications for Operator Performing Ultrasonic Testing of Rail or Track Components 4-4-80
4.4.1
Purpose (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4-80
4.4.2
Qualifications (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4-80
4.4.3
NDT Level III or Program Administrator Requirements (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4-81
4.4.4
Personnel (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4-81
4.4.5
Examination of Personnel (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4-82
4.5
Recommended Procedures for Operator Performing Ultrasonic Testing of Rail or Track Components
4.5.1
Recommended Procedures (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5.2
Ultrasonic Test (UT) Written Procedure Requirements (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5.3
Calibration of Test Equipment (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
4-4-82
4-4-82
4-4-83
4-4-83
4-4-1
Rail
TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONT)
Section/Article
4.5.4
4.5.5
4.5.6
4.5.7
Description
Page
Inspection Procedures (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Evaluation (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reports (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Recommended Record Maintenance (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-4-84
4-4-84
4-4-84
4-4-85
4.6
Recommended Calibration Rails for Rail Flaw Detection System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.6.1
Purpose (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.6.2
Manufacture of Calibration Rails (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.6.3
Calibration Rails (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-4-85
4-4-85
4-4-85
4-4-85
4.7
Recommended Repair of Defective or Broken Rail in CWR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.7.1
Scope (2005). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.7.2
General (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.7.3
Repair by Cutting in a Short Section of Rail and the Application of Standard Joint Bars (2005)
...............................................................................
4.7.4
Repair by Cutting in a Short Section of Rail and Thermite Weld the Rail Ends (2005) . . . . . . . . . .
4.7.5
Repair by Cutting in a Short Section of Rail and Flash Welding the Rail Ends (2005). . . . . . . . . . .
4-4-95
4-4-95
4-4-95
4-4-95
4-4-96
4-4-96
4.8
Rail Grinding Best Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.8.1
Scope (2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.8.2
Rail Grinding Definition (2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.8.3
Reason for Rail Grinding (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.8.4
What is Best Practice Rail Grinding? (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.8.5
Factors That Influence Preventive Rail Grinding (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.8.6
Preventive Grinding Metal Removal Rates (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.8.7
Grinding Cycles for Preventive Grinding (2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.8.8
Surface Finish Tolerances (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.8.9
Continuous Improvement (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.8.10 Planning and Quality Control of Rail Grinding (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.8.11 Recommended Practices for Switch and Maintenance Grinding Applications (2012) . . . . . . . . . . .
4-4-97
4-4-97
4-4-97
4-4-97
4-4-98
4-4-100
4-4-104
4-4-105
4-4-106
4-4-107
4-4-108
4-4-110
4.9
Beveling or Slotting of Rail Ends (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-4-113
4.10 Reconditioning Rail Ends (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-4-113
4.11 Recommended Practices for Rail/Wheel Friction Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.11.1 Scope (2005). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.11.2 General (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.11.3 Measuring Friction Control Effectiveness (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.11.4 Friction Measurement Systems (2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.11.5 Lubricants and/or Friction Modifiers (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.11.6 Wayside Applicator Spacing Considerations (2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-4-113
4-4-113
4-4-113
4-4-114
4-4-117
4-4-118
4-4-120
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
4-4-1
Description
Page
Detail Fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-4-7
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
4-4-2
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Maintenance of Rail
LIST OF FIGURES (CONT)
Figure
4-4-2
4-4-3
4-4-4
4-4-5
4-4-6
4-4-7
4-4-8
4-4-9
4-4-10
4-4-11
4-4-12
4-4-13
4-4-14
4-4-15
4-4-16
4-4-17
4-4-18
4-4-19
4-4-20
4-4-21
4-4-22
4-4-23
4-4-24
4-4-25
4-4-26
4-4-27
4-4-28
4-4-29
4-4-30
4-4-31
4-4-32
4-4-33
4-4-34
4-4-35
4-4-36
4-4-37
4-4-38
4-4-39
4-4-40
4-4-41
4-4-42
4-4-43
4-4-44
4-4-45
4-4-46
4-4-47
4-4-48
4-4-49
4-4-50
4-4-51
Description
Additional Photos - Detail Fracture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Compound Fissure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Transverse Fissure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Engine Burn Fracture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Electrode Burn Fracture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Detail Fracture - Weld Repair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Defective Plant and In-Track Weld (Electric Flash-Butt and Gas Pressure Welds) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Defective Thermite Weld. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Additional Photos - Defective Thermite Weld. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Horizontal Split Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vertical Split Head. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Additional Photos - Vertical Split Head. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bolt Hole Crack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Additional Photos - Bolt Hole Crack. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Head and Web Separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Split Web . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rail Pipe and Segregation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Broken Base. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Additional photos and information - Broken Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ordinary Break . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Damaged Rails. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Signal Bond Defects - Drilled Signal Taps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Signal Bond Defects - Exothermic Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Signal Bond Defects - Electric Brazing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Crushed Head / Flattened Rail. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mill Defects / Seams / Laps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Battered Rail End. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Battered Rail End - progressed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Head Checking - Light. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Severe Head Checking with Spalling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Head Checking - (Lab Photo) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Head Checking with Flaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Flaking - Gage Side . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Flaking - Close up view. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Flaking with Head Checking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Light Spalling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Severe Rail Center Spalling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Gage Side Spalling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Close Up View: Light Spall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Center Spalling Low Rail (Over Elevation) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Shelling (Light) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Severe Shelling on Gage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Close Up of Shell on the Gage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Corrugation with Crushing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Corrugation - Curve (Both Rails) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Corrugation - High Rail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Corrugation (Close Up View) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Corrugation (Curve - Low Rail) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Metallographic Sample of Corrosion (Red arrows indicate locations of corrosion Pits) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Web and Base Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4-4-3
Rail
LIST OF FIGURES (CONT)
Figure
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Description
Page
Additional Corrosion Photos (Rail Base). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-4-74
Base Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-4-75
Web & Base Corrosion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-4-75
Web Cracks from Corrosion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-4-75
Calibration Rails #1 & #2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-4-87
Calibration Rails #3 & #4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-4-88
Calibration Rails #5 & #6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-4-89
Calibration Rails #7 & #8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-4-90
Calibration Rail #9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-4-91
Calibration Rail #10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-4-92
Calibration Rail #11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-4-93
Calibration Rail #12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-4-94
Shows the preventive grinding tonnage based cycles designed to remove the small surface initiating cracks just before
their period of rapid growth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-4-99
Typical changes to the rail geometry due to wear and plastic flow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-4-100
Ratcheting of the rail surface material caused by traction and slip on the rail surface.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-4-101
High-rail gage face ’Deep Seated Shelling’ between 30 and 60 degrees on the rail surface which is caused by lower
natural wear and high lateral forces in curves with 100% effective gage face lubrication.. . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-4-101
The rim side of the wheel may have a "false flange" which can cause significant damage to the low-rail of sharp
curves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-4-102
Shows a 10 inch (250-mm) radius gage on the low rail and the damage caused by the false flange. Grinding of wide
gage track must remove a substantial amount of metal from the field side to protect the rail from wheel false flange
damage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-4-103
Shows how the high-rail gage corner collapses under heavy wheel loads. Also shown is the metal flow from the
4-4-103
center of the rail to the mid gage area of the rail where RCF cracks form. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Showing Grinding Unit Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-4-111
Location of gage face, corner and top of rail friction zones. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-4-115
Suggested RDG layout, showing deflection sensor, wheel sensor, and data collection box . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-4-117
Schematic for Wayside Gage Face Applicator Field Deployment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-4-126
LIST OF TABLES
Table
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4-4-3
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Description
Page
Recommended Minimum Performance Guideline for Rail Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-4-77
Typical "Optimal" Metal Removal Rate (in 2002) in inches (mm) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-4-105
Preventive Rail Grinding Cycles (2002) corresponding to the Optimal Metal Removal Rates shown in Table 4-4-2.
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Surface Finish and Profile Tolerances for Preventive Grinding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Summary of Track Geometry Data for “Fictitious Sub” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
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AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Maintenance of Rail
SECTION 4.1 FIELD, RAIL FLAW IDENTIFICATION
- 2007 4.1.1 SCOPE (2007)
a.
The purpose is to provide uniform definitions for internal rail defects.
b.
This section defines known defect types with photographs for easier identification. Final determination of type and
cause should be referred to railroad/railroad industry experts or a laboratory with metallurgy and rail defect expertise.
c.
It provides industry definitions, known causes, hazards and recommended actions to reduce the occurrence of these
defects.
d.
Where applicable, this section provides in-track photographs of rail defects that may be visually identified or detected.
e.
Defect types may be unique to rail year, design, weight, chemistry or processes used in its production. Additionally,
railroad rolling stock, higher load capacities, track components/structures and maintenance processes continually
change, which affect fatigue defect development. Therefore, this section is not meant to be a complete library of all
rail defects.
Head Defects - Transverse
Transverse defects are any progressive fractures occurring in the head of a rail and have a transverse separation, however
slight. Present hand test methods classify defects in track using known defect characteristics. While these methods are
generally accepted, the most accurate identification will be made by examining the rail after the defect has been fully exposed
through rail breaking.
• Detail Fracture (from Shelling, Head check or other surface defect)
• Reverse Detail Fracture
• Compound Fissure
• Transverse Fissure
• Engine Burn Fracture
• Welded Burn Fracture
Except the Engine Burn Fracture, which is described later, no evidence is visible until the defect reaches the rail surface
(cracks out). Transverse defects "cracked out" can be visually recognized by one or more of the following characteristics:
• A Hairline crack at right angles to the running surface, usually on the field or gage side of the head, or at the fillet
under the head; occasionally on the running surface. Discoloration caused by rust/oxidation (red or purple) may be
present around the crack. This is called bleeding.
• The crack usually extends downward at right angles from a horizontal crack caused by shelling of the upper gage
corner of the rail head. Shelling can be identified by the presence of a slight discoloration on the gage side of the
running surface. In transposed rail the shelly area may be on at the field side.
In addition, Compound Fissures may exhibit the following:
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AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
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Rail
• A horizontal hairline crack in the side of the rail head which turns upward or downward at one or both ends and is
usually accompanied by bleeding. Under such conditions a flat spot will generally be present on the running surface.
• For purposes of required remedial actions, defect classification is reported by rail test personnel.
• Most of these defects found in the head of the rail and are sometimes grouped with other fatigue defects which
appear over time as the rail ages. Causes to include:
– Steel impurities or process problems
– Fatigue (train tonnage over time)
– Rail surface (slivers, shells or damage, etc.)
– Track Geometry (vertical, horizontal and ballast/tie modulus)
– Temperature swings (compression and tension)
Defects can grow slowly with light train tonnage and warm temperatures or they can grow rapidly in extreme cold
temperatures (rail under tension) with heavy trains and traffic (high forces on rail). Impacts to the rail, such as flat spots on
wheels at or near small existing defect could accelerate growth or cause immediate failure.
Commonalties: All of these usually start as a small nucleus of pinhead size. Then defects grow in size with a pattern similar to
tree rings. With slow progressive growth, rings are close together. With rapid new growth, rings are spread farther apart.
Older growth areas darken with time and oxidation, while new rapid growth is bright or shiny. When extremes are not
present, growth is more predictable from a detectable size to approximately 25% of the cross sectional area of the head. More
rapid unpredictable growth is shown beyond this size.
Rail surface and line, tie conditions, and ballast condition can be a key factor in the development of these and other rail
defects. Good track structure can aid in the prevention of internal rail defects.
Preventive rail grinding has been proven to relieve rail stresses and reduce the development of some types of fatigue defects.
Grinding eliminates surface defects that can develop into defects (detail fractures, crushed heads, etc.). One of the most
important aspects of a good grinding program is that it maintains a rail surface that is conducive to conventional rail testing
methods. Detecting these defects prior to failure is critical, and rail surface conditions can mask defects.
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AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Maintenance of Rail
Definition: A detail fracture is a progressive facture that typically originates from a separation close to the running surface of
the rail head. This separation turns down and progresses transversely at right angles to the running surface of the rail. This
defect is usually associated with shelling but can also develop from head checking, sliver or flaking.
Figure 4-4-1. Detail Fracture
Cause: Separations normally originate on the gage side of the rail head from loading stresses associated with rail/wheel
interfacing. However, the detail fracture can also be found on the field side of the rail if the rail has been turned or loading
occurs because of hollow-worn wheel tread. rail wheels. The separation progresses longitudinally (normally at a slight angle)
until transverse separation initiates. No nucleus will be present, as the origin will always be associated with mechanical
development.
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AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
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Prevention: Maintenance of proper track gage and surface to prevent additional loading of rail at rail/wheel interface. Preventive rail grinding to maintain rail
surface and relieve stress areas.
Hazard: Transverse progression is normally slow to a size of 20 percent. Further growth can be more rapid prior to sudden complete failure of the rail section.
Detail fractures can occur in several places in the same rail, which can result in complete failure of the rail section.
Rail
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AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Figure 4-4-2. Additional Photos - Detail Fracture
Maintenance of Rail
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AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4-4-9
Definition: A reverse detail fracture is a progressive fracture that typically originates in the material flow that develops on the bottom gage side of the rail,
predominantly on the high side of curves. This defect progresses transversely at right angles to the running surface of the rail.
Rail
4-4-10
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Cause: Separations normally occur on the gage side of the rail head. This defect develops in the material flow, (plastic deformation), on the high side of curves
from loading stresses associated with the rail/wheel interface. No nucleus will be present, as the origin will always be associated with mechanical development,
(fatigue).
Maintenance of Rail
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
4-4-11
Rail
Additional Information
Detail Fracture from Rail Shell
• Origin is usually a longitudinal more-or-less horizontal separation of metal inside the rail, which may be
accompanied by a darkened streak near on gage side of running surface (field if the rail has been transposed). Shells
progress longitudinally, not in a true horizontal or vertical pattern, but at an angle related rail wear on the gage
corner. Some shells turn down and inward to form a transverse separation. There is usually a slight indentation on
rail surface in the shell area.
• Accurate classification can only be made if rail is broken to expose defect.
• Identification after breaking is a longitudinal separation with progressive transverse component resembling
transverse fissure. It may show streak or seam on rail surface denoting shell.
Detail Fracture from Head Check, Spalling, Sliver or Flaking
• Origin: head check (Surface cracking near gage corner), spalling (small pieces breaking out in the rail/wheel
interface area), slivers (cold working /metal flow) or flaking (loading at rail/wheel interface). Usually a fracture
starting at or near the surface progressing downward and spreading transversely through the head.
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
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AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Figure 4-4-3. Compound Fissure
Compound Fracture Originating from Shelling
Cause: Usually a horizontal separation originating from an internal longitudinal seam, segregation, or inclusion. Conditions from which the horizontal separation
originates can exist throughout the rail length. The separation will progress longitudinally for an unspecified distance, then will turn upward, downward, or both,
and transverse progression will initiate. Seams or segregations can occur in multiple planes.
Compound Fractures from Horizontal Split Head
(above) and Engine Burn (below)
Definition: A compound fissure is a progressive fracture in the rail head that originates as a horizontal separation which turns up or down, or in both directions
to form a transverse separation substantially at right angles to the running surface. Compound fissures may include multiple horizontal or vertical planes.
Maintenance of Rail
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
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Prevention: Clean steel and improved steel making processes
Compound Fissure with Multiple Planes
Close-up View
Hazard: Transverse portion normally grows slow to a size of 20 to 25 per cent of the cross sectional area of the rail head while the horizontal or vertical
component usually shows slow rate. If horizontal separation develops sufficiently to extend to the running surface of the rail and results in a flat area on the rail
head, growth will usually be rapid in nature due to the effects of load impact. The complete fracture will result in a transverse failure of the rail from head to base
and typically occurs before the defect becomes visible.
Rail
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AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Maintenance of Rail
Additional Information
• Classification after breaking: Both longitudinal and transverse separations are usually exposed. The longitudinal
separation may be short, appearing only as a displacement between two transverse planes. The longitudinal
separation is usually parallel to the running surface, but may be in any other plane. The transverse portion generally
resembles transverse fissure except no nucleus is present.
• Surfaces may be bright or darkened due to oxidation
• Compound fissures require examination of both faces of the fracture to locate the horizontal split head from which
they originate.
• Hand testing with conventional ultrasonic methods should include multiple transducers to insure removal of defect
area.
• Hairline crack or cracks may be visible on gage or field side of rail with oxidation (bleeding - red or purple
coloration) due to internal rusting. If compound defect is end result of horizontal split head, flattened rail surface
may be present.
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
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Cause: The internal nucleus from which the transverse fissure develops is an imperfection inherent from the steel manufacturing process, such as a shatter crack,
or a minute inclusion or blowhole. Failure to effectively remove hydrogen is the most common cause of shatter cracks that develop into transverse fissures. These
inherent internal imperfections can be located in several places in the same rail length and can exist in multiple rails from the same heat. Loading, impacts from
wheels and the bending stresses initiate the transverse separation around the internal imperfection.
Figure 4-4-4. Transverse Fissure
Definition: A transverse fissure is a progressive crosswise fracture originating from a center or nucleus located inside the rail head, developing outward
substantially at right angles to the running surface of the rail.
Rail
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Maintenance of Rail
Hazard: Growth of the defect is typically slow in nature until the transverse separation reaches a size of 20 to 25 per cent of
the cross sectional area of the rail head. Once the transverse separation reaches this size growth is typically more rapid or
sudden before complete failure of the rail section occurs. The complete fracture is a transverse oriented break of the rail from
head to base and typically occurs before the defect becomes visible. Additionally more than one inclusion could be present in
the same rail section.
Reverse Side of defect
coupon
Prevention: Steel processes, controlled cooling, cleaner steel production
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4-4-17
Rail
Additional Information
• Fracture surfaces start from a crystalline center or a nucleus inside the head from which they spread outward as a
smooth, bright, or dark, round or oval surface substantially at a right angle to the running surface. The distinguishing
features of a transverse fissure from other types of fractures or defects are the crystalline center or nucleus and the
nearly smooth surface of the development, which surrounds it.
• Accurate classification cannot be made until the rail is broken.
• Effective hydrogen elimination was implemented between 1932 and 1937. Current rail steel making processes have
greatly reduced the occurrence of this defect type.
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
4-4-18
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Cause: The defect originates from overheating of the rail surface produced by the friction. Rapid cooling creates untempered martensite and thermal cracking.
The pounding of wheels over time at the burned area result in a horizontal separation of the burned metal from the parent metal and a noticeable flat spot will
develop. Transverse separation can then initiate from the burn and progress into the rail head.
Figure 4-4-5. Engine Burn Fracture
Definition: An engine burn fracture is a progressive fracture in the head of the rail that initiates from overheating generated by slipping locomotive wheels. Rapid
cooling results in thermal cracks. Its appearance in track is of a round or oval area with slivers from metal flow where metal has flattened or separated just below
the surface. Usually fatigue is at right angles to the running surface, but may occur in several directions into the rail head.
Maintenance of Rail
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
4-4-19
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Prevention: To prevent wheel slippage, proper engineer training, proper traction levels on grades and the use of sanding when wheel slippage occurs are the most
effective ways to reduce engine burns. Most newer engines have integrated wheel slippage detection.
Hazard: The underlying defect associated with the engine burn can be difficult to detect because the rail head surface conditions can prevent detection before
failure. Conventional ultrasonic sound detection can be blocked by the rail surface conditions. Growth may be normal or rapid before sudden failure of the rail
section through the head, and into the web and base. Complete fracture normally results in a transverse break. Identification of internal rail flaw is not visible until
it reaches surface (Cracks Out).
Rail
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
• Engine burn fractures have the potential to be very
dangerous because there may be several burned
areas or fractures within a small area.
– Broken, the pieces will show the burn surface
with transverse separation and will have no
nucleus. Defects may exist at one, two, or three
planes anywhere along the burn area. A
horizontal separation will generally start at
running surface slanting downward.
– Hairline cracks may be visible on the side of the
head, beneath the engine burn area, in the vicinity
of an engine burn on the surface, and at right
angles to the running surface. Cracks can be
visible on either side of the head (field, gage) or
in the fillet.
• Wheel slippage burns rail surface transferring heat
created by the friction down into the rail. Cold rail
temperatures can compound this problem with
higher differential between burned area and rail.
Cracking from the untempered martensite usually
develops downward and outward from the burned
area. This can cause immediate rail breakage or
result in a compound defect at a later date. An
engine burn fracture may then be recognized by one
or more of the following characteristics:
Additional Information
Maintenance of Rail
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
4-4-21
4-4-22
Cause: Insufficient electrode contact overheats the rail. This creates an electric burn approximately 2” in diameter at the center of the rail head during the flashbutt welding process. After time in track the burned area begins to spall or break out with a crack progressing under the burn down into the rail head.
Figure 4-4-6. Electrode Burn Fracture
Definition: A transverse fissure from an electrode burn is a progressive fracture in the head of the rail that initiates from overheating generated by the flash-butt
welder. The defect starts at the center of the head under the burn and progresses transversely into the rail head. Its appearance in track is similar to an engine burn
and they are always located 6” – 9” from a flash-butt weld. Electrode burns also can result in broken bases – *see Broken Base photos.
Rail
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AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Flash Butt Weld
Electrode Burn
– (Weld is to the left of Electrode Burn)
– Sometimes mistaken for an engine burn
because the appearance is similar
Surface View of Electrode Burn
Prevention: The best preventive measure is to insure that good contact is maintained between the welder electrode and the rail head. Optional repair welding
and/or grinding of burns found in track can prevent spall and defect growth.
Hazard: Metal breaks out of the burned area from the pounding of wheels leaving a small void or cavity. A transverse crack propagates from under the burn into
the head of the rail. Growth of the defect may be normal or rapid before sudden fracture through the web and base. Complete fracture of the rail can occur before
the defect can be detected by rail test cars because it initiates under a surface burn.
Maintenance of Rail
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
4-4-23
4-4-24
Cause: The defect is a result of improper welding techniques, usually during the cleaning phase, associated with the repair of engine burn or electrode burns. It
can also be a result of improper cooling which may create martensite and thermal cracks. Transverse separation will initiate from inclusions or heat affected zone
(under-bead cracking) of the weld.
Figure 4-4-7. Detail Fracture - Weld Repair
Definition: A transverse separation associated with a weld repair is a progressive fracture in the head of the rail that initiates from an inclusion or stress crack
resulting from a weld repair rail re-surfacing. The defect will typically initiate at the interface between the weld filler metal and parent metal of the rail section. It
then progresses transversely into the rail head. No evidence of a transverse defect is visible until the defect reaches the rail surface.
Rail
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Maintenance of Rail
Hazard: Cracks develop as a result of train traffic and progress transversely into the head. Growth is normal as the defect
reaches 10%-20% in size, then growth rate is usually rapid until sudden fracture of the rail through the web and base. A
sudden, complete failure can occur from any sized defect. Improper welding techniques could also mask defect detection of
thermal cracking from engine burns or repairs.
Prevention: The best preventive measure is not to repair engine burns or other rail surface problems in open rail using
conventional welding techniques. If repairs are made using these processes, ensure that welders strictly follow instructions
when repairing engine burns or electrode burns. This is to include the complete removal of rail surface defect, cleaning of slag
between weld passes, maintaining interpass temperatures and accurate pre and post heating of the rail.
Additional Information
• Develops substantially at right angles to the running surface at engine burn or electrode burn that have been
resurfaced by welding.
• Weld repair fracture is sometimes the result of insufficient grinding and/or "wash out“ cleaning of an old engine burn
prior to resurfacing by welding and this essentially fails to eliminate thermal cracks created by the original driver
bum.
• Improper preheat, rapid cooling or not post heating of a resurfaced burn can also result in new thermal cracks.
• Growth may be relatively slow as with other transverse defects, but will be accelerated by heavy traffic, loading or
inadequate track maintenance.
• Welded burn fracture can then be recognized by a hairline crack at right angles to the running surface. Crack may be
visible on the field or gage side of the rail head or underneath the head in the head fillet area.
• Although the rail can show external evidence of the rail having been resurfaced by welding (i.e., uneven build-up,
grinder marks, etc.), only after breaking can an accurate classification can be made. In some cases the refinishing is
so complete that verification of the weld is difficult without etching. Transverse separation usually develops at the
line between the parent metal and the filler metal. This line sometimes has the appearance of a shallow horizontal
separation.
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AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4-4-25
4-4-26
Definition: Plant weld and in-track welds containing discontinuities or pockets, usually oriented in or near the transverse plane. Weld defects may originate in the
rail head, web, or base, and in some cases, cracks may progress from the defect into either or both adjoining rail ends.
Figure 4-4-8. Defective Plant and In-Track Weld (Electric Flash-Butt and Gas Pressure Welds)
Defect shows extreme rapid growth pattern (rail end view)
Rail
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AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Flash butt weld - Carbon deposit
Defect from grinder gouge
Flash butt weld - Shear drag
Cause: Weld or weld process problems, shearing, finish grinding and rail handling following welding. Also it can be caused by rail handling during transportation
to field track location and installation irregularities. Discontinuities or pockets may be due to incomplete penetration of weld metal between the rail ends, lack of
fusion between weld and rail end metal, entrapment of slag, other shrinkage cracking, or fatigue cracking. Defects can also be associated with normal rail fatigue.
Maintenance of Rail
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
4-4-27
4-4-28
Left - Incomplete fusion, rail
movement during welding cycle
Right - Enlarged to show poor
fusion area
In-Track Weld - Shear drag web fillet
Prevention: Strict adherence to to welding procedures, proper shearing, grinding and handling. Proper track surface can also effect rail weld longevity.
Hazard: Rail breakage especially in cold temperature.
Rail
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AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Maintenance of Rail
Flash-butt Welds are welds made using an electric flash butt system. The rail ends are heated using electric flashes and then
forged together using high pressure, thus fusing them. These welds are made either in railroad or contracted rail welding
plants or by an on site in-track welder.
• Flash-butt weld defects usually start with an inclusion, a lack of fusion or stress riser. The appearance can be similar
to that of a transverse fissure in the head of the rail.
Gas Pressure Welds use a similar process except that the rail ends are heated using a flammable gas and oxygen mixture
instead of electric flashes.
• Gas Pressure weld defects can occur from inclusions, lack of fusion or stress risers as with flash-butt welds, The
most significant difference is that this process does not flash parent metal off the rail ends during welding. Prior to
welding, proper alignment of ends and cleaning the ends is critical. Failure to do so could result in the entrapment of
inclusions or poor fusion during the forging processes (lamination defects).
Defective welds can also occur in the web and base area due to process problems associated with shear and grinding of excess
upset material. Some other factors causing weld defects or premature failures are:
– Misaligned or uneven rail ends
– Mismatched rails
– Failure to properly clean rail ends prior to welding
– Improper grinding or handling processes that create surface conditions that can be a source of defects
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AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4-4-29
4-4-30
Figure 4-4-9. Defective Thermite Weld
Heat/process problems
Large Compound defect
Cause: Initial failures can be caused by improper rail end alignment, mold (or mold alignment) improper preheat, charge material, moisture or introduction of
impurities, shearing, grinding and other process issues. Extended service life failures may be associated with normal rail fatigue, casting fatigue factors, hot tear
(rail movement while weld is being made) and poor track support in the weld area.
Carbon deposit
Definition: Field Welds, "Thermite" containing discontinuities or pockets, usually oriented in or near the transverse plane. This may be due to incomplete
penetration of weld metal between the rail ends, lack of fusion between weld and rail end metal, entrapment of slag or sand, underbead or other shrinkage cracking,
or fatigue cracking. Weld defects may originate in the rail head, web, or base. In some cases, cracks may progress from the defect into either or both adjoining rail
ends.
Rail
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AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Multiple problems
Compound - impurities
Hazard: Failure is usually in transverse direction, but may fail in multiple directions or several pieces.
Web shrinkage
Maintenance of Rail
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
4-4-31
4-4-32
Base stress riser
Fillet stress riser
Base fillet - stress riser
Prevention: Adhering to all processes and maintaining good track structure under thermite weld area.
Figure 4-4-10. Additional Photos - Defective Thermite Weld
Base alignment - stress riser
Porosity
Rail
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Maintenance of Rail
Additional Information
• Thermite welds are made using a system where rail ends are aligned, a mold surrounding the rail is applied and
heated using a rail end preheating system. Molten metal is created in a crucible using a aluminothermic reaction.
Then the molten metal pours into the rail mold. Rail is then ground to the proper contour. Welds are made on site,
under field conditions. Since this is a casting process, all parts of this process are critical to producing the end
product.
• Defects can be from any number causes. Flaws can be associated with train traffic tonnage, temperature and stresses
associated with the casting process. Other examples are metal impurities, slag pockets, sand pockets or porosity
(sponge like areas) caused when pour begins too quickly or moisture is present in charge or mold.
• Hot tear, stress risers, pockets and uneven pours can result from conditions during welding process. Temperature
changes during preheat and cool down process can also cause problems. The preheating and welding process can
accelerate the development of other defects that are already present at or near rail end at the time the weld is made.
Defects, where growth could be accelerated by this process include, bolt hole cracks, web defects, fillet defects, and
rail head defects. This process may also result in residual stresses in rail that are higher than when the rail was
manufactured. Any cracking or segregation present at the time of welding may rapidly progress to failure. Rail
signal bonds (“taps”) in head can also develop cracks or crush down and break off. The process is critical and cannot
be rushed. Rail alignment, preheat temperatures and times, post weld procedures, shear timing, and finish grinding
are extremely important in weld quality.
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AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4-4-33
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Figure 4-4-11. Horizontal Split Head
Cause: The horizontal split head is usually caused by a manufacturing defect, which could be an internal longitudinal seam, segregation or inclusion. This
segregation may be confined to a particular rail heat.
Horizontal Split Head (In track, top view)
Horizontal Split Head (In track, side view)
Definition: A progressive horizontal defect originating inside of the rail head, usually ¼ inch or more below the running surface and progressing horizontally, and
generally accompanied by a flat spot on the running surface. The defect appears as a lengthwise crack, when it reaches the side of the rail head.
Rail
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AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Maintenance of Rail
Hazard: The horizontal split head tends to occur in several places in the same rail. It can develop into a compound fissure.
Combination - Horizontal and Vertical Split Head (Vertical
component is caused by "Rail Shear")
Prevention: Cleaner steel production and better rail manufacturing processes can prevent the formation of horizontal split
heads. Proper rail joint maintenance such as track alignment, surface and track bolt tightening aide in prevention of horizontal
split heads.
Additional Information
• Horizontal split head defects are parallel to the running surface.
• A horizontal split head will show the appearance of a flat spot on the running surface with widening or rail head sag.
The flat will be visible as a dark spot similar to an engine burn on the brighter running surface.
• When cracked out, the horizontal split head will appear as a hairline crack on the gage, field or both sides of head,
usually at least 1/3 of the way below the top of the rail surface.
• Growth is usually rapid for the length of the internal longitudinal separation, but may stop altogether. Heavy
loading or impacts from rail wheels can start a transverse separation, in which case the defect would be classified as
a compound fissure. Defects usually range from one to twelve inches in length.
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AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4-4-35
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Figure 4-4-12. Vertical Split Head
Vertical Split Head (Underside of head view)
Cause: Can result from an internal seam, streaking (commonly referred to as segregation) or inclusion produced during manufacture. It can also be the result of
above normal stresses on rail ball, such as in heavy curves, wide gage, hollow rail wheels, heavy loads on small rail, poor track surface conditions and heavily
worn rail.
Vertical Split Head (Top view, in track)
Definition: Progressive longitudinal fracture in the head of the rail. Separation is along a seam extending vertically into or through the head at or near the middle
of the head. A crack or rust streak may show under the head close to the web or pieces may split off the side of the head.
Rail
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AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Prevention: Steel making processes that do not produce seams and segregation. Track, rail and wheel maintenance practices to address high stress loading to rail
head. Rail testing and good track inspections can find defects before they become critical.
Inspection Technique
Using a mirror
Hazard: It is usually not visible on the surface until it has grown to a length of several feet. Vertical split heads may extend longitudinally for a distance of two to
one hundred plus feet. If the split is on the gage side of the rail and breaks off in service, car wheels will tend to climb to the top of the rail thus causing derailment.
Upon failure the rail may break into several pieces.
Maintenance of Rail
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
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VSH
• Eventually this side will break off.
• May show a Sag, if VSH is in advanced state.
Gage or Field Side
Figure 4-4-13. Additional Photos - Vertical Split Head
"Rail Shear" (Loading)
Vertical Split Head
Rail
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AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Maintenance of Rail
Additional Information
• Defects can run from inches in length to entire rail sections and can extend through rail welds. As this type of defect
progresses, darkening or shading may appear on gage or field side of rail. Rust or rusty bleeding may also show on
under side of head and fillet area. Rail gage or field will eventually slump, break out and fall off. One of the first
signs can be observed by sighting down rail length on the underneath side of the rail head while looking for rust or
bleeding.
• Appearance:
– Top of rail view may show a dark streak on the running surface.
– Widening of the head for the length of the split. The side of the head to which the split is offset may show signs of
sagging or drooping.
– Rust streak on the fillet under the head.
– Separation progresses longitudinally and vertically (parallel to side of head) for some distance, then gradually
turns outward to head, gage or field side.
– In advanced stages, a bleeding crack will be apparent at the head fillet. Eventually, one or both ends of the vertical
split head will turn to the gage or field side with rust and/or cracks.
– Growth is usually rapid, once the seam or separation has opened up anywhere along its length. It continues
rapidly until the split begins to turn outward.
• Vertical Split Head, “Rail shear” is also classified in this category. Rail shear can be caused by overloading of the
rail on a curve. This may be due cross level problems in the curve or improper curve elevation, where heavy axle
load trains are not making set curve speed. Rail and wheel contact surface is shifted inward or outward, “false
flange”. Either side of the head shears or breaks off. Shear separation is generally closer to the side of the rail than
normal vertical split heads or may appear to be a jagged break as viewed from the rail end when it is cut transversely
with a rail saw. Rail shear can also develop at field welds where there is incomplete rail contour grinding or rail flow
creates field side overloading as car wheels pass over the rail. Program rail grinding can eliminate this condition and
prevent other field side loading defects. Hollow worn rail car wheels, tie conditions and/or wide gage problems can
accentuate this problem.
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AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4-4-39
4-4-40
Cause: Weak track structure (poor surface conditions / cross ties) supporting the joint area or inadequate longitudinal restraint can exert additional stresses in bolt
hole area. Worn or improperly fitting joint bars and loose bolts can exert additional stresses causing bolt hole deformation. Improper drill positioning or spacing
can also cause uneven stresses on one hole. Failure to de-burr and chamfer holes after drilling can create stress points where cracking can originate.
Figure 4-4-14. Bolt Hole Crack
Definition: Crack resulting from vertical horizontal and lateral rail forces usually at the bolt and rail interface where pressure is greatest. Cracks may progress in
any direction with unpredictable growth.
Rail
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AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Hazard: Potential of broken rail in joint area or special track work where signal system may not detect problem to stop train operations.
Bolt hole cracks are caused by a number of conditions, each of which compounds the other. Train tonnage, rail temperature changes, bolts / bars, surface and
anchor conditions, uneven drilling of joint bars and rail ends contribute to stress on bolt holes causing these defects. Improper drilling such as high, low or
improper spacing can cause undue stress on holes.
Figure 4-4-15. Additional Photos - Bolt Hole Crack
Maintenance of Rail
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
4-4-41
Rail
Hole Chamfer Drawing (Prevention
Example)
Prevention: Observation of proper rail drilling and dressing holes are first. Track surface and tie condition at joints or special
track work will prevent excessive vertical deflection in bolt area. Work hardening holes has also proven successful in
prevention of cracks. Ensure joint bars fit properly, bolts are kept tightened and rail restraints are adjusted to prevent
longitudinal stresses.
• Excessive or overlapping of holes drilled in rail ends can also lead to bolt hole cracks or joint area failures.
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
4-4-42
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Maintenance of Rail
Definition: A progressive horizontal defect originating in the fillet area between the head and web. Separation may occur at
rail end or in open rail progressing horizontally. Joint area head-web separations generally begin at rail end and progress over
bolt holes until reaching rail running surface. Open rail head web separations start within the rail, progressing both directions
until reaching rail end or running surface. The defect appears as a lengthwise crack in fillet usually on both sides of the head
web fillet.
Rail end Head Web separation
Top view, rail end Head Web
Figure 4-4-16. Head and Web Separation
Cause: Separations can be present from steel mill or develop with time and train traffic. End of rail Head Web separations
generally originate from: fatigue caused by excessive vertical joint movement / loading or improper rail / joint bar fit. Open
rail separations may be inherent in the steel, fatigue from vertical rail movement or corrosion when web fillet is within grade
crossing or a filled area. Some rail sections are more prone to head web separations because of small-radius fillet design.
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4-4-43
Rail
Hazard: Separations may extend inches, feet or through out the entire rail section. When failure occurs the entire rail head
could break off. Within signaled territories, the remainder of the un-broken rail could carry circuit, while rail break protection
is not activated stopping train operations. Rail-end defects may not be visible until broken or extend beyond joint bar area.
Head web - End view
Open Rail, Head Web separation
Prevention: Improved steel making processes, proper track maintenance practices while paying particular attention to joint
bar / rail fit, especially in the head fillet area.
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4-4-44
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Maintenance of Rail
Definition: A lengthwise crack (longitudinal or angled) on the side of the rail web extending into or through width of the web.
Split Web (Lab cut view)
Rail End - Split Web
Figure 4-4-17. Split Web
Cause: Can be present from steel mill or develop with time and train traffic. Split webs can originate from indentations,
gouges in web during installation or maintenance, corrosion or welding processes.
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AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4-4-45
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Split Web (Origin - Heat numbers)
– Split webs initiating at rail ends can be caused by a rail saw that is not cutting properly, because ends may become overheated. Overheating may be
accompanied by bluing of the steel. Some steel alloys are more susceptible.
– Split webs may develop from rail welding processes. Improper shearing or grinding or the presence of martensite can cause split web defects.
– Steel mill rail heat stampings. Deep stamped numbers such as threes, fives, sevens, and letters such an H or E can be the starting points.
– Heavy corrosion (rust) in grade crossings or where high ballast / moisture are held against the web area for long time periods.
– Indentations or gouges in web during installation or routine maintenance procedures.
• Split webs can be present from steel mill or can develop with time and train traffic. Split webs can originate from:
Prevention: Improved steel making processes, proper welding and maintenance practices.
Rust Bleeding from Split Web
Hazard: The split web is a serious defect because the rail is weakened for the distance of the separation and upon failure may break into several pieces.
Rail
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AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Maintenance of Rail
– Rapid cooling at a torch cut rail end
• The origin is a seam in the web or damage to the web. Split webs sometimes develop at locations where heat
numbers are stamped into the web.
• Growth may be rapid after the crack extends through web and is accelerated by unusual rail movement or heavy
loading.
• These may be horizontal, vertical, or a combination of both.
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AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4-4-47
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Figure 4-4-18. Rail Pipe and Segregation
Prevention: Control cooling and good steel making practices.
Hazard: As with vertical split head defects, failure could result in fracture into small pieces. Defect may be throughout an entire rail section and could continue
into attached rails in CWR.
Cause: Shrinkage in steel making process.
Segregation (Lab Photo)
Open Pipe Rail (Lab Photo)
Definition: Piped Rail and Segregation can occur during steel manufacturing. Most defects in new rail are detected prior to shipment and welding. Older light
weight rail was not inspected in this manner. A and B rail sections are more prone to pipe and segregation. As with vertical split heads, defect length can vary
from inches to more than a full rail section. As defect progresses rail head will slump downward. With progression, the web may bow outward on one or both
sides and open to resemble a pipe.
Rail
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AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Figure 4-4-19. Broken Base
Nicked Base (Close up)
Cause: Rail damage due to handling and maintenance or inclusions inherent in rail from steel mill. Nicks or impacts at the base can cause stress risers (defect
initiation points, as can electrode burns in the base (also see Electrode Burn Fracture).
Broken Rail - Broken Base
Definition: Broken base means a break in the base of the rail
Maintenance of Rail
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4-4-50
Broken Base - Longitudinal
Prevention: Do not strike or damage rail during routine maintenance such as spiking or tamping operations.
Broken Base - Broken Rail (indentation
from maul or machine)
Hazard: Currently, defects are not detectable by conventional mobile test methods and may not be seen prior to complete rail failure
Rail
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AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Broken Base - Half moon shape
• Corrosion may be underneath the base and is therefore not visible whenever the rail is in place in track. After breaking, rail end faces will have the
appearance of a sudden rupture with no progressive transverse defect development such as highly polished growth rings. Pits or cavities will be evident
at failure locations. Severe impact from flat wheels may causes ruptures when the rail has been previously weakened by base corrosion. Base corrosion
is difficult to evaluate or test using current testing methods.
– Defect initiation stress points from rail moving / handling equipment used in the mills, on rail trains, etc. Overheating caused by sticking rollers can
cause untempered martensite.
– Corrosion (oxidation) of the metal on the base of the rail which results in irregular pits or cavities resulting in stress risers. Base corrosion can occur
in grade crossings or concrete cross tie areas, where deterioration of the rail pad center holds water against the base.
• Some other sources of base defects are:
Figure 4-4-20. Additional photos and information - Broken Base
Base Nick - Derailment Damage
Maintenance of Rail
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4-4-52
Cause: Unknown
Ordinary Break
Figure 4-4-21. Ordinary Break
In track view - Ordinary Break
Definition: Ordinary break is a partial or complete break in which there is no sign of a fissure, and in which none of the other defects described in this section are
found.
Rail
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AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Prevention: Derailment prevention efforts and proper maintenance practices
Hazard: Rail can break immediately or various defects can propagate from damage
– Wheel impact rail breaks
– Nicked Rail (Head, Web or Base)
– Kinked Rail
Cause: Derailments, rail handling or damage occurring during track maintenance
Figure 4-4-22. Damaged Rails
Broken rail (impact damage from a
broken wheel)
Definition: Damaged, deformed, bent or kinked rails unfit for track, not because of any defect previously discussed, but because of accident or abuse. Justification
for removal of damaged rail under this classification depends on the policy of the particular railroad. This general classification includes four types of damage, all
of which can be identified in track. Other rail defects developing from damaged rails would be identified according to the type of defect.
Maintenance of Rail
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Prevention: Taking care to closely the follow installation procedures for mechanical bonds per instructions. Use of alternate or improved signal bond attachment
processes.
Hazard: Potential for broken rail
Cause: Cracks can be caused by drill bit overheating due to a dull bit or excessive pressure on the bit while drilling. Cracks can also be associated with rail
fatigue.
Figure 4-4-23. Signal Bond Defects - Drilled Signal Taps
Signal bond attachments to Head and Web (Note: No
defects in the photos above.)
Definition: Defects or cracks originating from processes used for attachment of signal bond wires to head, web or base of rail.
Rail
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AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Rail end head bond crack
progressing to bolt hole
Thermite Web bond (Split Webs)
Definition: Defects or cracks originating from processes used for attachment of signal bond wires to head, web or base of rail.
Prevention: Taking care to closely the follow installation procedures of exothermic bonds per manufactures instructions. Use of alternate or improved signal bond
attachment processes.
Hazard: Potential for broken rail
Cause: Untempered martensite layer produced due to rapid cooling of rail which is the origin point for cracking which propagates from the attachment location.
Figure 4-4-24. Signal Bond Defects - Exothermic Welding
Martensite cracks in head (Enhanced by
MagnaFluxing)
Definition: Defects or cracks originating from processes used for attachment of signal bond wires to head, web or base of rail.
Maintenance of Rail
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Cause: Origin point for cracking which propagates from the attachment location.
Prevention: Taking care to closely the follow installation procedures of brazed bonds per manufactures instructions. Use of alternate or improved signal bond
attachment processes.
Hazard: Potential for broken rail
Web bond (Split Web)
Figure 4-4-25. Signal Bond Defects - Electric Brazing
Photo of signal bond attachment (No
defect in the above photo)
Rail
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AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Hazard: As the defect grows, it becomes a rough spot and can cause a track geometry defect. Internal rail defects can develop from the rail surface condition.
Slivers and surface conditions can hide defects from conventional test methods.
Cause: Flattened heads have no apparent localized cause such as a weld or engine burn. Crushed heads can be the result of wheel impacts due to geometry cross
level problems or excess elevation in curves resulting in defect development on the low side. Mill surface imperfections can also develop into crushed head
defects.
Figure 4-4-26. Crushed Head / Flattened Rail
Definition: A length of rail, not at a joint, which has flattened out across the width of the head, which may accompanied by the entire head sagging below the rest
of the rail. There is usually no repetitive regularity and do not include corrugations. Individual lengths may be relatively short, as compared to a condition such as
head flow on the low rail of curves. The flattened rail and crushed heads should not be confused with battered rail ends.
Maintenance of Rail
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
4-4-57
Rail
Prevention: Although prevention is unknown, proper track surfacing, curve elevations and maintenance grinding of rail may
lessen the occurrence.
• Crushed head defects can be in any rail
section, but are predominantly seen in heavy
tonnage areas, with poor rail and track surface
conditions. Heavy trains not making track
speed exhibit high loading on low side of
curves where elevation is set for high speed
traffic. Rail metal flow and crushing out can
turn inward becoming internal rail defects as
well as creating poor ride conditions. Crushed
Head classification is often used for rails that
do not meet the advanced depth criteria often
associated with Flattened Rail. Batter, sliver,
chipping and surface condition may inhibit
detection of internal defects with current
ultrasonic test methods. Mill defects (cold lap
roll) may also be classified as a crushed head.
• Some crushed heads may be caused by a soft
spot in the steel of the head, which gives way
under heavy wheel loads.
• Growth is caused by the continued passage of
heavy loads. Higher speeds and increasing
depth of the flat spot accelerate growth.
• Flattening, widening and rail head sag can
deteriorate cross ties, ballast and track
modulus.
• Crushed heads should be removed before
causing rough ride, rolling stock / lading
damage or the concentrated loading develops
internal defects.
Figure 4-4-26. Crushed Head / Flattened Rail (Continued)
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AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Maintenance of Rail
• Mill defects are deformations, cavities, seams, or
foreign material found in the head, web, or base of
a rail.
• Mill defects occur when the ingot is poured or
blooms are cast. Slag, gas, or foreign material may
be included. Metal which splashes on the side of an
ingot mold may cool and oxidize to some extent
before fusing with the liquid metal.
• Although the defect does not actually grow, it may
furnish the point of origin for a transverse or
longitudinal separation. Further development
depends on the type of mill defect, its location in
the rail, and loading of the rail. Deformation of the
rail head can occur with passing car wheels and
develop from existing defects or be the initiation
point for the following:
– Transverse defects
– Vertical or Horizontal Split Heads
– Crushed heads
– Mill Sliver (Cold lap roll)
– Broken out inclusions leaving large or
dangerous cavities in the side or running surface
of the rail head
Mill Sliver - Seam (Break
under slivered area)
– Inclusion of foreign material in the rail metal
• Mill defects are present from the steel mill, but may
not be clearly visible from mill because of natural
mill scale. Some show up immediately while
others take years to surface. Casting and rolling
processes during rail manufacture causes most of
these defects.
• See Transverse Fissure, Vertical Split Head,
Horizontal Split Head and Pipe for other examples
of mill defects.
Figure 4-4-27. Mill Defects / Seams / Laps
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AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
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Cause: There are many causes of rail batter, not limited to the alignment and surface (joint support structure) of the rail joint. Bolts in the joint bar must be
maintained and properly tightened.
Figure 4-4-28. Battered Rail End
Definition: Rail end batter consists of surface deformation, flattening and widening of the head of the rail in the immediate vicinity of the end of the rail.
Rail
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Maintenance of Rail
Hazard: Severe batter can progress into horizontal split head, vertical split head, head and web separation or other rail
defects. This condition most often causes track geometry defects.
Figure 4-4-29. Battered Rail End - progressed
Prevention: Proper maintenance of rail joints, including alignment, surface, cross slotting and track bolt tightening.
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Figure 4-4-31. Severe Head Checking with Spalling
Cause: Head checks are a result of cold working of surface metal, due to the interaction between the wheels and the rail, usually associated with the gage corner.
This is also referred to as a form of rolling contact fatigue (RCF).
Figure 4-4-30. Head Checking - Light
Definition: Head checks are shallow surface or hairline cracks that appear in the gage corner of the rail head, at any angle with the length of the rail.
4.2.1 HEAD CHECKING (2010)
SECTION 4.2 IDENTIFICATION OF RAIL SURFACE CONDITIONS
- 2010 Rail
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Figure 4-4-33. Head Checking with Flaking
Prevention: Head checking can be prevented by maintaining the proper rail head profile through the use of rail grinding. At an early stage, head checks can be
removed by rail grinding. Proper friction control and/or lubrication practices can reduce the occurrence of some head checking. Higher strength steel materials are
more resistant to RCF.
Figure 4-4-32. Head Checking - (Lab Photo)
Hazard: Head checks can progress to more severe rail surface conditions such as the initiation point for detail fractures or compound fractures. Severe head
checking can interfere with detections of internal defects.
Maintenance of Rail
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Figure 4-4-35. Flaking - Close up view
Cause: Flaking is the result of surface metal friction, flow and plastic deformation. It is caused by the concentrated wheel loads, resulting in severe compressive
shear deformation of the rail surface.
Figure 4-4-34. Flaking - Gage Side
Definition: A condition where conjoining of head checks results in surface metal separation. It is indicated by small chipping and cavities. It is a progressive
horizontal separation on the running surface of rail near the gage corner, with scaling or chipping of small slivers. Flaking should not be confused with shelling, as
the flaking takes place only on the running surface, usually near the gage corner of the rail, and is not as deep as shelling.
4.2.2 FLAKING (2010)
Rail
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Figure 4-4-36. Flaking with Head Checking
Prevention: At an early stage, flaking can be prevented by rail grinding. Maintenance of the rail head profile properly distributes the wheel load on the rail head.
Rail grinding maintains the rail head profile and can remove flaking. Proper friction control and/or lubrication practices can reduce the occurrence of flaking.
Hazard: Flaking progresses in depth and could become the origin point for detail fractures. Severe flaking can interfere with detection of internal defects.
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Figure 4-4-38. Severe Rail Center Spalling
• Properly maintaining the rail head profile to distribute wheel loads on the rail head.
Prevention: At an early stage, spalling can be prevented by proper rail maintenance.
Hazard: Crack progression may be in any plane. Spalls can also mask rail flaw detection methods, allowing potentially dangerous transverse defects to go
undetected. Severe spalling can interfere with detection of internal defects.
Cause: High horizontal wheel-rail creeping forces, transverse friction forces and extreme wheel-rail contact stresses result in micro-cracking, head checking or
chipping.
Figure 4-4-37. Light Spalling
Defintion: Spalling is cracking and chipping of the rail surface. Spalling is a progression of head checking and flaking.
4.2.3 SPALLING (2010)
Rail
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• Selection and maintenance of correct curve rail elevations to match train speeds.
• An over elevated curve with slow train speeds could result in low rail spalling.
• Rail grinding maintains the rail head profile and can remove shallow spalling.
• Proper friction control and lubrication practices can reduce the occurrence of spalling in curved track areas.
Figure 4-4-39. Gage Side Spalling
Figure 4-4-40. Close Up View: Light Spall
Figure 4-4-41. Center Spalling Low Rail (Over
Elevation)
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Figure 4-4-43. Severe Shelling on Gage
Cause: High contact stresses from wheel-rail interaction, especially when severe non-conformal wheel-rail contact occurs.
Figure 4-4-42. Shelling (Light)
Definition: Shelling is a rail head condition consisting of progressive subsurface horizontal separations that may crack out on the gage side of the rail head.
Shelling normally occurs on the upper gage face of the rail head, and extends longitudinally. Shells originate under the surface of the rail head.
4.2.4 SHELLING (2010)
Rail
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Hazard: Shell propagation can develop in a transverse plane and become a transverse defect. Most often, they are not visible
on the rail surface until in the advanced stages of development. Shelling may interfere with the detection of internal defects.
The horizontal component can mask detection of the transverse component (detail fracture).
Figure 4-4-44. Close Up of Shell on the Gage
Prevention: At an early stage, shelling can be prevented by rail grinding. Maintenance of the rail head profile properly
distributes the wheel load on the rail head. Rail grinding maintains the rail head profile, and helps prevent the formation of
shells.
Additional Comments:
• Although shells extend horizontally, they are not horizontal split heads. Shelling is usually at a depth less than
horizontal split heads and angled parallel to gage-worn surface. Shells are caused by wheel-rail contact stresses,
while true horizontal split heads are from internal discontinuities.
• Growth is dependent on the loading and could be accelerated where track gage and structure are not maintained
properly.
• Shells may turn upward and open to rail surface or turn downward to become detail fractures or compound fractures.
• Appearance:
– Dark spots irregularly spaced on the gage side of the running surface.
– Longitudinal separation at one or several levels in the upper gage corner, with discoloration from bleeding.
– If rail is turned, shelly spots will appear on the field side.
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Figure 4-4-46. Corrugation - Curve (Both
Rails)
Figure 4-4-47. Corrugation - High Rail
Cause: Corrugation can be caused by sliding wheel action, tractive forces, braking forces or lateral motion across the rail surface. In curves, it is caused by high
and low rail rolling radius differences at each wheel/axis set transverses the curve. This may be most prevalent in or near curves or on some down grades at
restricted speed locations. Any anomaly in track geometry that sets up repetitive car motion issues can cause corrugation.
Figure 4-4-45. Corrugation with Crushing
Definition: Repetitive longitudinal pattern of shallow wavelike depressions along the rail surface. There is short wave (2 to 3 inches) and long wave (10 to 12
inches or more) corrugation. Corrugation is sometimes called "washboard rail".
4.2.5 CORRUGATION (2010)
Rail
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Figure 4-4-48. Corrugation (Close Up View)
Figure 4-4-49. Corrugation (Curve - Low Rail)
Prevention: Rail grinding can prevent corrugation in early stages. Proper friction control and lubrication practices can reduce the occurence of corrugation in
curved track areas.
Hazard: Corrugation will produce a rough riding track, and can also produce undesirable levels of noise. Severe corrugation may develop into surface defects
such as crushed heads. Head web separation and horizontal split head defects can develop from or under advanced corrugation. Defects may be the result of high
vertical impacts. Severe corrugation may interfere with detection of internal defects.
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4.2.6 CORROSION (2010)
• Definition - Corrosion is disintegration of the rail starting at the surface, from chemical decay, mainly oxidatin
(rusting). As it progresses, it often forms irregular pits, cavities, or develops cracks in the rail web or base.
• Cause - Corrosion usually occurs in wet or damp areas such as tunnels, grade crossings (filled-in with soil or
contaminated with salt), and other areas where ballast or debirs covers the rail base and web for long periods. In the
past, salt brine dripping from refrigerator cars also caused rail corrosion. Base corrosion can occur where
deteriorated rail pad centers on concrete cross ties hold water against the base. The effects of abrasion, alkali, lime in
concrete, salt near coast lines and electrolysis in electrified areas are other causes and contributing factors to
corrosion.
• Hazard - Corrosion is potentially dangerous if it progresses to the extent that the rail section is significantly
weakened, leading to a complete break. Base corrosion can also create defect initiation stress points. Base corrosion
is difficult to evaluate or detect with conventional internal rail defect detection methods. Corrosion on the top of the
rail (or other surfaces used in contact test methods) can interfere with detection of internal defects.
• Prevention - Keeping ballast and debris away from the rail base and web can substantially slow or eliminate
corrosion. Proper drainage will eliminate water or damp conditions, a source of corrosion in tunnels, at grade
crossings, etc. Maintaining pads between rails and ties will reduce base corrosion where eleastic fasteners are used.
Insulators, isolators and grounding methods may help prevent electrolysis.
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Figure 4-4-50. Metallographic Sample of Corrosion (Red arrows
indicate locations of corrosion Pits)
Figure 4-4-51. Web and Base Corrosion
• Broken rails caused by corrosion may be difficult to identify because the fracture faces may have the appearance of a sudden rupture, with no progressive
transverse defect development such as highly polished growth rings. Extremely small pits or cavities may be evident at failure locations.
• Appearance in Track - The most severe corrosion usually occurs underneath the base and may not be visible when the rail is in track.
• Corrosion is usually a slow process. However, this process is greatly accelerated by electrolytic action on electrified railroads.
Additional Comments
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Close up view of corrosion
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Figure 4-4-52. Additional Corrosion Photos (Rail Base)
Corrosion pits
Corrosion initiated fatigue defects
Rail
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Additional Corrosion Photos
Figure 4-4-55. Web Cracks from Corrosion
Figure 4-4-53. Base Corrosion
Figure 4-4-54. Web & Base Corrosion
Maintenance of Rail
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SECTION 4.3 RECOMMENDED MINIMUM PERFORMANCE GUIDELINE
FOR RAIL TESTING
4.3.1 INTRODUCTION (1992)
a.
Rail testing must be performed both reliably and economically. On the one hand the rail flaw detection system,
comprising both test car and its operator, must strive to correctly identify all rail defects representing a significant risk
of rail failure. On the other hand, this must be done at a testing speed that is compatible with train operations and at a
price that is commensurate with the service.
b.
100% accuracy in testing is not within the capabilities of current equipment. Nor is it possible to provide near real time
quality control feedback to the operator. Given the current state of the art, the risk of rail failure is best controlled with
a three-step approach. This consists of:
(1) Assessment and calibration of test cars against standard test specimens in a controlled environment.
(2) Regular assessment of the performance of rail test cars and operators in regular testing service.
(3) Adjustment of rail testing cycles to account for reliability of testing.
c.
Before a correct evaluation of the capabilities of a rail test car can be made, it is first necessary to have a baseline of
comparison. Initial calibration of testing equipment is best performed by having test cars run over a test section of rails
having known defects.
4.3.2 PERFORMANCE GUIDELINE FOR REGULAR TESTING (1992)
a.
It is recommended that a Performance Guideline be decided upon to ensure that rail test contractors or the Railway’s
own operators understand the performance expected of them under day-to-day operations. The Performance Guideline
should specify the minimum acceptable performance in terms of the number of valid defects in track that are not
reported or otherwise missed. Table 4-4-1 presents a sample Performance Guideline. It tabulates the percentage of
actual in-track defects that can be expected to be located in a single test by a test car maintained in reasonable condition
and operated by an experienced operator in service over a typical mix of track conditions.
b.
If a test car and its operator performs to a standard that exceeds the Performance Guideline of Table 4-4-1, the Railway
can be satisfied that testing frequencies common in the industry will provide acceptable management of risk. If the
Railway measures performance that is inferior to this guideline, the equipment and/or operator should be scrutinized. If
it is decided to retain the testing system in question, testing intervals should be tightened to achieve the same net risk of
service failures.
c.
The guideline could therefore be used as the basis of an agreement between the rail testing operator and the Railway as
to minimum acceptable performance. A Railway might choose to incorporate Table 4-4-1, or its own variation thereof
into a contract, so that inferior performance by a contractor would constitute violation of contract terms.
d.
The purpose of the Performance Guideline of Table 4-4-1 is therefore to provide a means for a Railway that does not
possess a similar standard to recognize when test performance has fallen to a level that need not be accepted.
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Table 4-4-1. Recommended Minimum Performance Guideline for Rail Testing
Defect Type
(Note 1)
Size (Length or % of
head area fractured)
Reliability Ratio
(% of such defects properly indicated
as flaws in any single test)
Category I
(Note 2)
Category II
(Note 3)
1. Transverse Defects in the Rail Head e.g.
transverse fissure compound fissure, engine
burn fracture, welded burn fracture
5 – 10%
10 – 20%
21 – 40%
41 – 80%
81 – 100%
65%
85%
90%
98%
99%
55%
75%
85%
95%
99%
2. Detail fracture from shelling or Head Check
10 – 20%
21 – 40%
41 – 80%
81 – 100%
65%
85%
95%
98%
55%
75%
85%
95%
3. Defective welds – Plant Welds (Head)
3 – 5%
5 – 10%
11 – 20%
21 – 40%
41 – 80%
81 – 100%
65%
75%
85%
90%
95%
99%
—
65%
75%
85%
95%
99%
–inch
1 – 2 inch
more than 2 inches
75%
90%
99%
65%
90%
95%
75%
80%
85%
95%
99%
65%
70%
80%
90%
95%
–inch
1 – 2 inch
more than 2 inches
75%
90%
99%
65%
85%
95%
4. Longitudinal Defects in the Rail Head e.g.
horizontal split head vertical split head
2 – 4 inch long
4 – 36 inch
more than 36 inches
80%
95%
99%
70%
95%
99%
5. Web Defects (Note 4)
e.g. head and web separation split web
2 – 4 inch
more than 4 inches
95%
98%
90%
95%
– Plant Welds (Web)
– Field Welds (Head)
– Field Welds (Web)
5–
11 –
21 –
41 –
81 –
10%
20%
40%
80%
100%
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Table 4-4-1. Recommended Minimum Performance Guideline for Rail Testing (Continued)
Defect Type
(Note 1)
Size (Length or % of
head area fractured)
6. Piped rail
Reliability Ratio
(% of such defects properly indicated
as flaws in any single test)
more than 8 inches size
with non-vertical
orientation, any evidence
of bulged web or
progression into weld
7. Web Defects in Joint Area (Note 4) e.g. bolt
hole crack, head and web separation
–inch
1 – 2 inches
2 – 4 inches
more than 4 inches
Category I
(Note 2)
Category II
(Note 3)
85%
85%
–
75%
75%
75%
90%
99%
65%
65%
85%
99%
Note 1: In all testing, not more than 5% of defects indicated can be “false alarms,” i.e. with no perceptible rail defect as
verified statistically by rail breaking tests.
No more than 25% of detected defects may be classified in the wrong defect size class.
Note 2: CATEGORY I track includes all main track with annual tonnage equal to or exceeding 3 MGT/yr, or with trains
speeds equal to or exceeding 40 mph.
Note 3: CATEGORY II track includes all sidings and track with annual tonnage less than 3 MGT/yr and train speeds less
than 40 mph.
Note 4: Defects must have progressed more than halfway through the web.
4.3.3 MEASURING AGAINST THE PERFORMANCE GUIDELINES (1992)
The Performance Guideline is based upon two performance measures which must be balanced. These are:
a.
Missed Detection of a Defect:
• A defect of detectable size and type was not found and/or not reported.
Typically this would be seen as a rail service failure within an unacceptable short interval which, upon examination,
was estimated to have been of detectable size at time of testing.
b.
False Alarms:
• A defect was reported that did not exist or did not represent a risk of rail failure sufficient to merit a rail plug.
This would typically be found in a program of breaking open a sample of rails marked by a rail test car. Examples of
“false alarms” would be a rail with shatter cracks that had been interpreted as a transverse defect or a poor rail end
buildup by welding that was interpreted as a horizontal split head.
In a regular test environment, precise verification of the performance of a rail testing system against these statistics is
not possible, as it requires a knowledge of how many rail defects went undetected. Nonetheless, estimates can be
made through parallel testing with two or more different cars and by reviewing ratios of service to detected rail
failures.
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4.3.4 VERIFICATION OF RELIABILITY RATIO FOR MISSED DEFECTS (1992)
4.3.4.1 Verification through Parallel Testing
a.
As there is no absolute method of verifying rail test reliability, some railways incur the additional cost of parallel, or
redundant, testing over substantial mileages. This would involve deliberately scheduling two or more test cars over the
same length of track, without changing out rails until inspected by both test cars. The test cars could represent two
different operators of the same basic equipment, or they could be different systems or contractors. When a defect is
detected by the lead car, its location is referenced but any marking is on the underside of the rail head so that it cannot
be seen by the following car. Each car alternates as the lead car to avoid biasing the results. All defects detected by
either car are then examined with hand probes. If there is any further doubt as to the presence of a defect, the rail
specimen is broken open for examination.
b.
After elimination of falsely-reported defects from the sample, the total of all defects found by either car is used as an
estimate of N, the population of defects of detectable size within the test segment, i.e.
N = verified defects found by Car A
+ verified defects found by Car B
– common defects found by both Cars A and B
The overall Reliability Ratio, R for each test car is then calculated as
No. of verified defects found by Car A
R = % of all valid defects that were found by Car A = --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------N
c.
If a sufficient number of defects are found of a particular type and size, the Reliability Ratio can also be specific to the
defect class, enabling direct comparison with the column in Table 4-4-1 entitled: “% of such defects properly indicated
as flaws in any single test.”
4.3.4.2 Verification from Service Failures and Visual Defects Ratios
a.
In the case of medium to large defects, test reliability can also be inferred from the ratio of service to detected failures.
For example, in a territory tested by a particular test car, a railway may have reported 15 service failures from large
transverse defects within a given year. This is equivalent to “missed detections.” The total number of detected TD’s in
the same territory over the same year, say 500, can be assumed to represent the remainder of the population of defects
of detectable size within the track in the year. Both the detected defects and the inferred total defect population may be
adjusted to account for false alarms if an adjustment factor can be inferred from rail breaking tests. In the following
example, it is assumed that typically 15% of transverse defects reported are not valid defects.
b.
Therefore, in this example, the Reliability Ratio for large transverse defects, RTDL, would be:
500 1 – 0.15
R TDL = ---------------------------------------------- = 97%
500 1 – 0.15 + 15
which would not meet the performance Guideline for a Category I track, which would be 98% for Transverse Defects
of size 41%-80% of head area.
c.
To produce a fair tally of “misses,” service/visual defects must have occurred within a reasonable interval after testing.
The interval decided upon must account for the possible growth of the defect after the test. For example, one railway
uses the assumption that any service failure should have been classified as “LARGE” if it has failed within 5 MGT of
the test, “MEDIUM TO LARGE” if it has failed within 10 MGT of the test and “SMALL TO LARGE” if it has failed
within 20 MGT of the test. Failures that have occurred more than 20 MGT from the test are not counted as misses.
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4.3.4.3 False Reporting of Defects
a.
The standard for false reporting (false alarms) can be measured by selecting a sample of rails that have been marked as
defective in the field and have been removed from track. The defect can usually be verified on site by hand held
ultrasonic probes. It is useful to have the test car operator present, or the contractor’s representative if it is a contract
service. If there is any doubt as to the size or the presence of the defect, the rail sample can be shipped to a location
where it can be broken open for examination.
b.
In this way, a tally can be made of the percent of rails that did not contain a defect, or contained a flaw that would be
considered to be of a type or size that had been previously agreed among all parties to constitute no risk of failure.
SECTION 4.4 RECOMMENDED QUALIFICATIONS FOR OPERATOR PERFORMING
ULTRASONIC TESTING OF RAIL OR TRACK COMPONENTS
4.4.1 PURPOSE (2008)
a.
Establish a suggested guideline for certification of rail flaw detector car operators conducting in service nondestructive testing of rail. The recommended guideline is modeled from the Association of American Railroad’s
(AAR) Appendix T Non-destructive Examination. In addition, although the guideline is not intended to meet the
American Society for Nondestructive Testing (ASNT) SNT-TC-1A requirements, the ASNT-SNT-TC-1A, most current
version of revision is referenced.
b.
In lieu of this recommended guideline, the railway may consider alternative models including but not limited to ASNT
SNT-TC 1A (latest revision 1996 at the time of writing), CP189 latest revision, the Canadian General Standards Board
Subject Area 48, ISO 9712, or EN 473 / 45013.
4.4.2 QUALIFICATIONS (2008)
a.
Levels of qualification, whether personnel are qualified in house or by contractor, shall be as defined by ASNT SNTTC-1A, “Levels of Qualification”. Where the term “NDT Level” is used in this section, Non-Destructive Testing
(NDT) Level may be used simultaneously with ASNT and ASNT Limited or Restricted levels. UT is also used as the
acronym for Ultrasonic Testing.
b.
Additional Sub Levels of Qualification defined by ASNT SNT-TC-1A (Limited or Restricted) may be used to qualify
personnel under these guidelines who may only perform one specific type of test, inspection of rail and/or track
components.
c.
All testing shall be performed by personnel qualified and certified in accord with a written procedure specific to
equipment and methods used by the employer. Qualification shall be specific to the equipment or method used.
d.
The written procedure shall describe the program for the control and administration of the testing personnel training,
examination and certification modeled on the requirements of this guideline.
e.
The qualification procedure shall include at a minimum:
(1) Qualifications and level of certification required to determine acceptance or rejection of rail or component in
accordance with industry standards, as required by governing authority and any additional railway (or established
contract) instructions.
(2) Initial qualification training, refresh training and re-qualification requirements.
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(3) Experience requirements.
(4) Examination requirements.
(5) Record and documentation requirements including control, responsibility and custodial requirements.
(6) Visual acuity requirements.
f.
It is recommended that a certified ASNT Level III or individual with comparable qualifications administer the
program.
g.
Data on training, examinations (including practical examinations) and experience shall be documented.
h.
Vision
(1) Personnel shall be examined to ensure that they have natural or corrected near distance visual acuity in at least one
eye to read Jaeger Number 2 test chart or equivalent at a distance of not less than twelve inches. This examination
will be performed prior to certification and thereafter as required by railway physical examination specification.
(2) Personnel shall be examined for the ability to differentiate among the colors used in the instrumentation (test
system) prior to certification and thereafter as required by railway physical examination specification. Railways
may have additional color differentiation to meet on track operation requirements.
(3) Visual acuity examination shall be administered annually in accord with a written procedure by a medical
practitioner, a licensed optometrist or by personnel approved by the railway.
i.
Certifications shall expire as follows:
(1) Upon termination of employment of the individual with the employer. If the individual has a certification and has
maintained satisfactory performance in nondestructive testing (NDT), without expiration of the time on the
certification, the subsequent employer may choose to recognize the training, experience and or certification from
another employer.
(2) Upon the expiration of three years of certification for NDT Level I and Level II personnel. Certification may be
extended without re-certification with continued satisfactory performance.
4.4.3 NDT LEVEL III OR PROGRAM ADMINISTRATOR REQUIREMENTS (2008)
The NDT Level III or individual with comparable training and experience shall be responsible for all testing, procedures, and
documentation required by this guideline.
4.4.4 PERSONNEL (2008)
a.
The contractor or operating entity shall maintain records of certification that each person conducting the testing
procedure meets NDT Level 1 or NDT Level II qualification. Upon request, contractor or operating entity shall
provide such documentation to railway. Individuals with 3 years of experience in NDT prior to 1 September 2005 can
be grandfathered to a Level I, with accepted testing by NDT Level III or Program Administrator.
b.
The training shall be conducted in accordance with a course approved by an NDT Level III or comparable individual.
It is recommended that the course include at a minimum:
(1) Topics contained in ASNT SNT-TC-1A Recommended Training for Level I Ultrasonic Testing, Basic Ultrasonic
Course and Ultrasonic Technique Course.
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(2) Recommended Training for ASNT SNT-TC-1A Level II Ultrasonic Testing, Ultrasonic Evaluation Course.
c.
In addition, topics may be incorporated as deemed necessary by the NDT Level III or comparable individual for the
application being performed. Aspects shall be determined and approved by the NDT Level III or comparable
individual. Examinations sufficient to establish comprehension shall be included.
d.
A recommended number of training hours and practical experience for personnel hired after 1 September 2002 is as
follows:
Level
I
II
Recommended Training in Hours
40
40
Recommended Trainin in Months
3
9
(1) For Level II certification, the experience shall consist of time at Level I. If a person is being certified directly to
Level II, the experience and training shall consist of the sum of Level II and Level I. Payroll or employment
records are acceptable.
(2) Training for Level I shall be in accordance with ASNT SNT-TC-1A, classification A.
(3) Training for Level II shall be in accordance with ASNT SNT-TC-1A, classification A.
4.4.5 EXAMINATION OF PERSONNEL (2008)
a.
Practical examinations shall conform to the examination procedure established by the ASNT Level III.
b.
Individuals shall demonstrate the ability to perform and include the following:
(1) Understanding of search unit and instruments.
(2) Calibration of UT testing instruments.
(3) Demonstrate visual inspections used in conjunction with rail or component inspection.
(4) Ability to follow written procedures for set up and/or inspection.
(5) Follow written procedure for acceptance or rejection.
(6) Understand of limitations of a procedure (i.e. surface conditions).
SECTION 4.5 RECOMMENDED PROCEDURES FOR OPERATOR PERFORMING
ULTRASONIC TESTING OF RAIL OR TRACK COMPONENTS
4.5.1 RECOMMENDED PROCEDURES (2008)
Operator / Inspector shall demonstrate the ability to follow and perform each of the following recommended Written,
Calibration, Inspection, Evaluation and Reporting Procedures:
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a.
All testing shall be performed in accordance with a written procedure prepared by the contractor or operating entity,
qualified under the supervision of and approved by the NDT Level III or individual of comparable experience, and
shall include as a minimum all requirements of this guideline.
b.
A copy of the testing procedure shall be readily available to the personnel performing the test.
4.5.2 ULTRASONIC TEST (UT) WRITTEN PROCEDURE REQUIREMENTS (2008)
The written procedure shall, at a minimum, include the following:
a.
Material types and configurations to be tested.
b.
Surfaces from which the test shall be performed.
c.
Conditions and preparation of the material being tested, if any.
d.
Couplant.
e.
Technique.
f.
Angles and mode.
g.
Search Unit (SU) type, frequency and size.
h.
Special SU types.
i.
UT instrument types, requirements and/or specifications.
j.
Description of calibration blocks, techniques and tolerances.
k.
Instructions on method of scanning.
l.
Data to be recorded.
m. Accuracy requirements.
n.
Personnel requirements.
o.
Procedure qualification.
p.
Additional examination or product safety requirements which may effect inspection.
q.
Acceptance and rejection specifications of rail or component in accord with industry standards or as required by
governing authority and any additional railway (or established contract) instructions.
r.
Reporting requirements.
4.5.3 CALIBRATION OF TEST EQUIPMENT (2008)
a.
Functionality of the UT hand testing instrumentation shall be checked and the equipment shall be calibrated and
normalized by the use of a calibration standard at the beginning and end of the daily testing operation, after inactivity
or delay if practical, and any time when a malfunction is suspected. If any malfunction is discovered, all material shall
be reexamined to the previous valid calibration and normalization.
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b.
Instrumentation shall be evaluated in accord with ASNT Level III or comparable individual written procedures and the
procedures shall be readily available to the personnel conducting the examination.
4.5.4 INSPECTION PROCEDURES (2008)
a.
A visual inspection of rail or component shall be conducted prior to UT examination.
b.
Rail or component examination, if UT, shall be conducted with a pulse echo technique with a frequency of 2-5 MHz.
Other frequencies or methods may be used if equal or better sensitivity is demonstrated and documented.
c.
The examination shall be at a scan rate prescribed in the procedure.
d.
The rail / material shall be examined such that the suspected defect plane, type, and location are encompassed in the
scanning. Each pass should overlap to ensure complete examination of the target volume.
e.
Non-uniform examination surfaces shall be documented (using a rail exception report) for any exceptions including:
(1) Discontinuities that block the transmission of the test.
(2) Scale, coatings or oxidation that may dampen the transmission of the SU.
(3) Pits, gouges, weld splatter, rail batter, corrugation, checking, shelling, or geometry that may prevent examination.
4.5.5 EVALUATION (2008)
Tests shall be evaluated so as to meet the minimum detection criteria of the AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering, by
governing authority requirements, and criteria as specified by contract.
4.5.6 REPORTS (2008)
a.
A record of each examination is to be made, either on a report or on the detector car recording device.
b.
A record of exception report is to be made which contains fields required by governing entity, railway, track owner or
contract requirements. This can be done either on a report or on the detector car recording device.
c.
Each examination record shall identify the personnel conducting the test.
d.
A daily calibration check sheet shall be maintained.
e.
An exception report of areas that could not be tested due to discontinuities or condition of the rail shall be reported at
the end of the daily testing operation.
f.
A record of each positive examination is to be made and reported at the end of the daily testing operation. The report
shall include at a minimum:
(1) Defect type.
(2) Defect size (Stated size of defect or reflector evaluated).
Exact size may vary depending on reflector surface or orientation.
(3) Track identification of defect location.
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(4) Mileage location of defect location.
(5) Side of track of defect location, (which rail).
(6) Rail section, mill, year, and month of rail, if available.
(7) Track alignment: (Curve: High, Low or Tangent track).
(8) Track construction: CWR (continuous welded rail or Jointed rail).
(9) Track structure associated with location if any.
(10) Date of detection.
(11) Railway.
g.
Additional reporting procedures and information may required by governing authority, railway or per established
contract instructions.
4.5.7 RECOMMENDED RECORD MAINTENANCE (2008)
a.
Documentation of recommended qualifications and procedures shall be maintained as required by this guideline,
required by railway, established contract instructions or as required by governing authority.
b.
Inspection records shall be maintained as required by governing authority, as required by railway or by established
contract instructions.
SECTION 4.6 RECOMMENDED CALIBRATION RAILS FOR RAIL FLAW DETECTION
SYSTEM
4.6.1 PURPOSE (2004)
a.
The purpose is to recommend the construction of rails for verification of rail flaw detection equipment. The rails are
designed to simulate common rail flaws of known dimension.
b.
Drawings of the recommended calibration rails are shown in Part 4, Figure 4-4-56 through Figure 4-4-63.
4.6.2 MANUFACTURE OF CALIBRATION RAILS (2004)
It is recommended that the rails shall be constructed of new, unused rail. All dimensional references shall remain from the top
of the read.
4.6.3 CALIBRATION RAILS (2004)
a.
Calibration rails #1 and #2 are designed to simulate bolt hole cracks and to verify settings for gate height and gain. See
Figure 4-4-56.
b.
Calibration rails #3 and #4 are designed to simulate transverse defects and to measure rail head width and sensitivity on
gage, center and field side of rail head. See Figure 4-4-57.
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c.
Calibration rails #5 and #6 are designed to simulate transverse defects in the center of the rail. See Figure 4-4-58.
d.
Calibration rails #7 and #8 are designed to simulate transverse defects on the gage and field side of the rail head. See
Figure 4-4-59.
e.
Calibration rail #9 is designed to simulate transverse defects in the center of the rail and for base defects. See Figure 44-60.
f.
Calibration rail #10 is designed to simulate open rail head and web defects and signal tap bond pin holes. See Figure 44-61.
g.
Calibration rail #11 is designed to simulate vertical split heads. See Figure 4-4-62.
h.
Calibration rail #12 is designed to simulate rail end head and web defects. See Figure 4-4-63.
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Figure 4-4-56. Calibration Rails #1 & #2
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Figure 4-4-57. Calibration Rails #3 & #4
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Figure 4-4-58. Calibration Rails #5 & #6
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Figure 4-4-59. Calibration Rails #7 & #8
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Figure 4-4-60. Calibration Rail #9
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Figure 4-4-61. Calibration Rail #10
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Figure 4-4-62. Calibration Rail #11
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Figure 4-4-63. Calibration Rail #12
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SECTION 4.7 RECOMMENDED REPAIR OF DEFECTIVE OR BROKEN RAIL IN CWR1
— 2005 —
4.7.1 SCOPE (2005)
These recommended procedures are for the repair of defective or broken rail in CWR. These procedures are based on
providing a proper rail temperature adjustment in accordance with local established requirements.
4.7.2 GENERAL (2005)
Consideration should be given when designating the length of the replacement rail to the size, defect type and rail
characteristics. Replacement rail is to be certified free of defects. Particular care should be taken to prevent adding additional
rail during the replacement process.
Before proceeding with repairs, thoroughly inspect the CWR and track conditions for a sufficient distance to determine
general track rail condition, rail anchor performance, ballast condition, track alignment, rail tensions or compression, etc. Any
condition found warranting correction should be corrected at that time or the necessary safeguards taken to provide for the safe
movement of trains until it is corrected.
4.7.3 REPAIR BY CUTTING IN A SHORT SECTION OF RAIL AND THE APPLICATION OF
STANDARD JOINT BARS (2005)
1
a.
Determine if a CWR temperature adjustment is necessary by consulting rail laying temperature records and other track
condition data that may be available as a result of past track inspections or experiences.
b.
If necessary, proceed with the adjustment in accordance with standard practice.
c.
Promptly secure the CWR ends to prevent further movement. It is recommended that additional rail anchors be applied
to the CWR ends for a sufficient distance to protect against rail-end movement in either direction.
d.
Saw cut the CWR, or flame cut if approved, on each side of the defect far enough to ensure complete removal and
obtain an opening for a short section of rail. It is recommended that the short rail be one-half the standard rail length to
36 feet long or at least 3 feet shorter than the standard length. If flame cut, the ends shall be saw cut to remove the
torch cut end for a distance of at least two inches.
e.
Cut a rail to the desired length.
f.
Bevel all cut rail ends to the rail owner’s requirements.
g.
Promptly place the short rail into the opening and secure it in place.
h.
Drill bolt holes of standard size. It is recommended that a template be used to inscribe the bolt hole locations. Drilling
through the joint bar holes is not recommended.
i.
Dress the edges of the bolt holes in accordance with standard practice.
j.
Install standard joint bars fully bolted.
k.
Adjust the rail anchor pattern to conform with standard practice.
References, Vol. 74, 1973, p. 148; Vol. 87, 1986, p. 83. Adopted 1986.
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l.
If in track circuit territory, install any necessary bond or connection wires.
m. In a stretch of new rail, if the rail surface has not been sufficiently work hardened, it is recommended that all cut rail
ends be hardened at this time.
4.7.4 REPAIR BY CUTTING IN A SHORT SECTION OF RAIL AND THERMITE WELD THE
RAIL ENDS (2005)
a.
Proceed as outlined in paragraph a (1) through (5) above, except it is recommended that the short rail be at least 10 feet
long or longer, preferably one half the standard rail length and the weld is made in accordance with recommended
practice found in Section 3.13, Specification for the Quality Assurance of Thermite Welding of Rail.
b.
Promptly place the short rail into the opening, secure it in place.
c.
Line up the rail ends to match, and block or wedge rail ends on each side of the joint sufficiently to maintain a good
match and specified crown for thermite welding.
d.
Proceed with thermite welding in accordance with standard practice. (See Section 3.13, Specification for the Quality
Assurance of Thermite Welding of Rail, covering minimum requirements for making quality welds, good track
alignment through the weld and satisfactory riding characteristics for thermite welded joints.)
e.
In cutting the opening for the short rail, the rail ends (joints) should fall in the center of a tie crib and/or ties moved as
necessary for the free unobstructed application of the thermite weld mold.
f.
Adjust the rail anchor pattern to conform with standard practice.
g.
If in track circuit territory, install any necessary connection wires.
h.
If a CWR adjustment has been made or is not necessary, but conditions do not permit thermite welding at the time, then
drill the rail ends for the temporary use of standard joint bars with the exception of the first bolt hole of the rail ends.
Omitting these holes will permit thermite welding later without further rail change. Adjust the rail anchor pattern to
conform with standard practice for buffer rail. Follow with thermite welding as promptly as conditions permit.
4.7.5 REPAIR BY CUTTING IN A SHORT SECTION OF RAIL AND FLASH WELDING THE
RAIL ENDS (2005)
a.
Repair plugs should only be installed when the current rail temperature is below the Adjusted Rail Temperature (ART)
for the track under repair, or when it is desirable to raise the ART of the track under repair.
b.
Determine if a CWR temperature adjustment is necessary by consulting rail laying temperature records and other track
condition data that may be available as a result of past track inspections or experiences.
c.
If necessary, proceed with the adjustment in accordance with standard practice.
d.
Saw cut the CWR on each side of the defect to obtain an opening for a short section of rail. It is recommended that the
short rail be a minimum of twenty feet. In cutting the opening for the short section of rail, locate the cuts so that the rail
ends and resulting welds fall in the center of a tie crib.
e.
Remove rail anchors for a sufficient distance on each side of the opening to allow sufficient movement for installation
of the replacement rail. If it is desired not to change the ART, then the opening shall be allowed to increase by an
amount equal to the amount of rail consumed by two welds.
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f.
Cut the replacement rail to the desired length. If no adjustment to the ART is necessary, the replacement plug length
should be the length of rail cut out of track PLUS the total rail consumption (two times the amount of rail consumed by
one weld) of the flash butt weld process.
g.
Remove the defect rail and promptly install the replacement rail, securing it in to place. Depending on conditions and
work procedure, it may be necessary to bar one of the ends of the CWR out of the plates to facilitate installation of the
plug.
h.
Align and complete the first weld according to standard practice.
i.
If the CWR was barred out of place previously, return it to the rail seats. Put the rail puller in place on the rail around
the second weld location. DO NOT pull the rail gap closed until the first weld has cooled to below 700 degrees F or the
release temperature designated by the railroad.
j.
Pull the rail gap closed, align the rail ends and complete the second weld according to standard practice. DO NOT
release the rail puller until the second weld has cooled to below 700 degrees F or the release temperature designated by
the railroad.
k.
Replace spikes, anchors and all track hardware.
l.
If a CWR adjustment is necessary but conditions do not permit it at the time, it is recommended that flash welding be
postponed. Cut in a short plug rail of approved length. Drill all rail ends for the application of fully bolted standard
joint bars. Adjust the rail anchor pattern to conform with standard practice for buffer rails. Follow with CWR
adjustment and flash welding as promptly as conditions permit.
SECTION 4.8 RAIL GRINDING BEST PRACTICE
4.8.1 SCOPE (2008)
This manual outlines the current Best Practices in Rail Grinding, as determined through interviews, a 2002 survey and
literature review.
4.8.2 RAIL GRINDING DEFINITION (2008)
Rail grinding is a process that is usually performed by rail-bound machines. These machines remove metal from the rail
surface using rotating grinding wheels (stones). The volume of metal removed is dependent upon the number and arrangement
of stones on each rail, the characteristics and condition of the abrasive in the stones, the application pressure on the grinding
stones, the speed of the machine and the hardness of the rail surface being worked on. Rail grinding is usually performed by
production rail grinders, or switch and crossing grinders.
4.8.3 REASON FOR RAIL GRINDING (2008)
The natural processes of wear and fatigue of rail steel can proceed at a rapid pace that results in a short service life.
Grinding of rails has evolved as a maintenance technique to control wear artificially and to manage wheel / rail contact. Proper
rail grinding controls rail (and wheel) surface plastic deformation, rolling contact fatigue (RCF) cracks on the surface and subsurface, improves truck steering, improves the dynamic stability of rolling stock and improves rolling stock wheel life, all the
while reducing the overall rate of rail wear.
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4.8.4 WHAT IS BEST PRACTICE RAIL GRINDING? (2008)
The ultimate goal in rail maintenance is to achieve the longest possible rail life without increasing the safety risks and costs
associated with unanticipated rail failures. This is accomplished when the rail is replaced because it has worn out rather than
failing from contact fatigue.
Best practice rail grinding includes the following characteristics and actions:
a.
Rail wear and fatigue in balance.
b.
Long rail life with minimal risk of defect related failures.
c.
Installation and maintenance of optimal transverse rail profiles.
d.
Vertical profile within tolerance (corrugations and weld dipping under control).
e.
Application of rail profiles that promote low wear, low stress and good vehicle stability.
f.
Grinding cycles that are consistent with the needs of different track geometries.
g.
Minimal grinding cost (per finished mile).
h.
Consistent surface quality (roughness, vertical profile, controlled facet widths).
i.
Minimal fire risk.
These objectives can be achieved by using preventive rail grinding, coupled with a proper lubrication and top of rail friction
management strategy.
4.8.4.1 Best Practice (Preventive) Rail Grinding
Preventive rail grinding has emerged as a Best Practice approach to rail maintenance. Preventive grinding removes just enough
metal to halt the uncontrolled growth of RCF, maintains optimal rail profiles matched to the local operating conditions and
also controls rail corrugation and weld dipping.
Removing just enough metal from the rail
Small RCF cracks that have just initiated on the rail surface grow slowly at first but as their length increases, the rate of growth
increases. The preventive-grinding strategy is to cycle the rail grinder at frequent intervals based on curvature and tonnage to
remove a thin surface layer of metal, containing the short, slowly growing cracks.
In comparison, corrective grinding is performed at longer intervals but with a disproportionately larger amount of grinding to
try to remove the longer, rapidly growing cracks.
Another beneficial feature of preventive grinding is that it retains and regularly refreshes protective work-hardened material on
the rail surface. In contrast, corrective grinding allows the surface cracks to grow to substantial depths in the rail surface and
through the work-hardened region, which requires partial removal of some of the work hardened surface to remove a large
portion of the remaining cracks.
A large production grinder can remove short micro-cracks with a single grinding pass to artificially wear the rail at the optimal
rate – “The Magic Wear Rate” (see Figure 4-4-64). However consideration must also be given to the requirements for profile
grinding shown in Table 4-4-2.
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NOTE:
There may be situations for which corrective grinding is the only option to ensure a safe railroad
operation. Examples include treating rail with severe defects that are preventing ultrasonic inspection,
severe corrugations, spalling and shelling or other conditions that would otherwise require emergency
rail relay. Corrective grinding might be appropriate in these cases.
Case studies have documented the benefits of preventive grinding versus corrective grinding.
Figure 4-4-64. Shows the preventive grinding tonnage based cycles designed to remove the small
surface initiating cracks just before their period of rapid growth.
This is the Optimal Metal Removal Rate (also called the Magic Wear Rate). Note - the increments on the vertical scale are
0.25 mm (0.01 inch).
Maintain the Optimal Profile
As the rail wears with tonnage over the surface, natural changes to the wheel/rail contact geometry (Figure 4-4-65) usually
promote excessive wheel/rail contact stress that causes rail-surface plastic flow and surface fatigue (spalling, shelling and head
checks). These geometry changes also increase the internal stresses in the rail that initiate rail defects, including transverse
defects in the railhead. By rectifying the profile in the transverse plane with rail grinding, the contact geometry between the
wheel and the rail can be significantly improved to reduce contact stress, improve vehicle stability in tangent track and
improve wheelset curving.
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Figure 4-4-65. Typical changes to the rail geometry due to wear and plastic flow.
The rail in track must deal with a large variation in wheel profiles - from unworn to much worn, new to hollow, and wide
flange and thin flange. Wheel/rail interaction software is used to design the optimal rail profile for curved and tangent track to
minimize rail contact stresses and improve train stability and curving performance. Rail profiles have changed over the years
with improvements in the railroads operating environment and the introduction of improved maintenance strategies and
materials.
Control Rail Corrugation and weld dipping
Rail corrugation and weld dipping, along with crack growth, are phenomena that follow an exponential growth pattern - e.g.
mild dips of the weld continue to increase in depth at a small rate but deep dips quickly continue to grow fast. Regularly
grinding a thin layer of metal from the surface (approximately 0.004 inch, refer to Article 4.8.6) to remove the slow growing
shallow irregularities prevents deeper defects on the rail surface from ever developing.
Rail corrugations are controlled by preventive grinding and proper friction management (refer to Article 4.8.5). Rail
corrugations initiate from: rail head de-carbonization (on new steel) and irregularities such as; rail manufacture pitting, contact
fatigue defects, rail welds, rail joints, etc. Corrugation can be completely removed through several rail grinding passes, or can
be progressively eliminated through a preventive-gradual approach. Grinding a corrugated rail surface significantly reduces
the wheel/rail dynamic loads.
4.8.5 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE PREVENTIVE RAIL GRINDING (2008)
4.8.5.1 Gage Face Lubrication
Lubrication substantially reduces the traction stress at the wheel/rail surface and therefore increases the number of contact
cycles by wheel loads before RCF initiates (Figure 4-4-66). But for rail that already has surface cracks, liquid lubricants that
infiltrate the crack reduce friction between the crack faces and thereby reduce the resistance to crack propagation. For this
reason, preventive rail-grinding (where surface cracks are regularly eliminated) in combination with lubrication can
dramatically increase rail life. Conversely, the application of lubricants to damaged rail can increase the rate of crack growth.
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Figure 4-4-66. Ratcheting of the rail surface material caused by traction and slip on the rail surface.
When lubrication is confined to the gage-face, and the top of the high and low rails remain dry, the lateral forces generated by
the curving truck are large. The resulting high contact stress and low natural wear rate promotes shelling of the gage corner of
the high rail (Figure 4-4-67). Under these conditions, grinding of the lower gage corner area of the rail (between 30 and 60
degrees) must remove at least 5/1000 inch at 60-degrees to the rail surface or 16/1000 inch at the 45-degree location (for
grinders that do not grind to 60 degrees) at each preventive grinding cycle.
Figure 4-4-67. High-rail gage face ’Deep Seated Shelling’ between 30 and 60 degrees on the rail surface
which is caused by lower natural wear and high lateral forces in curves with 100% effective gage face
lubrication.
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4.8.5.2 Top of Rail Friction Management
Controlling the coefficient of friction (COF) on the top of both the high and low rail to the range 0.3 to 0.4, reduces the antisteering moment on the trailing axle, thereby helping to reduce the angle of attack of the leading wheelset. This will reduce
the L/V ratio on the high and low rail by about half, and the flange force on both the high and low rail by between 30% to 50%
of its original value. This will also reduce the traction force on the top of the high and low rails. As a result, lateral creep
forces, ratcheting and plastic flow on the top of both rails will be reduced. In addition, friction control of the top of rail will
reduce the wear rate between grinding intervals to half of its original value. Also controlling traction forces reduces the need
to aggressively grind the high and low rails.
Top of Rail Friction Management will undoubtedly impact both the frequency of rail grinding and amount of metal that must
be removed. But limited experience to date in the railroads suggests that general guidelines cannot yet be issued.
4.8.5.3 Wide Track Gage in Curves
Wide gage in curves allows the false flange (the rim side of hollow tread wheels as shown in Figure 4-4-68) to contact the
crown of the low rail. The result is very high contact stresses and poor steering, which eventually cause RCF and a poor
profile on the low rail (Figure 4-4-69).
In track with proper gage, modest relief of the field side of the low rail limits false flange contact. But as wide-gage begins to
exceed 1/2", excessive metal must be ground from the field side to achieve adequate relief from wheel false flange contact. It
is obviously best to ensure the wide-gage track is corrected.
Figure 4-4-68. The rim side of the wheel may have a "false flange" which can cause significant damage to
the low-rail of sharp curves.
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Figure 4-4-69. Shows a 10 inch (250-mm) radius gage on the low rail and the damage caused by the false
flange. Grinding of wide gage track must remove a substantial amount of metal from the field side to
protect the rail from wheel false flange damage.
4.8.5.4 Rail Metallurgy
Rail wear and rail surface fatigue occurs in all rail steel regardless of hardness and metallurgy. Improved metallurgy, harder
steel, profile grinding and proper friction management can significantly reduce wear and fatigue.
Increasing the rail surface hardness does not eliminate surface flow, but flow will be substantially reduced. New premium
steels (introduced after 2002) with higher hardness will reduce the metal removal needed (Table 4-4-2) and increase the
tonnage between grinding cycles (Table 4-4-3).
Gage corner collapse (Figure 4-4-70), even with harder rails, cannot be prevented in the heavy haul environment except
through rail grinding. Rail grinding to moderate the contact stress and reduce the frequency of gage corner loading has proven
effective in eliminating gage corner collapse. The length of the grinding interval is governed by the rate of surface flow into
the gage corner.
Figure 4-4-70. Shows how the high-rail gage corner collapses under heavy wheel loads. Also shown is
the metal flow from the center of the rail to the mid gage area of the rail where RCF cracks form.
Softer rails plastically deform more rapidly and must therefore be ground more frequently. Harder rails are more resistant to
plastic flow and will require less frequent grinding. However, soon after installation, the harder rail will generally require
profile correction to a worn, conformal profile to compensate for the tendancy of harder steel to resist natural wear and flow.
This resistance to profile change, combined with an initial profile that is typically non-conformal and creates high stress with
wheel contact, can cause the rapid initiation of gage corner surface fatigue cracks on new rail.
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Lastly, when new rail is installed into track, the thin surface de-carbonized layer should be ground off as it is very soft and may
produce surface cracks.
4.8.6 PREVENTIVE GRINDING METAL REMOVAL RATES (2008)
The optimal wear rate is the rate of rail wear required to just control rail surface and subsurface fatigue. Insufficient wear
results in rail fatigue, while excessive wear reduces rail life. Preventive grinding is an optimized rail surface maintenance
process that achieves the required optimal rail profile and removes the thin damaged surface layer, including short cracks that
initiated since the last grinding cycle.
The optimal wear rate is tonnage and track specific and depends on some of the following:
a.
Accumulated tonnage since the last grinding cycle: more metal must be removed at each cycle if the cycle interval
increases.
b.
Axle load: heavy axle load systems, as compared to light axle load systems will, for the same MGT of traffic, require
greater metal removal since the amount of surface flow and fatigue damage will be greater.
c.
Type of traffic: different types of trains (e.g. intermodal, coal, grain, passenger, etc.), train speeds, cant deficiency,
type of braking (e.g. dynamic braking, disc-braked, tread-braked), will all impact the amount of metal that must be
removed.
d.
Rail metallurgy (refer to Article 4.8.5.4).
e.
Track with grade: the general experience is that more rail grinding is required on grades due to the increase in surface
flow and wear from traction.
f.
Track curvature: the stress on the high and low rails of curves is much more severe than on rail in tangent track, with
the severity increasing with track curvature (see Table 4-4-2).
g.
Environment/season: RCF cracks grow quicker during wet seasons or when there is loose and blowing snow under
moving trains.
h.
Track gage: refer to Article 4.8.5.3.
i.
Friction management practices: refer to Article 4.8.5.1 and Article 4.8.5.2.
Table 4-4-2 shows the current best practice metal removal rates applied by North American Railroads to control-crack
initiation under preventative grinding. Separate numbers are shown for the gage (+45 degrees to +6 degrees), crown (+6
degrees to -2.5 degrees) and the field (greater than -2.5 degrees to field). These numbers are a compilation of data returned in
a 2002 AREMA survey.
The rail grinding supervisor, with special knowledge of the track performance at a specific location or over a specific area,
may determine that these values need to be increased or decreased. For example, rail with persistant rail surface problems (for
example corrugation, weld dips, spalling, shelling, etc.) may increase the frequency or the metal removal from the rail with rail
grinding. The goal is to remove sufficient metal in one grinding pass to maintain the desired rail profile and at the same time
remove the surface fatigue that has grown since the last grinding cycle.
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Table 4-4-2. Typical "Optimal" Metal Removal Rate (in 2002) in inches (mm)
Track Location (Rail Cycle MGT
Hardness BHN)
Timber Ties metal
removal inches
(mm) depth
Cycle MGT
Passenger
Concrete Ties metal Inches (mm) depth
removal inches
(all standard rail)
(mm) depth
New Rail (340-420)
0.012 (0.3)
0.012 (0.3)
0.012 (0.3)
Sharp Curves of 3
degrees and greater
curvature (340-420)
Gage (poor lube)
Gage high (good lube)
Crown
Field
0.010 (0.25)*
0.016 (0.40)*
0.004 (0.1)
0.010 (0.25)*
0.010 (0.25)*
0.016 (0.40)*
0.004 (0.1)
0.010 (0.25)*
0.008 (0.2)
Not Known
0.004 (0.1)
0.008 (0.2)
Mild Curves of less
than 3 degrees
curvature (340-420)
Gage
Crown
Field
0.010 (0.25)*
0.004 (0.1)
0.010 (0.25)*
0.010 (0.25)*
0.004 (0.1)
0.010 (0.25)*
0.008 (0.2)
0.004 (0.1)
0.008 (0.2)
Tangent (320-340)
Gage
Crown
Field
0.010 (0.25)*
0.004 (0.1)
0.010 (0.25)*
0.012 (0.3)*
0.006 (0.15)
0.012 (0.3)*
0.008 (0.2)
0.004 (0.1)
0.008 (0.2)
NOTE:
Double the metal removal if standard rail hardness (260 to 320 BHN) is
used. Metal removal is governed by tonnage cycle and rail metallurgy.
Metal removal also depends on tie type, curvature, rail hardness, track
structure, traffic type and speed, climate, grades, axle load, etc.
4.8.7 GRINDING CYCLES FOR PREVENTIVE GRINDING (2008)
Preventive-grinding cycles are the tonnage (or time) based grinding intervals that remove and control the small initiating
surface fatigue cracks that have been caused by millions of wheel cycles over the rail. The grinding cycles and metal removal
rates utilized by railroads to preventively maintain their rail are summarized in Table 4-4-3. These numbers are a compilation
of data returned in a 2002 AREMA survey.
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Table 4-4-3. Preventive Rail Grinding Cycles (2002) corresponding to the Optimal Metal Removal Rates
shown in Table 4-4-2.
Track/Rail Definition
MPH - miles per hour
MGT - Million Gross
Tons
Degrees & Meters
radius (mR)
1. New Rail
-141RE
-UIC 60, 113 A
2. Sharp curves
(3 degrees and
sharper)
3. Mild curves
(shallower than 3
degrees)
4. Tangent track
NOTE:
Preventive-Grinding
Cycles (MGT)
Timber and Concrete
Ties
Rail Hardness (BHN)
Preventive-Grinding
Soft Steel
Rail Hardness (260-320
BHN)
Preventive-Grinding
Passenger/Transit
Rail Hardness (260 to
320 BHN)
15 MGT
NA
15 to 25 MGT
(340 to 420 BHN)
NA
10 MGT
8 to 12 MGT
NA
10 MGT
Sharper 2000mR
5-7 MGT
30 to 50 MGT
(320 to 340 BHN)
16 to 24 MGT
Shallower 2000mR
10-15 MGT
50 to 60 MGT
(320 to 340 BHN)
100 MGT
(340 to 420 BHN)
40 to 60 MGT
20-30 MGT
Grinding interval depends on tie type, curvature, rail hardness, track structure, traffic
type and speed, climate, grades, axle load, etc.
4.8.8 SURFACE FINISH TOLERANCES (2008)
Surface finish is a measure of both the severity of ridges left between the facets of each stone pass and the surface roughness
left by the grinding marks or scratches. The roughness of the as-ground rail surface is dependent upon the stone grit size, the
grinding motor control system and the dynamic stability of the grinding motors. Stone grit size refers to the physical size of
the abrasive grain particles. Excessive facet widths and ridges can lead to localized plastic flow of the highly stressed peaks
under wheel load which can cause increased wear and wheel/rail noise. Excessively rough surfaces left by the grinding stone
grit can produce high noise levels, especially in light axle load systems.
Table 4-4-4 shows the typical acceptable grinding facet widths, surface roughness and tolerances to profile for preventive
grinding.
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Table 4-4-4. Surface Finish and Profile Tolerances for Preventive Grinding.
Surface Finish/Profile Lower Gage-corner
Inches (mm)
Tolerance
Description
Mid Gage/Field
Inches (mm)
Crown of Rail
Inches (mm)
Facet Width (Heavy
Haul)
0.2 (5)
(+45 to +15 degrees)
0.3 (8)
(+16 to +6 degrees)
0.47 (12)
(+6 to -2.5 degrees)
Profile Tolerance
(Heavey Haul)
+/-0.01 (0.25)
High-rail Gage
(+45 to +6 degrees)
+/-0.01 (0.25)
Low-rail Field
(>-2.5 degrees)
8 to 10 (200 to 250)
Radius
Facet Width
(Passenger)
0.16 (4)
(+45 to +15 degrees)
0.28 (7)
(+16 to +6 degrees)
0.4 (10)
(+6 to -2.5 degrees)
Profile Tolerance
(Passenger)
+0 to -0.024 (+0 to -0.6) +/-0.012 (+/-0.3)
10 to 12 (250 to 300)
High-rail Gage
Low (+35 to +0 degrees)/ Radius
(+45 to +0 degrees)
Tagent Rail (+45 to +0
degrees)
Roughness (Ra) of rail 10 to 12 microns
surface scratch
(average)
pattern
10 to 12 microns
(average)
10 to 12 microns
(average)
4.8.9 CONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT (2008)
Best Practice, almost by definition, infers that the railroad is continuously evaluating and improving its operation. As railroads
introduce improved materials to the track, better maintenance practices, and heavier and longer trains running at higher speeds,
the railroad should regularly review and update its grinding program to ensure maximum effectiveness and efficiency.
4.8.9.1 Rail-Grinding Test Sites
Test sites are crucial for establishing the appropriate metal removal, profile and grinding cycle requirements for the railroad.
They are used to establish the metal removal rate to control the growth of RCF cracks. Rail samples or non destructive
methods are utilized to determine the fatigue-crack growth rates and their internal direction of propagation. The objective is to
develop the optimal metal removal rate and the preventive grinding cycles to manage the rail grinding strategy for the
changing railroad environment. Test sites are the best way to manage the risks of implementing changes to established
preventive grinding cycles. If any serious failure of a new strategy takes place, it will happen in the test site. The data
extracted through detailed monitoring of test sites can also be used to calculate the benefits of a modified preventive grinding
strategy in controlling RCF, reducing rail wear, reducing grinding effort and cost.
4.8.9.2 Tuning the Rail Grinder to Produce the Optimal Metal Removal Rate
Metal removal rates by rail grinders are influenced by the type of abrasive in the grinding stones, the arrangements of the angle
of the grinding motors, the horsepower delivered to the grinding motors and the speed while grinding. These components
make up the grinding patterns on board the grinder.
Profile specific grinding patterns concentrate the metal removal where it is needed most to obtain the transverse rail profile
and address rail surface condition without wasting metal. Fine tuning and optimizing the use of grinding patterns and grinding
speeds will produce a profile that conforms closely to the design rail profile and has good geometric properties (refer to
Article 4.8.10).
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4.8.10 PLANNING AND QUALITY CONTROL OF RAIL GRINDING (2008)
Best practice rail grinding includes rigorous planning and quality control. A good planning process includes the following
features: development of a detailed grinding plan, ensuring that the grinding program is strictly adhered to, proper supervision
of the grinding operation, pre- and post-inspection of the quality of grinding, high production during available grinding time,
coordination of all aspects to manage the risk of fires, and a safe operation.
4.8.10.1 Grinding Planning
The goal of a preventive grinding plan is to have rail ground on the preventive grinding cycle and to the correct profile. The
success of a preventive grinding depends on good planning to achieve the following:
a.
Maintenance of the appropriate preventive grinding cycle based on tonnage interval on each section of track.
b.
Minimize rail grinder travel to new locations.
c.
An accurate plan based on advanced surveys of the territory.
d.
Grinding plan details that includes the specified grinding patterns, grinding speeds and number of passes to be used.
e.
Distribution of the grinding plan well in advance of the arrival of the rail grinder.
f.
A database of past rail grinding plans available during pre-inspection and post-grind inspection, and for diagnosing
persistent problems or trends affected by the rail grinding process.
g.
Other grinding plan information so that the contractor and district staff can successfully and safely complete the plan.
4.8.10.2 Grinding Supervision
A successful preventive grinding strategy can only be implemented with vigilant management of the grinding program. To
meet the needs of the ever-changing rail condition, the grinding frequency, patterns and speeds are closely monitored
throughout the program to support adjustments that would maximize rail life and optimize the grinding budget.
Proper supervision includes:
a.
Comprehensive pre-inspection at the time that the rail surface condition and profile is not likely to change significantly
before the next planned grinding cycle. This inspection should be conducted by trained personnel using measurement
tools incorporating the target rail profiles. The appropriate patterns are selected at the correct grinding speed to
achieve the optimal metal removal to eliminate the existing rail surface fatigue cracks and restore the rail profile.
b.
Review of the high-production grinding operation with respect to: achievement of the grinding Key Performance
Indicator targets, accurate placement of the pre-selected grinding patterns at the specified grinding speeds, achieving
the specified rail quality (refer to Article 4.8.10.3), the coordination of support equipment, and maintenance of a safe
operation.
c.
Managing the risk of fires using some of the following: the rail grinder’s spark protection, dust collection and water
spray systems, fire suppressants added to the water on board the grinder, rail-bound water carrying support vehicles,
avoiding (if possible) the highest risk time of the year for fires, etc.
d.
Using on-board, automatic, laser profile measuring system (if available) with the target rail profiles to record the
profile error before and after grinding.
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4.8.10.3 Grinding Quality Assurance
It is considered that the rail is ground to best practice standards if the following conditions are satified:
a.
Either A) the desired transverse profile is obtained within the specified tolerance range or; B) any stated minimum
depth of material is removed from the rail to control rolling contact fatigue defects.
b.
Corrugation is addressed so that residual irregularities are within the specified limits.
c.
The desired surface finish is achieved (refer to Article 4.8.8).
d.
The grinding operation is conducted as productively as possible, e.g. the greatest distance of finished ground track is
produced per operating hour.
Regular inspection of the grinding operation has proven benefits in improved grinding effectiveness. The grinding supervisor
can perform a number of checks on the grinding operation to ensure good quality and productivity. Note that there are features
on the track that will influence the shape of the profile on the rail and these should be considered when inspecting the rail. The
supervisor should also check:
a.
The calibration of the grinding motor pressure and angle shown in the on-board computer.
b.
The ground rail profile to ensure that the grinding plan has produced an effective treatment of the rail, which includes
achievement of the desired shape and removal or successful treatment of surface defects. The rail profile can be
measured with either a steel "template" that is mounted on a bar that sits on the plane of the top of the two rails or laser
profile systems on-board rail test vehicles (including the grinding machine). The finished transverse profile should be
satisfactory if at least 80% of measurements of a section of track are within the desired tolerance range of the template.
c.
The ground rail surface finish to ensure that the specified surface roughness and facet widths are within tolerance.
Inspections are also made for grinding stone malfunctions, for example gaps in grinding marks (grinding chatter),
missing grinding facets leaving unground gaps on the rail surface, large ridges left on the rail surface, diagonal
grinding marks (with grinding stones centered on their axis and offset grinding stones), deeper striation marks than
normal (that do not wear down with traffic), grinding gouges on the surface, continuous "bluing" of the rail surface,
wandering of some grinding facets to different positions on the rail surface, etc.
d.
The final wheel/rail contact band to ensure that the transverse profile is correctly placed on the rail. A very simple way
of visualizing if there is a problem is to spray the rail surface with paint before the passage of a train. The train should
wear a single running band on the rail surface with the location dependent on the rail position (tangent or curve).
e.
The metal removal by the rail grinder to ensure proper operation of the rail grinder. The metal remover over an area of
the railhead can be measured and monitored using an instrument such as the Miniprof or EZ II, although this is not
practical as part of daily routine grinding operation. Measurements are made periodically on typical track locations to
verify the performance of the rail grinder.
4.8.10.3 Production Grinding Contracts
Production Grinding operations in North America are usually carried out by contractors. Grinding contracts may be structured
based on payment for the pass-miles of track ground or by the shift of work. The contractor and the railroad must strive
together to achieve higher efficiencies in some of the following areas: higher grinding speeds, higher track time for work, a
pass to finished mile ratio of one. The contractor may also be involved in surveys of grinding machine performance and rail
conditions. Performance in terms of metal removal at various grinding speeds is sometimes stated in contractual agreements.
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4.8.11 RECOMMENDED PRACTICES FOR SWITCH AND MAINTENANCE GRINDING
APPLICATIONS (2012)
4.8.11.1 Scope
This section is a continuation of Section 4.8, Rail Grinding Best Practice. This section establishes best practices for switch and
maintenance grinding applications. Turnouts, crossings and other special track work are known as design "discontinuities" in
the track structure. These discontinuities are necessitated by the physical requirements for moving a rail-bound vehicle or
rolling stock from one track to another, or for crossing tracks. They consist of more than two rails, usually with complex and
expensive components such as switch points, frogs, guard rails, etc. Because these discontinuities generally contain changes in
track geometry (often abrupt or non-uniform in nature) they result in the development of high force levels as the vehicle passes
over this discontinuity. Furthermore, because the turnout "steers" the rail-bound vehicle or rolling stock as it negotiates its key
components, the relationship between the wheel and rail is particularly important.
4.8.11.1.1 General
Swith and maintenance grinding applications refer to the use of abrasive grinding wheels applied to the rail head to restore rail
head profile and a smooth transition throughout the entire switch area. This produces a regular and consistent running band on
the crown of the rail, while controlling metal flow on the gage and field corner of the rail head. This results in increased rail
and wheel life, controls rail head defects and decreases wheel - rail noise. The recommended practices addressed in this
section help maintenance personnel to determine where and how to employ switch and maintenance grinding application
methods, and to provide guidelines for monitoring the effectiveness.
4.8.11.2 Expected Performance
Grinding should be targeted so the highest priority switches and crossings are ground within designated tonnages. The railroad
shall specify the grinding strategy to be employed at each grinding cycle.
A railroad survey should be performed to identify areas, in addition to switches and grade crossings, where switch grinders are
preferable to large production grinders. The survey should identify areas where poor rail surface conditions exist and whether
it is more advantageous to use switch grinders. Reasons may include: location/rail accessibility and/or economics.
Inspect and identify any additional locations for grinding, including:
• Wayside lubricators
• Wayside equipment detectors
• Wheel burns or otherwise damaged rail
• Bridges
• Depot platforms with restricted side clearance
• Welded rail "plugs"
• WILD (Wheel Impact Load Detector)
• Other special trackwork
The grinding equipment shall remove metal from the surface of the head of the rail in a uniform and consistent manner. As a
result of different grinding stones, stone arrangements and/or motor configurations, some grinding limitations may exist within
crossings, raised guard rails, frogs, lubricator sites, axle counters, hot box detectors, and other obstructions.
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The grinding equipment must be capable of removing short wave corrugation, reducing rolling contact fatigue as defined in
Section 4.2 of this chapter, and achieve the desired rail head profile. The grinding equipment’s stone patterns, power and pass
speeds will determine the metal removal rate and passes required.
4.8.11.3 Areas to be Ground
4.8.11.3.1 Switch and Crossing Grinding Units
Units will be defined as locations where the main line, production grinders are unable to grind:
• Straight side of switch
• Turnout side of switch
• Frog/guard rail area
• Turnout curve
• Curves
• Road crossings
• Equipment defect detectors
• Railroad crossings
• Spot grinding (areas where production grinders cannot support)
NOTE:
The turnout curve is defined as the area starting 50 feet behind the turnout frog, through the last field
weld on the insulated joints governing the out bound movement from the adjacent track.
Figure 4-4-71. Showing Grinding Unit Areas
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The switch and maintenance grinder should grind far enough beyond the unit being ground to overlap the ends of the area
ground by the large, production grinders. On seldom used turnout locations, reduce grinding on the turnout side. Grind only
the switch point to the turnout heel block and, where required, the turnout side of the frog. Occasionally, a main line grinder
may skip the turnout curve due to track work windows - this should be evaluated for grinding.
4.8.11.3.2 Grinding Program Considerations:
a.
The decision to grind into a frog is based on many factors, such as type and size. Usually the decision is to relieve
short wave corrugation and improve transfer areas.
b.
Most turnout stock rails require corrective grinding using a precision hand grinder in the transfer area prior to grinding
the entire turnout. This is due to various conditions such as wheel transfer, switch condition and support. The precision
grinding does not take the place of the switch grinder.
c.
When grinding a switch point, there are areas that cannot be ground by these machines, however the finished product
shall not be left outside regulatory specifications.
d.
When grinding highway grade crossings, inspect the highway grade crossing to ensure crossing planks or other
obstacles are secured to prevent damage to equipment. The amount of field side relief (rail/wheel contact relief area)
that can be achieved when grinding, will be determined by the highway grade crossing type and clearance.
e.
The time spent grinding a unit will depend on the type and size of the unit, rail condition, desired profile, grinding pass
speed (mph), and length of the object. When spot grinding curves, every 225 feet will constitute a unit.
4.8.11.4 Preventive/Corrective Maintenance Grinding
Grinding speeds range from 2 mph to 5mph, depending on the type of grinding being preformed. Preventive maintenance
grinding will usually require three (3) to five (5) passes per unit at speeds of 3 mph or higher. Corrective maintenance grinding
will require slower speeds to profile the rail head. Usually 2 mph to 2.5 mph and may require nine (9) or more passes.
Continuous bluing across the re-profiled zone on the rail head is not acceptable.
4.8.11.5 Quality Control
To ensure quality control when grinding, use a precision profile tool to monitor the grinding profile during the grinding
operation. The rail profile should be ground to the desired radius. Inspect the rail head for excessive shelling, pitting, or rail
head breakout. Inspect the ground rail head surface to ensure no sharp edges, blue streaks, or gouges are present and that the
grinding facets are uniform and blend together.
A final walking inspection should be preformed prior to leaving the work location. Extinguish all fires that may be present.
Use air or water to blow out grinding dust that might cause signal failure in the switch point/stock rail area, insulated gage
plates and joints.
4.8.11.6 Planning Switch and Maintenance Grinding
Best practice switch and maintenance grinding includes rigorous planning and quality control. A good planning process
includes:
• Development of a detailed grinding plan;
• Ensuring that the grinding program is strictly followed;
• Proper supervision of the grinding operation;
• Pre- and post-inspection of the quality of grinding;
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• High production during available grinding time;
• Coordination of all aspects to manage a safe operation; and
• Preventing the risk of fires.
SECTION 4.9 BEVELING OR SLOTTING OF RAIL ENDS1 (1995)
a.
Where rail is to be beveled, it shall be performed in accordance with Article 2.1.12c.
b.
Rail ends at bonded insulated joints shall not be beveled.
SECTION 4.10 RECONDITIONING RAIL ENDS2 (1995)
Reconditioning of rail ends by welding, grinding or cropping is recommended as good practice.
When slotting at insulated joints, any head overflow shall be removed flush with the rail end. Care should be taken not to
increase the existing gap and to minimize damage to the end post.
SECTION 4.11 RECOMMENDED PRACTICES FOR RAIL/WHEEL FRICTION CONTROL
4.11.1 SCOPE (2005)
This section establishes best practices for rail/wheel friction control.
4.11.2 GENERAL (2008)
Rail-wheel friction control refers to the application of a material to the rail/wheel contact surfaces for the purposes of reducing
locomotive fuel consumption, increasing rail and wheel life, controlling truck curving performance, and decreasing wheel-rail
noise. The recommended practices given here are intended to guide the decision process of determining where and how to
employ rail-wheel friction control methods and to provide guidelines for monitoring rail-wheel friction control effectiveness.
Two types of materials are employed for rail-wheel friction control: lubricants and friction modifiers. Lubricants are applied
to the rail gage face and gage corner where contact is made with the wheel flange. These are intended to minimize friction as
much as possible. Friction modifiers are applied to the rail running surface where contact is made with the wheel tread. As
train braking and locomotive traction depend on these wheel and rail surfaces, friction modifiers are designed to produce an
intermediate level of friction and positive friction attributes.
1
2
References, Vol. 40, 1939, pp. 597, 739; Vol. 52, 1951, pp. 597, 824; Vol. 54, 1953, pp. 1178, 1413; Vol. 62, 1961, pp. 590, 952; Vol. 96, p. 29. Reapproved
with revisions 1995.
References, Vol. 26, 1925, pp. 568, 1404; Vol. 37, 1936, pp. 469, 1013; Vol. 48, 1947, pp. 656, 908; Vol. 54, 1953, pp. 1181, 1414; Vol. 62, 1961, pp. 590,
952; Vol. 96, p. 29. Reapproved with revisions 1995.
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Lubricants and friction modifiers may be applied by several different methods: with wayside track-mounted equipment,
from hi-rail vehicles, and from on board locomotives or rolling stock.
4.11.3 MEASURING FRICTION CONTROL EFFECTIVENESS (2008)
4.11.3.1 Introduction
Effectiveness of friction control can be determined by measuring a number of parameters, including rail friction coefficient,
curving forces, noise levels and rail wear rates. Rail friction is measured with manual or automatic high-speed tribometers
(refer to Article 4.11.4). A tribometer provides an indication of current rail friction over short or long distances of track. As
rail friction values are affected by temperature, humidity, rain, snow and rail surface conditions, friction measurements are best
taken when conditions are representative of the inspected territory to ensure meaningful results. As conditions commonly vary
throughout the year, it may be useful or even necessary to take measurements at different times to determine the range of
friction control effectiveness for each track segment.
The amount of friction control material (lubricant or friction modifier) on a wheel plays an important role in the system
performance. Thus, simply measuring rail friction will not provide a complete picture of conditions at a site. If a friction
measurement system is not available, or wheel conditions are deemed to be of significant importance, site specific
effectiveness can be determined by additional means such as measuring: rail and wheel wear, noise, curving forces or dynamic
rail deflections. Generally long term effectiveness is monitored by rail wear rates, while curving forces, dynamic rail
deflections, and noise levels can show effectiveness for individual trains at a specific location.
4.11.3.2 Recommended Friction Levels (RFL)
By definition, friction is a parameter that involves two surfaces in contact, in this case wheel and rail. Accordingly, any
specifications that measure only one of these surfaces are potentially prone to misinterpretation. The specifications listed
below refer to rail friction measurements only. Unfortunately there is no method available to measure friction on wheels,
though the true coefficient of friction can be inferred from lateral forces in sharp curves.
The friction values listed below will generally be optimum for controlling system wear, train energy consumption, train
handling, curving forces, and noise. If any given performance issue is of special concern, alternative friction values may
provide improved performance for one parameter, but often to the detriment of others. For example, if gage face rail wear at a
particular location is significant, applying additional lubrication to lower gage face friction values will result in reduced wear.
However, uncontrolled or excessive migration of lubricant to the top of rail may result in wheel slip or may otherwise
adversely affect train handling.
Friction is measured along a distance of 50 feet (15 m) or more of rail length. Overall recommended (target) friction levels
(RFL) are:
• Gage face on curves: less than 0.20 μ.
• Gage corner on curves: less than 0.20 μ.
• Top of rail (curves and tangent): 0.30 μ - 0.40 μ.
• Differential: maximum difference between left and right top of rail: less than 0.1 μ difference.
In cases where the critical friction control agent is primarily distributed on passing wheels, rail friction measurements will be
misleading. This can be seen with top of rail friction control materials which usually show no measured effect on friction
measured on the top of the rail, even when other measures such as curving forces indicate that the desired friction control
outcomes have been achieved.
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NOTE:
To avoid increasing curving forces, the friction coefficient on the top of the low rail of a curve should
not be allowed to be more than 0.1 μ greater than the value on top of the high rail. Controlling the
friction coefficient on the top of the low rail in curves to the specified maximum value shown above is
also useful in reducing curving forces. Using lubricant on top of the low rail will reduce its friction
coefficient, while leaving the top of the high rail dry or mildly lubricated. Care must be taken to avoid
creating situations on adjacent curves of opposite hand (direction) where lubricant carryover from one
curve could create the reverse friction pattern from what was intended on the following curve,
resulting in higher curving forces.
Gage face and corner locations and friction values, are shown on Figure 4-4-72.
Figure 4-4-72. Location of gage face, corner and top of rail friction zones.
Reproduce and paste on a cardboard backing or copy onto a plastic or metal template for field use. Place template
perpendicular to rail with gage face on side of rail, top of rail on top running surface to indicate areas of target friction
values. Scale: FULL SIZE = 4" x 4"
4.11.3.3 Monitoring Rail Wear
Wear of rail, both gage face and top, can provide an indication of long term friction control effectiveness. Short periods of
applying friction control materials will not affect long term wear rates. Measuring rail wear can be used to determine long term
policy, material performance, and effectiveness in maintaining proper operation of application systems.
As modern, high strength rails offer significant resistance to wear, measurements must be accurate to produce timely
information with sufficient resolution to determine differences in friction control policy or materials. Generally, for curves
between 4 and 6 degrees, a monitoring period of at least 25 million gross tons is needed to determine statistically significant
differences in wear rates with currently available measurement tools.
Wear rates on different curves can be compared concurrently, provided all locations experience identical traffic and have
similar conditions. Back to back comparisons at the same site can also be conducted, with care taken to monitor other
variables likely to influence wear, such as weather (rain/snow), train type, train speed, axle loads and operating polices. Even
seemingly identical curves may experience differences in wear rates and consideration should be given to evaluating multiple
curves to ensure statistically significant results. Care should also be taken that a sufficient number of measurements are
recorded at each curve to ensure statistical reliability (at least 6 in the body of each curve on both the high and low rail), and
that well defined measurement protocols are followed.
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Gage face wear rates are most commonly used to provide a comparison of lubrication policies and materials. As an example,
for a 5 degree curve monitored for a 25 MGT period, a comparison between baseline and enhanced (often described as
"inconsistent" and "consistent") gage face lubrication policies or materials is likely to show the following:
Gage Face
Lubrication policy
Baseline Comparison Rate (BCR)
Dry wear rate/lubricated wear rate
Base wear (dry-no lubrication)
BCR = 1
Inconsistent lubrication
BCR = 2
Intermittent lubrication
BCR = 5
Consistent lubrication
BCR > 10
These BCR values show the significant benefits of gage face lubrication, as even moderate efforts can lead to a five fold
increase in wear life.
4.11.3.4 Curving Forces and Dynamic Rail Head Deflections (gage widening)
Truck curving is influenced by many factors, including rail/wheel profile and friction of the rail gage face and top running
surface. Truck curving has a significant influence on lateral forces applied to the rail and subsequent lateral rail head
deflection (gage widening). Thus by measuring these forces and/or deflections, the effectiveness of friction control methods
and materials can be determined.
Excessive lubricant or friction modifier on only the top of the high rail (resulting in reduced friction below 0.3μ) will generally
lead to increased curving forces. As well, gauge face lubrication in the presence of dry top of high and low rail surfaces will
generally lead to increased curving forces. Conversely, by properly controlling top of rail friction on both the high and low
rails of a curve, lateral curving forces can be reduced by up to 40%. Evidence of increased or decreased curving forces can be
determined through rail mounted strain gages, and in some instances by measuring dynamic rail head deflections. The actual
value of lateral forces and/or rail head deflections will be site specific. The value will depend on a number of parameters,
including rail/wheel profile, truck conditions, tie and fastener conditions, train speed, axle load, and friction levels. A
monitoring period to measure curving forces for baseline and each subsequent friction-modified condition must be established
to determine friction control effectiveness.
A dynamic Rail Deflection Gauge (RDG) system utilizes high-precision displacement measurement probes to measure
dynamic motion of the rail head. In addition, a wheel sensor is used to trigger data collection activities and record axle pass
information. Rail head deflection and wheel sensor data are logged by a portable trackside data acquisition system at a
sampling rate that is adequate to characterize the dynamic deflection signal. The data must then be processed to remove
unwanted signal components and calculate peak deflections (Low Rail and High Rail) for each axle. With appropriate
processing algorithms in place, good correlations between rail deflection and lateral forces have been demonstrated, thus
allowing rail deflection performance to be used as a means of monitoring changes in lateral forces and to verify the
effectiveness of top of rail friction management. A RDG system must be designed for rapid installation and portability,
allowing multiple locations to be monitored through a given territory. Figure 4-4-73 shows a typical RDG site.
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Figure 4-4-73. Suggested RDG layout, showing deflection sensor, wheel sensor, and data
collection box
4.11.3.5 Train Energy
Effective lubrication and friction modification can reduce rolling resistance and thus reduce the energy needed to move a train.
Closed-loop constant speed operations can show a reduction in energy of 30% to 40%; however, actual in-field point-to-point
train operations under similar conditions of friction control have shown reductions of 5% to 13%. Controlled train speeds,
operating techniques and identical tonnage and train makeup are required to utilize energy as a means of evaluating changes to
rail friction.
4.11.4 FRICTION MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS (2008)
Measuring the Coefficient of Friction (COF) of the rail surfaces is the most common method of determining if Recommended
Friction Levels (RFL) have been reached and/or maintained.
The method for measuring the COF of the rail surface involves the use of a tribometer (a device for measuring friction).
However, in situations where a lubricant and/or friction modifier acts to condition the wheels, measurement of rail friction
may not offer an effective means to evaluate product performance.
There are two types of rail tribometers available: a hand held tribometer (HHT) or a high speed rail tribometer (HSRT).
The HHT is intended for spot measurements of friction. By following manufacturers’ operating and calibration guidelines a
trained operator can obtain consistent results. The HSRT is designed to automatically obtain four measurements, both top of
rail surfaces and both gage surfaces. It repeatedly makes these measurements along the track while moving at speeds up to 30
MPH. The measurements and locations are recorded in a computerized database.
Current HSRT and HHT designs utilize a variety of measurement principles and, due to size of measurement wheels, measure
at different locations on the rail. Differences in measured friction values between devices can be attributed to a number of
factors:
• Variations in calibration.
• Specific location of gage face or top of rail measurement which is determined by the user.
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• Operator setup.
• System configuration.
– Measurement wheel size and load
– Sliding versus rolling measurement
– Angle of attack and creepage controls
• Humidity, rain or wet spots on the rail.
• Thickness and durability of grease, oil or friction control product measured.
A friction control plan takes into account several factors to obtain and maintain target friction levels. These are weather (rain,
temperature, etc.), rail traffic density, type of application equipment, and lubricant or friction control material characteristics.
As these conditions change, friction measurements should be repeated to verify that the RFL is maintained as specified in
(refer to Article 4.11.3.2).
Measuring the COF and comparing it to the RFL of each section of track should be conducted on a regular basis to ensure that
the plan and application systems continue to be effective.
4.11.5 LUBRICANTS AND/OR FRICTION MODIFIERS (2008)
4.11.5.1 Introduction
There are two main categories of material used for friction control:
• Friction Modifiers
• Lubricants
Both lubricants and friction modifiers may be in solid or liquid form, which can lead to different application methods. When
placed on the top of the rail, both types of materials are used to reduce lateral forces, rail and wheel wear, and fuel
consumption. When placed on the gauge face only, both types of materials will reduce rail and wheel wear as well as fuel
consumption, but may increase lateral forces.
Considerations for materials when properly applied:
• Environmentally acceptable.
– Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) available
• Economically feasible.
• Formulation for the railroad user-expected temperature range.
– All-season vs. summer and winter formulations
– Can be applied at the expected temperature range
– Provide effective friction levels at the expected temperature range
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• Not adversely affect track signaling system integrity.
• Not cause increased degradation of the rail surface.
• Not affect train braking.
• Not impact rail flaw ultrasonic inspection signals.
• Not ignite when applied over switch point heaters.
For materials intended to be applied to top of rail:
• Not increase gage-face rail wear.
• Not cause migration of gage-face lubricant to the top of the rail.
• Not adversely affect the adhesion of locomotives.
• Not adversely affect air braking or dynamic braking.
– Locomotive based systems must consider distributed locomotive power traction issues
4.11.5.2 Lubricants
A lubricant reduces friction to the lowest possible levels (< 0.2 μ). Lubricants are generally used for gage face friction control.
However, lubricants can in principle be applied to the top of rail provided control systems are in place to prevent wheel slip to
powered axles. When applied from locomotive-based applicators, lubricant products should be entirely consumed by the end
of the train or before the next set of powered axles. Where the coefficient of friction on top of the rail is less than 0.3 μ, it must
increase to at least that level by the end of the train. Regardless of the application method, build-up or layers of lubricant from
multiple locomotive-based top of rail equipped trains must not produce less than 0.3 μ on top of the rail.
4.11.5.3 Friction Modifiers
Friction modifiers are recommended for top of rail applications to control friction on the rail surface. They are designed to
work without producing adverse effects on train handling such as increased stopping distance or wheel slip.
The key attribute of a friction modifier is to provide controlled COF on the wheel/rail interface (0.30 μ to 0.40 μ), based on the
inherent material properties. This can be determined by tribometer measurements as the material is applied directly to the rail
from a train mounted system, a hi-rail or manually.
Another key attribute of a friction modifier is positive friction. This means that the friction level increases with increasing slip.
This characteristic is critical for friction modifier effectiveness in noise reduction and corrugation growth reduction. Positive
friction provides the means to achieve an effective COF higher than 0.3 if required by the locomotive adhesion control system.
The friction characteristics described above can provide reductions in: lateral forces, rail wear, fuel consumption, noise (wheel
squeal and flanging noise), and short pitch corrugations. Because the coefficient of friction provided by a properly applied
friction modifier film does not adversely affect traction, the material applied by a locomotive-mounted system need not be
consumed by the end of the train. Provided excessive material buildup does not occur, end of train carryover will provide some
benefit to the following train.
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4.11.6 WAYSIDE APPLICATOR SPACING CONSIDERATIONS (2017)
4.11.6.1 General Comments
Spacing of wayside gauge face (GF) and top-of-rail (TOR) applicators is influenced by a number of site specific factors, train
traffic, and effectiveness of incorporated applicator and lubricant/friction modifier products. After initial installation is made,
the appropriate field measurements (see Sections 4.11.3 and 4.11.4) can be used to determine layout effectiveness and assess if
applicator adjustment and/or relocation (re-spacing) is needed.
4.11.6.2 Initial Spacing Recommendations
Number and spacing of wayside applicators typically depends on the length and design geometry (i.e. gradient, curvature, etc.)
of the territory over which friction control is being considered. For an isolated (single) curve with single direction traffic, or
where operating tonnage is predominantly in one direction, one gauge face lubricator or TOR applicator placed in advance of
the target curve for the direction of heaviest traffic may provide adequate friction control.
Territories with multiple curves separated by tangent segments generally require several applicators spaced at varying
intervals. Applicator settings and distance between applicators will depend on the severity of curvature, and the length or
density of curvature / tangent within the target area. The major parameters influencing applicator spacing and settings include:
i.
Track Structure
(a) Track Gage
• Wide gauge in curves can produce false flange contact with the low rail, which increases high rail flanging
force and lubricant scrape-off. These conditions warrant tighter spacing between GF lubricators, or increased
application rates to achieve effective friction control. Depending on the wayside application system used, wide
gage through a GF or TOR applicator site can also impact the effectiveness of grease or friction modifier (FM)
transfer to rail wheels, generating similar equipment spacing / application rate considerations.
• Tight gauge in tangent track can induce truck hunting, producing random excess deposits of grease along
tangent rails intended for curves.
• A maximum variation of + 1/8” from standard 56 1/2" track gage at GF or TOR wayside application sites
(measured statically) is recommended to ensure optimized transfer of lubricants or friction modifiers at the
wheel-race interface.
(b) Rail Profile / Wear
• Partially-worn wheel profiles combined with new rail conditions can generate more severe gauge corner contact
along curve high rails. These contact conditions are typically more severe compared to curve-worn rails,
making it difficult to initially maintain adequate friction control. These conditions will abate over time with
lubrication effectiveness improving with increased curve wear, permitting wider spacing between gauge face
lubricators or reductions in application rates.
(c) Fastener Systems (i.e. Stiff vs. Weak, Concrete ties / Elastic fasteners vs. Wood ties / Spikes
• Rigidity of incorporated fastener systems influences gage widening dynamics and friction control effectiveness
as noted in Item (a-1). Lubrication quality through curves with enhanced gage restraint will improve as curve
high rails wear to a conformal profile, generating less severe dynamic gage-widening. Increased applicator
settings may be required in the interim.
ii.
Operating Environment
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(a) Winter/Summer Temperature Ranges
• Winter-grade GF lubricants and friction modifiers are generally thinner (lower viscosity) than summer-grade
products. Use of an incorrect product type for ambient weather conditions will impact the pumping, carry, and
wheel / rail adhesion capabilities of friction control products. Tighter applicator spacing or increased
application rates may be required to offset weather impacts.
(b) Rain/Snow
• Wet rail may inhibit adhesion of GF lubricants or friction modifiers to wheel and rail surfaces, negatively
impacting the coverage distance of incorporated friction control. If wet conditions are frequently experienced,
tighter applicator spacing or increased application rates may be required.
(c) Organic or Lading Contamination (i.e. Blowing sand or dust, leaves, coal dust, etc.)
• Introduction of foreign contaminants to lubricants or FM products can alter expected friction control
performance effectiveness as per Item (b-2). Tighter applicator spacing or increased application rates may be
required to offset environmental impacts.
(d) Sun
• Duration and intensity of ambient sunlight can influence the functional properties of friction control products
(i.e. viscosity, liquid vs. dry film state, etc.). These conditions may impact performance effectiveness as per Item
(a-1).
(e) Humidity
• Humidity can produce wet rail challenges as per Item (b-2). Extended periods between trains in humid areas can
also lead to increased rail surface corrosion impacting wheel-rail contact dynamics and effectiveness (i.e.
adhesion) of incorporated friction control products.
(f) Proximity of applicator to water sheds, streams, road crossings and pedestrian crossings. Avoid locations that
could contaminate streams and water supplies. Ensure location of applicators at or near passenger stations do
not impact track braking or traction from accelerating trains.
iii. Track Geometry
(a) Curvature
• The density (%) and severity (i.e. degree) of curvature within a friction control coverage zone are of paramount
importance when determining applicator settings and spacing intervals. Locations with high density, extreme
curvature will experience a more rapid degradation of rail and/or wheel conditioning imparted by GF-TOR
friction control due to more aggressive contact dynamics at the high rail gauge corner and low rail TOR surface
areas. Locations with more severe and extensive curvature consequently require tighter applicator spacing
and/or higher output settings.
(b) Gradient
• Severity (%), length of gradient, car loading, and predominant direction of traffic flow (i.e. uphill or downhill)
are also of paramount importance when determining applicator settings and spacing intervals.
• Applicators immediately ahead of or on ascending grades must be appropriate spaced and properly adjusted to
mitigate wheel slip or train stalls.
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• Spacing between lubricators on extended descending grades > 0.50% is typically tighter to mitigate impacts of
train braking to rail and/or wheel conditioning provided by GF-TOR friction control. Reduced spacing
combined with higher application rates should continue for some distance beyond the end of a descending grade
area until hot wheel temperatures from sustained braking return to normal.
(c) Superelevation
• Design superelevation for curves within a friction control zone should be correctly incorporated to ensure
typical area train speeds do not exceed the calculated balance speed for each curve location.
• Trains traveling above or below balance speed generate higher gage-widening forces impacting the
effectiveness of wheel and/or rail conditioning provided by wayside GF / TOR applicators. Equipment spacing
intervals and output settings must be adjusted as per Item (a-1) if train speeds routinely deviate from curve
balance speeds.
(d) Tangent Length
• Extensive accumulated tangent distance within a coverage area will permit increased spacing between GF and
TOR applicators. Spacing reductions may be required if wheel flange contact marks are randomly observed
along tangent segments due to truck hunting or other steering anomalies.
• If curve clusters are separated by extended tangent segments, consideration should be given to treating each
curve group as a separate friction control coverage zone.
(e) Track Quality Index
• A track quality index (TQI) rating is a subjective measure of track quality as derived from recorded Inspection
Car parameters (i.e. track gauge, surface, alignment, etc.). A low TQI rating may be an indicator of excessive
dynamic lateral wheel forces generated by area traffic, warranting tighter applicator spacing or increased
application rates.
iv. Train Operations
(a) Bi-directional vs. Single direction traffic
• GF and TOR applicator spacing must accommodate equipment placement in advance of curve clusters or
targeted locations if the coverage zone experiences single direction traffic only.
• Some wayside equipment types will accommodate alternate application rates for opposing directions in a bidirectional operating environment. This option is advantageous for heavy gradient coverage areas with
extensive train braking - Lower application rates can be incorporated for the ascending grade direction to
improve friction control economics.
(b) Single track vs. Multiple tracks
• Multiple track locations may contain directional traffic considerations as per Item (d-1).
• Applicators servicing more than one track from the same product reservoir may require tighter spacing to
accommodate lower application rates / reduced coverage distance providing a more manageable pace of
lubricant consumption.
(c) Loaded/Empty bias
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• GF and TOR applicator spacing must accommodate proper placement in advance of curve clusters or targeted
locations as biased for the predominant direction of loaded traffic travel.
• Lines carrying mostly loaded trains will need shorter distances between GF applicators compared to lines with a
mix of loaded / empty traffic or mostly empty trains. Loaded trains will consume GF lubricant more rapidly
than empty trains due to higher flanging forces along curve high rails.
(d) Speed
• Higher train speeds increase the severity of flanging or dynamic gauge widening forces imparted to curves.
Tighter applicator spacing or increased application rates are required to mitigate adverse impacts of these forces
to GF-TOR friction control quality / effectiveness. Higher speeds may result in grease fling and wasted product,
and may require alternative additives to improve transfer.
(e) Braking (Dynamic vs. Air)
• As per Item (c-2), areas with heavy train braking require tighter GF-TOR applicator spacing or increased
application rates to sustain wheel / rail conditioning quality and mitigate impacts to fiction control performance
effectiveness.
• Predominant use of dynamic braking within a friction control coverage zone does not influence the spacing of
GF or TOR applicators.
v.
Application System Considerations
(a) Transfer Mechanism
• Distribution Bars (GF or TOR)
– Critical bar considerations include 2 vs. 4 bar per rail site layouts, bar lengths, and number / width of product
distribution ports per bar.
– Site configurations and bar design features (i.e. length, # of ports, bar troughs, etc.) optimizing coverage for the
entire wheel circumference may permit increased spacing between wayside applicators subject to the influence of
other critical area operating factors (i.e. curvature, gradient).
– Smaller length or a reduced number of bars per applicator site may provide acceptable friction control for target
areas with less severe operating conditions.
– Installation height of distribution bars should meet manufacturer’s recommendations and may require adjustment
as rail wears or different wheel profiles are operated.
• Spray/Stream Distribution
– These systems are propulsion-based, applying friction control products directly to the surface of approaching
wheels as opposed to distributing material to the wheel-rail interface for pick-up.
– Equipment spacing and application rate considerations are similar to those for standard applicator bar designs.
Train speed or environmental factors influencing product transfer to rail wheels (i.e. wind dynamics, wind-borne
contaminants, etc.) should also be considered when determining installation locations.
(b) Pump Actuator (Mechanical, Hydraulic, Electric)
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– Actuating strength of wayside equipment will influence the volume and frequency of lubricant or friction
modifier output. This further impacts extent of product carry and applicator spacing required to achieve effective
friction control for coverage areas.
– Newer design solar-electric or AC electric applicators typically offer more robust and controllable product output
accommodating wider spacing between applicators or lower application rate settings.
(c) Tangent vs. Curve or Spiral Placement
– Applicator spacing may be influenced by the need to position wayside GF-TOR equipment in tangent segments
preceding targeted curve locations. Tangent segments typically generate more favorable steering dynamics with
less likelihood of equipment damage from wheel contact.
– Recommended spacing intervals for GF-TOR applicators may require adjustment to accommodate area tangent
availability, resulting in non-optimized multi-unit zone layouts. In some instances, increased application rates
may assist to mitigate possible adverse impacts resulting from non-optimized configurations.
(d) Rail Grinding Considerations
• Ease of removal and restoration of applicator bars when rail is ground. Ease and schedule to re-install
applicators after grinding can impact time to restore friction control.
vi. Lubricant/Friction Modifier Properties
(a) Summer/Winter Product Grades
• If a single GF lubricant grade is preferred for year-round use and seasonal temperature variations for the
coverage zone are significant, closer GF applicator spacing and seasonal adjustment of applicator settings may
be required.
• If different brands of lubricants or friction modifiers are used, the compatibility of the two products must be
checked before one is added to the other to ensure the resulting mixture can be effectively pumped / dispensed.
(b) Premium Products (EP Additives)
• Premium GF lubricants may contain extreme pressure (EP) additives. Lubricants containing these additives
more effectively resist high contact stresses at the wheel-rail interface and will therefore demonstrate increased
carry distance accommodating wider applicator spacing. Coverage increase will be product dependant.
(c) Carrier Variations (Water, Calcium, Lithium, Oil, Organic, etc.)
• Carrier types for lubricants and friction modifiers will influence product transfer and adherence to wheel-rail
surfaces. This similarly impacts extent and robustness of applied friction control conditioning, influencing
wayside applicator spacing and application rate settings.
vii. Other Items
(a) Inspection and Maintenance Cycles
• GF-TOR applicator spacing may be influenced by location selection based on ease of accessibility, or desired
frequency for equipment maintenance / inspection tasks (i.e. drive-in vs. hi-rail access).
• Coverage areas experiencing high traffic volumes impacting equipment access to perform maintenance/filling
tasks may require lower application rates/ tighter spacing as means to reducing frequency of required site visits.
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(b) Proximity to Fixed Track Structures (Crossings, Turnouts, etc.)
• Close proximity to fixed track structures is typically avoided to mitigate adverse impacts to wheel-rail friction
control conditioning.
• Equipment manufacturers and / or railways may recommend minimum buffer distances between wayside
applicators and fixed track structures due to adhesion / braking considerations, or to prevent unwanted friction
control product accumulations at heavy wheel contact areas (i.e. grease accumulations in crossing flangeways,
turnout frogs and guardrails, etc.).
(c) Track Signals and Insulated Joint Locations
• GF-TOR applicator spacing may be influenced by location selection based on maintaining minimum buffer
distances between wayside applicators and insulated joints or other track circuitry due to shunting concerns.
This is typically a consideration for GF lubricators located near track signals or signalized crossings.
4.11.6.3 Suggested Field Deployment Procedure for Wayside Gage Face (GF) Applicators
The following is a proposed procedure to achieve optimized incorporation of wayside gauge face (GF) friction control for a
targeted location. This procedure may need to be repeated if a change in lubricant is made.
1.
Install two GF systems per manufacturer specifications, spaced at 0.75 to 3 miles (See Figure 4-4-74 - Spacing ‘B’). If
local experience suggests this is too short a distance, install 1 unit first and measure the carry distance with directional
trains. This approach can work when traffic on single lines is a few trains in one direction, followed by a few trains in
the opposite direction. Otherwise, install 2 units at a longer spacing than proposed and work as below to obtain the best
gage face lubrication scenario.
2.
Adjust application rates to ensure proper friction control is established with a “no splash” scenario at the nearest curve
to each applicator in both directions. Take special care to ensure top of rail surface at and immediately adjacent to
distribution bars is not contaminated with excess lubricant.
NOTE:
Friction control effectiveness to be evaluated as per AREMA Manual Sections 4.11.3 and 4.11.4. In
situations where a friction control product (i.e. some friction modifiers) acts to condition the wheels,
measurement of rail friction may not offer an effective means to evaluate equipment performance.
3.
After steady state operations are obtained (generally after ~ 20 trains), evaluate friction on the curve midway
(depending on curvature this may not be midway) between applicators to determine if sufficient friction control
conditioning is in place. Use one or more of the measurement methods as per AREMA Manual Sections 4.11.3 and
4.11.4.
4.
If sufficient friction control is noted, wider spacing (‘C’) may be considered for evaluation. If insufficient friction
control is noted, increase application rates (this should start with maximum application rate for “no splash”) on one or
both systems. Ensure top of rail at and immediately adjacent to distribution bars is not contaminated with excess
lubricant. If still inadequate after application rate adjustment, move applicators closer by one curve each (Spacing
‘A’).
5.
Once proper friction patterns or effectiveness has been established, add additional applicators outside of and spaced at
approximately the same interval (this should be where the application formulae are used by railway engineers to lay
out the rest of the track) as the original two units. Re-measure friction at initial curves evaluated and spot check other
locations within the coverage zone to confirm friction control performance effectiveness.
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Figure 4-4-74. Schematic for Wayside Gage Face Applicator Field Deployment
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4.11.6.4 Wayside Applicator Spacing: Summary Matrix of Parameters to Consider During Deployment
Coverage Area Parameter
Impact on GF-TOR
Applicator Spacing
Comments
Negligible
Simplifiesdeploymentprocess.Singlefriction
controlproductgradecanbeusedyearround.
Widevariationbetweenambient
winter/summertemperatureranges
Tighterspacing
required
Assumessinglefrictioncontrolproductgrade
isusedyearround.Alternateproductgrades
orapplicationrateadjustmentsmayeliminate
needfortighterspacing.
Rain/snow
Tighterspacing
required
Impactslubricant/frictionmodifiermaterial
properties,adhesion,andcarrydistance.
Tighterspacing
required
Impactslubricant/frictionmodifiermaterial
properties,adhesion,andcarrydistance.
Tighterspacing
required
WideortightgageinhibitspropertrucksteerͲ
ing,impactingwheelͲrailfrictioncontrolcondiͲ
tioningthroughincreaseddynamiclateral
trackloading.
Minimalvariationbetweenambient
winter/summertemperatureranges
Organicorladingcontamination
Trackgagewithincoveragezoneis
wideortightfromstandard
Ͳ Tighterspacing Newrailmayrequiretemporaryincreased
required
applicationrates.
Railwear/profile
Ͳ
Newcondition
Ͳ
Curveworn
Ͳ Widerspacing
possible
FastenerSystems
Ͳ
Concreteties/ElasͲ
ticfasteners(Stiff)
Ͳ
Woodties/Spikes
(Weak)
BiͲdirectionalvs.SingleDirection
Traffic
Ͳ
SingleDirection
Ͳ
BiͲDirectional
CurvatureDensity/Severity
ConformalrailwearmayallowreducedGF
applicationrates.
Ͳ Tighterspacing Stifftrackmayincreaselateralloads,impact
required
wheelͲrailfrictioncontrolconditioning.
Ͳ Widerspacing
possible
Weakertrackmaydecreaselateralforces,
improvefrictioncontroleffectiveness.
Ͳ Tighterspacing OneͲwayproducttransferͲNobackandforth
required
productbuildͲup/railconditioning.
Ͳ Widerspacing
possible
ImprovedGFconditioningͲApplicatorsworkͲ
inginbothdirections.
Tighterspacing
required
Increasedlength,frequency,andseverity(i.e.
degree)ofcurvaturewithinacoveragezone
requirescloserapplicatorspacingand/or
higherapplicationrates.
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Coverage Area Parameter
Impact on GF-TOR
Applicator Spacing
Comments
WiderspacingpossiͲ
ble
Considerseparatecoveragezonesiftangent
distancebetweencurveclustersissignificant
(i.e.GF:>5Ͳ6milesTOR:>3miles)
ͲIncreaseddeviationfrombalance
Tighterspacing
required
Slowerorhighertrainoperationfrombalance
speedoncurvesincreasesdynamicgagewidͲ
eningandmaydegradefrictioncontrolrailͲ
wheelconditioning.
TrackQualityIndex(TQI)
(i.e.LowTQIrating)
Tighterspacing
required
Possibleindicatorofhigharealateraltrack
loadingwarrantingmoreaggressivefriction
control.
Gradient
(%Severity,Length,TrafficFlow)
Tighterspacing
required
Sustainedairbrakingrequiredforsevere,
extendedlengthgradesmayadverselyimpact
railͲwheelfrictioncontrolconditioning.
TangentDensity
Superelevation
Ͳ
Widerif
mostlyempty
traffic
Ͳ
Tighterfor
highspeeds
Ͳ
Tighterif
heavyair
braking
Ͳ
WideriflonͲ
gerGFbar
length
TrainOperations
Ͳ
Loaded/Emptybias
Ͳ
Speed(Highvs.Low)
Ͳ
Braking(Dynamicvs.Air)
Ͳ
Reducedflangingforces/lubricant
scrapeͲoffforemptytraffic.
Ͳ
IncreaseddynamicgageͲwideningat
higherspeedsimpactingfrictioncontrol
effectiveness.
Ͳ
AdverseimpactstofrictioncontrolrailͲ
wheelconditioningfrombrakeshoe
contact/hotwheeltemperatures.
Ͳ
IncreasednumberofdistributionportsͲ
ImprovesrailͲwheelconditioningand
lubricantcarry.
Ͳ
Strongerandmoreeffective/controllaͲ
blelubricantoutputwithelectricappliͲ
cators.
EquipmentConsiderations
Ͳ
DistributionBars
•
Ͳ
Short vs. Long (GF)
PumpActuator(GF)
•
Mechanical
•
Hydraulic
•
Electric
Ͳ
WiderspacͲ
ingifElectric
vs.Mechor
Hydraulic
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Coverage Area Parameter
Tangentvs.CurveorSpiralPlaceͲ
ment
Impact on GF-TOR
Applicator Spacing
TighterorwiderspacͲ
ingasrequired
Comments
Ͳ
Tangentplacementisrecommended.
Ͳ
Applicatorspacingmaybeinfluenced
bytheneedtopositionwaysideGFͲ
TORequipmentintangentsegments
tomitigateequipmentdamage.
Lubricant/FrictionModifier
Properties
Ͳ Summer/wintergrade
ImpactstoapplicatorspacingareproductspeͲ
cificͲUseofseasonalgradeorpremiumfricͲ
Ͳ Premiumproducts (i.e.
tioncontrolproductsmayaccommodate
TighterorwiderspacͲ
EPadditives)
widerapplicatorspacingsubjecttotheinfluͲ
ingasrequired
Ͳ Carriervariations
enceofotherareaoperatingfactors
(i.e.gradient,curvature,etc.).
(i.e.Water,Calcium,Lithium,
Oil,etc.)
ProximitytoFixedTrackStructures
(i.e.Gradecrossings,tracksigͲ
nals,turnouts,insulatedjoints,
etc.)
Inspection/MaintenanceCycles
TighterorwiderspacͲ
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Minimumclearancerestrictionsmayrequire
deviationfrombestpracticespacingrecomͲ
mendations.
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mentofapplicatorsfromoptimum/preferred
ingasrequired
locations.
4.11.6.5 One Wayside Applicator Re-spacing Formula
Some railways have formulas to determine the positioning of wayside lubricators - These formulas can be simple or complex.
The following simplified formula can be used for this purpose, but requires a curve-by-curve summary of track geometry car
data.
CuS uR
---------------------------T u BR
Prior to using this formula, the field deployment procedure described in 4.11.6.3 should also be completed to determine the
optimal lubricator spacing for the targeted area.
Definition of Factors used in the Lubrication Spacing Formula:
NOTE:
•
Unit of measure for each of the factors contained in the Lubrication Spacing Formula must be
consistently applied as either Imperial or Metric type when using this formula.
C is the length of the curve, including spirals. The longer the curve, the longer the wheel flanges are in contact with
the gage face of the high rail, implying the need for more lubricant protection.
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4-4-129
Rail
•
S is a fraction of the length of tangent sections. A 5% or 0.05 factor is typically used to account for flange-gage
contact depositing lubricant in tangent segments due to mild hunting (body sway). Some tangents may have no
evidence of lubricant on the rails because of good wheel / rail interaction, while other tangent segments may contain
an obvious film of lubricant due to poor wheel / rail interaction (e.g. truck hunting). One half of the calculated 5% of
the tangent length is then added to each curve at opposing ends of the tangent, which effectively extends the length
of those curves.
•
R is a term to include the effect of curvature, and is expressed in degrees. For use in the formula, it is the average
degree of curvature of the curve, inclusive of spiral segments. If the curve is a compound curve, all curve bodies and
spirals are combined when calculating the average degree of curvature. Track geometry car data is required to
determine this factor.
•
T is the factor to describe the direction of traffic. If the track has uni-directional traffic, the factor is unity. The
factor is 2 for bi-directional traffic. Some railways will frequently run five or six trains in the same direction before
allowing traffic to move in the opposite direction. After three or four loaded freight trains, the coefficient of friction
on the gage face of the rail can rise to unacceptable levels, particularly under more severe, downhill gradient
operating conditions. In situations like these, the best course of action would be to treat the traffic as uni-directional
and space the lubricators accordingly. Otherwise, these segments of uni-directional traffic could experience rapid
rail wear.
•
BR is a factor used to account for the effect of train braking. If a loaded freight train travels downgrade with air
brakes applied, the wheels can become hot enough to oxidize the lubricant on the rails, or cause it to flow down to
the bottom of the gage face. Decreasing this factor below unity implies that the lubricators must be placed closer
together because of severe downgrade operating conditions. Example: One heavy haul railway uses a factor of 0.8
for a 2% grade segment. The factor is set to 1 in areas without grades, with rolling grades, and ascending grades with
uni-directional traffic.
Use of the Formula
The factors in the simplified formula are used to calculate a value for each curve segment between the first and second
adjacent wayside lubricators that have already been positioned in the field using the deployment procedure described in
4.11.6.3. The sum of these individual curve values represents the "spacing" from the second to the third lubricator. Depending
on the geometry of the track, there could be a greater or lesser number of curves between the first and second lubricators than
between the second and third units. Similarly, the distance between the first and second lubricators could also be greater or
less than the distance between the second and third units. Therefore, the result of the formula is not a measurable distance or
curve count between lubricators, but is instead a representation of how far the gage face lubricant will travel from each
lubricator based on the track geometry and traffic conditions.
Ten miles of the "Fictitious" Sub are shown In Figure 4-4-75. Lubricators 1 and 2 have been positioned based on the field
deployment procedure in 4.11.6.3. The location of Lubricator #3 was determined using the simplified formula and track
geometry data. This subdivision has rolling grade, with air brakes not used during routine train handling. Traffic is bidirectional. Therefore, BR = 1 and T = 2.
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
4-4-130
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Maintenance of Rail
Fictitious Sub
12
10
8
Curvature [degrees]
6
4
2
0
-2
#1
#2
#3
-4
-6
-8
-10
-12
38
39
40
41
42
43
Milepost
44
45
46
47
48
Figure 4-4-75. Example of Lubricator Placement
Track geometry data is needed to determine the length of curve and tangent segments, and the average degree of curvature of
each curve segment in the area to be lubricated. Track geometry data is typically captured at intervals of between 1 to 5 feet.
Imagine a simple curve 500 feet long from the beginning of the entry spiral to the end of the exit spiral. The degree of
curvature will be 0 at the start of the curve, will rise until the body of the curve begins, and will remain approximately constant
at the designed curvature until the beginning of the exit spiral, at which point it will decrease back to 0 again. If track
geometry data is recorded at 1 foot intervals, there will be 500 data points or records describing the geometry of the curve.
Each record will have a field indicating the degree of curvature at the measured 1 foot interval, along with an associated
milepost designation. The average curvature value is the sum of the 500 values recorded for degree of curvature, divided by
500. If data is collected at 5 foot intervals, there will be 100 data records describing the geometry of the curve - In this case,
the average curvature is the sum of the 100 values for degree of curvature, divided by 100. In both cases, milepost
designations at each end of the curve are used to calculate curve and tangent segment lengths.
Using hypothetical track geometry data for the "Fictitious Sub", milepost locations, curve / tangent lengths, and degree of
curve (DoC) values for the eight curves between lubricators 1 and 2 are summarized as shown in columns A through E in
Table 4-4-5.
The value of C to be used in the formula for each curve is in Column C. The values of S for each curve (two values per curve)
are shown in Column F in the tangent rows above and below each curve. The average curvature value is listed in column E.
Applying the simplified formula to the 5.03° left-hand curve that begins at milepost 41.5 (Row 10) yields the following:
CS uR
T u BR
(1329 ( 25 34)) u 3.01
2 u1
1388 u 3.01
2
2089
Summing up the formula values for the eight curves between lubricators 1 and 2 yields a value of 15,913 - This is the
necessary "spacing" between lubricators. Repeating this exercise for the curves that follow lubricator 2 will yield a value of
15,671 after the 3.77° right-hand curve in Row 34, and a value of 17,314 after the 3.13° left-hand curve in Row 36. The
tangent between these two curves is too short to install a lubricator. The next best location is on the tangent following the
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4-4-131
Rail
3.13° left-hand curve. This is longer than the desired spacing (15,913) derived from the formula, and may require a slight
increase in the output from lubricators 2 and 3 to compensate for this increased spacing.
Using the above procedure, summarized track geometry data can be entered into a spreadsheet program, with the simplified
formula incorporated to calculate a value for each curve segment. A running total of the formula can then be used to determine
where additional lubricators should be installed on track, subject to the equipment placement constraints listed in Items b-6, c4 and 'g' of this document.
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
4-4-132
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Maintenance of Rail
Table 4-4-5. Summary of Track Geometry Data for "Fictitious Sub"
A
TAN
B
Start
MilePost
39.7
C
Length
[feet]
1084
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
LHCRV
TAN
LHCRV
TAN
RHCRV
TAN
LHCRV
TAN
LHCRV
TAN
RHCRV
TAN
RHCRV
TAN
LHCRV
TAN
39.9
40.1
40.2
40.5
40.5
40.9
40.9
41.3
41.5
41.7
42.0
42.3
42.8
43.0
43.0
43.4
1041
521
1718
14
2186
15
1848
989
1329
1345
1608
2553
943
209
1994
3963
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
RHCRV
TAN
LHCRV
TAN
RHCRV
TAN
LHCRV
TAN
RHCRV
TAN
LHCRV
TAN
RHCRV
TAN
LHCRV
TAN
RHCRV
TAN
LHCRV
44.1
44.3
44.3
44.5
44.6
44.7
44.7
44.9
44.9
45.1
45.1
45.3
45.3
45.4
45.4
45.6
45.6
45.8
45.8
1081
22
863
510
789
13
743
5
873
35
1168
3
812
1
653
9
1475
26
1498
37
TAN
46.1
3855
Data
Row #
1
Segment
D
E
Max
Avg
DoC
DoC
0
0
Lubricator 1
Ͳ2.03
Ͳ1.07
0
0
Ͳ6.18
Ͳ4.26
0
0
4.63
3.57
0
0
Ͳ0.84
Ͳ0.54
0
0
Ͳ5.03
Ͳ3.01
0
0
4.4
2.88
0
0
4.87
2.05
0
0
Ͳ2.11
Ͳ1.58
0
0
Lubricator 2
4.26
2.07
0
0
Ͳ7.14
Ͳ3.00
0
0
3.48
1.81
0
0
Ͳ4.56
Ͳ2.36
0
0
5.69
2.94
0
0
Ͳ11.07
Ͳ5.58
0
0
11.18
8.17
0
0
Ͳ8.99
Ͳ5.35
0
0
3.77
2.60
0
0
Ͳ3.13
Ͳ2.06
Lubricator 3
0
0
F
2.5% of
Tan Length
27
G
Effective
Curve Length
Ͳ
H
Formula
Value
Ͳ
0
13
0
0
0
0
0
25
0
34
0
64
0
5
0
99
1081
Ͳ
1731
Ͳ
2186
Ͳ
1873
Ͳ
1388
Ͳ
1706
Ͳ
1012
Ͳ
2098
Ͳ
578
Ͳ
3687
Ͳ
3902
Ͳ
506
Ͳ
2089
Ͳ
2457
Ͳ
1037
Ͳ
1657
Ͳ
0
1
0
13
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1181
Ͳ
877
Ͳ
802
Ͳ
743
Ͳ
874
Ͳ
1169
Ͳ
812
Ͳ
653
Ͳ
1476
Ͳ
1595
1222
Ͳ
1316
Ͳ
726
Ͳ
877
Ͳ
1285
Ͳ
3262
Ͳ
3317
Ͳ
1747
Ͳ
1919
Ͳ
1643
96
Ͳ
Ͳ
© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
4-4-133
Rail
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© 2020, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
4-4-134
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
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