Chapter 8 Erikson: Post-Freudian Theory
Chapter 8
Erikson: Post-Freudian Theory
Learning Objectives
After reading Chapter 8, you should be able to:
1.
Describe similarities and differences between the personality
theories of Erikson and Freud.
2.
Write about the importance of the ego in Erikson’s theory.
3.
Discuss ways in which social and cultural factors influence
personality.
4.
Compare and contrast Erikson's first four stages of psychological
development with Freud's infantile and latency stages.
5. List Erikson's last four stages of psychosocial development, their
crises, basic strengths, and core pathologies.
6.
Explain Erikson's epigenetic principle.
7.
Explain how identity confusion can have positive effects on
personality.
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Chapter 8 Erikson: Post-Freudian Theory
8.
Discuss Erikson's use of psychohistory as a research method.
9.
Describe Erikson's anthropological studies.
10. Describe recent research on Erikson's concepts of identity and
generativity.
Summary Outline
I.
Overview of Erikson's Post-Freudian Theory
Erikson postulated eight stages of psychosocial development
through which people progress. Although he differed from Freud
in his emphasis on the ego and on social influences, his theory is
an extension, not a repudiation of Freudian psychoanalysis.
II.
Biography of Erik Erikson
When Erik Erikson was born in Germany in 1902 his name was
Erik Salomonsen. After his mother married Theodor Homberger,
Erik eventually took his stepfather's name. At age 18 he left home
to pursue the life of a wandering artist and to search for selfidentity. He gave up that life to teach young children in Vienna
where he met Anna Freud. Still searching for his personal identity,
he was psychoanalyzed by Ms. Freud, an experience that allowed
him to become a psychoanalyst. In mid-life, Erik Homberger
moved to the United States, changed his name to Erikson, and
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Chapter 8 Erikson: Post-Freudian Theory
took a position at the Harvard Medical School. Later, he taught at
Yale, the University of California at Berkeley, and several other
universities. He died in 1994, a month short of his 92nd birthday.
III.
The Ego in Post-Freudian Psychology
One of Erikson's chief contributions to personality theory was his
emphasis on ego rather than id functions. According to Erikson,
the ego is the center of personality and is responsible for a unified
sense of self. It consists of three interrelated facets: the body ego,
the ego ideal, and ego identity.
A. Society's Influence
The ego develops within a given society and is influenced by
child-rearing practices and other cultural customs. All cultures
and nations develop a pseudospecies, or a fictional notion that
they are superior to other cultures.
B. Epigenetic Principle
The ego develops according to the epigenetic principle; that is, it
grows according to a genetically established rate and in a fixed
sequence.
IV.
Stages of Psychosocial Development
Each of the eight stages of development is marked by a conflict
between a syntonic (harmonious) element and a dystonic
(disruptive) element, which produces a basic strength or ego
quality. Also, from adolescence on, each stage is characterized by
an identity crisis or turning point, which may produce either
adaptive or maladaptive adjustment.
A. Infancy
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Chapter 8 Erikson: Post-Freudian Theory
Erikson's view of infancy (the 1st year of life) was similar to
Freud's concept of the oral stage, except that Erikson expanded the
notion of incorporation beyond the mouth to include sense organs
such as the eyes and ears. The psychosexual mode of infancy is
oral-sensory, which is characterized by both receiving and
accepting. The psycho-social crisis of infancy is basic trust
versus basic mistrust. From the crisis between basic trust and
basic mistrust emerges hope, the basic strength of infancy. Infants
who do not develop hope retreat from the world, and this
withdrawal is the core pathology of infancy.
B. Early Childhood
The 2nd to 3rd year of life is early childhood, a period that
compares to Freud's anal stage, but it also includes mastery of
other body functions such as walking, urinating, and holding. The
psychosexual mode of early childhood is anal-urethralmuscular, and children of this age behave both impulsively and
compulsively. The psychosocial crisis of early childhood is
autonomy versus shame and doubt. The psychosocial crisis
between autonomy on the one hand and shame and doubt on the
other produces will, the basic strength of early childhood. The
core pathology of early childhood is compulsion.
C. Play Age
From about the 3rd to the 5th year, children experience the play
age, a period that parallels Freud's phallic phase. Unlike Freud,
however, Erikson saw the Oedipus complex as an early model of
lifelong playfulness and a drama played out in children's minds as
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Chapter 8 Erikson: Post-Freudian Theory
they attempt to understand the basic facts of life. The primary
psychosexual mode of the play age is genital-locomotor, meaning
that children have both an interest in genital activity and an
increasing ability to move around. The psychosocial crisis of the
play age is initiative versus guilt. The conflict between initiative
and guilt helps children to act with purpose and to set goals. But
if children have too little purpose, they develop inhibition, the
core pathology of the play age.
D. School Age
The period from about 6 to 12 or 13 years of age is called the
school age, a time of psychosexual latency, but it is also a time of
psychosocial growth beyond the family. Because sexual
development is latent during the school age, children can use their
energies to learn the customs of their culture, including both
formal and informal education. The psychosocial crisis of this age
is industry versus inferiority. Children need to learn to work
hard, but they also must develop some sense of inferiority. From
the conflict of industry and inferiority emerges competence, the
basic strength of school age. A lack of industry leads to inertia,
the core pathology of this stage.
E. Adolescence
Adolescence begins with puberty and is marked by a person's
struggle to find ego identity. It is a time of psychosexual growth,
but it is also a period of psychosocial latency. The psychosexual
mode of adolescence is puberty or genital maturation. The
psychosocial crisis of adolescence is identity versus identity
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Chapter 8 Erikson: Post-Freudian Theory
confusion. Psychologically healthy individuals emerge from
adolescence with a sense of who they are and what they believe;
but some identity confusion is normal. The conflict between
identity and identity confusion produces fidelity, or faith in some
ideological view of the future. Lack of belief in one's own
selfhood results in role repudiation, or an inability to bring
together one's various self-images.
F. Young Adulthood
Young adulthood begins with the acquisition of intimacy at about
age 18 and ends with the development of generativity at about
age 30. The psychosexual mode of young adulthood is genitality,
which is expressed as mutual trust between partners in a stable
sexual relationship. Its psychosocial crisis is intimacy versus
isolation. Intimacy is the ability to fuse one's identity with that of
another without fear of losing it; whereas isolation is the fear of
losing one's identity in an intimate relationship. The crisis between
intimacy and isolation results in the capacity to love. The core
pathology of young adulthood is exclusivity, or inability to love.
G. Adulthood
The period from about 31 to 60 years of age is adulthood, a time
when people make significant contributions to society. The
psychosexual mode of adulthood is procreativity, or the caring
for one's children, the children of others, and the material products
of one's society. The psychosocial crisis of adulthood is
generativity versus stagnation, and the successful resolution of
this crisis results in care. Erikson saw care as taking care of the
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Chapter 8 Erikson: Post-Freudian Theory
persons and products that one has learned to care for. The core
pathology of adulthood is rejectivity, or the rejection of certain
individuals or groups that one is unwilling to take care of.
H. Old Age
The final stage of development is old age, from about age 60 until
death. The psychosexual mode of old age is generalized
sensuality; that is, taking pleasure in a variety of sensations and
an appreciation of the traditional life style of people of the other
gender. The psychosocial crisis of old age is the struggle between
integrity (the maintenance of ego-identity) and despair (the
surrender of hope). The struggle between integrity and despair
may produce wisdom (the basic strength of old age), but it may
also lead to disdain (a core pathology marked by feelings of being
finished or helpless).
V.
Erikson's Methods of Investigation
Erikson relied mostly on anthropology and psychohistory to
explain and describe human personality.
A. Anthropological Studies
Erikson's two most important anthropological studies were of the
Sioux of South Dakota and the Yurok tribe of northern California.
Both studies demonstrated his notion that culture and history help
shape personality.
B. Psychohistory
Erikson combined the methods of psychoanalysis and historical
research to study several personalities, most notably Gandhi and
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Chapter 8 Erikson: Post-Freudian Theory
Luther. In both cases, the central figure experienced an identity
crisis that produced a basic strength rather than a core pathology.
VI.
Related Research
Erikson's theory has generated a moderately large body of
research, much of it investigating the concepts of identity and
generativity. In this section, the authors focused on (1)
generativity and parenting and (2) generativity vs. stagnation.
A. Generativity and Parenting
Dan McAdams and colleagues have developed the Loyola
Generativity Scale (LGS) to measure generativity and to conduct
research on this concept. Researchers have used the LGS to
investigate the impact of parental generativity on the development
of children. Bill Peterson (2006) tested his prediction that parents
with high generativity should produce happy, well-adjusted
offspring. His results were supportive of the general notion that
having a sense of generativity is important to effective parenting.
Not only did children of highly generative parents have more selfconfidence, a stronger sense of freedom, and more general
happiness with life; they also had a stronger future time
orientation (Peterson, 2006).
B. Generativity vs. Stagnation
Erikson generally considered stagnation and generativity to be
opposite ends of the same continuum, so that an individual who is
high on generativity tends to be low on stagnation and vice versa.
But recently researchers have been exploring stagnation and
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Chapter 8 Erikson: Post-Freudian Theory
generativity as somewhat independent constructs. Van Hiel and
colleagues, again using the LGS, found that generativity and
stagnation can operate separately in adults. In addition, they
found that when measured separately, stagnation is related to
problems in emotional regulation, while generativity is not.
Moreover, they discovered that some people measure high on both
generativity and stagnation, and that such a personality profile is
not mentally or emotionally healthy, as it includes difficulties both
with emotional regulation and with intimacy (van Hiel, Mervielde,
De Fruyt, 2006). In that this research preserves Erikson’s two
constructs of generativity and stagnation, it is not a big departure
from Erikson; however, it does show that these two constructs can,
and sometimes do, function independently in adult development.
VII. Critique of Erikson
Although Erikson's work is a logical extension of Freud's
psychoanalysis, it offers a new way of looking at human
development. As a useful theory, it rates high on its ability to
generate research, about average on its ability to be falsified, to
organize knowledge, and to guide the practitioner. It rates high on
internal consistency and about average on parsimony.
VIII. Concept of Humanity
Erikson saw humans as basically social animals who have limited
free choice and who are motivated by past experiences, which may
be either conscious or unconscious. In addition, Erikson is rated
high on both optimism and uniqueness of individuals.
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Chapter 8 Erikson: Post-Freudian Theory
Test Items
Fill-in-the-Blanks
1.
In searching for his own identity, Erik Erikson spent nearly a lifetime
trying to learn the name of his _________________________
2.
Erikson received a training analysis from ______________________.
3.
Basic trust is an example of a syntonic element, whereas basic
mistrust is a _______________________ tendency.
4.
The ego is a positive force that establishes ____________________,
Erikson believed.
5.
A basic ________________ emerges from the conflict between
dystonic and syntonic elements.
6.
The core pathology of infancy is _________________.
7.
The core pathology of early childhood is __________________.
8.
The basic strength of early childhood is ____________________.
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Chapter 8 Erikson: Post-Freudian Theory
9.
The genital-___________________ is the psychosexual mode of the
play age.
10. Erikson's _______________________ covers about the same time as
Freud's phallic stage—approximately ages 3 to 5 years.
11. The core pathology of the play age is ____________________.
12. A child's ________________ begins to develop during the play age,
and Erikson calls this the "cornerstone of morality."
13. Freud called this stage ____________________, but Erikson referred
to it as the school age.
14. The psychosocial crisis of the school age is
______________________ versus inferiority.
15. Regression, or _____________________, is the core pathology of
the school age.
16. The main crisis of adolescence is between ______________ and
identity confusion.
17. The core pathology of young adulthood is _______________.
18. ______________________ is the basic strength of adolescence.
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Chapter 8 Erikson: Post-Freudian Theory
19. A person should learn ___________________ at the beginning of
young adulthood.
20. The basic strength of young adulthood is _____________________.
21. __________________ is the core pathology of adulthood.
22. Erikson's final stage of development is ______________________.
23. Erikson believed that anatomy, ____________________, and
personality are our combined destiny.
True-False
_____
1. During the last year of her life, Erik Erikson's mother
revealed the name of her son's biological father.
_____
2. Erikson began his professional career as an artist.
_____3. According to Erikson, people experience little personal growth
after adolescence.
_____4. An identity crisis can emerge only after a person experiences a
catastrophe.
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Chapter 8 Erikson: Post-Freudian Theory
_____5. Erikson saw the ego as being capable of adapting to changes
throughout the life cycle.
_____6. Erikson believed that anatomy, rather than culture, has a
strong influence on how the ego will develop.
_____7. Healthy psychological development depends on a conflict
between harmonious and disruptive elements, according to
Erikson.
_____8. Each of Erikson's stages has a psychosexual mode, a
psychosocial crisis, a basic strength, and a core pathology.
_____9. Erikson's concept of the Oedipus complex is nearly identical to
that of Freud.
_____10. A person's first serious identity crisis is likely to occur during
adolescence.
_____11. To Erikson, adolescence is a time of psychosocial latency.
_____12. According to Erikson, puberty is less important to adolescents
than is their search for identity.
_____13. An identity crisis may either increase or decrease ego strength.
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Chapter 8 Erikson: Post-Freudian Theory
_____14. According to Erikson, love involves both intimacy and
isolation.
_____15. A drive common in all societies is the need to instruct others
in the ways of culture.
_____16. Erikson believed that authors of psychohistory must remain
objective about their subjects.
_____17. Despite his belief in core pathologies at each stage of
development, Erikson's viewpoint was basically optimistic.
_____18. Erikson's theory is more biological than social.
_____19. Research suggests that at midlife men are more likely than
women to perform housework.
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Chapter 8 Erikson: Post-Freudian Theory
Multiple Choice
_____ 1. Throughout his adult life, Erik Erikson identified with ____, a
nation where he lived for only a few months of his life.
a. Germany
b. The United States
c. The United Kingdom
d. Norway
e. Denmark
_____ 2. In contrast to Freud, Erikson
a. placed more emphasis on unconscious motivation.
b. placed more emphasis on the ego.
c. de-emphasized social and historical influences on personality.
d. all of these.
______3. Erikson built on Freud's theory by
a. elevating social factors over biological ones.
b. emphasizing the id as the key to personality development.
c. accepting Jung's idea of a collective unconscious.
d. none of these.
e. all of these.
______4. According to Erikson, which of these is the most important
aspect of the ego?
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Chapter 8 Erikson: Post-Freudian Theory
a. self-conscious ego
b. perceived ego
c. ego identity
d. realistic ego
_____5. During childhood, Erikson said, the ego
a. develops from the superego.
b. is weak and flexible.
c. is dormant.
d. does not exist.
______6. To Erikson, the ego develops
a. within a social structure.
b. independent of historical factors.
c. most rapidly during adulthood.
d. only after the id stops developing.
______7. Some societies hold that they are special and somehow more
important than other societies. Erikson referred to this belief
as
a. an ethnocentric imperative.
b. a Napoleonic complex.
c. a narcissistic illusion.
d. pseudospecies.
______8. Erikson believed that healthy development rests on
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Chapter 8 Erikson: Post-Freudian Theory
a. a conflict between syntonic and dystonic tendencies.
b. a conflict between masculine and feminine elements.
c. an unresolved Oedipus complex.
d. a resolved Oedipus complex.
e. a strong superego.
______9. The epigenetic principle states that
a. some societies believe themselves to be special.
b. the ego develops from the dying id.
c. the ego develops in a sequence, with each stage emerging from
and being built on a previous stage.
d. central to individual development are those traits and
tendencies inherited from our ancestral past.
_____10. Erikson believed that ___ is the basic strength of infancy
a. hope
b. faith
c. will
d. love
e. industry
_____11. The psychosocial crisis of early childhood is
a. basic trust versus basic mistrust.
b. intimacy versus isolation.
c. industry versus inferiority.
d. autonomy versus shame and doubt.
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Chapter 8 Erikson: Post-Freudian Theory
e. compromise versus cooperation.
_____12. Erikson's early childhood stage corresponds with which of
Freud's stages?
a. oral
b. anal
c. phallic
d. genital
e. oedipal
_____13. According to Erikson, ____ is a feeling of self-consciousness
and of being looked at or exposed.
a. shame
b. guilt
c. doubt
d. threat
e. exhibitionism
_____14. To Erikson, the original model for human playfulness is
a. the mother-child bond.
b. the Oedipus complex.
c. thumb-sucking.
d. basic mistrust.
e. basic trust.
_____15. The basic strength of the play age is _____.
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Chapter 8 Erikson: Post-Freudian Theory
a. fidelity
b. purpose
c. care
d. autonomy
e. playfulness
_____16. Will is the basic strength of
a. infancy.
b. early childhood.
c. the play age.
d. adolescence.
_____17. Heidi is beginning to make new friends of her age. For the
first time in her life, she has developed a relationship with
adults who are not in her family. Heidi is in which of
Erikson's stages?
a. early childhood
b. adolescence
c. infancy
d. genital period
e. school age
_____18. The genital-locomotor psychosexual mode marks this stage.
a. infancy
b. play age
c. adolescence
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Chapter 8 Erikson: Post-Freudian Theory
d. young adulthood
e. early childhood
_____19. The psychosocial crisis of the school age is
a. autonomy verses shame and doubt.
b. trust versus mistrust.
c. identity versus identity confusion.
d. industry versus inferiority.
_____20. Generalized sensuality characterizes the psychosexual stage of
______.
a. adolescence
b. young adulthood
c. adulthood
d. old age
e. preadolescence
Short Answer
1. List three differences between the theories of Erikson and Freud.
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Chapter 8 Erikson: Post-Freudian Theory
2. List and explain three additions that Erikson made to Freudian theory.
3. Define and explain Erikson's epigenetic principle.
4. Explain the difference between psychohistory and a case history.
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Chapter 8 Erikson: Post-Freudian Theory
5. Briefly summarize Eriksonian research on generativity in adulthood.
Answers
Fill-in-the-Blanks
True-False
Multiple Choice
1.
biological father
1.
F
1.
e
2.
Anna Freud
2.
T
2.
b
3.
dystonic
3.
F
3.
a
4.
identity
4.
F
4
c
5.
strength
5.
T
5.
b
6.
withdrawal
6.
F
6.
a
7.
compulsion
7.
T
7.
d
8.
will
8.
T
8.
a
9.
infantile
9.
F
9.
c
10. play age
10.
T
10.
a
11. inhibition
11.
T
11.
d
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Chapter 8 Erikson: Post-Freudian Theory
12. conscience
12.
T
12.
b
13. latency
13.
T
13.
a
14. industry
14.
T
14.
b
15. inertia
15.
T
15.
b
16. identity
16.
F
16.
b
17. exclusivity
17.
T
17.
b
18. Fidelity
18.
F
18.
b
19. intimacy
19.
F
19.
b
20.
d
20 love
21. Rejectivity
22. old age
23. history
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