MODULE 3
Assessing Learning
Outcomes
What are instructional objectives?
Instructional objectives are specific statements of desired learner
performance that are expected to be demonstrated by students after
instruction of a learning material. They are observable changes in the behavior
of a learner as intended by the teacher. These are the learning targets which
spell out the competencies that the student needs to attain. These are included
in the lesson plans and serve as the basis of the learning activities that the
students will be undertaking during the instructional period. As such,
instructional objectives help the teacher systematize the different components
in the effective delivery of the lesson or learning material.
Purposes of Instructional Goals and Objectives
1. It provides direction for the instructional process by clarifying the intended
learning outcomes.
2. It conveys instructional intent to other stakeholders such as students,
parents, school officials, and the public.
3. It provides basis for assessing the performance of the students by
describing the performance to be measured.
Goals and Objectives
The terms goals and objectives are two different concepts but they
are related to each other. Goals and objectives are very important, most especially
when you want to achieve something for the students in any classroom activities.
Goals can never be accomplished without objectives and you cannot get the
objectives that you want without goals. This means that goals and objectives are
both tools that you need in order that you can accomplish what you want to achieve.
Below are the different descriptions between goals and objectives.
Goals
Objectives
Broad
General intention
Intangible
Abstract (less structured)
Cannot be validated as is
Long term aims what you want to accomplish
Hard to quantify or put in a timeline
Narrow
Precise
Tangible
Concrete
Can be validated
Short term aims what you want to achieve
Must be given a timeline to accomplish to
be more effective
Goals, General Educational Program Objectives, and Instructional Objectives
Goals. A broad statement of very general educational outcomes that do not
include specific level of performance. It tend to change infrequently and in response
to the societal pressure, e.g., learn problem solving skills; develop high level thinking
skills; appreciate the beauty of an art; be creative; and ne competent in the basic
skills in the area of grammar.
General Educational Program Objectives. More narrowly defined statements
of educational outcomes that apply to specific educational programs; formulated on
the annual basis; developed by program coordinators, principals, and other school
administrators.
Instructional Objectives. Specific statement of the learners behavior or
outcomes that are expected to be exhibited by the students after completing a unit
of instruction. Unit of instruction may mean: a two weeks lesson on polynomials; one
week lesson on “parallelism after correlatives”; one class period on “katangian ng
wika.” At the end of the lesson the students should be able to add fractions with
100% accuracy; the students should be able to dissect the frog following the correct
procedures, are examples of instructional objectives.
Typical Problems Encountered When Writing Objectives
Problems
Too broad or complex
Error Types
Solutions
The objective is too broad in
scope or is actually more Simplify or break apart
than one objective
False or missing behavior,
condition, or degree
False given
False performance
The objective does not list
the
correct
behavior,
condition, and/or degree, or
it is missing
Describes instruction, not
conditions
No true overt, observable
performance listed
Be more specific; make
sure
the
behavior,
condition, and degree are
included
Simplify, include ONLY
ABCDs
Describe what behavior
you must observe
To avoid different problems encountered in writing objectives, let us discuss
the components of instructional objectives and other terms related to
constructing a good instructional objective.
Four Main Things That Objectives Should Specify
1. Audience
Who? Who are the specific people the objectives are aimed at?
2. Observable Behavior
What? What do you expect them to be able to do? This should be an
overt observable behavior, even if the actual behavior is covert or mental in
nature. If you cannot see it, hear it, touch it, taste it, or smell it, you cannot
be sure your audience really learned it.
3. Special Conditions
The third component of instructional objective is the special conditions
under which the behavior must be displayed by the students. How? Under
what circumstances will the learning occur? What will the student be given
or already be expected to know to accomplish the learning?
4. Stating Criterion Level
The fourth component of the instructional objectives is stating the
criterion level. The criterion level of acceptable performance specifies how
many of the items must the students answer correctly for the teacher to
attain his/her objectives. How much? Must a specific set of criteria be met?
Do you want total mastery (100%), do you want them to respond correctly
90% of the time, among others? A common (and totally non-scientific setting
is 90% of the time.
Types of Instructional Objectives
There are two types of instructional objectives which the teacher may
use in the classroom.
1. Specific or Behavioral objective.
This type of objective specifies an observable, measurable behavior to be
exhibited, the conditions under which it is to be exhibited, and the measure
for desired level of performance.
Examples: 1. Multiply three-digit numbers with 95% accuracy.
2. List the months of the year in proper order from memory
with 100% accuracy.
3. Encode 30 words per minute with at most three (3) errors
using computer.
2. General or Expressive objective.
This type of objective specifies a learning activity but does not specify
the particular outcome of the activity. It only describes the experience or
educational activity to be done. The outcome of the activity is not expressed in
specific terms but in general terms such as understand, interpret, or analyze,
Examples: 1. Interpret the novel the Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe.
2. Visit Manila Zoo and discuss what was of interest.
3. Understand the concept of normal distribution.
Writing Instructional Objectives
The choice of appropriate instructional objectives is now easy because
of the presence of models used in the field. This is so because of the
bureaucracy of educational system of the country. Instructional objectives for
a particular subject should be the same across classrooms in the country. This
does not restrain the teacher from formulating more relevant objectives which
she believes should be appropriate to enable the learners to attain the desired
learning competencies.
Whatever circumstance the teacher maybe in, the following principles
should be adhered to:
1. Specificity. The objective should include a specification of observable and
verifiable learning outcome.
2. Special condition. There should be a description of the context under which
the behavior must be displayed.
3. Performance Standard. The objective should also set the minimum level of
acceptable performance.
In writing instructional objectives, teachers must keep them plain and
easy. For example, the objective for grade three pupils “draw the pictograph
of a given data”. Instead of asking the pupils to graph data on different
animals, the teacher may ask the pupils to graph data on objects (say for
example, balls) of data which the learners can easily draw. A teacher may want
to write the objective “recall the characters of the story by painting a picture
of each”. If the objective is to recall, listing of the characters is sufficient.
Painting a picture of each character is beyond the objective of recall.
Example: At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
1. Give the meaning of a word in the story (Specific)
2. Using an English dictionary (condition)
3. With at most three grammatical errors (standard)
When a teacher developed instructional objectives, he must include an action
verb that specifies learning outcomes. Some educators and education students are
often confused with learning outcome and learning activity. An activity that implies
a certain product or end result of instructional objective is called learning outcome.
If you write instructional objectives as a means or process of attaining the end
product, then it is considered as learning activity. Hence, revise it so that the
product of the activity is stated.
Examples:
Learning Activities
study
read
watch
listen
Learning Outcomes
identify
write
Recall
list
Types of Learning Outcomes
After developing learning outcomes, the next step the teacher must consider
is to identify whether the learning outcome is stated in measurable and observable
behavior or non-measurable and non-observable behavior. If learning outcome is
measurable then it is observable, therefore, always state the learning outcome in
observable behavior. Teachers should always develop instructional objectives that
are specific measurable statement of outcomes of instruction that indicates
whether instructional intents have been achieved. The following are examples of
verbs in terms of observable learning outcomes and unobservable learning outcomes.
Observable Learning Outcomes
Draw
Build
List
Recite
Add
Non-observable Learning Outcomes
Understand
Appreciate
Value
Know
Be familiar
Examples of observable learning outcomes:
1. Recite the names of the characters in the story ……
2. Add two-digit numbers with 100% accuracy.
3. Circle the initial sounds of words.
4. Change the battery of an engine.
5. List the steps of hypothesis testing in order.
Examples of non-observable learning outcomes:
1. Be familiar with the conditional provisions relevant to agrarian reforms.
2. Understand the process of evaporation.
3. Enjoy speaking Spanish.
4. Appreciate the beauty of an art.
5. Know the concept of normal distribution.
Types of Learning Outcomes to Consider
1. Knowledge
1.1
Terminology
1.2
Specific facts
1.3
1.4
Concepts and principles
Methods and procedures
2. Understanding
2.1
Concepts and principles
2.2
Methods and procedures
2.3
Written materials, graphs, maps, and numerical data
2.4
Problem situations
3. Application
3.1
Factual information
3.2
Concepts and principles
3.3
Methods and procedures
3.4
Problem solving skills
4. Thinking skills
4.1
Critical thinking
4.2
Scientific thinking
5. General skills
5.1
Laboratory skills
5.2
Performance skills
5.3
Communication skills
5.4
Computational skills
5.5
Social skills
6. Attitudes
6.1
Social attitudes
6.2
Scientific attitudes
7. Interests
7.1
Personal interests
7.2
Educational interests
7.3
Vocational interests
8. Appreciation
8.1
Literature, art, and music
8.2
Social and scientific achievements
9. Adjustments
9.1
Social adjustments
9.2
Emotional adjustments
TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES
Taxonomy of Educational Objectives ia a useful guide for developing a
comprehensive list of instructional objectives. A taxonomy is primarily useful
in identifying the types of learning outcomes that should be considered when
developing a comprehensive list of objectives for classroom instruction.
Benjamin S. Bloom (1948, as cited by Gabuyo, 2011), a well-known
psychologist and educator, took the initiative to lead in formulating and
classifying the goals and objectives of the educational processes. The three
domains of educational activities were determined: the cognitive domain,
affective domain and the psychomotor domain.
The following is a brief overview of learning domains with examples of
how you might represent content, provide activities, and assess mastery of
that domain. These domains include cognitive, affective, psychomotor, and
interpersonal.
Cognitive Domain
called for outcomes of mental activity such as memorizing, reading
problem solving, analyzing, synthesizing and drawing conclusions.
Affective Domain
describes learning objectives that emphasize a feeling tone, an emotion,
or a degree of acceptance or rejection. Affective objectives vary from simple
attention to selected phenomena to complex but internally consistent qualities
of character and conscience.
Psychomotor
is characterized by the progressive level of behaviors from observation
to mastery of skills. This includes physical movement, coordination and use of
the motor-skill areas. Development of these skills requires practice and is
measured in terms of speed, precision, distance, procedures, or techniques in
execution. It focused on the physical and kinesthetic skills of the learner.
CRITERIA FOR SELECTING APPROPRIATE OBJECTIVES
1. The objectives should include all important outcomes of the course or subject
matter.
2. The objective should be in harmony with the content standards of the state
and with the general goals of the school.
3. The objective should be in harmony with the sound principles of learning.
4. The objective should be realistic in terms of the abilities of the students,
time and the available facilities.
CLEAR STATEMENT OF INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
To obtain a clear statement of instructional objectives you should define the
objectives in two steps:
1. State the general objectives of instruction as intended learning
outcomes.
2. List under each objective a sample of the specific types of
performance that the students should be able to demonstrate when
they have achieved the objective.
Example: 1. Understands the specific principles
1.1
Describe the principle in their own words.
1.2
Identifies examples of the principles.
1.3
States reasonable hypotheses based on the principle.
1.4
Uses the principle in solving problems.
1.5
Distinguishes between two given principles.
1.6
Explains the relationships between the given principles.
BLOOM’S REVISED TAXONOMY
1956
2001
To Verb Form
Noun
Changes to Bloom’s Taxonomy
Bloom’s Taxonomy in 1956
1. Knowledge: Remembering
previously learned material.
Anderson/Krathwolh’s Revision in 2001
or
retrieving 1. Remembering: Objectives written on
remembering level (lowest cognitive level):
Retrieving,
recalling,
or
recognizing
Examples of verbs that relate to this knowledge from memory. Remembering is
function are: identify, relate, list, define, recall, when memory is used to produce definitions,
memorize, repeat, record, name, recognize, facts, or lists; to recite or retrieve material.
acquire
Sample verbs appropriate for objectives
written at the remembering level: state, tell,
underline, locate, match, spell, fill in the
blank, identify, relate, list, define, recall,
memorize, repeat, record, name, organize,
acquire
2. Comprehension: The ability to grasp or 2. Understanding: Objectives written on the
construct meaning from material.
understanding level (higher level of mental
ability than remembering, requires the lowest
Examples of verbs that relate to this level of understanding from the student):
function are: restate, locate, report, recognize, Constructing meaning from different types of
explain, express, identify, discuss, describe, functions be they written or graphic message
review, infer, conclude, illustrate, interpret, activities like interpreting, exemplifying,
draw, represent, differentiate
classifying,
summarizing,
inferring,
comparing, and explaining.
Sample verbs appropriate for objectives
written at the understanding level: restate,
locate, report, recognize, explain, express,
identify, discuss, describe, review, infer,
conclude,
illustrate,
interpret,
draw,
represent, differentiate
3. Application: The ability to use learned 3. Applying: Objectives written on the
material, or to implement material in new and applying level require learner to implement
concrete situations.
(use) the information. Carrying out or using a
procedure
through
executing,
or
Examples of verbs that relate to this function implementing. Applying relates and refers to
are: apply, relate, develop, translate, use, situations where learned material is used
operate,
organize,
employ,
restructure, through products like models, presentations,
interpret, demonstrate, illustrate, practice, interviews or simulations.
calculate, show, exhibit, dramatize
Sample verbs appropriate for objectives
written at applying level: apply, relate,
develop, translate, use, operate, organize,
employ, restructure, interpret, demonstrate,
illustrate, practice, calculate, show, exhibit,
dramatize
4. Analysis: The ability to breakdown or 4. Analyzing: Objectives written on the
distinguish the parts of the material into their analyzing level require the learner to break
components so that their organizational the information into component parts and
structure maybe better understood.
describe the relationship. Breaking material
or concepts into parts, determining how the
Examples of verbs that relate to this function parts relate or interrelate to one another or
are; analyze, compare, probe, inquire, examine, to an overall structure or purpose. Mental
contrast, categorize, differentiate, investigate, actions included to this function are
detect, survey, classify, deduced, experiment, differentiating, organizing, and attributing,
scrutinize,
discover,
inspect,
dissect, as well as being able to distinguish between
discriminate, separate
the components or parts. When one is
analyzing, he/she can illustrate this mental
function by creating spreadsheets, surveys,
charts,
or
diagrams,
or
graphic
representations.
5. Synthesis: The ability to put parts together
to form a coherent or unique new whole.
Sample verbs appropriate for objectives
written at the analyzing level: analyze,
compare, probe, inquire, examine, contrast,
categorize,
differentiate,
investigate,
detect, survey, classify, deduce, experiment,
scrutinize,
discover,
inspect,
dissect,
discriminate, separate
5. Evaluating: Objective written on the
evaluating level require the student to make a
judgement about materials or methods.
Making judgement based on criteria and
Examples of verbs that relate to this function
are: compose, produce, design, assemble, create,
prepare, predict, modify, plan, invent, formulate,
collect, set up, generalize, document, combine,
propose, develop, arrange, construct, organize,
originate, derive, write
standards through checking and critiquing.
Critiques, recommendations, and reports are
some of the products that can be created to
demonstrate the process of evaluation. In the
newer taxonomy, evaluation comes before
creating as it is often the necessary part of
the precursory behavior before creating
something.
Remember this part has now changed places
with the last one on the old taxonomy.
6. Evaluation: The ability to judge, check, and
even critique the value of material for a given
purpose.
Examples of verbs that relate to this
function are: judge, assess, compare, evaluate,
conclude, measure, deduce, argue, decide,
choose, rate, select, estimate, validate, consider,
appraise, value, criticize, infer
Sample verbs appropriate for objectives
written at the evaluating level: appraise,
choose, compare, conclude, decide, defend,
evaluate, give your opinion, judge, justify,
prioritize, rank, rate, select, support, value
6. Creating: Objectives written on the
creating level require the student to generate
new ideas, product and ways of viewing things.
Putting elements together to form a coherent
or functional whole; reorganizing elements
into a new pattern or structure through
generating, planning, or producing. Creating
requires users to put parts together in a new
way or synthesize parts into something new
and different form or product. This process
is the most difficult mental function in the
new taxonomy.
This one use to be No. 5 in Bloom’s
taxonomy and was known as the synthesis.
Sample verbs appropriate for objectives
written at the creating level: change,
combine. Compose, construct, create, invent,
design, formulate, generate, produce, revise,
reconstruct, rearrange, visualize, write, plan
Learning Targets in the Learning Domains
Learning domains, sometimes referred to as categories of learning
outcomes, are critical to consider as you plan your lessons. By analyzing the
type of learning domain or outcome that you want, you can determine which
activities, assessments, and representational modes (face-to-face, video,
online, multimedia) are most advantageous based on the learning outcome
desired. With the access to learning technologies more available to faculty and
with greater numbers of students having access at home and work, it is possible
and desirable to use multiple representational modes to increase the
probability that students will attain higher levels of learning.
The following is a brief overview of learning domains with examples of
how you might represent content, provide activities, and assess mastery of
that domain. These domains include cognitive, affective, psychomotor, and
interpersonal.
Cognitive Domain
Bloom (1984) developed a method of categorizing objectives according
to cognitive complexity. It delineates six levels of cognitive complexity. His
later works led him to revise the taxonomy to include “creating” as the highest
form of thinking skill. This domain focuses on intellectual skills and is familiar
to educators. Bloom’s Taxonomy (knowledge, comprehension, application,
analysis, synthesis, and evaluation) is frequently used to describe the
increasing complexity of cognitive skills as students move from beginner to
more advanced in their knowledge of content. The cognitive domain is the core
learning domain. The other domains (affective, interpersonal, and
psychomotor) require at least some cognitive component.
Recently, this taxonomy was revised into outcomes-based domains:
remembering, and understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, creating.
Knowledge (Remembering). Instructional objectives at the knowledge level
require the learners to recall and remember facts, events,
terminologies, or rules. The teacher may use behavioral terms
such as: define, name, identify, recall, state, list, cite, label,
match, recognize, reproduce, select
Instructional objective:
At the end of the topic, the students should be able to
identify the different steps in testing hypothesis.
Test Item:
What are the different steps in testing hypothesis?
Comprehension (UNDERSTANDING). At this level, the learners are required
to do more than just recall. This involves some level of
understanding. This involves seeing connections and relationships
among parts of a communication (interpreting), changing the form
of communication (translating) to restate what has been said, or
to draw conclusions or consequences from information (making
inferences). Sample verbs of stating specific learning outcomes:
classify, convert, describe, distinguish between, give examples,
interpret, summarize
Instructional Objective:
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to
summarize the main events of the story INVICTUS in
grammatically correct English.
Test Item:
Summarize the main events in the story INVICTUS in
grammatically correct English.
Application (APPLYING). Instructional objectives at this level involve the
ability to use previously learned skills in a particular situation to
work out similar situation but in a different and often applied
context. This is one level higher than comprehension because the
understanding of the information is now used to meet a new
learning task. Sample verbs of stating specific learning outcomes:
apply, arrange, compute, construct, demonstrate, discover,
extend, operate, predict, relate, show, solve, use
Instructional Objective:
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to
write a short poem in iambic pentameter.
Test Item:
Write a short poem in iambic pentameter.
Analysis (ANALYZING). This involves the ability to identify logical errors
(e.g. point out a contradiction or an erroneous inference) or to
differentiate facts, opinions, or conclusions. For example,
requiring the student to point out the advantages and
disadvantages of a given information. Sample verbs of stating
specific learning outcomes: analyze, associate, determine,
diagram, differentiate, discriminate, distinguish, estimate, point
out, infer, outline, separate
Instructional Objective:
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to
describe the statistical tools needed in testing the difference
between two means.
Test Item:
What kind of statistical test would you run to see if there
is a significant difference between pre-test and post-test?
Synthesis (SYNTHESIZING). Instructional objectives at this level requires
the learner to combine parts to form a distinctive and new whole.
This also involves the ability to solve a problem in a unique way.
Sample verbs of stating specific learning outcomes: combine,
compile, compose, construct, create, design, develop, devise,
formulate, integrate, modify, revise, rewrite, tell, write
Instructional Objective:
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to
compare and contrast the two types of error.
Test Item:
What is the difference between type I and type II error?
Evaluation (EVALUATING). At this level, the learner is required to make
decisions regarding the worth or significance of ideas, methods
and procedures using appropriate criteria. For example, requiring
a learner to justify the use of a problem-solving strategy, or to
criticize the actions of a character in the story. Sample verbs of
stating specific learning outcomes: appraise, assess, compare,
conclude, contrast, criticize, evaluate, judge, justify, support
Instructional Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to
conclude the relationship between two means.
Test Item:
What should the researcher
relationship in the population?
conclude
about
the
Creation (CREATING). This is the new level which requires the learner to
generate new knowledge as a result of all the lower levels of
intellectual skills. For example, being able to create a new idea
from what had been taught, or creating an image to represent
understanding of a given learning material or constructing a
concept map of the lessons being taken up.
Affective Domain
The affective taxonomy was developed by Krathwohl, Bloom and Masia
(164). It describes instructional objectives in terms of emotions, feelings or
values. Affective domain describes learning objectives that emphasize a
feeling tone, an emotion, or a degree of acceptance or rejection. The taxonomy
is ordered according to the principle of internalization. Internalization refers
to the process whereby a person’s affect toward an object passes from general
awareness level to a point where the affect is internalized and consistently
guides or control the person’s behavior.
This domain is categorized into five categories.
Receiving (Attending). This involves at least awareness to a thing, an
idea, methods or process. This is to be followed by willingness to attend to this
stimulus and then to attend selectively to various aspects of the context within
which the stimulus exists, eliminating those that are not relevant to the stimulus,
(e.g. “to describe the good traits of the main character of the story”).
Sample verbs appropriate for objectives written at the receiving level: masks,
chooses, describes, follows, gives, holds, identifies, locates, names, points to,
selects, sits, erects, replies, uses
Responding. Learner responses at this level indicate more than just
listening or responding. At first, responses are done with compliance, and then later,
there is willingness to choose the same response. The highest form is evidenced by
the satisfaction after the response. For example, after listening to the instructions
of the teacher, the learner does what is required of her/him to do.
Sample verbs appropriate for objectives written at the responding level:
answers, assists, aids, complies, conforms, discusses, greets, helps, labels, performs,
practices, presents, reads, recites, reports, selects, tells, writes
Valuing. At this level, the learner recognizes and accepts the worth of
a thing, an idea or an activity. A demonstration of preference is an indication of a
commitment to it, internalizing it. For example, the learner accepts ideas of fellow
members in a group during a group activity.
Sample verbs appropriate for objectives written at the valuing level:
completes, demonstrates, differentiates, explains, follows, forms, initiates, invites,
joins, justifies, proposes, reads, reports, selects, shares, studies, works
Organizing. As ideas are internalized, these become a priority in a
slowly organized value system of the learner. This is done by the learner through
analysis of the interrelationships and generalizations that reflect the valued idea.
For example, the learner continues to participate actively in group
activities/discussion after having felt good with the group.
Sample verbs appropriate for objectives written at the organizing level:
adheres, alters, arranges, combines, compares, completes, defends, explains,
formulates, generalizes, identifies, integrates, modifies, orders, organizes,
prepares, relates, synthesizes
Characterizing by value or value set. At this level, the learner has
already a value system and he has to adhere to it. The learner behaves consistently
with this generalized set of philosophy. The next level is characterization which is
the consistency between the individual’s thought and actions. This is not possibly
observable at the end of a lesson. This takes time for the teacher to observe.
Sample verbs appropriate for objectives written at the characterizing level:
acts, discriminates, displays, influences, listens, modifies, performs, practices,
proposes, qualifies, questions, revises, serves, solves, verifies
Psychomotor Domain
In addition to the cognitive and affective domains, there is another category
of instructional objective which involved the movement and control processes: the
psychomotor domain. This does not negate the fact that physical motions have
cognitive and affective components. This is characterized by the progressive levels
od behaviors from observation to mastery of physical skills. Development of these
skills requires practice and is measured in terms of speed, precision, distance,
procedures, or techniques in execution. The Psychomotor Domain includes objectives
that require basic motor skills and/or physical movement.
Dave(1975) enumerated the following skills to be within the psychomotor
domain:

Imitation – Observing and patterning behavior after someone else.
Performance may be of low quality.
Example: Copying a work of art.

Manipulation – Being able to perform certain actions by following
instructions and practicing.
Example: Creating work on one’s own, after taking lessons, or
reading about it.

Precision – Refining, becoming more exact. Few errors are apparent.
Example: Working and reworking something, so it will be “just
right”.

Articulation – Coordinating a series of actions, achieving harmony and
internal consistency.
Example: Producing a video that involves music, drama, color,
sound, etc.

Naturalization – Having high level performance become natural, without
needing to think much about it.
Examples: Michael Jordan playing basketball, Nancy Lopez
hitting a golf ball, etc.
Esmane(2011) also listed seven major categories from the simplest
behavior to the most complex:
1. Perception. The ability to use sensory cues to guide motor activity. This
ranges from sensory stimulation, through cue selection, to translation.
Sample verbs appropriate for objectives written at the perception
level: chooses, describes, detects, differentiates, distinguishes,
identifies, isolates, relates, selects
2. Set. Readiness to act. It includes mental, physical, and emotional sets. These
three sets are dispositions that predetermine a person’s response to
different situations (sometimes called mindsets).
Sample verbs appropriate for objectives written at the set level:
begins, displays, explains, moves, proceeds, reacts, shows, states,
volunteers
3. Guided Response. The early stages in learning a complex skill that includes
imitation and trial and error. Adequacy of performance is achieved by
practicing.
Sample verbs appropriate for objectives written at the guided
response level: copies, traces, follows, reacts, reproduces, responds
4. Mechanism. This is the intermediate stage in learning a complex skill. Learned
responses have become habitual and movements can be performed with some
confidence and proficiency.
Sample verbs appropriate for objectives written at the mechanism
level: assembles, calibrates, constructs, dismantles, displays, fastens,
fixes, grinds, heats, manipulates, measures, mends, mixes, organizes,
sketches
5. Complex Overt Response. The skillful performance of motor acts that
involves complex movement patterns. Proficiency is indicated by a quick,
accurate, and highly coordinated performance, requiring a minimum of energy.
Sample verbs appropriate for objectives written at the complex overt
response level: assembles, builds, calibrates, constructs, dismantles,
displays, fastens, fixes, grinds, heats, manipulates, measures, mends,
mixes, organizes, sketches
6. Adaptation. Skills are well developed and the individual can modify movement
patterns to fit special requirements.
Sample verbs appropriate for objectives written at the adaptation
level: adapts, alters, changes, rearranges, reorganizes, revises, varies
7. Origination. Creating new movement patterns to fit a particular situation or
specific problem. Learning outcomes emphasize creativity based upon highly
developed skills.
Sample verbs appropriate for objectives written at the origination
level: arranges, builds, combines, composes, constructs, creates,
designs, initiates, makes, originates
Harrow’s(1972), Kubiszyn and Borich(2007)
1. Reflex movements. Reactions that are not learned.
2. Fundamental movements. Inherent movement patterns which are formed by
combinations of reflex movements, the basis for complex skilled movements.
3. Perception. Response to stimuli such as visual, auditory, kinesthetic, or tactile
discrimination.
4. Physical abilities. Stamina that must be developed for further development
such as strength and agility.
5. Skilled movements. Advanced learned movements as one would find in sports
or acting.
6. No discursive communication. Effective body language, such as gestures and
facial expressions.
The psychomotor domain is best assessed in a face-to-face situation. Since
there is a cognitive component underlying motor skill, these can be effectively
viewed in videos, demonstrations, online text descriptions, or with pictures of each
step in the sequence. Simulations can be used to help people learn the steps or
practice variations of a motor sequence; but ultimately, the student should perform
the skill with an instructor judging if the skill was performed to a set standard.
Sometimes, simulations are used for learning without ‘hands on” opportunities,
because the psychomotor activity is dangerous or equipment is not readily available.
Students who are new to a content area will generally benefit more from
“hands-on” learning than from mediated learning within the psychomotor domain. As
students become more expert, videos and pictures can be used to teach the skill.
Interpersonal Domain – making connections
The Interpersonal domain focuses on people interacting with others. The
levels in this domain should not be considered hierarchical as in the cognitive domain,
but more as a list of skills. These include the following:
 Seeking/giving information (asking for and offering information)
 Proposing (putting forward an idea)
 Building and supporting (helping another person’s idea move forward)
 Shutting out/bringing in (excluding or involving another
 Disagreeing (appropriately offering a difference of opinion)
 Summarizing (Restoring in a compact form a discussion or collection of ideas)
The above list is not exhaustive. Other skills to add to the list might include
negotiating, compromising, facilitating, and leading.
Interpersonal skills are learned by seeing models, practicing the skills, and
getting feedback in the form of coaching. While short videos, good explanations, and
checklists can facilitate the conceptual learning of the skills, the actual acquisition
of the interpersonal skill is best done with face-to-face contact and lots of
instructor feedback.
Learning Outcomes
A learning outcome is the particular knowledge, skill or behavior that a student
is expected to exhibit after a period of study. Learning outcomes can be usefully
thought of as behavioral criteria for determining whether students are achieving
the educational objectives of a program, and ultimately, whether overall program
goals are being successfully met. Outcomes are sometimes treated as synonymous
with objectives, though objectives are usually more general statements of what
students are expected to achieve in an academic program. (Allen, Noel, Rienzi &
McMillin, 2002)
Kraiger, et. al. (1993) proposed that learning during training may be classified
into one of three types of outcomes: cognitive, skill-based, and affective. In
addition, each type of outcome includes particular categories and foci of
measurement (the focus is on two points):
Learning Outcomes are also classified according to:
1. Declarative knowledge. These are simple recall of facts, principles, trends,
criteria and organizing events. These are the basic knowledge that the learner
should learn and master before he can move forward to another level of learning
outcome.
2. Procedural knowledge. This involves a higher level of knowledge, which includes
the ability to process the declarative knowledge that had been previously learned.
Sublevels include the following:
2.1
Discriminations: This is the most basic procedural knowledge which
enables the student to determine relevant differences and similarities
between two objects on the basis of his senses only. (e.g., comparing
two animal sounds in terms of volume, comparing two objects in terms
of size).
2.2
Concepts: This involves the ability to classify physical objects or
abstractions. With this ability, the learner can give examples and nonexamples of a given concept (e.g. understanding the concept of
beverage will enable the learner to say that soda, milk, are beverages).
2.3
Rules: This involves the ability of the student to apply learned principles
to a given situation. (e.g. the use of a or an in the sentence, conversion
of a unit of length from metric to nonmetric units).
2.4
Complex skills: These include the use of a combination of rules to solve
a particular problem. This also includes the ability to create solution
routes out of a learned concept, rule of basic declarative knowledge.
2.5
Motor skills: These include skills used to demonstrate movements, such
as demonstrating the correct steps in dancing, draw a rectangle of given
dimensions, etc.
2.6
Attitudes: These are learned mental states that influence a learner’s
behavior. (e.g. choosing to go to the library rather than play).
Matching Test Items with Instructional Objectives
(Kubiszyn and Borich, 2007)
Even at the planning stage, the teacher must be able to identify test
items that will appropriately measure the attainment of the objectives set for
particular lessons.
1. Identify the learning outcome called for by the objective. Check to
determine if the item requires the same learning outcome.
Objective 1
: Differentiate between reality and fantasy.
Item 1
: Given a paragraph, list the words that express reality and the words that
express fantasy.
Objective 2
: The student will write complete instructional objective including behavior,
conditions and criteria.
Item 2
: Describe why instructional objectives must contain an observable
behavior, condition and criteria.
2. Identify the learning conditions that are called for by the objective. Check to
determine if the item requires the same learning conditions.
Objective 1
: Given a narrative, the student will circle the nouns with 90% accuracy.
Item 1
: Circle the nouns in the given paragraph.
Objective 2
: Using a map as a guide, draw the continent of Europe.
Item 2
: Without using a map, draw the continent of Europe.
In summary, ensuring content validity is as simple as making sure that
the learning outcomes and conditions called for by the test items match the learning
outcomes and the conditions called for by the instructional objective.
The Table of Specifications: Test Design
Evaluation at the end of a learning unit helps the teacher determine the
strengths and weaknesses of the learners. It also guides the teacher in the making
of instructional decisions that will improve the teaching-learning process, should
there be a need of any. Summative tests serve the same purpose of evaluating
learning outcomes.
In designing paper-and-pencil tests, the teacher looks back at the
objectives set for the whole learning segment and construct test items that will
appropriately determine whether learning actually took place. Not only will the
teacher design items for mere learning but should design these items to measure
high-level thinking skills which is the ultimate goal of instruction. The teacher
employs a method by which items in the test are consistent with the learning
objectives that had been set for the learning segment. The teacher now prepares a
test blueprint that will ensure that the details of a good test are being looked into.
More specifically, the test blueprint, also called the Table of Specifications,
ensures that the test will sample whether learning has taken place across the range
of (1) content areas covered in class; and (2) cognitive processes considered
desirable for the learners at a specific learning period.
A Table of Specifications (TOS) is a two-dimensional chart which
outlines the content areas to be included in the test and the target skills (learning
outcomes) that the test intends to assess.
The distribution of the contents of the test will depend on the following:
1. Emphasis on the concept or target skills
2. Time allotment of the topic in the scope/coverage
3. Degree of importance of the topic/content
Buendicho (2010) outlines a checklist for a TOS:
1. Are the specifications in harmony with the purpose?
2. Do specifications reflect the nature and limits of the domain?
3. Do specifications indicate the types of learning outcomes to be measured?
4. Do the specifications indicate the sample of learning outcomes to be
measured?
5. Is the number and types of items/tasks appropriate?
6. Is the distribution of items and tasks adequate?
7. Is the number of items adequate to represent the domain?
SAMPLE TABLE OF SPECIFICATIONS (TOS)
Content/
Outcomes
Role of
test in
instruction
Principles
of Testing
Norm vs
CriterionReferenced
Assessment
Planning
the test
Total
Number of
Items
Knows
Comprehends
Principles
Procedures
Applies
Principles
Total
Number
of
Items
Terms
Facts
4
4
4
3
2
4
3
3
3
5
5
2
5
20
15
15
10
10
10
60
2
6
10
5
20
10