SOS119U-INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLOGY
Chapter 4: Politics and Society
Introduction
Politics is a vital social institution in social life and has the
power of directly influencing individuals’ public and
private life. Politics is such a phenomenon that it is
correlated with every single institution, field, individual
and community in a given society. Therefore, it is
necessary to embrace politics and society. Politics and
society are intertwined and they both interplay. From birth
to death, the socialization process of individuals (family,
friendship, school, occupational life etc.) is significantly
taking place in power relations. At the present time,
politics and political activities have moved beyond
traditional practices in political parties, organizations. In
this regard, the field of politics is not a social action
limited to politicians’ practices, it should be considered as
social categories in a broader sense social fractions
struggle for their democratic rights.
Fundamental Concepts in Political Sociology
Our social behaviours, whether individual or group
actions, have particular political aspects. However,
dimensions of politics as a concept, are disputable. In
sociology literature, there are many debates on what
constitutes politics.
Politics, etymologically origins from Ancient Greek
“politika” and “police” as city, urban meaning “urban
politics” meaning “state affairs”. In today’s meaning,
politics can be described as governance of a country, state,
and people. Related to this, political science is defined as
an academic discipline which examines power and
distribution of power in various types of political systems.
A more inclusive definition is that it is a science of
institutions related to political authority and behaviours
playing role in the formation and functioning of these
institutions.
However, there are some striking differences between
what we call political science and political sociology.
Political sociology is the study of power and the
intersection of society and politics. Unlike political
science, political sociology is a sociological branch which
is concerned with the social causes and consequences of
given power distributions within or between societies, and
with the social and political conflicts that lead to changes
in the allocation of power. In other words, it is a subdiscipline that analyses political authority’s institutional
regulations, of functions of political authority and
transformation of political system. Whereas political
science deals mainly with the machinery of government,
the mechanisms of public administration, and the formal
political realm of elections, public opinion, pressure
groups, and political behaviour, sociological analysis of
political phenomena is concerned rather more with the
interrelationships between politics, social structures,
ideologies, and culture.
There are certain concepts that political sociology usually
appeals to evaluates various issues in its field of inquiry.
One of these concepts is power. Power is a social relation
indeed. Bozkurt defines it as a social relation where a
person (or a group) controls others behaviours. However,
in most of the definitions of power, there is an assumption
of mutual relationship. In Max Weber’s definition, power
is the chance of a man or a number of men to realize their
own will in a command action even against the resistance
of others who are participating in the action.
Another concept is paternalism. Paternalism might
resemble a father figure starting from the 19th Century,
particularly a father from a more kindly and stable time,
superimposed on the image of a boss. According to
Sennett, this picture of authority is paternalism, as high
capitalism constructed it. Paternalism is mostly seen in
authoritarian regimes or where democratic values and
culture are not established in a given society. In Turkey as
well, the state is seen as a “father” in political culture;
some leaders who have charismatic and traditional
authority could be seen as a father portrait.
Authority is another concept and it has various subconcepts. Richard Sennett notes that often the words
authority and “power” are used interchangeably. We do so
when we call government officials the authorities. But
often again, authority and power are distinguished, as
when we say that a government o official lacked the
authority to engage in some venture. In English, the root
of authority is author; the connotation is that authority
involves productive. Yet, the word authoritarian is used to
describe a person or system which is oppressive. Authority
is a particular type of domination; and it is legitimate.
Legitimacy is crucial in this sense. Any particular power
requires to insert power Max Weber’s power analysis is
focused on distinguishing between different categories
(ideal types) of authority. Max Weber identifies three
types of authority.
Authority based on the belief in long-running traditions is
traditional authority. In other words, traditional authority
is the power legitimized through respect for longestablished cultural patterns.
Charismatic authority is based on the devotion of
followers or subordinates to what they define as the
exceptional characteristics of a leader. These
characteristics are mostly seen as supernatural, superhuman, or at least exceptional compared to lesser mortals.
Rational-legal authority is defined through those who
possess rational-legal authority are legitimated on the
basis of legally enacted rules and the right of those with
authority under those rules to issue commands. A judge, a
tax inspector or a military commander are obeyed because
others accept the legal framework that gives them their
power.
One another concept that political sociology frequently
attends to is laicism. Laicism, although in its widest
definition, is the separation of religious and state affairs; it
comprises more than this conventional definition of the
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SOS119U-INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLOGY
Chapter 4: Politics and Society
term. Laicism involves freedom of thought and faith.
However, in a given society, even though freedom of
thought and faith is ensured, laicism may not exist. In this
sense, a laic social order is a social order that every person
from diverse religions and beliefs, on equal conditions,
observing the same regulations, not distinguishing any
religious privileges and supremacy.
We can also point out the state as a concept that is referred
by political sociology frequently. The state is not an
institution as old as the history of humanity. In history,
there were stateless societies. Although there were state
forms in Ancient Greece, the Roman Empire and Ancient
Egypt, state is an apparatus in modern societies that
display bureaucratic structures. While the state is analysed
according to its functions by liberal theorists, class based
explanations are made by Marxist theorists to understand
State. In political sociology, the state is a symbol of an
institution that can act against exterior and interior threats
on behalf of society, has the ability to use power for this
goal, representing the whole country with its land and
folk. Sociologically, the state is an abstract term. State,
with its power, elements of oppression and institutions
becomes a concrete social institution. As a sociological
institution, the state is the major organization that
contemporary and modern human societies formulated and
it regulates human relations. We also can easily observe
that different forms of state comes to the fore frequently in
discussion in the field of political sociology such as
authoritarian and totalitarian state.
Lastly, the concept of democracy has an important place
in political sociology. Despite the fact that the origin of
democracy is dated back to Ancient Greece, the spread of
democracy has been in the 20th century. Democracy is
spread worldwide because it is the most convenient
regime which meets the needs of our age’s society. In the
most general definition of democracy, it is accepted as the
people’s rule, however this definition is not satisfying to
understand what democracy really is. Democracy is
generally seen as the political system which is the most
capable system to ensure political equality, protect liberty
and freedom, defend the common interest, meet citizens’
needs, promote moral self-development and enable
effective decision-making which takes everyone’s
interests into account. Democracy has two main different
models as participatory and representative or liberal
democracy.
Ideology
The term of ideology can be considered as a world-view in
its broadest meaning and it avails us to understand the
social world from different point of standpoints.
There are various definitions and innumerable meanings
attached to the concept of ideology. Its meaning in
sociology differs from what it means in political science.
Ideology is a term that is the outcome of the
Enlightenment thought. One of the Enlightenment
philosophers, De Tracy, after the French Revolution,
developed the term ideology as “science of ideas” and
literally
“idea-ology”.
Essentially,
De
Tracy’s
conceptualization refers to today’s term “science”. In this
regard, ideology is evaluated as “both a science that
examines human thought, idea codes and sources of
thought, and a project that is oriented for the future of
society”. On the other hand, in today’s use of the term
ideology, it is contrary to the meaning of science. Any
ideology can comprise a pejorative or negative meaning
for other ideologies. Every single ideology attempts to
understand social facts or realities in a circle of its own set
of concepts. Accordingly, any particular ideology is
produced as an alternative to another ideology or
ideologies. For Örs, ideology is “a totality of beliefs,
norms, and values and comprises what is supposed to be
an ‘ideal’ socio-political model”. Any ideology is
consistent in its systematic logic of thinking. For this
reason, ideologies usually have a strict, dogmatic and
unchanging frame of thinking.
There are certain ideologies that should be highlighted.
Liberalism,
conservatism,
socialism,
fascism,
neoliberalism and social democracy are some of them.
In its classical form, liberalism is usually considered as the
dominant ideology of the Western democracies rooted in
Enlightenment thought. It is “usually identified with the
philosophies of John Locke, David Hume, Jeremy
Bentham and John Stuart Mill, who emphasize social
contract theory, a World where human beings are guided
by enlightened self-interest, rationality, and free choice,
and argue for the minimum intervention of the state in the
lives of individuals. It is strongly associated both with
economic doctrines of laissez-faire (as in the writings of
Adam Smith), and with constitutional guarantees and
representative democracies, in which all citizens are held
to hold inalienable rights to certain freedoms – such as the
right to life, to property, to free speech, association, and
religion, along with the right to have some say in the
running of the country.
Conservatism refers to, in everyday language, moderate or
cautious behaviour, a life-style that is conventional, even
conformist, or a fear of or refusal to change.
Conservatism, similar to other modern ideologies,
emerged in the 18th century as a consequence of political
and social environment and culture medium regarding
Enlightenment thought. The term conservatism was used
by Chateaubriand in the post 1815 period and to describe
the ‘right’ wing in the political spectrum, prevalently
occurred in Germany, adopted in England in 1835. In the
widest definition conservatism is a system of thinking that
attaches priority to conserve an existing social, economic,
political and cultural atmosphere in a given society. Apart
from modern ideologies emerged in the 18th century,
conservatism could be observed in archaic social
conditions in certain societies. In that regard, conservatism
can be used in different terms and meanings in certain
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Chapter 4: Politics and Society
circumstances. Conservatism in Turkey, has been intrinsic
to society in general, rather than being an ideology.
Besides, in the Republican history, conservatism as a
political ideological position, has influenced the political
domain. More particularly, in the last decades,
conservatism has become evident in the political sphere.
When thinking of conservatism in Turkey, one should
consider religion, state, laicism, nationalism and politics in
a relationally axis. Religion, not only an issue of
conservative politics, but also has the power of influencing
entire the political domain and hegemonic in all debates in
Turkish politics. Hence, when thinking of Turkish politics,
conservatism is a crucial matter of fact.
One another ideology that can be pointed out here is
socialism. Socialism emerged after rapid impoverishment
of a vast majority of people due to industrialization in the
19th century, as working class formed an ideological
construction. In other words, socialism emerged as a
critique of liberal market society and was defined by its
attempt to offer an alternative to industrial capitalism.
Marshall defines socialism as an economic and political
system based on collective or state ownership of the
means of production and distribution- although, like
capitalism, the system takes many and diverse forms.
Early socialism was influenced by the economic and
sociological ideas of Karl Marx. In this regard, socialism
rooted from Marxist thought that opposes to the capitalist
modes of production due to various economic and social
reasons. For Marx, socialism implies the abolition of
markets, capital, and labour as a commodity. As an
ideology, socialism has some characteristics such as
society, cooperation, equality, social class, and collective
ownership.
Fascism, on the other hand, refers to parties, ideologies, or
states that either advocate or embody a typically terroristic
domination of a fused state apparatus, within which there
is no separation of powers or rule of law, by a single party
infused with a frequently racist and always nationalist
petit bourgeois ideology. Fascism occurs, when modern
ideologies in Continental Europe appear and display as
liberal and democratic ideologies. In the first half of the
20th century while the democratic regimes degrade,
authoritarian and totalitarian regimes rise. Essentially in
Italy, Germany, Portugal and Spain had fascist regimes. In
these countries fascism varied in many ways. There is a
dispute in weather fascism is an ideology or a regime; and
when thinking of it as a perception of world we might
conceive fascism as an ideology. Fascism, when
considered as a world view, is easily differentiated from
other ideologies like liberalism and socialism. Fascism is
differentiated in terms of democratic understanding. Yet,
fascism rejects liberalism’s equal opportunities ideal, and
socialism’s ideal of equality which is equal power of
classes.
Neoliberalism can also be considered as an influential
ideologies of our era. According to Marshall neo-
liberalism refers to a loosely knit body of ideas which
became very influential during the 1980s and which were
premised upon a (slight) rethinking and a (substantial)
reassertion of classical liberalism. Neo-liberalism can be
traced back to conservative leaders and their policies such
as Margaret Thatcher or Thatcherism in England, Ronald
Reagan or “Reaganism” in the U.S. since the 1980s.
Neoliberalism formed part of a larger, new right
ideological project that sought to fuse laissez-faire
economics with an essentially conservative social
philosophy. Neoliberalism amounts to a form of market
fundamentalism. The market is seen to be morally and
practically superior to government and any form of
political control.
Lastly, social democracy can be defined as a hybrid
political tradition that is inspired by socialist ideals and an
existing political atmosphere and determined by liberal
values. In practice, social democracy is applied in most of
the countries in the developed West. Social democracy is
associated with orthodox Marxism. Social democracy is
transformed beginning from the second half of the
twentieth century, to an understanding of reforming
capitalism with its internal dynamics. Social democracy
positioned itself as a balanced intervention of the state
within the market economy and thus some improvements
could be achieved. The strict interpretation of capitalism
in the market economy is softened by Keynesian and
social welfare policies. Therefore, intervention of the state
regarding markets have been increased, social justice has
been disseminated. The state increased its regulatory role
in markets and revised compensation policies.
Theoretical Approaches to Politics in Sociology
We can mention four main approaches in sociology
covering politics. First one is functionalist approach,
second is pluralist approach, third is elite theory, and
fourth is Marxist-conflict theory. In functionalist
approach, society is evaluated in terms of basic needs. The
state has emerged as a necessity within the society. These
needs can be summarised as follows:
•
•
•
Maintaining order
Relations with other states/governments
Directing the system.
Pluralist perspective to politics in society is closely linked
to structural-functionalist theory and it is an analysis of
politics that sees power as spread among many competing
interest groups. Pluralist approach claims to explain the
power and distribution of power in Western democratic
societies. There are two versions of pluralism which are
classical pluralism and elite pluralist approach. Classical
pluralist approach has similarities with Talcott Parsons’
functionalist perspective.
Elite theory relies on the idea of small and elite groups
governing the society. In other words, elite theory sees
power in society as being monopolized by a small
minority (or elite). It is a political theory that is developed
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Chapter 4: Politics and Society
by Wifredo Pareto and Gaetano Mosca. For Mosca, all
societies are divided into two: rulers and ruled. Ruling
classes are minority and ruled classes are majority. Rulers
have superior personal qualities. Rulers can use
oppression, persuasion, and severity to control masses.
Famous sociologist C. Wright Mills offers an elite theory
apart from classical elite theories. While Pareto and Mosca
provide a general theory to explain the distribution of
power in all societies, Mills limited his elite analysis to
American society in the 1950s. In his book The Power
Elite, he identifies power elites as those who occupy
strategic command positions. In certain institutions in
USA, elites are commanding posts and Mills identified
three key institutions as
•
•
•
The major corporations
The military
The federal government
By contrast with functionalism focusing on functions of
the state or elite theory which concentrates on elites ruling
the society, Marxist perspectives emphasize means of
production since they see economic resources as a source
of power. Class conflict can be seen in capitalist societies.
Marxist perspective claims there are different interests
between who hold the power (means of production) and
who do not, and this differentiation in interests leads to a
conflict in the society. For Marx, power is concentrated in
the hands of those who have the economic control within a
society. From this perspective, the source of power lies in
the economic infrastructure.
Globalization, Nation-State and European Union
Globalizations is a process that has an impact on the
world’s economic, cultural domains. Thus, globalization
affects not only cultural and Economic domains, but also
the political domain as well. Developments in
communications
technology
and
extraordinary
improvements led to post-industrial social structures.
Hence, nation-states are affected by these big changes. We
live in a world that borders of nation-states are surpassed
and these borders are re-evaluated. Global economy
exceeds the borders of national economies and reshaping
as transnational economies. All sorts of economic,
cultural, political changes have mostly global impacts.
Any financial crisis in any place can lead to a global
financial crisis; any sort of cultural item can become
widespread; a terror attack might change the whole
world’s political and social atmosphere. On the other
hand, while redefining nation state’s status, new forms of
unities such as European Union (EU) are developing and
dissolving simultaneously (Brexit example), leading to
new alliances in cultural, economic and political aspects.
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