Purpose of today:
1. To give you a bird’s eye view of the history of language
aptitude, its features, and recent trends.
2. To let you review on aptitude in L2 learning as language
teachers.
3. To let you think, if you were to research on aptitude, what
would be an interesting topic?
Why is it that people differ so greatly in
their ability to learn L2?
Do certain people have a knack for
learning L2?
language learning aptitude
APTITUDE
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The concept of language aptitude, is related
to the broader concept of human abilities,
covering a variety of cognitively based
learner differences.
The study of individual differences in ability
has been one of the most established areas
in psychology.
Cooper (2002) pointed out
“it is certainly one of the most applicable
notions for a variety of domains, from
educational to occupational and industrial
contexts.”
What is aptitude
Carroll (1981) defines general aptitude as “Capability of
learning a task’, which depends on ‘some combination
of more or less enduring characteristics of the learner”.
“there is a specific talent for learning foreign languages
which exhibits considerable variation between individual
learners” (Dörnyei & Skehan, 2003: 590).
What is language aptitude?
Language aptitude is the capability involving a special propensity for learning an
L2 (Carroll, 1981) or “a general ability to learn languages” (Nunan, 2001, p.301),
and a complex of “basic abilities that are essential to facilitate foreign language
learning”(Carroll & Sapon, 1959, p.14).
Role of aptitude in L2 proficiency
Aptitude measures are strongly correlated with L2 proficiency (Carroll, 1981;
Dekeysser, 2000; Ehrman &Oxford, 1995; Ellis, 2012).
In Gardern and MacIntyre’s words: “research makes it clear that in the long run
language aptitude is probably the single best predictor of achievement in a
second language” (1992, p. 215).
Carroll’s claims about aptitude and L2 proficiency
1)
Aptitude is separate from achievement: Conceptually and empirically speaking,
there is no relationship between measures of aptitude and measure of proficiency
at the beginning of a language program, but that there is a relationship at the end
of the program.
2)
Aptitude must be shown to be separate from motivation: Gardner (1985)
has consistently shown that aptitude and motivation are separate factors, and
in his Socio-Educational Model of L2 learning depicts his claims visually.
Carroll’s claims about aptitude and L2 proficiency (cont.)
3)
Aptitude must be seen as a stable factor, perhaps even innate: Carroll refers to
studies which show that learner’s aptitude is difficult to alter through training.
4)
Aptitude is to be viewed not as a prerequisite for L2 acquisition: All
learner’s irrespective of their aptitude may achieve a reasonable level of
proficiency. But aptitude can be taken as a capacity that enhances the rate and
ease of learning.
Carroll’s claims about aptitude and L2 proficiency (cont.)
5)
Aptitude must be found to be distinct from general intelligence: Aptitude is a special
propensity or knack for learning a foreign language. Intelligence has a broader meaning,
referring to a general sort of aptitude that is not limited to a specific performance area but
is transferable to many sorts of performanc.
Both intelligence and language aptitude involve a range of cognitive factors some of
which, but not all, clearly overlap. We can expect considerable but not perfect correlation
between the two higher-order factors.
They overlap in linguistic ability but less related in memory and phonemic coding ability.
Aptitude, Ability and Intelligence
Ability and Aptitude
Intelligence
Intelligence usually has a
Language aptitude means
exactly the same as
language ability and is
typically meant to denote
language learning ability.
Zoltan Dornyei(2005)
broader meaning, referring
to a general sort of aptitude
that is not limited to a
specific performance area
but is transferable to many
sort of performance.
Zoltan Dornyei(2005)
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Doubts about this claim
Pimsleur considers intelligence an
important part of
aptitude.
Oller
and Perkins (1978) argued that verbal intelligence is a
major factor as it is needed to answer tests of the
kind
used to measure aptitude and language proficiency and thus
a common factor to both.
Carroll’s factors of language aptitude
1 - Phonemic
coding ability (the most important one):An ability to identify distinct sounds to
form associations between these sounds representing them, and to retain these associations”
(involving coding, assimilation, and remembering of phonetic material)
1.
Grammatical sensitivity: The ability to recognize the grammatical functions of words (or
other linguistic entities) in sentence structures” (awareness of grammatical relationship)
2.
Inductive language learning ability: The ability to infer or induce the rules governing a set of
language materials, given samples of language materials that permit such inferences”
(identifying patterns and relationships involving grammatical form and meaning).
3.
Rote learning ability: The ability to learn association between sounds and meanings rapidly
and efficiently to retain those associations”(remembering large amounts of L2 materials)
Pimsleur’s Factors of language aptitude
Involving more in linguistics, Pimsleur (1966) conceptualized the aptitude for
learning a modern language in terms of three factors:
1)
2)
3)
Verbal intelligence: That is the knowledge of words and ability to reason
analytically in using verbal materials”
Motivation
Auditory ability: The ability to receive and process information through the ear.
Dornyie (2005)
Pimsleur’s verbal intelligence = Carroll’s grammatical sensitivity Pimsleur’s
Auditory ability = Carroll’s phonetic coding ability
Foreign language aptitude and SLA
Second language learning aptitude is viewed as “strengths individual
learners have…in the cognitive abilities and information processing during
L2 learning and performance in various contexts and at different stages”
(Robinson, 2005, p. 46).
In SLA, the relationship of aptitude to learning under different conditions
of instructional exposure is important.
According to Ellis (2012), the following issues should be considered:
1. Is language aptitude relevant to informal (naturalistic)
as well as formal language learning?
Krashen (1981): L2 aptitude is related to learning and explicit L2
knowledge.
Ellis (2012): L2 aptitude is related to both formal and informal
learning.
Grigorenko, Sternberg, and Ehrman (2000): Linguistic-analytic ability is
related to formal learning and phonemic coding and memory abilities to
informal learning.
Gradner (1985): L2 aptitude is directly related to formal leaning and
indirectly to informal learning (Socio-Educational Model of L2 learning).
2- Is there any relationship between L1 language skills and second language aptitude?
Studies shows that those with strong L1 skills were also strong in L2 aptitude. In their
linguistic coding difference hypothesis (LCDH), Sparks and Ganschow (2001) claim
that one’s capacity to learn an L2 is closely related to the individual’s L1 learning skill
and L2 learning difficulties stem in part from native language difficulties.
3.To what extent is language aptitude immutable or responsive to training? There is no
conclusive findings. Some found it is responsive to training (e.g., Sparks, Ganschow,
Fluharty, and Little, 1995), and some found it is immutable (e.g., Sawyer, 1992).
Aptitude and Current SLA Research Skehan’s processsensitive aptitude
Skehan (1998) makes an attempt to relate three aptitude
components to the different phases of the SLA process:
1.
Auditory ability (phonetic coding ability): This allows
the learner to process input more readily and thus to get
to more complex areas of processing more easily. It
provides processable input and comprehensible input
for the next stage of processing
Skehan’s process-sensitive aptitude (Cont.)
2. Linguistic ability (Inductive language learning ability +
Grammatical sensitivity): The capacity to infer rules of language
and make generalization and extrapolations. The input of this
stage is the product of the phonemic coding stage.
(grammatical sensitivity)
Word
Implicit
Passive (recognition)
(inductive language learning ability)
pattern
explicit
active (construction)
Skehan’s process-sensitive aptitude (Cont.)
3. Memory ability (rote learning ability): It deals with the acquisition of new
information, their storage, and retrieval. The emphasis is on how memory ‘items’
can be retrieved efficiently in real-time to handle conversational demands (fastaccess memory system).
Relation of three components of aptitude to macro stages in SLA:
SLA stages
Aptitude components
Input
Auditory ability
Central processing
Linguistic ability
Output
Memory ability
Auditory Ability
Linguistic Ability
Skehan’s view
(1980)
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Memory Ability
Instruments used to measure
aptitude
The modern language aptitude test (MLAT)
(Carrol& Sapon 1959)
The Pimsleur language battery (PLAB 1966)
The Modern language Aptitude Test
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It was developed initially for foreign language instruction at the foreign
institute in the United States.
It was designed for selecting, guiding and placing children in the
foreign language in the elementary school program.
Carroll and Sapon (1959) followed a “Psychometric approach”, while
dveloping the first scientific language aptitude test, the MLAT
Carroll and Sapon’s MLAT does not include separate measure of
Inductive language learning ability, perhaps this is very close
grammatical sensitivity.
Parts of Modern Language Aptitude Test
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MLAT is composed of five parts.
Number learning: subject hear some numbers in a
new language, and are provided with some auditory
practice to learn, then they must translate 15
numbers.
Phonetic script: students hear a set of nonsense
words while they follow their printed phonetic script,
which is presented in fairly simple and regular symbols,
then they hear one word at a time and must choose
from four printed alternatives.
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Spelling clues: It looks like a vocabulary test, in which
subject may choose from five alternatives, the word wh
is nearest in meaning to a test word.
Words in sentences: This test measures
grammatical sensitivity.
Paired associates: student have only four
minutes to memorize24 word pairs.
Retention is tested by means of multiple
choice test in which subject must choose the
proper equivalent.
The pimsleur language aptitude
battery(1966)
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It was developed as an alternative to
MLAT, measures a very similar range
of abilities to MLAT, but has no test of
verbal memory.
In this test, a score is awarded for
“grade point average in academic
areas” as a measure of intelligence.
The pimsleur language Aptitude battery
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PLAB is composed of six parts.
Grade point Average: students have to report
the grades, they last received in areas other
than language learning
Vocabulary: Its tests word knowledge in
English and is measure of verbal ability.
Interest in foreign language learning: It
measures student’s interest in foreign language
learning.
Language analysis: It tests the student’s to
reason logically in terms of a foreign and is
another aspect of verbal ability.
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Sound discrimination: it tests the
ability to learn new phonetic
distinction and to recognize them in
different context and is a measure of
auditory ability.
Sound symbol of association: it
tests the ability to associate sounds
with written symbols and is another
measure of auditory ability.
WHAT DOES LANGUAGE APTITUDE
MEASURE
Language aptitude tests does not measure
whether an individual can learn a foreign
language. It predicts the rate of progress
under optimal conditions of motivation,
opportunity to learn and quality of
instruction.
(Carroll 1973)
THE PURPOSE OF LANGUAGE APTITUDE TESTING
• Helpful in different researches
• Helpful in selection procedure
• Allocation of resources
• Program evaluation
• Tailoring instructions to the learners’ aptitude level
Cocnlusion
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According to Carrol (1981), language
aptitude comprises four constituent
abilities.
Phonemic coding ability: (An ability to
identify distinct sounds to form associations
between these sounds representing them, and
to retain these associations).
Grammatical sensitivity: (the ability to
recognize the grammatical functions of words in
sentences).
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Inductive language learning ability:
The ability to identify patterns and
relationships involving grammatical form
and meaning.
(Carroll 1973.p.8)
Rote learning ability:
(the ability to learn association between
sounds and meanings rapidly and efficiently
to retain those associations”).
(Carroll,1981,p.105)
Pimsleur(1966) conceptualized “the aptitude for learning
a modern language” in terms of three factors.
 Verbal intelligence: that is the knowledge
of words and ability to reason analytically in
using verbal materials”
 Motivation: whose problematic position
within the aptitude complex.
 Auditory ability: ability to receive and
process information through the ear.
Future path of research
• What does a language aptitude test determine?
• L1 versus L2 aptitude
• Language aptitude and age
• Language aptitude and intelligence
• Language aptitude, teaching methods, and learning situations
• The purpose of language aptitude testing