FOUNDATIONS OF LAW
ENFORCEMENT ORGANIZATION
AND ADMINISTRATION
I. Classical Approach:
The three primary areas in the development of the classical approach
are:
1. Scientific Management (Frederick Taylor, 1856-1915)
Scientific Management sought to discover the best method of
performing specific task. Based on his studies, Taylor believed that if
workers were taught the best procedures, with pay tied to output, they
would produce the maximum amount of work. With respect to this
philosophy, the role of management changed abruptly from the earlier use
of the “rule of the thumb” to a more scientific approach, including
scientifically selecting, training, and developing workers, and ensuring that
all work would be done in accordance with scientific principles, thus
scientific management strongly adhered to the formal organization
structure and its rules.
2. Bureaucratic Management ((Max Weber, 1864-1920)
The concept of Bureaucracy is generally associated with the
work of Max Weber, who was the major contributor to modern
sociology. He studied the effect of social change in Europe at the
end of the 19th Century and coined the term BUREAUCRACY to
identify the complex organizations that operated on a rational
basis. Weber believed that such an approach was a means of
lessening the cruelty, nepotism, and subjective managerial
practices common in the early stages of the Industrial Revolution.
(For example, it was a standard practice to hire relatives
regardless of their competence and to allow only individuals of
aristocratic birth to attain high-level positions within government
and industry)
Characteristics of Bureaucratic Organization
Division of labor based on a specified sphere of
competence.
Hierarchy of authority where its lower office is under the
control and supervision of a higher one.
Specified set of rules applied uniformly throughout the
organization.
Maintenance of interpersonal relationships, because
rational decisions can only be made objectively and
without emotions.
Selection and promotion based on competence, not on
irrelevant considerations.
3. Administrative Management
It emphasizes broad administrative principles
applicable to higher levels within the organization.
Henri Fayol (1841-1945)
– in his most influential work “Industrial and General
Management”, 14 principles of efficient management was
identified.
1. Division of Work
-work specialization can increase efficiency with the
same amount of effort.
2. Authority and Responsibility
-authority includes the right to command and the
power to require obedience; one cannot have authority
without responsibility.
3. Discipline
-Discipline is necessary for an organization to function
effectively, however, the state of the disciplinary process
depends upon the quality of its leaders.
4. Unity of Command
- employee should receive orders from one superior only.
5. Unity of Direction
- there should be one manager and one plan for a group of
activities that have the same objective.
6. Subordination of individual interest to general interest
- the interest of one employee or group of employees
should not take precedence over those of the organization as a
whole.
7. Remuneration of Personnel
- compensation should be fair to both the employee and
the employer.
8. Centralization
- the proper amount of centralization depends on the
situation. The. objective is to pursue the optimum utilization of
the capabilities of personnel.
9. Scalar Chain
- the hierarchy of authority is the order of ranks from the
highest to the lowest levels of the organization. Besides this
vertical communication should also be encourage as long as the
managers is in the chain are kept informed.
10. Order
- materials and human resources should be in the right
place at the right time; individuals should be in jobs or position
that suits them.
11. Equity
- employees should be treated with kindness and justice.
12. Stability of personnel tenure
- an employee needs time to adjust to a new job and reach a
point of satisfactory performance; high turnover should be avoided.
13. Initiative
- the ability to conceive and execute a plan (through initiative
and freedom) should be encouraged and developed throughout all
levels of the organization.
14. Espirit de Corps
-“union” Unity is strength; Harmony and teamwork are
essential to effective organizations.
4. Gulick and Urwick (1920-1937)
- Pioneers of “The Science of an Administration” (1937). In
this book, they have described the major functions of
administration using the acronym POSDCRB.
1. Planning
- working out in broad outline the things that need to be
done and the methods for doing them to accomplish the purpose
set for the enterprise.
2. Organizing
- establishment of the formal structure of authority through
which work subdivisions are arranged, defined, and coordinated
for the define objective.
3. Staffing
- personnel function of bringing in and out training
the staff and maintaining the staff the favorable conditions
of work. Filling the organization with the right people and
right position.
4. Directing
- task of making decisions and embodying them in
specific and general orders and instructions and serving as
the leader of the enterprise.
5. Coordinating
- the all-important duty of interrelating the various
parts of the work.
6. Reporting
- is keeping those to whom the executive is
responsible informed as to what is going on, which thus
includes keeping himself and his subordinates informed
through records research and inspection.
7. Budgeting
- with all that goes of budgeting in the form of fiscal
planning, accounting, and control.
II. Human Relations Approach
Elton Mayo (the Hawthorne study)
The results of Hawthorne experiment contradicted
the traditional views of management emphasized by the
classical theorists and led to the behavioral approach
emphasizing concern for the workers. The study suggests
that when special attention is paid to employees by
management, productivity is likely to increase regardless
of changes in working conditions. This phenomenon was
labeled the “Hawthorne effect”
III. Behavioral Science Approach:
In order to be classified as behavioral science, a field
must:
1. Deal with human behavior;
2. Study its subject matter in a scientific manner.
The behavioral science approach utilizes scientific
method as the foundation for testing and developing
theories about human behavior in organizations that can
be used to guide and develop managerial policies and
practices.
Contributors to this approach are:
1. Abraham Maslow (Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
theory)
- 1940’s > see discussion on Motivation Theories
2. D. McGregor (McGregor’s Theory X and Y)
-Theory X assumes that people have little ambition,
dislike work, and must be coerced in order to perform
satisfactorily. Theory Y assumes that people do not
inherently dislike work and if properly rewarded, especially
satisfying esteem and self-actualization needs, will
perform well on the job.
Theory X Assumptions
The average person inherently dislikes work and will try to
avoid it
Most people must be coerced, controlled, directed, and
threatened with punishment to get them to work towards
organizational goals
The average person prefers to be directed, wants to avoid
responsibility, has relatively little ambition, and seeks
security above all.
Theory Y Assumptions
Work, whether physical or mental, is as natural as play or
rest, and most people do not inherently dislike it
External control and threat of punishment are not the
only means of bringing about effort toward organizational
goals, people will exercise self-direction and self-control
when they are committed Commitment to goals is a
function of the rewards made available
An average person learns, under proper conditions, not
only to accept but to seek responsibility
Ability to exercise a high degree of creativity in the
solution of problems
Theory X and Y: Importance to the Law Enforcement Manager
Law enforcement managers who believe in theory X will set up strict
controls and attempt to motivate workers strictly through economic
incentives. Employees are most likely to respond in an immature manner
that reinforces the manager’s assumption.
By contrast, police managers who believe in theory Y will treat
employees in a mature way by minimizing controls, encouraging creativity
and innovation and attempt to make work more satisfying high order
needs.
Extensive researches (like those of Likert, 1967) have concluded that
managerial system should shift to Theory Y assumptions to make better of
human resources and enhance both the effectiveness and efficiency of
organizations. This approach help managers to develop a broader
perspective on workers and the work environment, especially regarding
alternative ways of interacting with police officers and of recognizing the
potential impact of higher level needs in job performance.
IV. Contemporary Approach:
This is the movement towards quality management.
Theorists have incorporated the influences of the
behavioral science and other earlier school of thoughts.
1. System Theory
- It simply means that all parts of a system are
interrelated and interdependent to form the whole. A
system is composed of elements or subsystems that are
related and dependent upon one another. When these
subsystems are in interaction with one another, they form
a unitary whole.
2. Contingency Theory
– This approach recognizes that many internal and
external environmental variables affect organizational
behavior. In this case, there is no best way for structuring
and managing diverse types of organizations. So the
underlying theme of this theory is that it all depends on a
particular situation. The task of managers then is to
determine in which situations and at what times certain
methods or techniques are the most effective. In this way,
the approach is more pragmatic although it encompasses
relevant concepts of both classical and behavioral theories.
3. Theory Z and Quality Management
- Important emerging perspectives include Theory Z
and Quality Management, focused on the Japanese
management practices. The emergence of Total Quality
Management (TQM) practices – a customer oriented
approach and emphasizes on both human resources and
quantitative methods in an attempt to strive towards
continuous improvement.
Law Enforcement Motivation
Law enforcement organizations are replete with
stories of organizational restructuring and reengineering.
As a common trend in these stories are retrenchments or
rightsizing (in police parlance are called attrition) as
sometimes called. The direct outcome is that employees
are expected to ‘do more with less’ and the creation of an
atmosphere of uncertainty, insecurity, and fear of future
retrenchment. For this, it is difficult to sustain high levels
of employee commitment and loyalty. Thus, the challenge
is to rebuild high loyalty and commitment for high level of
performance.
What are the Motivation theories?
1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs theory
-Bernstein, et al (1991) offered that at any time, many
motives might guide a person’s behavior. What determines
which ones will? Abraham Maslow has given a perspective
that addresses this question. He suggested basic classes of
needs, or motives, influencing human behavior. These
motives are organized in a hierarchy.
-Abraham Maslow has suggested that human needs
form a hierarchy from the most basic biological
requirements to the needs for self-actualization – the
highest of all needs.
The pyramidal structures of human needs from the bottom
to the top of the hierarchy, the levels of needs or motive
according to Maslow, are:
1. Biological or Physiological Needs
- these motives include the need for food, water, oxygen,
activity, and sleep.
2. Safety Needs
- these pertain to the motives of being cared for and being
secured such as in income and place to live.
3. Love/Belongingness
- belongingness is integration into various kinds of social
groups or social organizations. Love needs means need for
affection.
4. Cognitive Needs
- our motivation for learning and exploration.
5. Esteem Needs
- our motivation for an honest, fundamental respect
for a person as a useful and honorable human being.
6. Aesthetic Needs
- our motivation for beauty and order.
7. Self-actualization
- pertains to human total satisfaction, when people
are motivated not so much by unmet needs, as by the
desire to become all they are capable of (self-realization).
According to the Maslow’s formulation, the level
that commands the individuals’ attention and effort
is ordinarily the lowest one on which there is an
unmet need. For example, unless needs for food and
safety are reasonably well-met behavior will be
dominated by these needs and higher motives are of
little significant. With their gratification, however,
the individual is free to devote time and effort to
meet higher level. In other words, one level must at
least be partially satisfied before those at the next
level become determiners of action.
2. Aldefer’s ERG Theory
Clayton Aldefer has developed the ERG theory which is a
modification of the Maslow’s theory. ERG theory categorizes
needs into Existence, Relatedness and Growth needs. According
to Aldefer:
1. Existence Needs
- are desires for physiological and material well-being.
2. Relatedness Needs
- are desires for satisfying interpersonal relationships.
3. Growth Needs
- are desires for continued personal growth and
development.
3. McClelland’s Acquired Needs Theory
David McClelland identified three types of acquired needs.
These are:
1. Need for Achievement
- the desire to do something better or more efficiently, to
solve problems, or to master complex task.
2. Need for Affiliation
- the desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm
relations with others
3. Need for Power
- the desire to control others, to influence their behavior, or
to be responsible for others.
McClelland’s view is that these three needs are
acquired over time, as a result of life experiences.
People are motivated by these needs, each of which
can be associated with individual work preferences.
END!!