Lesson 2: Philosophical View of The
Self
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Philosophy of Self
The philosophy of self explores what
makes each person unique. It suggests
that the self is the source of our thoughts
and actions, remaining somewhat
constant over time
However, Nietzsche critiqued this idea,
promoting a view of embracing change
rather than a fixed self.
Socrates (C.470-399 BCE)
An ancient greek philosopher often
credited as one of the founders of
western philosophy
● Self- Knowledge
Famously declared, “know thyself”. He
believed that understanding oneself was
the key to living a virtuous and
meaningful life
Encouraged
introspection
and
self-examination as a path to wisdom
and moral improvement
● Ignorance and Wisdom
He believed that true wisdom came from
recognizing one’s own ignorance
Acknowledging what one doesn’t know
was the first step toward genuine
understanding. This humility in the face
of ignorance fueled his pursuit of
knowledge and truth
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● Socratic Method
He would ask probing questions to help
others articulate their beliefs and ideas.
Through this dialogue, socrates aimed to
reveal contradictions and inconsistencies
in people’s thoughts, leading to deeper
self-awareness and critical thinking
● Virtue and Ethics
He believed that the pursuit of virtue was
the highest aim of life. He thought that
people acted virtuously when they
understood the nature of goodness and
applied it to their actions
His philosophy is centered on living a just
and morally upright life, which required
self-examination
and
constant
questioning of one’s belief
● Soul and Immortality
He held a belief in the immortality of the
soul. He thought that the soul was
eternal and that death was merely a
transition to another realm
This belief in the soul’s continued
existence emphasized the importance of
cultivating a virtuous character during
one’s life
Plato (c.427-347 BCE)
An ancient greek philosopher and one of
the most influential figures in Western
philosophy
He was a student of Socrates and the
teacher of Aristotle.
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● Allegory of the Cave
- The slave that leaves the cave represents
a philosopher. He understands more
about reality and truth than average
people do, and it is hard for him to teach
others the truth because they are
stubborn and ignorant.
- Lessons it teaches us: a) human
understanding of truth is limited by our
experiences; b) we can never fully
understand reality because we can only
know about the things we have
experienced
- Allegory is a story with a hidden meaning,
where characters and events represent
ideas. It’s sort of like an extended
metaphor.
● Dualistic View of the Soul
Plato proposed a dualistic view of the self,
distinguishing between the material body
and the immaterial soul.
He believed that the soul is eternal,
pre-existing before birth and continuing
after death. The soul’s true nature is more
real and unchanging than the transient
world.
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● Tripartite Soul
He described the soul as consisting of
three distinct parts: Reason (or intellect),
Spirit (or will), and Appetite (or desires),
these parts can be in harmony or conflict,
leading to virtuous or disordered behavior.
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These forms represent the pure and
unchanging essence of concepts like
justice, beauty, and truth. The soul’s
journey is to recognize and contemplate
these forms to attain wisdom
● Recollection
and
Innate
Knowledge
Plato believed that the soul has
knowledge that is not derived from
sensory experiences but is rather
recollected from its pre-existence in the
realm of forms
Learning and knowledge acquisition are
processes of remembering what the soul
already knows
● Education and Virtue
Plato saw education as the process of
guiding the soul toward a recognition of
the true nature of reality and the forms
He believed that the goal of education
was to cultivate virtue, aligning the three
parts of the soul in harmony and
achieving excellence
● Philosopher-King Ideal
He envisioned a just sc=ociety led by
philosopher-kings-individuals who had
achieved
the
highest
level
of
understanding
through
their
contemplation of the forms
These philosopher-kings would rule with
wisdom and virtue, guiding the state
toward justice and the common good.
● Theory of Forms
The physical world is a mere reflection or
imperfect copy of transcendent, ideal
forms
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Aristotle (384-322 BCE)
Was an ancient greek philosopher,
scientist, and polymath
He was a student of Plato and a tutor to
Alexander the Great.
His systematic and empirical approach
to philosophy laid the foundation for
much of western thought
● Hierarchy of Souls
His classification of souls reflects his
hierarchical view of life, where different
levels of complexity in soul functions
correspond to different types of living
organisms.
The nutritive soul is foundational for
growth and reproduction, the sensitive
soul adds perception and basic cognition
found in animals, and the rational soul
brings advanced reasoning, intellect, and
mortality unique to humans
Nutritive soul (plants) is the most basic
form of soul. Their primary functions
include: Growth, Reproduction, and
Nutrition.
Sensitive souls (animals) encompasses
more complex functions compared to
the nutritive soul. Animals possess the
capacities associated with the nutritive
soul, but they also exhibit additional
capabilities: Perception, Desire, Basic
Cognition.
Rational soul (humans) represents the
highest form of soul. This soul type
encompassess a wide range of complex
mental and moral functions: Reasoning
and Intellect, Moral Choice, Language
and Communication.
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● Teleological Perspective
Aristotle believed that everything in
nature has a purpose or end goal (Telos)
He considered the human being to have
a unique purpose-to achieve eudaimonia
(flourishing or happiness). In this sense,
the self’s fulfillment is tied to the
realization of its potential and virtuous
development
● Ethics and Virtue
Aristotle’s ethical philosophy emphasizes
the cultivation of virtues as a means to
achieve a good life
He believed that moral virtues are
developed through habitual action, which
in turn shapes a person’s character. The
self is intimately connected to moral
character and the cultivation of virtues
that lead to a fulfilling life
● Rationality and Reasons
Aristotle considered rationality to be a
defining characteristic of human nature.
He believed that humans possess the
capacity for reason and that this
capacity is central to their identity
The self is marked by the ability to
engage in rational thought, reflection, and
practical wisdom
● Community and Polis
Humans are inherently social beings who
thrive in communities. The best life is
lived within a well-ordered city-state
(polis) where individuals contribute to the
common good
The self is not isolated but finds its
fulfillment through participation and
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cooperation within the broader social
framework
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● Soul and Identity
Aristotle identified different types of
souls in living beings, with humans
possessing a rational soul
Tho soul is the essence that gives life
and form to the body. The self’s identity
is intertwined with the soul’s capacities
and functions.
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● Happiness and Self-realization
Happiness (eudaimonia) is the ultimate
goal of human life, it involves the
realization of one’s potential and the
flourishing of one’s virtues
The self achieves its true nature by
pursuing
moral
excellence
and
developing its rational faculties
St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)
Was a medieval philosopher, and
theologian who played a significant role
in shaping the course of western
thought, particularly in the context of
Christian theology and philosophy
He is known for integrating the teachings
of Aristotle with Christian theology
● Self-Knowledge
The process of using the active intellect
to introspect and abstract general
principles from personal experiences
This reveals insights into one’s nature,
virtues, and vices. It;s facilitated by a
shared active intellect and linked to God’s
role as the source of all knowledge.
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● Unity of Body and Soul
He believed in the unity of human nature,
where the body and soul re intimately
connected
He rejected dualistic views that separate
the material and spiritual aspects of a
person. According to Aquinas, the soul is
the form of the body, giving it life and
identity
● Intellect and Rationality
Aquinas considered human beings
unique due to their possession of
intellect and reason
Intellect allows humans to engage in
rational thought, abstract thinking, and
self-reflection.
Through
reason,
individuals can understand their own
thoughts, emotions, and experiences, as
well as the world around them
● Imago Dei (Image of God)
Humans are created in the image of God
This divine imprint is reflected in their
rationality, free will, and capacity for
moral reasoning. Humans are capable of
seeking truth, goodness, and ultimately,
their connection with God
● Teleological Nature
Aquinas saw humans as having a
purpose or Telos, which is to seek their
ultimate end, which is God
This perspective ties into his broader
understanding of ethics and the pursuit
of virtuous living. The self, according to
Aquinas, is oriented toward fulfilling this
purpose by aligning with moral principles
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● Virtue and Happiness
The highest fulfillment of the self is
achieved through virtuous living in
accordance with reason and divine law
Virtues are qualities that lead individuals
to act in morally good ways. This, in turn,
leads to human flourishing and a deeper
connection with God
● Salvation and Divine Grace
He emphasized the importance of divine
grace in assisting individuals to
overcome their limitations and achieve
their ultimate purpose. Salvation involves
the union of the soul with God in the
afterlife.
● St. Augustine of Hippo
Born in Algeria, he was a renowned
preacher who fought against the
manichean heresy. He became a
coadjutor bishop in Hippo, a doctor of
the church, and is the patron saint of
brewers, printers, theologians, and those
with eye issues
His famous works include “confessions”,
his autobiography, and “the city of God”, a
philosophical exploration of history
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● Inward and Self-reflection
Augustine’s “confessions” underscores
introspection for spiritual growth. He
stressed looking within to grasp one’s
inner life and connection with God
This inward journey of examining
thoughts
and
emotions
fosters
self-awareness and strengthens the
bond with the divine
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● Fallen Human Nature
He saw human nature as tainted by
inherited sin from Adam and Eve. This
flaw resulted in moral and spiritual
brokenness, weakening the human will
Selfish desires and disordered loves
became prevalent due to this weakened
state
● Role of Grace
He believed that humans couldn’t
overcome their fallen state alone.
Grace heals souls, renews the bond with
God, and empowers turning from sin. It
guides aligning personal desires with
God’s will
● Interiority and God’s Presence
Augustine linked the self to God’s
presence within the soul. He urged
seeking God directly through inner
practices like prayer and meditation,
valuing this inner journey over external
rituals
He emphasized soul as a conduit for
encountering God
● Unity of The Self
Augustine
emphasized
a
united
self-body, mind, and soul. He disagreed
with the idea that the physical and
spiritual clash
He saw harmony in aligning the soul with
God. this right relationship brings unity to
the whole person
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Francis Bacon
Renowned english philosopher, lawyer,
essayist, historian, and advocate for
modern science
Born in London to and influential and
connected family
Notable works include essays, the
advancement of learning, Cogitata Et
Visa, and Novum Organum
Knowledge of self is power of
establishing the dominion of man over
earth for knowledge is power
To arrive at knowledge, the self must
study natures within intention of
grasping their forces
and see the world. This can lead to a
narrow and distorted view of reality.
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Idols of the Marketplace (Idola Fori) are
errors that arise from the misuse of
language and communication. Bacon
believed that language can be
ambiguous, and people often use words
without clear definitions or consistent
meaning.
This
can
lead
to
misunderstandings
and
false
conclusions, as people may not share a
common understanding of terms.
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Idols of the Theater (Idola Theatri) are
the result of accepting authority and
dogma without critical examination.
Bacon criticized reliance on established
philosophies, religious doctrines, or other
accepted systems of thought that might
limit inquiry and prevent the discovery of
new new truths
● Four Prejudices of Human Mind
Human mind must be free or all
prejudices (idols) and preconceived
attitudes
because
they
prevent
successful study of phenomena
Francis Bacon identified four “idols” or
biases that he believed hindered human
understanding and knowledge
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Idols of the Tribe (Idola Tribus) are the
natural tendencies and limitations of the
human mind itself. Humans have
tendency to impose their own patterns,
assumptions, and beliefs onto the world,
which can distort their perception and
understanding of reality
Idols of the Cave (Idola Specus) refer to
the individual’s personal biases and
peculiarities. Each person’s upbringing,
education, experiences, and preferences
can create a kind of mental “cave” that
shapes how they interpret information
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Thomas Hobbes (1588-1579)
Was a prominent english philosopher,
known for his contributions to political
philosophy, social contract theory, and
empiricism
He was born on April 5, 1588, in
Westport, Wiltshire, England
He lived during the civil war, which
greatly influenced his philosophical
ideas.
His view of the self is closely tied to his
broader philosophical ideas about
human nature, social contract, and
political authority
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● Self-Interest and Human Nature
He believed that individuals are
fundamentally motivated by self-interest
and the desire for self-preservation
He described the state of nature as a
condition where life is “solitary, poor,
nasty, brutish, and short”. In this state, he
envisioned people as driven primarily by
their own desires and fears
● Limited Altruism
Hobbes held a skeptical view of genuine
altruism. He argued that even seemingly
selfless actions are ultimately driven by a
desire for personal gain or the avoidance
of harm
His view of human nature contrasts with
more optimistic perspectives that
emphasize empathy and compassion
● Social Contract and Sovereign
Authority
Hobbes proposed the concept of a social
contract, where individuals collectively
agree to give up certain freedoms and
submit to the authority of a sovereign
ruler in exchange for protection and the
maintenance of order.
This social contract is a way to curb the
potential chaos that would arise from
unchecked self-interest and conflict.
acting solely on their own desires, which
could lead to a breakdown of social
order.
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● Primacy of Authority
The self is constrained by the authority of
the sovereign, which serves as a central
power capable of enforcing laws and
maintaining peace.
authority, according to Hobbes, is
necessary to prevent individuals from
● Individual Society
Hobbes' perspective on the self is
intrinsically linked to the need for a
governing authority to regulate behavior.
He believed that individuals must
surrender some of their natural freedoms
to the sovereign to escape the state of
nature and live in a more orderly society.
Rene Descartes
Father of modern philosophy and first
modern rationalist
“Cogito Ergo Sum”
Believer of Philosophy of Skepticism
● Cogito, Ergo Sum (I Think,
Therefore I Am)
He believed that while everything could
be doubted, the act of doubting itself
implied the existence of a thinking self.
Thus, the certainty of one's own
existence as a thinking being was
undeniable.
● Methodical Doubt
He advocated for methodical doubt as a
means of arriving at certain knowledge.
By subjecting everything to doubt, he
aimed to identify beliefs that were
immune to doubt and could serve as the
foundation for building a system of
knowledge.
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● Dualism of Mind and Body
Descartes proposed a dualistic view of
reality, separating the mind (thinking
substance) from the body (extended
substance). He argued that the mind is
distinct from the physical world and can
exist independently.
This Cartesian dualism had a profound
impact on philosophy and subsequent
discussions about the nature of
consciousness.
● Mechanistic Explanation
Descartes applied mechanistic principles
borrowed from his scientific work to
explain bodily functions.
He saw the body as a machine, operated
by
mechanical
processes.
This
perspective contributed to the rise of
materialist and reductionist approaches
in science.
● Mind-Body Interaction
Despite the separation of mind and body,
Descartes believed in their interaction.
He posited that the pineal gland, a tiny
structure in the brain, served as the point
of interaction between the immaterial
mind and the physical body
● Animal Spirits and Reflexes
Descartes introduced the idea of "animal
spirits," a concept that linked bodily
functions and behavior to the movement
of fluids in the body.
He also explained certain behaviors
through reflexes, suggesting that some
actions did not require conscious
thought
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John Locke (1632-1704)
Was an english philosopher and
physician known for his contributions to
political philosophy, epistemology, and
theories of personal identity
He came from a Puritan family and was
educated at Westminster School and
Christ Church, Oxford.
● Tabula Rasa
At birth, the mind is a "blank slate"
(tabula rasa) devoid of innate ideas.
He believed that all knowledge and ideas
are derived from sensory experiences
and reflection.
● Primary and Secondary Qualities
Locke distinguished between primary
and secondary qualities of objects.
Primary qualities (such as size, shape,
and motion) exist in the objects
themselves, while secondary qualities
(like color and taste) are subjective
perceptions created by interactions
between objects and our senses.
● Personal
Identity
and
Consciousness
Locke's theory of personal identity
revolves around consciousness.
He proposed that a person's identity is
determined by the continuity of
consciousness and memory over time. If
a
person
can
remember
past
experiences, that person is the same self
as the one who had those experiences.
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● Memory and Identity
Memory plays a crucial role in
establishing personal identity.
If an individual can remember past
thoughts, actions, and experiences as
their own, then that person is the same
self over time. This perspective accounts
for the changing nature of the self while
maintaining a sense of continuity.
● Substance and Identity
Locke rejected the notion of a
permanent,
unchanging
substance
underlying personal identity.
Instead, he believed that personal identity
is based on the continuity of
consciousness and memories, not the
persistence of an underlying substance.
● Psychological Continuity
Includes the connection between past
and present thoughts, memories, and
experiences.
This emphasis on the psychological
aspect of identity contrasts with the
emphasis on physical continuity in some
other theories
David Hume (1711-1776)
Was a Scottish philosopher and historian
known for his significant contributions to
empiricism, skepticism, and moral
philosophy.
He studied law at the University of
Edinburgh but soon realized his passion
for philosophy.
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● No Fixed Self
Hume rejected the idea of a fixed and
unchanging self that persists over time.
He argued that when introspecting, we
do not directly perceive a unified and
unchanging self. Instead, what we
experience is a collection of fleeting
sensations, perceptions, and thoughts.
● Impressions and Ideas
The self is not a distinct impression or
idea, but rather a "bundle" or collection of
individual impressions and ideas.
These impressions and ideas are
constantly changing, and there is no
permanent and unchanging core that can
be identified as the self.
● Illusion of Unity
Hume suggested that the illusion of a
unified self arises from the continuity of
our experiences and the association of
ideas.
Our minds create a sense of coherence
and unity by connecting various
impressions and ideas, giving the
impression of a single self
● No Innate Idea of Self
Hume emphasized that the concept of
self does not come from an innate idea
or impression. Instead, it emerges from
the way our minds organize and
associate our sensory experiences.
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● Skepticism
About
Personal
Identity
Hume's skepticism extended to the
concept of personal identity.
He questioned how we can assert that
we are the same person over time when
our experiences and perceptions are
constantly changing. He famously asked,
"What is it you call the self?"
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● Causation and The Self
Hume's skepticism about causation also
influenced his views on the self.
He argued that just as we cannot directly
observe causal connections between
events, we also cannot directly observe a
causal connection between the various
perceptions that make up the self.
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Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)
was a German philosopher whose work
had a profound impact on various areas
of philosophy, including metaphysics,
epistemology, ethics, and aesthetics.
He came from a modest family and
pursued studies in theology, physics,
mathematics, and philosophy at the
University of Königsberg.
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● Distinguishing
Between
Phenomena and Noumena
Kant's philosophy is centered on the
distinction between the phenomenal
world (the world as we experience it) and
the noumenal world (the world as it is in
itself, beyond human experience).
He believed that the noumenal realm is
inaccessible to human knowledge.
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● Transcendental Idealism
He argued that our experiences of the
world are shaped by the inherent
structures of our minds, such as space
and time. These structures are not
properties of the external world but
rather of our cognitive faculties.
● The Self Transcendental Unity
This term emphasizes that the self is the
unifying point of awareness that
synthesizes the various impressions and
experiences we have. The self is not an
object of experience but rather the
subject that experiences.
● Unity and Continuity of Self
He believed that the self provides unity
and continuity to our experiences.
Despite the changing nature of our
perceptions, the self remains a
consistent point of reference that ties
these experiences together.
● Limitations on Self-Knowledge
Kant acknowledged that while we can
have knowledge of our own experiences,
we cannot have complete knowledge of
our own nature as noumenal beings.
The true essence of the self, as a
noumenal entity, remains beyond the
scope of human understanding.
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● Freedom and Moral Agency
Kant's
ethics
emphasized
the
importance of human autonomy and
rationality. He believed that the self, as a
rational agent, is capable of making
moral decisions based on the principles
of the categorical imperative. Moral
actions
are
guided
by rational
deliberation rather than mere inclination.
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
Was an Austrian neurologist and founder
of psychoanalysis, a groundbreaking
approach to understanding the human
mind and behavior. He is one of the most
influential figures in the fields of
psychology and psychiatry.
He studied medicine at the University of
Vienna and later specialized in neurology.
● Unconscious Influences
He believed that many of our thoughts,
desires, and motivations are hidden from
our conscious awareness and that these
unconscious
influences
play
a
substantial role in shaping our sense of
self.
● Structure of the Mind
Freud's model of the mind consists of
three parts: the id, ego, and superego.
The id represents our basic instincts and
desires, the ego mediates between the
id's demands and the external world, and
the superego represents our internalized
moral
standards. The interaction
between these three components affects
our self-concept and behavior.
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● Defense Mechanisms
individuals use defense mechanisms to
protect themselves from anxiety and
threats to their self-esteem.
These mechanisms, such as repression,
denial,
and
projection,
operate
unconsciously and influence how we
perceive ourselves and others.
● Early Childhood Influences
Freud believed that experiences and
conflicts during early childhood have a
lasting impact on an individual's
development.
Unresolved
conflicts
during
psychosexual stages can lead to
fixations and shape an individual's
personality traits and self-image.
● Ego’s Role in Identity
The ego, according to Freud, plays a
crucial role in forming a coherent identity.
It balances the demands of the id and
superego
while
negotiating
the
challenges of reality.
A well-functioning ego contributes to a
stable sense of self and adaptive
behavior.
● Psychosexual Development
suggests that children pass through
distinct stages during which different
areas of the body become sources of
pleasure.
These
stages,
if
not
resolved
successfully, can influence an individual's
self-concept
and relationships in
adulthood.
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● Dream Analysis
Freud believed that dreams offer insights
into unconscious desires and conflicts.
By analyzing dreams, individuals can
gain a better understanding of the
unconscious forces shaping their sense
of self.
Gilbert Ryle (1900-1976)
Was a British philosopher known for his
contributions to the philosophy of mind
and his critique of Cartesian dualism. He
is associated with the philosophical
movement known as "ordinary language
philosophy."
He studied at The Queen's College,
Oxford, where he later became a lecturer
and professor.
● Rejection of Cartesian Dualism
He argued that this dualism leads to
what he termed a "category mistake."
According to Ryle, the Cartesian dualist
makes the mistake of treating the mind
as if it were a separate entity, like an
object, when in fact the mind is an
integral aspect of human behavior and
experience.
● The “Ghost in The Machine”
Fallacy
Ryle famously coined the term "the ghost
in the machine" to criticize the dualist
idea of an immaterial mind controlling
the physical body.
He saw this as a misleading way of
understanding human behavior and
experience. Instead of a separate "ghost,"
he argued that mental processes are
intricately tied to bodily actions and
behaviors
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● Understanding Through Action
and Behavior
Ryle emphasized that the self is not a
hidden, inner entity but is manifested
through actions and behaviors.
He
believed
that
understanding
someone's mental state involves
observing their behavior and recognizing
the dispositions that guide their actions.
● Knowing-How vs Knowing-That
He argued that understanding the self
involves more than just having factual
knowledge about oneself.
Knowing the rules and abilities
associated with different activities
(knowing-how) is a crucial aspect of
self-understanding.
● Behavior-Oriented Philosophy
He believed that philosophical confusion
often
arises from misusing or
misunderstanding ordinary language
expressions.
Patricia
Churchland
and
Paul
Churchland
philosophers known for their work in the
fields
of
philosophy
of
mind,
neuroscience, and cognitive science.
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● Patricia Churchland View
She argues that our sense of self arises
from complex interactions of neural
processes in the brain.
She challenges the idea of a unified and
independent self that transcends
physical
processes.
Instead, she
suggests that the self is a result of the
brain's activities, including memory,
perception, and emotions.
● Paul Churchland View
Paul Churchland's perspective aligns
with eliminative materialism, which
questions the validity of certain folk
psychological concepts like beliefs and
desires.
He rejects the traditional view of a
Cartesian
self
as
a
separate,
disembodied mind. Instead, he argues
that our mental experiences are products
of brain processes and neural networks.
Churchland emphasizes that our sense
of self emerges from the brain's intricate
neural activities and their interactions
with the external environment.
He suggests that as our understanding
of the brain advances, we may need to
revise or eliminate outdated concepts
about the self that do not align with
scientific discoveries.
● Shared Themes of Churchland
reject the notion of a distinct, immaterial
self separate from the body. They
contend that the self is a product of
neural processes and that thoughts,
emotions, and behaviors are rooted in
the physical brain.
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Their views emphasize the importance of
integrating scientific findings from
neuroscience with philosophical inquiry
to gain a comprehensive understanding
of the self.
They advocate for a multidisciplinary
approach to exploring questions about
the nature of consciousness, self-identity,
and the relationship between the mind
and the brain
Edmund Husserl (1859-1938)
was a German philosopher and the
founder
of
phenomenology,
a
philosophical movement that focused on
the
systematic
exploration
of
consciousness and the structures of
experience.
● Phenomenological Exploration
Husserl's approach involves a rigorous
examination of conscious experience as
it is directly given to us.
He believed that understanding the self
requires a methodical analysis of our
immediate subjective experiences, free
from any preconceived ideas or
assumptions.
● Intentionality
He argued that consciousness is always
directed toward an object or meaning. In
other words, every act of consciousness
is inherently about something
Our experiences are characterized by
their content, and understanding the self
involves exploring how we relate to
objects, ideas, and experiences through
intentionality.
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● Eidetic Reduction
Aims to uncover the essential and
necessary structures of experience.
By stripping away the accidental and
contingent aspects of an experience, he
sought to reveal its fundamental
features. This process leads to the
identification of "eidetic" or essential
properties that define different types of
experiences.
● Transcendental Phenomenology
Seeks to uncover the conditions of
possibility for any conscious experience.
He believed that by examining the
structures of consciousness, we can
uncover the universal and necessary
features that underlie all experiences.
This approach provides insights into the
nature of the self and its relationship to
the world.
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● The Self as Lived Experience
He emphasized the interconnectedness
of the self with the world and with others.
The self is not a separate entity but
emerges within the context of ongoing
experiences and interactions.
● Subjectivity and Objectivity
Husserl explored the relationship
between subjectivity and objectivity,
showing that our experiences are
structured by intentional acts that relate
us to objects in the world.
He argued that objectivity arises from the
subject's active engagement with the
world, and that understanding the self
involves understanding this dynamic
relationship.
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Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1908-1961)
Was
a
French
phenomenologist
philosopher whose work significantly
contributed
to
existentialism,
phenomenology, and the philosophy of
perception.
● Embodied Perception
Human perception is not a detached and
objective process, but a deeply embodied
engagement with the world.
He argued that our bodies are not merely
instruments through which we perceive;
they are integral to how we perceive and
make sense of our surroundings.
● The Body-Subject
Merleau-Ponty rejected the separation
between a purely objective world and a
subjective observer.
He introduced the concept of the
"body-subject," which emphasizes that
our bodies are not objects among other
objects; rather, they are the very means
through which we perceive, act, and
understand the world.
● Phenomenology
of
Lived
Experience
He believed that our experiences are not
isolated mental events but are always
situated within a specific context and
involve our bodily engagement with that
context. Our selfhood is intertwined with
the world we experience.
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● Perceptual Faith
He introduced the concept of "perceptual
faith" to describe our implicit trust in the
meaningfulness and coherence of the
world.
Our perception is not just a result of
sensory input; it is shaped by our prior
experiences, cultural background, and
bodily interactions.
● Body-Mind Unity
He viewed the mind and body as
inseparable aspects of our being, with
the body serving as the bridge between
the inner experiences and the external
world.
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● Artistic Expression
He argued that art provides unique
insights into the relationship between the
self and the world, as artists capture and
convey their embodied experiences
through their work.
Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900)
Was a German philosopher, cultural
critic, poet, and philologist who is known
for his provocative and influential ideas
on morality, culture, religion, and human
nature.
● Critique of Traditional Self
He questioned the notion of a fixed and
unchanging self, arguing that such
concepts were used to suppress
individual creativity and assert control
over human behavior.
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● Will to Power and Individuality
Nietzsche introduced the concept of the
"will to power," suggesting that
individuals are driven by a desire for
self-assertion, dominance, and the
pursuit of personal goals.
He believed that the self is dynamic and
ever-changing,
influenced
by
the
individual's desires and drives.
● Overcoming
Conventional
Morality
Nietzsche encouraged individuals to
transcend conventional moral values and
norms that he believed hindered personal
growth and self-expression.
He proposed the idea of the
Übermensch, or "superman," as a higher
individual who creates their own values
and lives authentically, without being
constrained by societal expectations.
● Eternal Recurrence and Authentic
Living
Nietzsche's
concept
of
"eternal
recurrence" invites individuals to imagine
that they will live their lives over and over
again in an infinite cycle.
This idea challenges individuals to
confront the significance of their choices
and actions and to strive for lives that
they would willingly repeat.
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● Nihilism and Self-Overcoming
Nietzsche explored the concept of
nihilism, the belief in the absence of
inherent meaning or value in life. He saw
nihilism as a consequence of the decline
of traditional religious and moral
frameworks.
However, he also believed that
individuals could overcome nihilism by
creating their own values and embracing
the challenges of existence.
● Creative Self-Expression
Nietzsche valued art, literature, and
creative expression as ways for
individuals to tap into their inner vitality
and authenticity.
He saw the Dionysian and Apollonian
forces in art as representing the primal
and rational aspects of human nature.
self-cultivation within the context of
social relationships and ethical behavior.
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Confucius (551-479 BCE)
Was a Chinese philosopher, educator,
and political thinker whose teachings
and ideas have profoundly influenced
Chinese culture, ethics, and philosophy.
He is considered the founder of
Confucianism, a philosophical and
ethical system that emphasizes moral
virtue, social harmony, and proper
conduct.
Confucius' view about the concept of the
self is intricately linked to his broader
philosophy of ethics, social harmony, and
proper conduct.
While Confucius did not delve extensively
into metaphysical discussions about the
nature of the self, his teachings
emphasize the importance of individual
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● Emphasis in Virtue and Character
Confucius believed that the cultivation of
moral virtues and ethical character is
essential for the development of the self.
He emphasized virtues such as
benevolence (ren), righteousness, filial
piety (xiao), and integrity as guiding
principles for leading a meaningful and
fulfilling life.
● Self-Reflection and Continuous
Improvement
Confucius encouraged self-reflection as
a means of self-improvement. He
believed that individuals should examine
their actions, motivations, and behaviors
to align them with moral principles.
By constantly striving to better
themselves, individuals contribute to the
harmony of society.
● Harmonious Relationships
Confucius' view of the self is deeply
intertwined with the idea of maintaining
harmonious relationships within the
family and society.
He emphasized that a well-functioning
society depends on the proper conduct
of individuals in their roles as children,
parents, rulers, and subjects.
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● Social
Context
and
Responsibilities
Confucius believed that individuals do
not exist in isolation but are part of a
larger social framework.
The self's identity and well-being are
intertwined with one's responsibilities
and duties toward family, community,
and the state.
● Ethical Behavior and Rituals (LI)
The concept of "li" (rituals, proper
conduct) was central to Confucius'
teachings.
He believed that following appropriate
rituals and social norms not only
maintains order but also contributes to
the cultivation of a virtuous self.
● Focus on Learning and Education
Confucius placed great importance on
education as a means of self-cultivation.
He believed that by seeking knowledge,
individuals refine their character, gain
wisdom, and contribute positively to
society.
● Attaining the Junzi Ideal
Confucius discussed the concept of the
"junzi," a person of noble character and
virtue.
The junzi embodies the ideal of a
balanced, morally upright individual who
contributes to social harmony through
personal example.
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traditional author of the foundational text
of Taoism, the "Tao Te Ching."
He is considered one of the most
important figures in Chinese philosophy
and his teachings have had a lasting
impact on Chinese culture and thought.
Laozi's view about the concept of the self
is deeply rooted in his philosophy of
Taoism, which emphasizes harmony
with the natural order and the
interconnectedness of all things.
● Unity with the Tao
Laozi taught that the true self is
connected to the Tao, which is the
underlying principle of the universe. The
self is not separate from the Tao but is a
manifestation of it.
By aligning with the Tao, individuals can
find their authentic nature and
experience inner peace.
● Simplicity and Humility
Laozi emphasized the importance of
simplicity and humility in understanding
the self.
He believed that by shedding the layers
of ego and material desires, individuals
can discover their true essence and live
in harmony with the Tao.
Lao Tzu
Is a legendary figure in Chinese history
and philosophy, best known as the
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● Non-Action (Wu Wei)
Laozi's concept of "wu wei" suggests that
the self can achieve its highest potential
by acting in accordance with the natural
flow of things.
It involves acting without excessive effort
or force, allowing events to unfold
naturally. By doing so, individuals align
themselves with the Tao and experience
a state of effortless authenticity.
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● Harmony and Balance
Laozi's
teachings
suggest
that
transcending the ego and the illusion of a
separate self is essential for experiencing
unity with the Tao.
By letting go of the ego's attachments
and illusions, individuals can realize a
deeper and more authentic sense of self.
● Detachment and Letting Go
Laozi encouraged letting go of
attachments and desires that can cloud
the true understanding of the self.
By detaching from the material world
and cultivating inner stillness, individuals
can access deeper insights into their
nature and the nature of reality.
● Return to the Source
Laozi believed that returning to the
source, or the origin of one's being, is a
way to rediscover the essence of the self.
By stripping away external influences
and reconnecting with the simplicity of
existence, individuals can experience a
sense of spiritual clarity.
● Harmony and Balance
Laozi's view of the self emphasizes the
importance of living in harmony with
oneself, others, and the natural world.
By embracing the inherent balance and
interconnectedness
of
existence,
individuals can find a sense of purpose
and fulfillment
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Lesson 3: Sociological Perspective and
Anthropological Perspective About the
Concept of the Self
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Sociology
the study of companionship, coming
from the Latin words “socius”, which
means companion, and “logos”, which
means the study of. It’s all about
understanding groups where interaction
is really important.
Self in Sociology
The idea of self refers to how we see
ourselves in relation to us, others, and
society.
The self is formed as we interact with
people around us.
reshape
their
social interactions,
ultimately
impacting
how
these
interactions shape their sense of self and
the consequences that follow
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Self as a Social Contruct
The concept of self being “socially
constructed” means that it’s not
something we’re born with or develop
entirely on our own.
It’s formed through our interactions and
engagements with other people in our
lives
It’s through these interactions that we
construct
a
comprehensive
understanding of our identity and place
in the social fabric
Self as an Individual Construct
The individual’s role in shaping the self is
far from passive; rather, it wields
significant influence over interactions
and their subsequent outcomes.
This means that individuals also actively
navigate, interpret, and sometimes even
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Sociological Theories about the Self
In sociology, the concept of the self
refers to how individuals perceive
themselves and their identity within the
larger social context
➔ Symbolic Interactionism
This perspective emphasizes the role of
symbols and interactions in shaping the
self. Symbolic interactionists, such as
George Herbert Mead, argue that the self
develops through social interactions and
communication with others.
The self is seen as a product of the
meanings individuals attribute to
symbols and how they interpret the
reactions of others to their behavior.
➔ Social Interactionism
This viewpoint suggests that the self is
not an inherent or fixed identity but is
constructed through societal influences,
cultural norms, and social interactions.
The self is seen as a product of shared
meanings and definitions within a
specific culture or society. This
perspective challenges the notion of a
universal and static self.
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Example of Social Constructs:
Race - Historically, humans have
separated and grouped those with
different skin colors and features
Money - Humans agree on what paper
and coins represent
Countries - Humans mutually agree and
acknowledge their existence
Gender - Men and women act differently
based on dictated gender roles
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➔ Structural Functionalism
The self is considered to be a product of
social roles and institutions within
society. Structural functionalists focus
on how individuals fulfill roles within the
social structure and how these roles
contribute to the overall stability of
society.
The self is shaped by the expectations
and demands associated with these
roles.
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● Functionalist Theory
Each aspect of society depends on each
other and each contributes to the overall
stability and functioning of that society
● Conflict Theory
Conflict theorists emphasize the power
dynamics and inequalities present in
society. They argue that the self is
influenced by social conflicts and the
struggle for resources, status, and power.
The self can be shaped by one's social
class, gender, race, and other social
factors that determine access to
opportunities and resources.
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● Post - Modernism
Postmodernist perspectives challenge
the idea of a unified and coherent self.
They argue that the self is fragmented
and influenced by various discourses,
ideologies, and cultural narratives.
In a rapidly changing and interconnected
world, the self can be seen as fluid and
constantly shifting.
● Feminist Theory
Feminist sociologists highlight the
gendered nature of the self and how
societal expectations and norms differ
for different genders.
The self is seen as shaped by gender
roles, stereotypes, and patriarchal
structures,
leading
to
varying
experiences and opportunities for
individuals based on their gender.
● Narrative Identity
The stories people tell about themselves
help them make sense of their
experiences and place within society.
These narratives are influenced by
cultural narratives, social contexts, and
individual agency.
● Social Identity Theory
proposed by Henri Tajfel and John
Turner,
is
a psychological and
sociological framework that explores
how individuals define themselves in
relation to group memberships.
This theory is particularly relevant to
understanding the concept of the self
within a social context.
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According to Social Identity Theory,
people categorize themselves into
various social groups (like nationality,
ethnicity, gender, religion, etc.), and their
self-concept is not just based on
individual attributes but also on the
perceived characteristics and values
associated with those groups.
In other words, our self-identity is closely
tied to the groups we belong to.
The theory suggests that there are two
aspects to self-identity: personal identity
and social identity.
Personal identity is the unique qualities
and attributes that make each individual
distinct, while social identity is derived
from group memberships and involves
adopting the characteristics and norms
of those groups.
Social Identity Theory highlights that the
self-concept is not just about individual
traits but also about the roles and
connections within social groups.
This theory has been widely used to
explain various social phenomena, such
as intergroup conflicts, prejudice, and the
dynamics of social cohesion.
● Categorization
People tend to categorize themselves
and others into groups as a way of
making sense of the social world.
This categorization helps define who is
part of our "in-group" (groups we belong
to) and who is part of the "out-group"
(groups we don't belong to).
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● Social Comparison
Individuals often compare their in-group
positively to out-groups, enhancing their
self-esteem and a sense of belonging.
This can lead to a "we versus them"
mentality.
● Social Identity Salience
In different situations, specific parts of a
person's identity can stand out more.
For instance, when someone interacts
with people from various countries, their
sense of belonging to their own
nationality
might
become
more
noticeable.
● Social Mobility and Social
Change
People might change or shift their group
memberships to improve their social
status or self-esteem.
This could involve moving from one
social group to another to gain higher
status
● Intergroup Behavior
Social Identity Theory helps us
understand why people may treat those
from their own group (in-group)
differently from those in other groups
(out-group). This is because our behavior
is shaped by how we see ourselves in
relation to these groups.
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George Herbert Mead
George Herbert Mead (1863–1931) was
an American philosopher, sociologist,
and psychologist known for his
significant contributions to the fields of
social
psychology,
symbolic
interactionism, and pragmatism.
He proposed a unique perspective on
how the self develops through social
interactions
and
the
role
of
communication in shaping individual
identity.
The self is a dynamic and evolving entity
that emerges as individuals engage with
others and internalize societal norms
and values.
● Role-Taking
and
Social
Interaction
Mead believed that the self is not innate
but emerges through social interaction.
He
introduced
the
concept
of
"role-taking," where individuals mentally
put themselves in the position of others
and anticipate their responses.
This process of imagining how others
perceive us shapes our self-concept and
behavior.
● The "I" and the "Me”
Mead distinguished between the "I" and
the "Me" components of the self. The "I"
represents
the
spontaneous and
impulsive aspect of the self, reflecting a
person's unique responses to situations.
The "Me," on the other hand, is the
socialized self—the self as seen through
the eyes of others. It embodies the
expectations and norms of society.
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● Generalized Other
Mead introduced the concept of the
"generalized other," which refers to the
collective
attitudes,
values,
and
viewpoints of society as a whole.
This generalized perspective serves as a
reference point for individuals to
understand how they are perceived by
others and guides their behavior
accordingly.
● Self as a Social Process
Mead's view of the self emphasizes that
it is not an isolated entity but a product
of ongoing social processes.
The self emerges as individuals interact
with others, receive feedback, and adjust
their behavior based on the responses
they anticipate from the generalized
other.
● Language & Symbolism
Mead considered language and symbols
as essential tools for the development of
the self.
Through communication, individuals
learn to attribute meaning to symbols,
understand social roles, and engage in
complex interactions.
● Identity and Society
According to Mead, individual identity is
intertwined with social roles and
interactions.
The self is not a fixed entity but is shaped
by the changing roles and relationships
individuals engage in throughout their
lives.
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● Subjective & Objective Reality
Mead's view acknowledges both the
subjective experience of the self (the "I")
and the objective perspective of society
(the "Me").
The self navigates between its personal
desires and the external expectations of
others.
Henri de Saint-Simon
Henri de Saint-Simon (1760–1825) was
a French social theorist and early
proponent
of
socialism
and
industrialization. He played a significant
role in shaping the development of
sociological and political thought during
the early 19th century.
Saint-Simon's ideas centered on social
reform, the organization of society, and
the role of science and technology in
improving human conditions.
He was more concerned with societal
structures and the role of individuals
within those structures rather than
delving deeply into the nature of the
individual self.
Henri de Saint-Simon's views on the self
were less concerned with the inner
nature of the individual and more
focused on how individuals fit into a
larger societal context.
● Social Interdependence
Saint-Simon's vision centered on the idea
that
individuals
were
inherently
connected to the larger social fabric. He
believed that people's roles and
contributions within society were integral
to its functioning.
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The concept of the self, for Saint-Simon,
was linked to one's role and
responsibilities within the social and
industrial framework.
● Meritocracy & Expertise
Saint-Simon proposed a meritocratic
society where individuals would be
valued based on their talents, skills, and
contributions.
In this context, the self's worth would be
determined by one's ability to positively
impact society through their expertise
and service.
● Social Change & Progress
Saint-Simon's
emphasis
on
industrialization and progress indicated
that he saw the self as part of a dynamic
society
moving
forward
through
technological advancements.
The individual's role in this context was
to contribute to the collective progress
and improvement of human conditions.
● Expert Leadership
While he did not extensively discuss
individual identity, Saint-Simon's vision
suggested that individuals should be led
and guided by experts in various fields.
This implies a sense of responsibility to
follow the guidance of those with
knowledge and expertise, defining part of
the individual's identity as a participant in
a structured social hierarchy.
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● Balancing
Personal
and
Collective Interests
Saint-Simon's emphasis on social
harmony and the welfare of all classes
suggests that the self's interests should
be aligned with the common good.
Individual fulfillment would come
through contributing to the well-being of
society as a whole.
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Herbert Spencer
Herbert Spencer (1820–1903) was an
English
philosopher,
biologist,
sociologist, and prominent proponent of
social Darwinism. He is known for his
contributions to various fields, including
evolutionary theory, ethics, sociology, and
political philosophy.
Spencer's work sought to apply the
principles of evolution to the social
realm, emphasizing the role of individual
liberty
and
limited
government
intervention.
Herbert Spencer's views on the concept
of the self were largely influenced by his
broader ideas related to evolution,
individualism, and society.
While he did not provide an extensive
exploration of the nature of the self, his
philosophy suggests that he would have
considered the self as an autonomous,
adaptable, and evolving entity with a role
to play in both individual and societal
advancement.
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● Individual Autonomy
Spencer's emphasis on individualism
suggests that he valued the autonomy
and freedom of the individual.
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In this context, the self would be seen as
an autonomous agent capable of making
choices and pursuing their own interests
within the bounds of societal norms.
● Adaptation & Progress
Spencer's evolutionary perspective on
society implies that individuals are
shaped by their environment and
circumstances.
The self, according to his views, would
be influenced by the individual's ability to
adapt to changing conditions and
progress toward more complex and
advanced states.
● Societal Roles & Functions
Spencer's analogy of society as an
organism with interconnected parts
suggests that individuals have roles and
functions within the larger social
framework.
The self, in this context, could be viewed
as a component contributing to the
overall functioning and health of the
societal "organism."
● Competition & Survival
Spencer's application of Darwinian
principles to society emphasizes
competition and survival of the fittest.
The self might be seen as an entity
striving to compete and survive in a
competitive environment, adapting and
evolving to ensure its own progress and
well-being.
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● Personal Liberty
Spencer's advocacy for individual liberty
aligns with a view of the self as an entity
entitled to personal freedoms and rights.
The self, from his perspective, would be
capable of making choices and pursuing
individual
happiness
within
the
boundaries of societal harmony.
Émile Durkheim
Émile Durkheim (1858–1917) was a
French sociologist, often referred to as
one of the founding figures of modern
sociology.
He made significant contributions to the
study of social phenomena, the analysis
of
societal structures, and the
understanding of collective behavior.
Émile Durkheim's views on the concept
of the self were deeply rooted in his
sociological
approach,
which
emphasized the interplay between
individuals and society.
He believed that the self's identity is
influenced
by
social
integration,
collective consciousness, shared norms,
and the larger societal context.
● Social Integration
Durkheim emphasized the significance
of social integration in shaping individual
identity.
He believed that individuals are
inherently connected to the larger social
fabric and that their sense of self is
influenced by the norms, values, and
collective consciousness of their society.
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● Collective Consciousness
Durkheim introduced the concept of
collective consciousness, which refers to
the shared beliefs, values, and norms
that exist within a society
He believed that the self is shaped by
these collective forces, and individuals
internalize these shared elements as part
of their identity.
● Role of Social Norms
Durkheim argued that social norms play
a crucial role in regulating individual
behavior and maintaining social order.
The self, in his view, adheres to these
norms and is guided by them, reflecting
the influence of society on personal
conduct.
Types of Social Norms
Folkway - Norm that stems from and
organizes casual interactions
More - Norm that structures the
difference between right and wrong
Taboo - Strong negative norm; violating it
results in extreme disgust
Law - Norm that is formally inscribed at
the state or federal level
● Division of Labor
Durkheim's analysis of the division of
labor highlighted how societal structures
impact individual identity. As societies
become more complex, individuals
specialize in specific roles, contributing
to the overall functioning of the social
system.
The self's identity is intertwined with its
role in this broader framework.
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● Anomie
Durkheim introduced the concept of
anomie, which describes a state of
normlessness or disintegration of social
norms. He believed that individuals might
experience feelings of alienation and lack
of direction when societal norms weaken
or break down.
This concept implies that the self's
identity is affected by the stability or
instability of societal norms.
● Religion & Collective Beliefs
Durkheim's exploration of religion
emphasized its role in reinforcing
collective beliefs and values. He saw
religion as a powerful force that
contributes to social cohesion by
providing a shared framework for
understanding the world.
The self's identity, therefore, is shaped by
participation in these collective religious
practices and beliefs.
Albert Bandura
Albert Bandura (1925–2021) was a
Canadian-American psychologist and
one of the most influential figures in the
field of psychology.
He is best known for his contributions to
social cognitive theory and his pioneering
work
on
observational
learning,
self-efficacy, and the concept of
reciprocal determinism.
Albert Bandura's view on the concept of
the self is deeply rooted in his social
cognitive theory, which emphasizes the
interactions
between
cognitive
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processes,
behavior,
and
the
environment.
Bandura's approach highlights the active
role individuals play in constructing their
own self-concepts and in navigating their
interactions with the world around them
● Self-Efficacy
Bandura's concept of self-efficacy is
central to his view of the self. He believed
that individuals form beliefs about their
own abilities to successfully perform
tasks and achieve goals.
These self-efficacy beliefs influence how
individuals approach challenges, their
level of effort, and their persistence in the
face of difficulties.
● Observational
Learning
&
Modeling
Bandura's research demonstrated that
people learn by observing the behaviors
of others. He believed that individuals
can acquire new behaviors, skills, and
even aspects of their identity through
observing and imitating role models.
This suggests that the self is not just
shaped by internal processes, but also by
external influences.
● Reciprocal Determinism
Bandura's
theory
of
reciprocal
determinism suggests that individuals,
their behaviors, and the environment are
interconnected in a dynamic way.
This implies that the self is not solely an
internal entity but is influenced by the
interactions and feedback loops between
personal factors and the environment.
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● Social Comparison
Bandura recognized the role of social
comparison in shaping self-perception.
He proposed that people evaluate
themselves by comparing their abilities
and achievements to those of others.
This process contributes to the
development of self-concept and
self-esteem.
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● Agency and Self-Regulation
Bandura emphasized the concept of
agency, which refers to an individual's
capacity to intentionally make choices
and act in accordance with their goals.
The self, from this perspective, is an
active agent capable of self-regulation
and deliberate decision-making.
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● Internal vs. External Locus of
Control
While Bandura focused on internal
factors like self-efficacy, he also
acknowledged the importance of
external factors in shaping the self.
He explored the concept of locus of
control, which relates to whether
individuals believe they have control over
their lives (internal locus) or that external
forces determine their outcomes
(external locus).
● Cognitive Factors
Bandura's work highlights the role of
cognitive processes, such as attention,
memory, and thinking, in shaping
behavior and the self.
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This suggests that the self is influenced
by how individuals interpret and process
information.
Karl Marx
Karl Marx (1818–1883) was a German
philosopher, economist, sociologist, and
political theorist whose ideas have had a
profound influence on modern political
and economic thought.
He is best known for his critical analysis
of capitalism, his theory of historical
materialism, and his vision of a classless
society.
Karl Marx did not explicitly develop a
comprehensive theory of the self, his
ideas about class struggle, historical
materialism, alienation, and economic
influences on individuals provide insights
into his perspective.
According to Marx, the self is not an
isolated entity but is deeply intertwined
with the social, economic, and class
contexts in which individuals live and
interact.
● Social Determination
Marx's view of the self is heavily
influenced by his theory of historical
materialism. He believed that individual
consciousness and behavior are shaped
by the economic conditions and social
structures of their time.
In this view, the self is not isolated from
the larger social and economic forces; it
is influenced by them.
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● Class Identity
Marx highlighted the conflict between the
working class (proletariat) and the
wealthy class (bourgeoisie). This
suggests that a person's understanding
of themselves is connected to which
class they belong to.
Marx believed that an individual's sense
of self is shaped by their role in their
social class, and this is influenced by the
tensions and interactions within that
class.
● Alienation
Marx talked about alienation, which
means workers feeling disconnected in
capitalist societies. In this system,
workers become distant from their own
work, the things they create, and even
their own human essence.
This disconnection shapes how people
see themselves and their place in the
world.
● Collective Identity
Marx's idea of communism envisions a
society without class divisions, where
people's personal interests align with the
well-being of everyone.
In such a society, individuals would
identify more with the collective, working
together for the benefit of all.
● Economic Influence
Marx's examination of capitalism shows
how money and resources impact many
parts of life, even how we see ourselves.
Unequal access to resources and the
competition for them affect what people
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can do, their experiences, and what they
hope to achieve.
All of this molds their sense of who they
are and how they fit into society.
● Relationship to Labor
Marx's
criticism
of
capitalism
emphasizes that work plays a big role in
how people define themselves.
He believed that the self is shaped by the
type of work, how society values it, and
the way work is structured and managed.
Max Weber
Max Weber (1864–1920) was a German
sociologist, philosopher, and political
economist who made significant
contributions to the fields of sociology,
economics, and political theory.
He is known for his work on social
theory, bureaucracy, the sociology of
religion, and the concept of "Verstehen"
(understanding) in social research.
Weber's ideas have had a profound
impact on the development of modern
sociological thought.
Max Weber's sociological perspective
offers a nuanced understanding of the
self within the broader social context.
His emphasis on understanding human
actions, the impact of rationality and
social structures, and the interplay
between cultural values and behavior
contribute to his view that the self is
shaped by both internal motives and
external social forces.
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● Verstehen (Understanding)
Weber's emphasis on "Verstehen" or
understanding human actions suggests
that individuals' actions and behaviors
cannot be fully comprehended without
considering the meanings and intentions
behind them.
This approach implies that the self is
intricately tied to the motives and
interpretations that individuals attribute
to their actions.
● Social Action and Rationality
Weber's classification of social actions
into
different
types,
such
as
value-rational and instrumental-rational,
reflects his recognition of the complexity
of human motives.
This implies that individuals' self-directed
actions are influenced by rational
calculations and value-based choices.
● Social Context and Influence
Weber's way of looking at society
highlights how the world around us
affects how we act.
His idea of "ideal types" helps us see how
our self-image and who we are fit into
the rules and systems of society.
● Bureaucracy and Rationalization
Weber looked at how bureaucracy and
making things more organized affect us
in modern societies. He thought that
people shape how they see themselves
in structured and organized systems.
This means our ideas of who we are and
what we do can be shaped by how rules
and hierarchies work in these systems.
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● The
Protestant
Ethic
and
Capitalism
In his exploration of the Protestant work
ethic's influence on capitalism, Weber
suggested that individuals' self-discipline,
ethics, and values are connected to
economic behaviors.
● The
Protestant
Ethic
and
Capitalism
In his exploration of the Protestant work
ethic's influence on capitalism, Weber
suggested that individuals' self-discipline,
ethics, and values are connected to
economic behaviors.
This implies that individuals' sense of
self can be intertwined with cultural and
religious beliefs.
● Impact of Institutions
Weber studied how institutions affect
how we act and see ourselves. He
showed how when charismatic leaders
become part of structured systems, it
changes how we think about ourselves
and our roles.
This helps us understand how our
self-image changes as institutions grow
and change.
Lewis Henry Morgan
Lewis Henry Morgan (1818–1881) was
an American anthropologist, lawyer, and
social theorist known for his pioneering
work in the fields of kinship, social
structure, and cultural evolution.
He is considered one of the founding
figures of modern anthropology and his
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studies have had a lasting impact on the
field.
Lewis Henry Morgan did not explicitly
address the concept of the self, his
anthropological work on kinship, cultural
evolution, and social structure offers
insights into how he saw individuals'
self-identity as intricately linked to their
roles within their familial, cultural, and
societal contexts.
● Kinship and Social Organization
Morgan looked at how Native American
societies
organized
themselves,
especially in terms of families. He
showed that how people are related
affects how society is set up.
This tells us that who we are and how we
see ourselves is closely connected to our
roles
within
our
families
and
communities.
● Cultural Evolution
Morgan believed that societies change
and grow over time, moving from simpler
to more advanced stages. This means
that who we are is shaped by the
customs, ways of life, and technologies
of our society as it evolves.
Our self-identity changes along with
these cultural shifts.
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● Human Societies as Organic
Systems
Morgan compared societies to living
organisms, showing that people are
connected in social networks.
This idea says that our sense of self isn't
separate; it's like a puzzle piece in a
bigger picture of society. We're all part of
a larger whole.
● Social Evolution and Progress
Morgan's studies showed that societies
grow and improve as time goes on.
This means that how we see ourselves is
connected to the changing rules, beliefs,
and systems of our society as it moves
forward through different phases.
● Role of Kinship in Identity
Morgan studied how families work in
different societies. He saw that who we
are is shaped by how our culture defines
family roles.
This tells us that our self-identity is tied
to the cultural ideas and expectations
about our place in our family.
● Interconnectedness of Societies
Morgan looked at different societies to
see how they're connected. This shows
that who we are isn't just about where we
live, but also influenced by the bigger
history and other cultures.
Our self-identity is shaped by more than
just our own culture.
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Charles Horton Cooley
Charles Horton Cooley (1864–1929) was
an American sociologist and one of the
founders of symbolic interactionism, a
sociological perspective that focuses on
the role of social interaction and
communication in shaping human
behavior and society.
Charles Horton Cooley (1864–1929) was
an American sociologist and one of the
founders of symbolic interactionism, a
sociological perspective that focuses on
the role of social interaction and
communication in shaping human
behavior and society.
Charles Horton Cooley's view of the
concept of the self revolves around the
idea that individuals form their
self-concept through social interactions
and the perceptions of others.
Cooley's ideas laid the foundation for the
symbolic interactionist perspective in
sociology and continue to be influential
in
understanding
the
intricate
relationship between the self and society.
● Looking-Glass Self
It means we see ourselves based on how
we think others see us. He said we build
our self-image by guessing how people
judge us.
This happens in three steps: we imagine
how we look to others, how they judge
us, and how we feel about ourselves
from those judgments.
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● Role of Social Interaction
Cooley said that how we see ourselves is
shaped by how we interact with others.
He thought we learn about ourselves
from how people react to us and how we
react to them.
Our self-image gets clearer through
these social exchanges.
● Primary Groups
Cooley highlighted the significance of
primary groups, such as family and close
friends, in shaping the self.
He believed that these intimate groups
provide the context in which individuals
first experience socialization and develop
a sense of identity.
● Language and Symbols
Cooley argued that language and
symbols play a crucial role in the
development of self-concept.
The communication of symbols helps
individuals interpret the meanings
attributed to them by others, influencing
their sense of self.
● Society as a Mirror
Cooley viewed society as a mirror in
which individuals see their own
reflections through the reactions and
feedback of others.
This process of social reflection
continually shapes and reshapes their
self-concept.
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● Self-Esteem & Self-Worth
Cooley suggested that the looking-glass
self
can
influence
individuals'
self-esteem and self-worth.
Positive feedback from others can
enhance self-esteem, while negative
judgments can lead to feelings of
inadequacy.
● Social Identity
Cooley's idea links how we see ourselves
with our place in society. This means our
self-understanding is connected to the
roles we have, the positions we hold, and
the relationships we're in within our
community.
Joseph Luft
Joseph Luft was an American
psychologist and educator. He was born
in 1916 in Los Angeles, California, and
passed away in 2014.
Luft was a pioneer in the field of group
dynamics
and
interpersonal
communication. He developed the Johari
Window along with his colleague Harry
Ingham while working at the University of
California, Los Angeles (UCLA).
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Harry Ingham
Harry Ingham, also known as "Harrington
Ingham," was an American psychologist
and researcher who collaborated with
Joseph Luft on the development of the
Johari Window.
Ingham's role in this collaboration is
often less prominent than Luft's, but they
worked together to create and refine the
model.
ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE OF
THE SELF
The anthropological perspective on the
concept of the self emphasizes its
cultural, social, and contextual nature
Anthropologists study how different
societies and cultures shape individuals’
understanding of themselves and their
identities
ANTHROPOLOGY AND ITS SUBFIELDS
OFFER MULTIDIMENSIONAL INSIGHTS
INTO THE CONCEPT OF THE SELF.
EACH SUBFIELD OFFERS A UNIQUE
PERSPECTIVE THAT COLLECTIVELY
ENRICHES OUR UNDERSTANDING OF
THIS COMPLEX AND MULTIFACETED
CONCEPT.
● Cultural Anthropology
CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGISTS STUDY
HOW DIFFERENT CULTURES SHAPE
AND DEFINE THE SELF. THEY EXPLORE
HOW CULTURAL NORMS, VALUES,
BELIEFS, AND SOCIAL PRACTICES
CONTRIBUTE
TO
INDIVIDUALS'
UNDERSTANDING OF THEMSELVES
WITHIN THEIR SOCIETIES.
CULTURAL
ANTHROPOLOGISTS
EXAMINE
HOW
IDENTITY
IS
CONSTRUCTED, NEGOTIATED, AND
EXPRESSED IN DIVERSE CULTURAL
CONTEXTS.
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● Archaeological Anthropology
WHILE THE CONCEPT OF THE SELF IS
ABSTRACT
AND
NOT
DIRECTLY
OBSERVABLE IN THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL
RECORD,
ARCHAEOLOGICAL
ANTHROPOLOGISTS
CAN
INFER
ASPECTS OF PAST SOCIETIES' BELIEFS
AND
PRACTICES
RELATED
TO
SELF-IDENTITY THROUGH MATERIAL
REMAINS.
THEY STUDY ARTIFACTS, BURIAL
PRACTICES,
AND
SYMBOLIC
REPRESENTATIONS TO UNDERSTAND
HOW PAST CULTURES MIGHT HAVE
CONCEPTUALIZED THE SELF.
● Biological Anthropology
BIOLOGICAL
ANTHROPOLOGISTS
FOCUS ON THE BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS
OF
HUMAN
EVOLUTION
AND
VARIATION.
WHILE THEIR PRIMARY FOCUS IS NOT
THE SELF, THEY CONTRIBUTE TO
UNDERSTANDING HOW ASPECTS OF
GENETICS, PHYSIOLOGY, AND BRAIN
DEVELOPMENT MIGHT INFLUENCE
BEHAVIOR, COGNITION, AND SOCIAL
INTERACTIONS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO
THE FORMATION OF THE SELF.
AND HOW LANGUAGE REFLECTS
CULTURAL UNDERSTANDINGS OF SELF
AND PERSONHOOD.
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Anthropological Theories about the self
ANTHROPOLOGICAL THEORIES OFFER
DIVERSE PERSPECTIVES ON THE SELF,
EMPHASIZING ITS CULTURAL, SOCIAL,
AND CONTEXTUAL DIMENSIONS.
THESE THEORIES CHALLENGE THE
NOTION OF A UNIVERSAL OR FIXED
SELF AND HIGHLIGHT THE DYNAMIC
AND
CULTURALLY
CONTINGENT
NATURE OF SELF-IDENTITY.
● Symbolic Interactionism
THIS THEORY, ASSOCIATED WITH
GEORGE HERBERT MEAD, EMPHASIZES
THE ROLE OF SYMBOLS, LANGUAGE,
AND
SOCIAL
INTERACTIONS
IN
SHAPING THE SELF. IT ARGUES THAT
INDIVIDUALS
DEVELOP
THEIR
SELF-CONCEPT
THROUGH
INTERACTIONS WITH OTHERS
THE SELF IS SEEN AS A PRODUCT OF
SOCIAL PROCESSES, INCLUDING THE "I"
(INDIVIDUAL'S SUBJECTIVE SELF) AND
THE "ME" (THE SELF AS SEEN
THROUGH OTHERS' EYES)
● Linguistic Anthropology
LINGUISTIC
ANTHROPOLOGISTS
EXAMINE THE ROLE OF LANGUAGE IN
SHAPING THE SELF.
THEY
STUDY
HOW
LANGUAGE
CONSTRUCTS IDENTITY, INCLUDING
THE WAYS PEOPLE TALK ABOUT
THEMSELVES, THE TERMS THEY USE
FOR DIFFERENT ASPECTS OF IDENTITY,
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● Cultural Relativism
ANTHROPOLOGICAL
THEORIES,
ROOTED IN CULTURAL RELATIVISM,
EMPHASIZE THAT THE SELF IS
CULTURALLY CONSTRUCTED.
DIFFERENT CULTURES HAVE DIVERSE
NORMS, VALUES, AND PRACTICES THAT
INFLUENCE
HOW
INDIVIDUALS
UNDERSTAND AND EXPRESS THEIR
IDENTITIES. THERE IS NO UNIVERSAL
OR
OBJECTIVE
SELF;
RATHER,
SELF-IDENTITY
IS
CULTURALLY
CONTINGENT.
● Structural-Functionalism
THIS THEORY, ASSOCIATED WITH
SCHOLARS LIKE EMILE DURKHEIM,
FOCUSES ON THE ROLE OF SOCIAL
STRUCTURES AND INSTITUTIONS IN
SHAPING THE SELF.
IT ARGUES THAT SOCIETAL NORMS
AND VALUES PROVIDE INDIVIDUALS
WITH A SENSE OF IDENTITY AND
PURPOSE. THE SELF IS VIEWED AS A
PRODUCT OF SOCIAL INTEGRATION
AND COHESION.
● Identity Politics
CONTEMPORARY ANTHROPOLOGICAL
THEORIES OFTEN EXPLORE THE
CONCEPT OF IDENTITY POLITICS,
WHICH
EMPHASIZES
HOW
INDIVIDUALS
FORM
COLLECTIVE
IDENTITIES
BASED
ON
SHARED
CHARACTERISTICS
SUCH
AS
ETHNICITY, GENDER, RELIGION, OR
NATIONALITY.
IDENTITY POLITICS UNDERSCORES THE
INTERSECTIONALITY OF MULTIPLE
IDENTITIES AND THE ROLE OF POWER
DYNAMICS IN SHAPING SELF-IDENTITY.
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● Postmodernism
POSTMODERNIST
ANTHROPOLOGY
CHALLENGES THE IDEA OF A STABLE
AND UNIFIED SELF. IT ARGUES THAT
THE SELF IS FRAGMENTED, FLUID, AND
CONTINGENT
ON
VARIOUS
DISCOURSES, POWER STRUCTURES,
AND CONTEXTS.
POSTMODERNIST THEORISTS LIKE
MICHEL
FOUCAULT
AND
JEAN
BAUDRILLARD
EMPHASIZE
THE
DECONSTRUCTION
OF
FIXED
IDENTITIES.
● Narrative Identity
ANTHROPOLOGISTS, INFLUENCED BY
NARRATIVE THEORY, EXPLORE HOW
INDIVIDUALS
CONSTRUCT
THEIR
SELF-IDENTITIES
THROUGH
STORYTELLING.
NARRATIVE IDENTITY THEORY POSITS
THAT PEOPLE MAKE SENSE OF THEIR
LIVES BY CREATING NARRATIVES THAT
LINK PAST EXPERIENCES, PRESENT
CIRCUMSTANCES,
AND
FUTURE
ASPIRATIONS.
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● Intersectionality
ANTHROPOLOGICAL THEORIES OFTEN
INCORPORATE THE CONCEPT OF
INTERSECTIONALITY,
RECOGNIZING
THAT INDIVIDUALS HAVE MULTIPLE
INTERSECTING IDENTITIES (E.G., RACE,
GENDER, CLASS) THAT INFLUENCE
THEIR
EXPERIENCES
AND
SELF-CONCEPT
INTERSECTIONALITY
THEORY
HIGHLIGHTS THE COMPLEXITY OF
SELF-IDENTITY.
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● Embodiment and Materiality
ANTHROPOLOGICAL
THEORIES
INCREASINGLY
EXPLORE
THE
EMBODIED NATURE OF SELF-IDENTITY.
SCHOLARS EXAMINE HOW THE BODY,
INCLUDING
ITS
APPEARANCE,
SENSATIONS,
AND
EXPERIENCES,
PLAYS A ROLE IN SHAPING HOW
INDIVIDUALS PERCEIVE AND EXPRESS
THEMSELVES.
● Agency and Structure
SOME ANTHROPOLOGICAL THEORIES,
LIKE
ANTHONY
GIDDENS'
STRUCTURATION THEORY, EMPHASIZE
THE DUALITY OF AGENCY AND
STRUCTURE IN SHAPING THE SELF.
INDIVIDUALS HAVE AGENCY TO MAKE
CHOICES
AND
SHAPE
THEIR
IDENTITIES, BUT THEY ALSO OPERATE
WITHIN STRUCTURAL CONSTRAINTS
IMPOSED BY SOCIETY.
● Globalization and Hybridity
ANTHROPOLOGICAL
THEORIES
ADDRESS HOW GLOBALIZATION AND
CULTURAL
HYBRIDITY
IMPACT
SELF-IDENTITY.
AS INDIVIDUALS NAVIGATE MULTIPLE
CULTURAL
INFLUENCES,
THEIR
SELF-CONCEPT MAY BECOME MORE
HYBRID AND ADAPTIVE, REFLECTING A
FUSION OF DIFFERENT CULTURAL
ELEMENTS.
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RUTH FULTON BENEDICT
RUTH FULTON BENEDICT (1887-1948)
WAS
A
PROMINENT
AMERICAN
ANTHROPOLOGIST KNOWN FOR HER
PIONEERING WORK IN CULTURAL
ANTHROPOLOGY
AND
HER
INFLUENTIAL CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE
STUDY OF CULTURES AND SOCIETIES.
RUTH BENEDICT RECEIVED NUMEROUS
HONORS AND AWARDS DURING HER
LIFETIME,
INCLUDING
THE
PRESIDENTIAL MEDAL OF FREEDOM IN
1946 FOR HER CONTRIBUTIONS TO
UNDERSTANDING
CULTURAL
DIVERSITY.
RUTH BENEDICT'S VIEW OF THE SELF
UNDERSCORES
THE
PROFOUND
INFLUENCE
OF
CULTURE
ON
INDIVIDUAL
IDENTITY
AND
PERSONALITY.
SHE ARGUED THAT CULTURE PROVIDES
THE FRAMEWORK WITHIN WHICH
INDIVIDUALS
CONSTRUCT
THEIR
SELF-CONCEPT,
AND
SHE
CHAMPIONED THE IDEA OF CULTURAL
RELATIVISM
AS A MEANS OF
APPRECIATING AND UNDERSTANDING
THE
DIVERSITY
OF
HUMAN
EXPERIENCES AND SELF-IDENTITIES
ACROSS DIFFERENT SOCIETIES.
● Cultural Relativism
RUTH BENEDICT WAS A STAUNCH
ADVOCATE OF CULTURAL RELATIVISM.
SHE BELIEVED THAT THE SELF,
INCLUDING ONE'S IDENTITY AND
PERSONALITY, IS DEEPLY INFLUENCED
BY THE CULTURE IN WHICH AN
INDIVIDUAL IS RAISED.
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CULTURAL RELATIVISM MEANS THAT
WE SHOULD NOT JUDGE OTHER
CULTURES BASED ON OUR OWN
CULTURAL NORMS AND VALUES BUT
SHOULD STRIVE TO UNDERSTAND AND
APPRECIATE THEM IN THEIR OWN
CONTEXT.
● Cultural Patterns
IN HER INFLUENTIAL BOOK "PATTERNS
OF
CULTURE"
(1934), BENEDICT
ARGUED THAT DIFFERENT CULTURES
HAVE DISTINCT PATTERNS THAT
SHAPE
THE
BEHAVIOR
AND
PERSONALITIES
OF
INDIVIDUALS
WITHIN THOSE CULTURES.
SHE
CONTENDED
THAT
THESE
CULTURAL PATTERNS ARE LEARNED
AND INTERNALIZED BY INDIVIDUALS,
AFFECTING HOW THEY PERCEIVE
THEMSELVES AND OTHERS.
● Culture and Personality
BENEDICT'S RESEARCH SUGGESTED
THAT CULTURAL VALUES, NORMS, AND
PRACTICES HAVE A PROFOUND IMPACT
ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF AN
INDIVIDUAL'S
PERSONALITY
AND
SELF-IDENTITY.
SHE BELIEVED THAT CULTURE MOLDS
INDIVIDUALS IN TERMS OF THEIR
EMOTIONS, VALUES, AND BELIEFS,
THEREBY INFLUENCING HOW THEY
PERCEIVE AND DEFINE THEMSELVES.
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● Variability of the Self
BENEDICT'S WORK HIGHLIGHTED THE
VARIABILITY OF THE SELF ACROSS
DIFFERENT
CULTURES.
SHE
DEMONSTRATED THAT WHAT IS
CONSIDERED NORMAL OR DESIRABLE
IN TERMS OF SELF-IDENTITY CAN VARY
GREATLY FROM ONE CULTURE TO
ANOTHER.
FOR
EXAMPLE,
CONCEPTS
OF
INDIVIDUALISM AND COLLECTIVISM, AS
WELL AS GENDER ROLES AND
EXPECTATIONS, CAN SHAPE HOW
INDIVIDUALS PERCEIVE THEMSELVES
WITHIN THEIR CULTURAL CONTEXT.
● Socialization
BENEDICT EMPHASIZED THE ROLE OF
CULTURAL SOCIALIZATION IN SHAPING
THE SELF. SHE ARGUED THAT
INDIVIDUALS ARE SOCIALIZED INTO
THEIR CULTURE'S NORMS AND VALUES
FROM AN EARLY AGE, WHICH IN TURN
INFLUENCES THEIR SELF-CONCEPT
AND BEHAVIOR.
THIS PROCESS OF SOCIALIZATION IS
CRUCIAL IN UNDERSTANDING HOW
INDIVIDUALS DEVELOP THEIR SENSE
OF SELF WITHIN A SPECIFIC CULTURAL
FRAMEWORK.
William Graham Sumner
WILLIAM
GRAHAM
SUMNER
(1840-1910) WAS AN AMERICAN
SOCIAL SCIENTIST, SOCIOLOGIST, AND
PROFESSOR AT YALE UNIVERSITY. HE
MADE SIGNIFICANT CONTRIBUTIONS
TO THE FIELDS OF SOCIOLOGY,
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ANTHROPOLOGY,
AND
POLITICAL
SCIENCE.
SUMNER'S WORK REFLECTS THE
INTELLECTUAL CLIMATE OF HIS ERA,
CHARACTERIZED BY DEBATES OVER
INDIVIDUALISM,
SOCIAL
RESPONSIBILITY, AND THE ROLE OF
GOVERNMENT
IN
ADDRESSING
SOCIETAL ISSUES.
WILLIAM GRAHAM SUMNER'S VIEW OF
THE
SELF
WAS
ROOTED
IN
INDIVIDUALISM, COMPETITION, AND
THE
PRINCIPLES
OF
SOCIAL
DARWINISM.
HE BELIEVED THAT THE SELF IS
PRIMARILY DEFINED BY INDIVIDUAL
ACTIONS AND CHOICES, AND HE
ADVOCATED
FOR
SELF-RELIANCE,
LIMITED GOVERNMENT INTERVENTION,
AND THE NATURAL ORDER OF
COMPETITION IN SOCIETY.
● Individualism
SUMNER WAS A STRONG ADVOCATE
OF INDIVIDUALISM. HE BELIEVED THAT
THE SELF IS PRIMARILY DEFINED BY
THE INDIVIDUAL'S ACTIONS, CHOICES,
AND RESPONSIBILITIES.
IN HIS VIEW, INDIVIDUALS ARE
RESPONSIBLE
FOR
THEIR
OWN
WELL-BEING AND SUCCESS, AND THEY
SHAPE
THEIR
OWN
DESTINIES
THROUGH THEIR EFFORTS.
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● Survival of the Fittest
SUMNER'S IDEAS WERE HEAVILY
INFLUENCED BY THE CONCEPT OF
"SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST" FROM
CHARLES DARWIN'S THEORY OF
EVOLUTION.
HE APPLIED THIS CONCEPT TO HUMAN
SOCIETY
AND
ARGUED
THAT
COMPETITION AND STRUGGLE ARE
NATURAL AND NECESSARY ASPECTS
OF LIFE. ACCORDING TO SUMNER,
INDIVIDUALS
COMPETE
FOR
RESOURCES, SUCCESS, AND SOCIAL
STATUS, AND THOSE WHO ARE MOST
FIT AND CAPABLE RISE TO THE TOP.
● Social Darwinism
SUMNER WAS A PROPONENT OF
SOCIAL DARWINISM, A THEORY THAT
APPLIED DARWINIAN PRINCIPLES TO
HUMAN SOCIETY.
HE BELIEVED THAT SOCIETY SHOULD
BE ORGANIZED BASED ON THE
PRINCIPLES OF NATURAL SELECTION,
WHERE THE STRONGEST AND MOST
CAPABLE INDIVIDUALS THRIVE AND
THE WEAK ARE LEFT BEHIND. THIS
PERSPECTIVE INFLUENCED HIS VIEWS
ON SOCIAL INEQUALITY AND THE ROLE
OF GOVERNMENT IN SOCIETY.
● Self-Reliance
SUMNER
PLACED
A
STRONG
EMPHASIS ON SELF-RELIANCE AND
SELF-RESPONSIBILITY.
HE BELIEVED THAT INDIVIDUALS
SHOULD TAKE CARE OF THEMSELVES
AND NOT RELY ON GOVERNMENT OR
SOCIETY FOR ASSISTANCE. HE SAW
SELF-RELIANCE AS A VIRTUE THAT LED
TO PERSONAL GROWTH AND SUCCESS.
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● Limited Role of Government
UMNER ADVOCATED FOR LIMITED
GOVERNMENT
INTERVENTION
IN
SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC AFFAIRS.
HE BELIEVED THAT GOVERNMENT
SHOULD NOT INTERFERE IN THE
NATURAL
PROCESSES
OF
COMPETITION AND THAT INDIVIDUALS
SHOULD BE FREE TO PURSUE THEIR
OWN
INTERESTS
WITHOUT
GOVERNMENT INTERFERENCE.
● Critique of Social Reform
SUMNER WAS CRITICAL OF SOCIAL
REFORM EFFORTS THAT AIMED TO
ADDRESS ISSUES SUCH AS POVERTY
AND INEQUALITY.
HE ARGUED THAT SUCH REFORMS
OFTEN
INTERFERED
WITH
THE
NATURAL ORDER AND COULD LEAD TO
NEGATIVE CONSEQUENCES.
● Emphasis on Liberty
SUMNER VALUED INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY
AND SAW IT AS ESSENTIAL TO THE
SELF.
HE BELIEVED THAT INDIVIDUALS
SHOULD HAVE THE FREEDOM TO MAKE
CHOICES AND LIVE THEIR LIVES AS
THEY SAW FIT, AS LONG AS THEY DID
NOT HARM OTHERS.
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Lesson 4: Psychological Perspective of
the Self
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Psychological Perspectives
Encompass a wide range of theories and
ideas from the field of psychology
These perspectives seek to understand
how individuals perceive, experience, and
construct their sense of self
1. Psychoanalytic Perspective
- Emphasis on Childhood experiences and
the unconscious mind (Major theorists:
Freud, Erikson, Jung)
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-
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● Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
Suggests that the self is composed of
three parts:
the id (primitive instincts and desires)basic impulses (sex and aggression);
seeking immediate gratification; irrational
and impulsive. Operates at unconscious
level
the ego (conscious self that mediates
between the id and superego) testing
reality; rational. Operates mainly at
conscious level but also at preconscious
level
superego (internalized moral standards).
striving for perfection; incorporated from
parents;
becoming
a
person’s
conscience.
Operates
mostly
at
preconscious level
Freud’s Psychosexual Stages
Oral Stage:
Birth to 1 (Mouth)
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Forceful feeding Underfed - oral passive
(trusting, dependency)
Forceful feeding Overfed - oral
aggressive (aggressive, dominating)
Fixation:
smoking,
gum-chewing,
nail-biting
Anal Stage:
1 to 3 (Bowel and Bladder Control)
Toilet training too harsh - anal retentive
(tidiness,
obsessiveness,
mean,
stubborn)
Toilet training too lax - anal expulsive
(untidiness, generosity)
Fixation: orderliness, obsessiveness,
rigidity
Phallic Stage:
3 to 6 (Genitals)
Abnormal family set-up leading to
unusual relationship with mother/father vanity, self-obsession, sexual anxiety,
inadequacy, inferiority, envy
Fixation: vanity, exhibitionism, pride
Latent Stage: 6 to puberty (libido
inactive)
-
Genital Stage:
puberty to death (maturing sexual
interests)
Settling down in a loving one-to-one
relationship with another - well adjusted,
mature, able to love and be loved. Sexual
instinct is directed to heterosexual
pleasure
39
Freud’s Defense Mechanism
1. Repression - unknowingly placing an
unpleasant memory or thought in the
unconscious
-
2. Regression - reverting back to an
immature behavior from an earlier stage
of development
3. Displacement - redirecting feelings or
actions from the intended source to a
safer, substitute target
4. Sublimation
replacing
socially
unacceptable impulses with socially
acceptable behavior
3. Social Cognitive Perspective
-
5. Reaction Formation - overacting in the
opposite way to one’s true feelings
6. Projection - attributing one’s own
unacceptable feelings and thoughts to
others and not yourself
7. Rationalization - justifying actions,
thoughts, or unwanted outcomes with
excuses or faulty logic
-
2. Humanistic Perspective
-
-
● Carl Rogers
Humanistic psychologists like Carl
Rogers emphasized self-actualization,
the innate drive to align one's
self-concept with their true self.
Rogers believed that self-concept played
a central role in personal growth and
well-being.
According to Rogers, a well-adjusted
personality is the result of an individual
holding similar views of the ideal self,
self-image and true self. A maladjusted
personality results from disharmony
between the self-image, ideal self and
true self, causing self-esteem to suffer
and anxiety and defensiveness to
develop
-
-
● Piaget
Piaget's theory focuses on how children
develop their self-concept.
He proposed that self-concept evolves
through stages, starting with a lack of
self-awareness
in
infancy
and
progressing to a more complex
self-concept as children grow and
mature.
Piaget Stages of Cognitive Development
Sensorimotor Stage
Birth to 2 yrs
The infant explores the world through
direct sensory and motor contact. Object
permanence and separation anxiety
develop during this stage
Pre-operational Stage
2 to 7 yrs
The child uses symbols (words and
images) to represent objects but does
not reason logically. The child also has
the ability to pretend. During this stage,
the child is egocentric
Concrete Operational Stage
7 to 11 yrs
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●
●
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The child can think logically about
concrete objects and can thus add and
subtract. The child also understands
conversation
Formal Operational Stage
12 and up
The adolescent can reason abstractly
and think in hypothetical terms
● Bandura Social Cognitive Theory
Bandura's social cognitive theory
highlights the role of social interactions
and observational learning in shaping the
self.
He
introduced
the
concept
of
self-efficacy, which is an individual's
belief in their ability to perform specific
tasks or achieve goals.
There are three factors that determines
Human Behavior:
Cognitive Factors (also called
“Personal Factors”)
Knowledge
Expectations
Attitudes
Behavioral Factors
Skills
Practice
Self-efficacy
Environmental Factors
Social Norms
Access in community
Influence on others (ability to change
own environment)
● Daryl Bem
Bem's theory posits that individuals infer
their attitudes and beliefs by observing
their own behavior.
-
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-
-
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People determine their thoughts and
feelings based on how they act in
specific situations, which contributes to
their self-concept.
Self Perception states that people’s
attitudes are developed by observing
their own behaviors
● Richard Ryan & Edward Deci
Self-determination theory focuses on the
role of intrinsic motivation in shaping the
self.
It emphasizes the importance of
autonomy, competence, and relatedness
in fostering a healthy self-concept.
Competence (the need to be effective in
dealing with the environment growing
and developing skills in response to
challenges) + Belonging (the need to
have close affectionate relationships
feeling like a valued team member) +
Autonomy
(the
need
to
feel
self-governing and independent working
in a way consistent to personal values) =
Happiness, Wellbeing, Energy
● Henri Tajfel & John Turner
Social identity theory explores how group
memberships (e.g., nationality, ethnicity,
or gender) influence an individual's
self-concept.
People categorize themselves and others
based on these group identities, affecting
their self-concept and behavior.
41
4. Trait Perspective
- Trait theories, such as the Five-Factor
Model (Big Five), propose that
personality can be understood through a
set of stable traits or dimensions.
-
-
-
● James Marcia
Marcia's identity theory describes how
individuals develop their identities
through exploration & commitment in
various life domains (e.g., career,
relationships).
The theory identifies identity statuses,
such as identity diffusion & identity
achievement.
● Raymond Cattell & Hans J.
Eysenck
Traits like openness, conscientiousness,
extraversion,
agreeableness,
and
neuroticism contribute to an individual's
self-concept and behavior.
42
5. Biological and Genetic Theories
- Some theories propose a biological basis
for personality and the self.
- They investigate how genetics, brain
structure, and neurotransmitters may
contribute to personality traits and
individual differences in self-concept.
-
-
● Erik Erikson Psychosocial Theory
Erikson's
theory
of
psychosocial
development identifies stages of life
where individuals confront identity
crises.
The development of a strong and stable
self-identity is a central aspect of this
theory.
43
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● John Bowlby & Mary Ainsworth
Attachment theory explores how early
caregiver relationships influence an
individual's self-concept and attachment
style.
Secure or insecure attachment patterns
may shape how individuals view
themselves and their relationships.
-
-
-
-
-
● Alfred Adler
Adler explored the influence of birth
order on an individual's self-concept and
personality.
He suggested that birth order shapes the
roles and expectations that individuals
encounter
within
their
families,
influencing their self-perception and
behavior.
● Leon Festinger
This theory revolves around the idea that
individuals strive for internal consistency
in their beliefs, attitudes, and actions.
When there is inconsistency or
dissonance between these elements, it
creates psychological discomfort or
tension.
44
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-
● Karen Horney
Neurotic needs are excessive and
irrational desires or dependencies that
individuals develop as a way to cope with
anxiety and the challenges of life. These
neurotic
needs
are
considered
maladaptive because they can lead to
inner conflicts, emotional distress, and
difficulties
in
forming
healthy
relationships.
Neurotic trends, in the context of Karen
Horney's psychoanalytic theory, refer to
maladaptive patterns of behavior and
thinking that individuals develop as
coping mechanisms to deal with anxiety
and the challenges of life.
45