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Handbook for Writing Research Paper
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Guide to Write Research Paper
1
1
Guide to Write Research Paper
??
What is a Research Paper
What image comes into mind as we hear the words ‘Research Paper’: working with
stacks of articles and books; hunting the ‘treasure’ of others’ thoughts; preparing research
report on the basis of primary or secondary data? Whatever image we create, it’s a sure
bet that we’re envisioning sources of information—articles, books, people, and artworks.
Yet a research paper is more than the sum of sources, more than a collection of different
pieces of information about a topic, and more than a review of the literature in a field.
A research paper analyzes a perspective or argues a point. Regardless of the type of
research paper the researcher is writing, the researcher should present his own thinking
backed up by others’ ideas and information. A research paper involves surveying a field
of knowledge in order to find the best possible information in that field and that survey
can be orderly and focused.
What is Management Research Paper
Management papers are developed to express the knowledge and learning, in addition
to the inclusion of information from the texts, current events in business, and past research
that defines the ability to connect learning to application. Every researcher specifically
researching in the field of management should answer some key questions before submitting
a paper. The first question every researcher should answer is “Why am I writing this
paper?” If the answer is of the form “to document what I have been doing for the past
two years”, then researcher is in danger of writing a bad paper. Another poor answer is
“to help build my case for tenure”. Tenure may be initial motivation for writing a paper,
but it should not be the only motivation. The purpose of the paper should be to communicate
something to someone. So, the next questions are “What is my paper trying to say?” and
A Handbook for Writing Research Paper
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“Who is the audience for my paper?” If researcher cannot clearly answer these questions,
then the paper is likely to be poor.
A focused paper is better than a scattered paper. Resist the temptation to describe
every great idea that one may have while working on the project. Pick a primary message
and communicate it well. After deciding what the paper is trying to say, the next question
to answer is “Is it worth saying” Is it a new message, or just a rehash of an old message?
Is the message of value, or potential value, or is it trivial? Is it conjecture, or have the
researcher demonstrated the soundness of the conclusions. A complete job on paper includes
writing, editing and revising. Each complete revision is a draft. Don’t try to write just
one final draft of a paper. Always write a first draft with the intention of having one or
more revision drafts. For the first draft, author will find it faster to write something
approximating the points he/she wishes to make, then go back and revise them. While
drafting, keep computer or paper at hand so you can jot down new ideas as they occur.
It’s faster to edit and revise on computer, without printing out the intermediate drafts.
However, it is needed to print out a draft for editing. Format the text with double-spaced
or triple-spaced lines so that the changes can be marked between lines. Write a second
draft. Check the spelling and use a thesaurus to make improvements. If needed, edit the
second draft for a third draft, and so on.
Intentions for Writing the Research Papers
One may ask why researchers have to write down what they have been doing, or
what they are currently working on. Still, it may be asked why researchers have to turn
their writing into formal papers. Writing for others is more demanding than writing for
oneself but it can help to get a better understanding of the own ideas. As publications
have system-maintaining roles in their respective sciences, additional motivations for
researchers to write and publish their research work were discussed by Booth et al. He
listed three obvious reasons:
 To remember, because once something is forgotten, it cannot be reproduced correctly
without having written notice
 To understand, as writing about a subject can only be accomplished by approaching
the subject in a structured way, which itself leads to better understanding thereof
 To gain perspective, as writing includes looking at something from different points
of view.
O’Connor points out that writing and publishing research papers is essential if
management science is to progress. Peat et al. [7] provided a list of some pragmatic
reasons for writing down and publishing research results. Among them are:
–
–
–
–
–
The
The
The
The
It is
Researcher has some results that are worth reporting.
Researcher wants to contribute in the progress of scientific thought.
Researcher wants his work to reach a broader audience.
Research will improve the chances of promotion.
unethical to conduct a study and not report the findings.
Guide to Write Research Paper
3
Classification of Paper into one or the other Category
Pick the category which most closely describes the paper. Though some papers can
fit into more than one category but it is good to assign the paper to one of the categories
listed below to facilitate searching within the database:
 Research Paper: This category covers papers which report on any type of research
undertaken by the author(s). The research may involve the construction or testing
of a model or framework, action research, testing of data, market research or
surveys, empirical, scientific or clinical research.
 Viewpoint: Any paper, that includes content that is dependent on the author’s
opinion and interpretation, should be included in this category; this also includes
journalistic pieces.
 Technical Paper: Describes and evaluates technical products, processes or services.
 Conceptual Paper: These papers will not be based on empirical research but will
develop hypotheses. The papers are likely to be discursive and will cover
philosophical discussions and comparative studies of others’ work and thinking.
 Case Study: Case studies describe actual interventions or experiences within
organizations. They may well be subjective and will not generally report on research.
A description of a legal case or a hypothetical case study used as a teaching exercise
would also fit into this category.
 Literature Review: It is expected that all types of papers cite relevant literature
the literature review papers annotate and/or develop critique of the literature in
a particular subject area. It may be a selective bibliography providing advice on
information sources or it may be comprehensive in that the paper’s aim is to
cover the main contributors to the development of a topic and explore their different
views.
 General Review: This category covers those papers which provide an overview
or historical examination of some concept, technique or phenomenon. The papers
are likely to be more descriptive or instructional (“how to” papers) than discursive.
Starting Steps
Organizing in a logical order of the presentation of the research is the other half of
the battle involved in creating a successful management research paper. Preparing an
outline is important to ensuring that the argumentation supports the main research
statement. Be sure to construct the paper in a way that uses the “if this happens, then
this is the result” format and then tie the results back to the original premise of the
research. Do not assume that all the research pooled for the paper has to be used. After
further reading, researcher may discover that some of the material is not relevant or has
a bias that would not make it a good reference to substantiate the argument. Few starting
steps before writing the research paper can be as follows:
1. Pen down the thoughts you yourself have not generated or tested.
A Handbook for Writing Research Paper
4
2. Give sources for quotations, and be sure to quote any string of three or more
words that comes from a given source.
3. Paraphrase with care. Since copyright laws protect the expression of ideas.
4. Cite when in doubt. The overall idea is to cover the bases, leaving no question
about which ideas came from researcher and which came from others.
5. Contact the senior teacher or professor if struggling with the paper. Work out a
solution together instead of taking the plagiarism shortcut.
Transform the Research
While a management research paper is heavily based on available research, the premise
of the project is not to simply restate what has already been discovered. The primary
goal of doing a management research paper is to transform the research and make it
own, illustrating the concepts and theories to the point of understanding how these might
be applied to or solve a real-world critical business issues or problems. To help in
transforming the research into a research paper, it is a good idea to make a list of questions
at the start and then refer back to these while formulating the outline for the management
research paper. Finding the answers to these questions will then serve as the foundation
for the primary points the researcher will be making in the main body of the paper.
Adding personal experiences with management or as a manager within an organization
also helps transform the research into a compelling piece of work.
Solidify the Message
The best way to solidify the message in the management research paper is to re-read
the draft and revise it numerous times to ensure a succinct, powerful, and well-stated
argument for the particular research topic. This involves careful proof reading and a
review of a checklist provided by the publishers in terms of formatting. If this information
is not provided, be sure to consult a writing guide that focuses on specific ways to format
a research paper as well as explains the various standard referencing mechanisms, such
as APA, Harvard, and MLA, that will provide details to construct the bibliography as
well as internal references, footnotes, or endnotes. Unless you are an experienced researcher
it is important to submit the first draft to the guide or mentor who will check whether
or not the format has been adhered to. This format is very important because the publication
depend also on the format followed. Of course, there are those who would aver that the
content is more important than the format. This is not entirely true. Having a collection
of thoughts on a particular topic is not the same as having the same put into a particular
format that makes it more coherent and focused.
Over a period of time the research scholar is able to adhere to the research paper
format without the watchful eyes of the guide. Of course, a lot depends on the research
paper topic that is chosen. Unless these standard procedures are used it would become
quite difficult to judge the research papers and evaluate it based on purpose. The research
paper could be in any one of the styles that are mentioned below, depending on the
types of research papers written:
Guide to Write Research Paper
5
1) Harvard
2) APA
3) MLA
These are some of the most commonly used styles. Apart from the three mentioned
above, there are other formats too that are used. It is important to know the particular
kind of research paper format mainly because there is a certain methodology that needs
to be followed while inserting references and citations. In some cases, there are numbers
that are written as superscripts, which are then explained below either at the end of
each page or at the end of the complete work. These are called footnotes and endnotes
respectively.
Written Proposal of Research Papers
Research reports usually have five chapters with well-established sections in each
chapter. Readers of the research report will be looking for these chapters and sections.
Therefore, the researcher should not deviate from the standard format. Most research
studies begin with a written proposal. Again, nearly all proposals follow the same format.
In fact, the proposal is identical to the first three chapters of the final research report
except that it’s written in future tense. In the proposal, might say something like “the
researchers will secure the sample from ...”, while in the final paper, it would be changed
to “the researchers secured the sample from ...” Once again, with the exception of tense,
the proposal becomes the first three chapters of the final research paper. The most commonly
used style for writing research reports is called “APA” and the rules are described in the
Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. Avoid the use of first
person pronouns.. Instead of saying “I will ...” or “We will ...” say something like “The
researcher will ...” or “The research team will ...”.Never present a draft (rough) copy of
the proposal, thesis, dissertation, or research paper...even if asked. A paper that looks
like a draft will be interpreted as such, and the researcher can expect extensive and liberal
modifications. Take the time to put the paper in perfect APA format before showing it
to anyone else. The payoff will be great since it will then be perceived as a final paper,
and there will be far fewer changes.
Style, Layout, and Page Formatting
Title page
All text on the title page is centered vertically and horizontally. The title page has no
page number and it is not counted in any page numbering.
Page Layout
Left margin: 1½”
Right margin: 1"
Top margin: 1"
Bottom margin: 1"
A Handbook for Writing Research Paper
6
Page Numbering
Pages are numbered at the top right. There should be 1" of white space from the top
of the page number to the top of the paper. Numeric page numbering begins with the
first page.
Spacing and Justification
All pages are single sided. Text is double-spaced or 1.5 spaced, except for long quotations
and the bibliography (which are single-spaced). There is one blank line between a section
heading and the text that follows it. Justify the text.
Font face and Size
Any easily readable font is acceptable. The font should be 12 points or larger. Generally,
the same font must be used throughout the manuscript, except 1) tables and graphs may
use a different font, and 2) titles and section headings may use a different font.
Visual Layout
Give strong visual structure to the paper using
 sections and sub-sections

bullets

italics

laid-out code

draw pictures, and use them
Paper Organization
The general structure of a paper comprises three major sections: introduction, body,
and discussion. The progression of the thematic scope of a paper within these sections
typically follows a general pattern, namely the “hourglass model” shown below in figure
The introduction leads the reader from general motivation and a broad subject to a
particular research question to be dealt with in the paper. The body of the paper stays
within a tight thematic scope, describes the research methods and results in detail. The
discussion section aims to draw general conclusions from the particular results. This is
in line with Berry’s claim that a research paper should be circular in argument, i.e., the
conclusion should return to the opening, and examine the original purpose in the light
of the research presented. However, there are additional parts of a paper with equal
importance: title, abstract, and the references.
The extended hourglass model, the “King model” for its visual resemblance of the
chess piece, is shown in the figure 2. The following subsections describe all parts of a
published paper.
Guide to Write Research Paper
Fig: 1
7
Fig: 2
Fig.1 and 2, the hourglass model (left) and the King model (right) of paper structure.
– begin with the subject of the paper,
– The results presented in the paper are accurate, unambiguous, specific, and complete,
– do not contain abbreviations (unless they are well known by the target audience,
– attract readers.
Title: Research paper titles should be descriptive and informative. Sometimes the
research thesis or research question is used for a title. Avoid vague, inaccurate or amusing
titles.
Abstract- on-line search databases typically contain only abstracts, it is vital to write
a complete but concise description of the work to entice potential readers into obtaining
a copy of the full paper. Writers should follow a checklist consisting of: motivation, problem
statement, approach, results, and conclusions. Following this checklist should increase
the chance of people taking the time to obtain and read the complete paper.
Introduction: The introduction should appeal to a reader’s interest and it should
make clear what the research paper is about. Ask the research question. The question
can come first, informing the reader of the purpose of the research paper; or, the question
can come last, making a transition to the body of the research paper.
Body: The meat of a research paper is evidence, facts and details. The researcher
8
A Handbook for Writing Research Paper
can’t have too much documentation, too many references. On the other hand, it is possible
to have too many quotes. Discover information and analyze and evaluate it for readers.
Tell readers what the data means and show them how to weigh the evidence. Present
the evidence in the body of the research paper. Point out strengths and weaknesses on
both sides of the issue. Making concessions establishes that the researcher have researched
the issue thoroughly.
Artwork: Use appropriate drawings, pictures, diagrams, maps, tables and charts to
illustrate key points. Keep artwork simple.
Conclusion: The conclusion of the research paper is the culmination of everything
written in the paper before the conclusion. The research question is answered in the
conclusion. The conclusion should include one to one correspondence between the objectives
and their satisfaction.
Discussion- The discussion portion typically centers on what the results mean and
more importantly why? Remember that a strong research paper actually justifies discussion.
The researcher needs to ensure that the thesis indicates the point of the discussion.
The discussion should be a summary of the principal results. Look for relationships,
generalizations as well as trends among the results as well as their exceptions. Talk about
the most likely causes which are found underlying the patterns resulting in the predictions.
There are a host of other questions which the researcher should deal with such as does
it agree or perhaps contradict previous work? Talk about implications and possibilities.
Remember to add evidence or even a line of reasoning which supports each interpretation.
It might be helpful to break up this particular section into different logical segments
with the help of subheadings.
Steps for Writing the Research Paper
Pick the Problem and Designing the Topic
Success starts with the right topic and scope of the research that would be involved.
In terms of a management research paper, there are a seemingly endless amount of problems
and issues that span across every aspect of a business, organization, and industry, so it
is important to narrow the subject matter and find the niche. It is important to pick a
research topic that interests the researcher and that has application for field of study.
Additionally, the research should be something that is relevant to today’s business
environment, such as something that relates to the issues of sustainability, ethics, corporate
responsibility, the use of technology, or new management styles that can be successful
in the global information society.
Topic Selection- For a research paper, report or article, the researcher learns information
about a subject, then set forth a point of view and support it with evidence from authorities
known as sources. All of their sources must be declared via citations within the research
paper. The typical research paper, report or article is an informative document, which
sheds light on an event, person or current issue. It also may be persuasive. If a subject
Guide to Write Research Paper
9
intrigues the researcher, he will do a better job on the finished product. As the home in
on a general topic, consider using the brainstorm and free write techniques. Eventually,
every researcher must narrow the general topic to a specific research question.
Generating Ideas for Topic of the Research Paper
1. Brainstorming
Brainstorming, sometimes known as thinking on paper, means jotting down ideas in
a computer file or on paper may be used to generate large amount of data in a short
time.
 List all ideas that come to mind—alone or in a group.
 Ask journalistic questions and answers to ensure consideration of all angles—
who, what, when, where, why, how?
 Limit all writing to point form to avoid writer’s block.
 Consider your point of view on an issue and establish your own bias or feelings
on a topic.
2. Free Writing
Free writing can help the researcher to find ideas by writing quickly, with no plan,
and without stopping for ten to twenty minutes. Don’t worry about what to say first;
start in the middle. Ignore grammar, spelling and organization. Let the thoughts flow
into a computer file or onto paper as they come. If researcher draws a blank, write your
last word over and over. More ideas will follow. Free write more than once, then write
a sentence, which begins, “My main point is ...”. Good writing has a subject, purpose
and audience. Consider the audience for the research work, and how the purpose limits
the subject. Think about how important the topic is in relation to the purpose of the
investigation. Keep in mind the availability, variety and worth of materials that will be
able to find. Consider the amount of time available.
Unsuitable topics: A research paper topic would be a poor choice if it were...
 Too Broad: Should you try to cover the entire subject. Narrow the scope of the
topic to include only a portion of a broad subject.
 Too Subjective: A personal topic, such as “Why my Learning is Best,” may be
unsuitable because you probably won’t be able to support it from library sources.
 Too Controversial: Avoid any subject about which can’t be written objectively.
 Too Familiar: The work on a research paper should lead to discovery of things
the researcher doesn’t already know.
 Don’t submit a research paper already written for another purpose.
 Too Technical: Don’t write about a topic that is still not understood thoroughly
after the complete research.
A Handbook for Writing Research Paper
10
 Crystallizes what we don’t understand. This forces us to be clear focused
 Opens the way to dialogue with others: reality check, critique, and collaboration
IDEA
DO RESEARCH
WRITE RESEARCH
PAPER
Topic Selection: Model 1
IDEA
WRITE
RESEARCH
PAPER
DO
RESEARCH
Topic Selection: Model 2
At the outset, when one wishes to write a research paper, confirm the following checklist
for deciding about the title.
Checklist-1
 Where do you want to send your article for publication?
 What is the proposed title?
Guide to Write Research Paper
11
 If the idea is to publish, then go through the earlier publication/s to know what
kinds of papers are published - this will give you idea about the way titles are
presented.
 Select the topic which will be very useful for the readers and also latest one.
 What kind of data/information needs to be collected from different sources in
order to write a good paper?
 Start with introduction - objectives - have survey of literature - will it be possible
to collect the data required for the research.
 Decide how many pages need to be prepared. This is very essential in order to
decide how much inputs are required.
 Try to refer recent articles, information, data etc.
 Don’t forget to record acknowledgement for the information you have taken.
Important: Research paper titles should be descriptive and informative. Sometimes
the research thesis or research question is used for a title. Avoid vague, inaccurate or
amusing titles. After topic selection, form a research question and hypothesis. A hypothesis
is a working idea that the evidence may support. The researcher should have a hypothesis
in mind as he/she starts looking into the subject. While writing the paper, the researcher
may narrow the hypothesis or even discover a better hypothesis. Be prepared to change
the hypothesis if evidence doesn’t support it.
3. The Abstract
Basically, an abstract comprises a one-paragraph summary of the whole paper. An
abstract is a concise single paragraph summary of completed work or work in progress.
In a minute or less a reader can learn the rationale behind the study, general approach
to the problem, pertinent results, and important conclusions or new questions. Abstracts
have become increasingly important, as electronic publication databases are the primary
means of finding research reports in a certain subject area today. So everything relevant
to potential readers should be in the abstract, everything else not. There are two basic
types of abstract:
– An informative abstract extracts everything relevant from the paper, such as primary
research objectives addressed, methods employed in solving the problems, results
obtained, and conclusions drawn. Such abstracts may serve as a highly aggregated
substitute for the full paper.
– On the other hand, an indicative or descriptive abstract rather describes the content
of the paper and may thus serve as an outline of what is presented in the paper.
This kind of abstract cannot serve as a substitute for the full text.
Writing an abstract
Purpose
What are the reason(s) for writing the paper or the aims of the research?
A Handbook for Writing Research Paper
12
Design/ Methodology/ Approach
How are the objectives achieved? Include the main method(s) used for the research.
What is the approach to the topic and what is the theoretical or subject scope of the
paper?
Findings
What was found in the course of the work? This will refer to analysis, discussion, or
results.
Research Limitations/ Implications (if applicable)
If research is reported on in the paper this section must be completed and should
include suggestions for future research and any identified limitations in the research
process.
Practical Implications (if applicable)
What outcomes and implications for practice, applications and consequences are
identified? How will the research impact upon the business or enterprise? What changes
to practice should be made as a result of this research? What is the commercial or economic
impact? Not all papers will have practical implications.
Social Implications (if applicable)
What will be the impact on society of this research? How will it influence public
attitudes? How will it influence (corporate) social responsibility or environmental issues?
How could it inform public or industry policy? How might it affect quality of life? Not
all papers will have social implications.
Originality/ Value
What is new in the paper? State the value of the paper and to whom.
Using Keywords
Using keywords is a vital part of abstract writing, because of the practice of retrieving
information electronically: keywords act as the search term. Use keywords that are specific,
and that reflect what is essential about the paper. Put yourself in the position of someone
researching in your field: what would you look for? Consider also whether you can use
any of the current “buzz words”.
Style
 Single paragraph, and concise
 As a summary of work done, it is always written in past tense
 An abstract should stand on its own, and not refer to any other part of the paper
such as a figure or table
Guide to Write Research Paper
13
 Focus on summarizing results - limit background information to a sentence or
two, if absolutely necessary
 What the researcher report in an abstract must be consistent with what is reported
in the paper
 Correct spelling, clarity of sentences and phrases, and proper reporting of quantities
(proper units, significant figures) are just as important in an abstract as they are
anywhere else.
Checklist 2
A checklist defining relevant parts of an abstract is proposed below:
1. Motivation: Why do we care about the problem and the results?
2. Problem statement: What problem is the paper trying to solve and what is the
scope of the work?
3. Approach: What was done to solve the problem?
4. Results: What is the answer to the problem?
5. Conclusions: What implications does the answer imply?
6. Abstracts should contain no more than 250 words or as per the requirements of
the publisher. Write concisely and clearly. The abstract should reflect only what
appears in the original paper.
Important - There are some things that should not be included in an abstract, i.e.
information and conclusions not stated in the paper, references to other literature, the
exact title phrase, and illustrative elements such as tables and figures.
4. Introduction
The introduction serves the purpose of leading the reader from a general subject
area to a particular field of research. Three phases of an introduction can be identified
1. Establish a territory
a) Bring out the importance of the subject and/or
b) Make general statements about the subject and/or
c) Present an overview on current research on the subject.
2. Establish a niche
a) Oppose an existing assumption or
b) Reveal a research gap or
c) Formulate a research question or problem or
d) Continue a tradition.
3. Occupy the niche
a) Sketch the intent of the own work and/or
A Handbook for Writing Research Paper
14
b) Outline important characteristics of the own work;
c) Outline important results;
d) Give a brief outlook on the structure of the paper.
In brief, the introduction should guide the reader to understand the rest of the paper
without referring to previous publications on the topic. Even though the introduction is
the first main section in a paper, many researchers write – or at least finish – it very late
in the paper writing process, as at this point the paper structure is complete, the reporting
has been done and conclusions have been drawn.
Writing an Introduction
The introduction is the only text in a research paper to be written without using
paragraphs in order to separate major points. Approaches vary widely; however for the
following approach can produce an effective introduction.
 Describe the importance (significance) of the study - why was this worth doing
in the first place? Provide a broad context.
 Defend the model - why did you use this particular organism or system? What
are its advantages? The researcher might comment on its suitability from a theoretical
point of view as well as indicate practical reasons for using it.
 Provide a rationale. State the specific hypothesis(es) or objective(s), and describe
the reasoning to select them.
 Very briefly describe the research design and how it accomplished the stated
objectives.
Style
 Use past tense except when referring to established facts. After all, the paper will
be submitted after all of the work is completed.
 Organize the ideas, making one major point with each paragraph.
 Present background information only as needed in order to support a position.
The reader does not want to read everything the researcher knows about a subject.
 State the hypothesis/objective precisely - do not oversimplify.
 As always, pay attention to spelling, clarity and appropriateness of sentences
and phrases.
5. Review the Research
What is a Literature Review?
A review of the literature is an essential part of the academic research project. The
review is a careful examination of a body of literature pointing toward the answer to the
research question. A literature or a body of literature is a collection of published research
relevant to a research question. All good research writings are guided by a review of the
Guide to Write Research Paper
15
relevant literature. The literature review will be the mechanism by which the research
is viewed as a cumulative process. That makes it an integral component of the scientific
process. There are a number of steps to take in selecting the research problem and then
filtering through all of the information to find the data that substantiates the research
title that researcher have chosen or that has been assigned by an organization. Be sure
to get the details on the format and referencing style that is required since everything
presented in the paper must be attributed to the person who provided that research
material. The Internet has opened up the doors of opportunity for accessing a wealth of
in-depth research material by providing a number of open-sourced academic databases
that contain recent findings and studies. Some of the databases do require either a password
that can be obtained from the university or a small payment to join. Emerald and Science
Direct are particularly excellent sources of high-quality research material. Many other
researchers have made their published papers available online, so be sure to search Google
using specific keywords that relate to the research topic. The university library should
not be left out as an excellent place for source material.
Why do it - The purpose of the literature review remains the same regardless of the
research methodology used. It is an essential test of the research question, which is already
known about the subject. Literature review can be used to discover whether someone
else has already answered the research question. If it has, the researchers must change
or modify the question.
Importance of Review- It is important because it shows what previous researchers
have discovered. It is usually quite long and primarily depends upon how much research
has previously been done in the area researcher is planning to investigate. If the researcher
is planning to explore a relatively new area, the literature review should cite similar
areas of study or studies that lead up to the current research. Never say that the area is
so new that no research exists. It is one of the key elements that readers look at when
reading the research papers and approving them for publication.
Where to start? Often, it is appropriate to start the research with encyclopedias, almanacs
and dictionaries for broad, general background information on a topic. Next, check
specialized encyclopedias, bibliographies and handbooks on your topic. Search general,
then specialized indexes and databases for articles on the chosen subject in authoritative
books, scholarly journals, trade papers, consumer magazines and newspapers. One may
search all of these resources on web with the help of search engines like Google.
Taking Notes: Read every source for facts, opinions and examples relating to the
subject. Jot down notes of information either in computer files or on cards that is important
in answering the research question. Record page numbers in the source for each fact or
quote while jotting down. If one wishes to quote from a source, make sure that exact
wording have been recorded along with the page number.
Organizing Information: After completing the main research, organize the information
in such a way that guides the researcher to research specific points while writing the
research paper.
A Handbook for Writing Research Paper
16
Outlining the Research Paper: Group the information in computer files or on note
cards coherently by topic that will lead to an efficient working outline. Organize the
points either from most-to-least or least-to-most important. Write an outline from the
organization of the computer files or note cards. List the major divisions and subdivisions
to visualize the ideas and supporting material. The outline will reveal whether the research
has turned up enough materials to support the conclusion.
How to do Bibliographies
Creating a bibliography manually can be a very annoying and time-consuming job.
Professional researchers who work with citations every day use one of the commercial
computer software tools for tracking references.
Word Processors: Although modern word processors are loaded with features, they
don’t offer complete help with one of academic writing’s most laborious tasks — the
bibliography. Creating a “bib” means tracking references, including citations in text, and
formatting each reference in a particular style. Two commercial computer programs (End
Notes3 and Pro Cite) perform those tasks. They are like employing a personal librarian
to track, store and retrieve bibliographic references while you do scholarly writing.
Researchers, scholars, writers, reporters, authors, reviewers, teachers and anyone
gathering and maintaining bibliographical references and publishing papers and reports
can use these tools to access, organize and update article references pulled from the
expanding literature in a knowledge field.
Mechanics of a Literature Review- The literature review will have two components:
the search through the literature and the writing of the review. Obviously, the search is
the first step. However, the researcher must remember that we love knowledge and that
academic databases can be seductive. The researcher could spend untold hours clicking
around the bibliographies of the favorite collections. It may have fun, but might not
advance the literature review.
The Solution: Have the research question been written down and at hand when you
arrive at the computer to search databases. Prepare in advance a plan and a preset time
limit.
 Finding too much? If you find so many citations that there is no end in sight to
the number of references you could use, it is time to re-evaluate the question. It’s
too broad.
 Finding too Little? On the other hand, if you can’t find much of anything, ask
yourself if you are looking in the right area. The topic is too narrow.
 Leading Edge Research: What if the researcher is trying to research an area that
seems to have never been examined before? Be systematic. Look at journals that
print abstracts in that subject area to get an overview of the scope of the available
literature. Then, the search could start from a general source, such as a book, and
work its way from those references to the specific topic. Or, it could start with a
Guide to Write Research Paper
17
specific source, such as a research paper, and work from that author’s references.
There isn’t a single best approach.
 Take thorough Notes: Be sure to write copious notes on everything. It is very
frustrating not to find a reference found earlier that the researcher wants to read
in full.
 It’s not hard to open up a blank document in Word, WordPad (Windows) or
SimpleText (Macintosh) to keep a running set of notes during a computer search
session. Just jump back and forth between the Web browser screen and the notepad
screen.
 Using Resources Wisely: Practice makes a person perfect. Learn how the computer
system works and then use the available computer resources properly and efficiently.
Log onto the Internet frequently. Visit the on-line library. Play with the database
resources.
 Identify Publications, which print abstracts of articles and books in the chosen
subject area. Look for journals from which researcher can identify the most useful
references. Identify those authors who seem to be important in subject area. Identify
keywords of area of interest. Read online library catalogs to find available holdings.
Be sure to write notes on everything.
 Getting Ready to Write: Eventually, a broad overview picture of the literature in
subject area will begin to emerge. Then it’s time to review the notes and begin to
draft the literature review.
 Pile them on a table and sit down. Turn to research question. Write it out again
at the head of a list of the various keywords and authors that have been uncovered
during the review.
Writing the Review: One draft won’t cut it. Plan from the outset to write and rewrite.
Naturally, the researcher will crave a sense of forward momentum, so don’t get bogged
down. It is not important to write the review in a linear fashion from start to finish. If
one area of the writing is proving difficult, jump to another part.
Edit and Rewrite. The goal is to communicate effectively and efficiently the answer
found to research question in the literature. Make it clear, concise and consistent. Big
words and technical terms are not clear to everyone. They make it hard for all readers
to understand the writing.
Checklist - 4
 -
Is there enough material on each point?
-
Will this amount of information seem convincing?
-
What are the assumptions in the research?
-
What are the implications of the research?
-
How old is this information?
A Handbook for Writing Research Paper
18
 -
Do I have the most recent data?
-
Who are the authorities?
-
Has the information come from recognized experts?
-
Has the information come from respected publications?
-
Are the terms clearly defined?
-
Are all sources using the terms in the same way?
-
Is all the information relevant?
-
What do the statistics mean?
-
How were the statistics gathered?
-
What are the relative merits of the arguments?
-
Which arguments are stronger?
-
Which arguments are less significant?
 What is known about my subject?
 What is the chronology of the development of knowledge about my subject?
 Are there any gaps in knowledge of my subject?
 How do I intend to bridge the gaps?
 Is there a consensus on relevant issues? Or is there significant debate on issues?
What are the various positions?
 What is the most fruitful direction I can see for my research as a result of my
literature review?
 What directions are indicated by the work of other researchers?
Important- Academic researchers reach into scholarly journal databases to build
bibliographies for their papers. On-line library provides access to academic databases
for use in scholarly projects.
Evaluating Evidence (Primary vs. Secondary Evidence)
Primary evidence: A primary source of evidence is first-hand data collected through
interviews, experiments, fieldwork and other hands-on efforts. Secondary evidence: A
secondary source of evidence is information published about research done by others.
Most library material is secondary evidence.
5 - The Body of Research Paper
The body of a paper reports on the actual research done to answer the research question
or problem identified in the introduction. It should be written as if it were an unfolding
discussion, each idea at a time. Generally, the body of a paper answers two questions,
namely how was the
Guide to Write Research Paper
19
A) Research question addressed (methods)
B) What was found (results).
Normally, the body comprises several subsections, whereas actual structure,
organization, and content depend heavily on the type of paper.
– In empirical papers, the paper body describes the material and data used for the
study, the methodologies applied to answer the research questions, and the results
obtained. It is very important that the study is described in a way that makes it
possible for peers to repeat or to reproduce it.
– Case study papers describe the application of existing methods, theory or tools.
Crucial is the value of the reflections abstracted from the experience and their
relevance to other designers or to researchers working on related methods, theories
or tools.
– Methodology papers describe a novel method which may be intended for use in
research or practical settings (or both), but the paper should be clear about the
intended audience.
– Theory papers describe principles, concepts or models on which work in the field
(empirical, experience, methodology) is based; authors of theoretical papers are
expected to position their ideas within a broad context of related frameworks
and theories. Important criteria are the originality or soundness of the analysis
provided as well as the relevance of the theoretical content to practice and/or
research in the field.
Methodology
The methodology section of body describes the basic research plan. It usually begins
with a few short introductory paragraphs that restate purpose and research questions.
Keep the wording of the research questions consistent throughout the document.
Population and Sampling
It all begins with a precise definition of the population. The whole idea of inferential
research (using a sample to represent the entire population) depends upon an accurate
description of the population. Usually, just one sentence is necessary to define the
population. Examples are: “The population for this study is defined as all adult customers
who make a purchase in our stores during the sampling time frame”, or “...all home
owners in the city of Mumbai”, or “...all potential consumers of product”.
While the population can usually be defined by a single statement, the sampling
procedure needs to be described in extensive detail. There are numerous sampling methods
from which to choose. Describe in minute detail, how the researcher selected the sample.
Use specific names, places, times, etc. Don’t omit any details. This is extremely important
because the reader of the paper must decide if the sample will sufficiently represent the
population.
20
A Handbook for Writing Research Paper
Instrumentation
If researcher is using a survey that was designed by someone else, state the source
of the survey. Describe the theoretical constructs that the survey is attempting to measure.
Include a copy of the actual survey in the appendix and state that a copy of the survey
is in the appendix.
Procedure and Time Frame
State exactly when did the research begin and when was it completed. Describe any
special procedures that were followed (e.g., instructions that were read to participants,
presentation of an informed consent form, etc.).
Analysis Plan
The analysis plan should be described in detail. Each research question will usually
require its own analysis. Thus, the research questions should be addressed one at a time
followed by a description of the type of statistical tests that will be performed to answer
that research question. Be specific. State what variables have been included in the analyses
and identify and mention the dependent and independent variables if such a relationship
exists. Decision making criteria (e.g., the critical alpha level) should also be stated, as
well as the computer software that was used.
Validity and reliability
If the survey was being designed by someone else, then describe the previous validity
and reliability assessments. When using an existing instrument, researcher wants to perform
the same reliability measurement as the author of the instrument. If the researcher had
developed his own survey, then he must describe the steps he took to assess its validity
and a description of how the reliability was measured
Validity- refers to the accuracy or truthfulness of a measure. Are we measuring what
we think we are? There are no statistical tests to measure validity. All assessments of
validity are subjective opinions based on the judgment of the researcher. Nevertheless,
there are at least three types of validity that should be addressed and the researcher
should state what steps he took to assess validity
Face validity refers to the likelihood that a question will be misunderstood or
misinterpreted. Pre-testing a survey is a good way to increase the likelihood of face validity.
Content validity refers to whether an instrument provides adequate coverage of a
topic. Expert opinions, literature searches, and pretest open-ended questions help to
establish content validity.
Construct validity refers to the theoretical foundations underlying a particular scale
or measurement. It looks at the underlying theories or constructs that explain phenomena.
In other words, if the researcher is using several survey items to measure a more global
construct (e.g., a subscale of a survey), then he should describe why the researcher believe
the items comprise a construct. If a construct has been identified by previous researchers,
Guide to Write Research Paper
21
then describe the criteria they used to validate the construct. A technique known as
confirmatory factor analysis is often used to explore how individual survey items contribute
to an overall construct measurement.
Reliability is synonymous with repeatability or stability. A measure that yields consistent
results over time is said to be reliable. When a measure is prone to random error, it lacks
reliability. There are three basic methods to test reliability: test-retest, equivalent form,
and internal consistency. Most research uses some form of internal consistency. When
there is a scale of items all attempting to measure the same construct, then we would
expect a large degree of coherence in the way people answer those items. Various statistical
tests can measure the degree of coherence. Another way to test reliability is to ask the
same question with slightly different wording in different parts of the survey. The correlation
between the items is a measure of their reliability.
Assumptions
All research studies make assumptions. The most obvious is that the sample represents
the population. Other common assumptions are that an instrument has validity and is
measuring the desired constructs. Still another is that respondents will answer a survey
truthfully. The important point is for the researcher to state specifically what assumptions
are being made.
Scope and limitations
All research studies also have limitations and a finite scope. Limitations are often
imposed by time and budget constraints. Precisely list the limitations of the study. Describe
the extent to which the researcher believes the limitations degrade the quality of the
research.
Writing the methods section
Methods
 Report the methodology.
 details of each procedure included in the methodology
 To be concise, present methods under headings devoted to specific procedures
or groups of procedures.
Style
 It is awkward or impossible to use active voice when documenting methods without
using first person, which would focus the reader’s attention on the investigator
rather than the work. Therefore when writing up the methods most authors use
third person passive voice.
 Use normal prose in this and in every other section of the paper – avoid informal
lists, and use complete sentences.
A Handbook for Writing Research Paper
22
What to avoid
 Methods are not a set of instructions.
 Omit all explanatory information and background - save it for the discussion.
Checklist-5
 Reported the description of the sample
 Reported the type of sampling method used
 Reported the software used for analyzing the data
 Reported the tool used for collecting the data.
 Reported the tools used for analyzing the data
 Reported the sample size, sample element and sampling extent
 Reported the various demographic information
 Reported the descriptive statistics of the sample
 Reported the type of research Design
Results and Discussion
Results: The results of all the tools used for analysis must be included in the results
section. The summary of results should be included in this section if some of the data
analysis results into multiple tables displaying results or the tables are very large. The
large tables and multiple tables already used for preparing summary tables should be
presented under the annexure heading. The results tables should be interpreted immediately
following the tables. Also, sentencing on the hypothesis tested through statistical tests
and presented in the results section should be presented immediately after the results
tables.
If there are a large number of statistical tests presented in the results section, a summary
of these results should be presented to show all the results together. The summary should
not contain too many details about the results; idea is to provide at a glance results of
the study. The summary provides the readers of this paper a bird’s view of all the results
of the study.
Discussion: Thinking in terms of the hourglass model (Figure 1) the discussion and
conclusion section is somehow the counterpart to the introduction since this section should
lead the reader from narrow and/or very specific results to more general conclusions.
The function of the Discussion is to interpret results in light of what was already known
about the subject of the investigation, and to explain new understanding of the problem
after taking the results into consideration. The Discussion will always connect to the
Introduction by way of the question(s) or hypotheses posed and the literature cited, but
it does not simply repeat or rearrange the Introduction. Instead, it tells how study has
moved us forward from the place left at the end of the Introduction. Generally, this section
includes:
Guide to Write Research Paper
23
– Presentation of background information as well as recapitulation of the research
aims of the present study.
– Brief summary of the results, whereas the focus lies on discussing and not on the
details of results.
Recapitulating the results
– Comparison of results with previously published studies.
– Conclusions or hypotheses drawn from the results, with summary of evidence
for each conclusion.
– Proposed follow-up research questions.
Writing The Discussion
Writing a discussion section is where the researcher needs to interpret work. In this
critical part of the research paper, process of correlating and explaining the data should
be started. If someone left few interesting leads and open questions in the results section,
the discussion is simply a matter of building upon those and expanding them. In an
ideal world, someone could simply reject null or alternative hypotheses according to
the significance levels found by the statistics. That is the main point of discussion section,
but the process is usually a lot more complex than that. It is rarely clear-cut, and researcher
will need to interpret the findings. For example, one of the graphs may show a distinct
trend, but not enough to reach an acceptable significance level. Remember that ‘no
significance’ is not the same as ‘no difference’, and researcher can begin to explain this
in discussion section. For this purpose, experiment should be criticized, and be honest
about whether the design was good enough. If not, suggest any modifications and
improvements that could be made to the design. The discussion section is not always
about what is found, but what was not find, and how to deals with that. Stating that the
results were inconclusive is the easy way out, and one must always try to pick out something
of value. One should always put findings into the context of the previous research that
have been cited in the literature review section. Do your results agree or disagree with
previous research? Finally, after saying all of this, a statement can be made about whether
the experiment has contributed to knowledge in the field, or not. Once writing the discussion
section is completed, one can move onto the next stage, wrapping up the paper with a
focused conclusion.
Style: Use the active voice whenever possible in this section. Watch out for wordy
phrases; be concise and make results points clearly. Use of the first person is okay, but
too much use of the first person may actually distract the reader from the main points.
Fourteen Steps to Writing an Effective Discussion Section
The organization of the Discussion is important. Before beginning it should be tried
to develop an outline to organize thoughts in a logical form, cluster map can be used,
an issue tree, numbering, or some other organizational structure. The steps listed below
are intended to help organize the thoughts. To make message clear, the discussion should
24
A Handbook for Writing Research Paper
be kept as short as possible while clearly and fully stating, supporting, explaining, and
defending your answers and discussing other important and directly relevant issues.
Care must be taken to provide commentary and not a reiteration of the results. Side
issues should not be included, as these tend to obscure the message. No paper is perfect;
the key is to help the reader determine what can be positively learned and what is more
speculative.
1. Organize the Discussion from the specific to the general: researcher findings to
the literature, to theory, to practice.
2. Use the same key terms, the same verb tense (present tense), and the same point
of view that you used when posing the questions in the Introduction.
3. Begin by re-stating the hypothesis that were tested and answering the questions
posed in the introduction.
4. Support the answers with the results. Explain how the results relate to expectations
and to the literature, clearly stating why they are acceptable and how they are
consistent or fit in with previously published knowledge on the topic.
5. Address all the results relating to the questions, regardless of whether or not the
findings were statistically significant.
6. Describe the patterns, principles, and relationships shown by each major finding/
result and put them in perspective. The sequencing of providing this information
is important; first state the answer, then the relevant results, then cites the work
of others. If necessary, point the reader to a figure or table to enhance the “story”.
7. Discuss and evaluate conflicting explanations of the results. This is the sign of a
good discussion.
8. Discuss any unexpected findings. When discussing an unexpected finding, begin
the paragraph with the finding and then describe it.
9. Identify potential limitations and weaknesses and comment on the relative
importance of these to your interpretation of the results and how they may affect
the validity of the findings. When identifying limitations and weaknesses, avoid
using an apologetic tone.
10. Summarize concisely the principal implications of the findings, regardless of
statistical significance.
11. Provide recommendations (no more than two) for further research. Do not offer
suggestions which could have been easily addressed within the study, as this
shows there has been inadequate examination and interpretation of the data.
12. Explain how the results and conclusions of this study are important and how
they influence our knowledge or understanding of the problem being examined.
13. In the writing of the Discussion, discuss everything, but be concise, brief, and
specific.
Guide to Write Research Paper
25
Checklist-6
1. What did the researcher expect to find, and why?
2. How did the results compare with those expected?
3. How might researcher explain any unexpected results?
4. How might the researcher test these potential explanations?
5. Background information
6. Statement of results
7. Expected outcome
9. Reference to previous research
10. Explanation
11. Exemplification
12. Deduction and Hypothesis
13. Recommendation
Elements to Include in Conclusion
 State the study’s major findings
 Explain the meaning and importance of the findings
 Relate the findings to those of similar studies
 Consider alternative explanations of the findings
 State the clinical relevance of the findings
 Acknowledge the study’s limitations
 Make suggestions for further research
REFERENCES
Embedding the own work in related literature is one of the essential parts of research writing. There
are citations of references in the text, as well as a list of cited references at the end of the paper.
Different publishers require Basics of Research Paper Writing and Publishing different formats
or styles of (a) citing in the paper text and (b) for listing references. The most commonly used
referencing systems are:
Name and Year System: References are cited by their respective authors and the year of publication,
e.g., “Chuck and Norris (2003) define .....”. This system is very convenient for authors, as the
citation does not have to be changed when adding or removing references from the list. The
fact that sentences become hard to read when subsequently citing many references in one single
parenthesis; this way is one negative aspect for readers.
Alphabet-Number System: This system lists the references in alphabetical order and cites them by
their respective number in parentheses or (square) brackets, e.g., “As reported in [4],” This system
is relatively convenient for readers, as it does not break the flow of words while reading a sentence
with many citations. On the other hand, the author has to keep an eye on the references cited
in the text as their numbers may change when the reference list is updated.
A Handbook for Writing Research Paper
26
Citation Order System: This system is similar to the alphabet-number system with one major difference:
the reference list is not sorted alphabetically, but in the order of appearance (citation by number)
in the text.
Variations of the referencing systems mentioned above are used in most of the common style guides.
The overall most widely used styles include: American Psychological Association (APA) Style.
APA Style - is a set of rules developed to assist reading comprehension in the social
and behavioral sciences. APA style” is the set of specific formatting conventions sanctioned
by the American Psychological Association. The collected procedures of any style are
usually referred to collectively as a “style sheet.” Elements of the APA style sheet include
such in-text matters as punctuation standards, margin depth, line spacing, and heading
format. This series of pages, however, will concentrate mostly on the post-text elements
of APA style—that is, how to assemble and format entries for specific sources on the
“References” page of a research paper.
Why Formatting is Important
In academic writing, the reader’s response to a piece of writing is crucial. In Such a
situation where the research will be published or circulated, and read by others in the
field, style sheets are equally important. Proper formatting is the hallmark of a detailoriented researcher. A writer who makes style sheet errors because he or she believes
they are “no big deal” might be surprised when evaluators question other details of the
paper, such as the data on which the conclusions are based. After all, if a writer can’t get
all the periods in the right places, how can he or she be expected to correctly calculate
an ANOVA or T-test? Finally, remember that the whole purpose of citing sources is to
give readers the information they need to locate the various sources the researcher has
used in the paper. Sometimes, a reader might simply want to read the whole source to
learn more about the subject. Other times, a reader might want to find more about the
context of the quote; perhaps to check that it really applies in the context in which researcher
is using it. In other cases, a reader might want to verify that the writer actually said
whatever is quoted them as saying. In all of these situations, the reader should be able
to find the original piece of writing based on the information researcher provides.
The citation format depends on a major factor: the kind of source you’re referring to.
The type of the source will determine the elements that need to be included and the
order in which they are presented. While there are actually many different types of source
materials, there are certain kinds that are cited most often:
 Books
 Articles In Journals
 Chapters In Edited Books
 Eric Resources
 Internet Resources
 Unpublished Sources
 Conference Papers
Guide to Write Research Paper
27
 Authors
 Publication Dates
 Titles
Authors
There are basically two types of authors: people and institutions. There are specific
formatting guidelines for both types of authors.
People as Authors
The number of people credited with authoring a particular document can range from
one to twelve and more. When large groups of people generate a text, authorship is
often assigned to the institution that these people have in common. In most cases, however,
the authors of a document are named individually, and each name is given in the
bibliographic reference for that work. For each person listed as an author, the researcher
must give that person’s last name, and the initials of any other “name elements” given
for that person. If a first or middle name is given, researcher will provide only the first
initial of that first or last name. If a first or middle initial is given, these initials go in as
read. For authors (though not for editors), type the last name, then a comma, then first
and middle (and any subsequent) initials. Put a period after each initial. For example:
John Wilkes Booth
Booth, J. W.
John F. Kennedy
Kennedy, J. F
C. Thomas Howell
Howell, C. T.
P. D. James
James, P. D.
J.R.R. Tolkien
Tolkien, J.R.R
When multiple authors are given for a single document, all authors are listed in the
order given in the document. Put a comma between each person’s name, and put an
ampersand (&) before the final name. If only two authors are given, this means the
ampersand goes between the first and second author. Since the list of authors will necessarily
end with the period that follows the final initial of the final author listed, no further
punctuation is needed. Here are some examples:
One author
Blythe, Q. L.
Two authors
Martin, U. M., & Wenmbsley-Meekes, I.
Three authors
Aaron, H., Upswitch, J. T., & Rennington, S.
Seven authors
Sleepy, A., Happy, B., Grumpy, C., Sneezy, D., Bashful, E.,
Dopey, F., & Doc, G.
Institutions as Authors
Sometimes a particular person or group of people is not credited with authorship
of a document. In cases like this, the work is said to have “institutional authorship”.
A Handbook for Writing Research Paper
28
Citing institutions as authors is quite simple. Simply spell out the name of the institution
and end it with a period. Do not use abbreviations in institutional authors: spell everything
out. Capitalize every word in the name of the institution, except for prepositions (like
of, to, and from), articles (like a, an, and the), and conjunctions (like and or). However,
if the first word of the title is a preposition, article or conjunction, capitalize it anyway.
Institutional Authors
Association of Indian Management Schools. Securities and
Exchange Board of India.
Publication Dates
It’s important to know the date a document was published. This information tells
the reader how much time has passed between the writing and publication of the source
document and the writing of your own research paper. Obviously, in research writing,
the newer the information, the better. The date of publication is almost always the second
element of the reference, coming right after the author(s). With few exceptions, only the
year of publication is given. The year is included in parenthesis, and followed by a period.
Standard form
(1994).
Republished Books
Sometimes a book is republished for various reasons. If a book is out of print, and
sufficient demand exists, a publisher might begin printing it again to capitalize on that
demand. When this happens, citing the newer publication date would be misleadingthe book is exactly the same as when it was originally published. In cases like this, two
dates are given: the original publication date and the new publication date. The two
dates are included in parentheses, separated by a slash. The right parenthesis is followed
by a period.
No Date Given
In rare cases, no date is given for the publication of a source. While this is much
more common with older sources, this still happens today. Instead of a date simply put
“n. d.” in the parentheses when a date is not available. Follow the right parenthesis with
a period.
Standard form
(1994)
Republished source
(1969/1996)
No date given
(n. d.)
Titles
Every document has (or should have) a title. Some citations—such as articles in journals
and chapters in edited books—will actually need two titles: the title of the smaller work
(the article or chapter) and the title of the larger work (the journal or book). Whether
one or two titles are necessary will depend on the source you are working with. Titles
Guide to Write Research Paper
29
are often broken into two or more parts. Sometimes a subtitle is tacked onto a title to
clarify the meaning of the title. Sometimes the title as written is purposefully obscure;
the subtitle in these cases indicates the source’s real content. If a source like a book or
monograph is part of a series, the series title is sometimes included as a sort of subtitle.
It’s important to know how to format the various elements of your source’s title.
Capitalize the first word in each element: main title, subtitle, and series name. If any
element contains a proper name, capitalize that too. Use a colon (:) between main title
and subtitle, main title and series name, or subtitle and series name. Precede a series
name with the abbreviation “Vol.” and the source’s number within that series, as in “Vol.
2.” If all three elements exist, put the series name last.
The titles of larger sources (such as books and journals) are underlined, while the
titles of smaller sources (such as articles and chapters) are not. Additionally, some titles
are followed by a period, while others are not. Check the section on the individual source
type for further information about formatting the title(s).
Title only
A Handbook of Psychology
Title and subtitle
Project Management: Planning and Control
Title and series name
Business Economics in The Current State of Business
Discipline: Vol. 2.
Title, subtitle, and series name
Pricing, Business Economics, The Current State of
Business Discipline: Vol. 2
A book is a work that is published once, not as part of a regular series. Books can be
revised and republished: each revision is considered a new edition of the same book. A
book, as we are defining it here, is distinguished from an edited book in that the entire
text of the work is written by the same author, group of authors, or institution. If individual
sections of the work you are citing were written by different authors, refer to the page,
chapters in edited books.
Necessary Information and Where to Find it
Author(s) of book
Can generally be found on both the cover (and or dust jacket)
and title page.
Year of publication
Can sometimes be found at the bottom of the title page;
otherwise look on the page directly behind the title page,
where it says “Copyright ©.”
Title of book
Can be found on both the cover (and or dust jacket) and title
page (naturally).
Edition/Revisionnumber (if any)
Is usually indicated on the cover (or dust jacket) or title page.
If no edition number or revision information is present on
either of these places, assume that the book is an original
edition.
Place of publication
Is usually listed on the title page
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30
Publishing entity
Is almost always listed at the bottom of the title page. If no
listing is made here, try the page directly behind the title
page.
Citation Formats
Author, A. A. (1996). Title of book. City: Publisher.
Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (1996). Title of book: Subtitle of book (edition). City,
ST: Publisher.
Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (1996). Title of book: Vol. 1. Title of
series. City, Country: Publisher.
Journal is a blanket term for a scholarly publication that is published periodicallygenerally either monthly or quarterly. A journal is distinct from a magazine in that journals
are generally for a very specific audience: experts within a specific scholarly or professional
field. Magazines, on the other hand, usually have a more general readership. While
magazines sometimes report new or ongoing research, the information is often given
second-hand. If an article in a magazine reports any kind of scholarly research, chances
are pretty good that the information was originally presented in a journal.
The information contained in a journal article is often more valuable than the information
found in books, because turnaround time for journals is usually quite short. While it
takes months or years for a book to be published, an article could conceivably be written,
submitted, accepted, and published in a journal all in a matter of weeks. Thus, since
journal articles generally present fresh, cutting-edge information, their value and validity
in the research process cannot be understated.
Necessary Information and where to Find it
Author(s) of article
Can be found either in the table of contents or on the first page of the
article.
Year of publication
Is almost always included on the front cover of the journal, or on the
journal’s title page. Often the publication year can also be found on the
first page of each article, at the top of each page, or on the journal’s spine.
Title of article
Is printed in the table of contents and on the first page of the article.
Title of journal
Is indicated on the journal’s front cover or title page. Sometimes it will
also be printed at the top of each page and on the journal’s spine.
Volume number
Is usually noted on the front cover or title page of the journal.
Issue number
Is used only if the journal paginates each issue individually; the issue
number can usually be found either on the front cover or title page.
Sometimes the issue number is also found on the first page of the article.
Pages of chapter
Are sometimes specified as a range in the table of contents;
otherwise, make a note of the first and last page numbers of
the actual article.
Guide to Write Research Paper
31
Citation Elements
Author(s) Of Article
For journal articles, put each author’s last name, then a comma, then the first initial
of the given name, then any additional initials. A period should follow each initial. Separate
the last author from the second-to-last author with a comma and ampersand (&). Separate
any additional authors by commas.
One author
Keely, J. T.
Two authors
Luggio, M. R., & Moulton-Kowinski, R. S.
Three authors
Jackson, B. I., Jackson, G. P., & Jackson, I. G.
Year of Publication
Even though a month or season of publication may be given for a specific journal,
include only the year of publication, in parenthesis, and end with a period. (An individual
issue within a journal’s yearly output is indicated by the page range, if the journal paginates
by volume, or issue number, if the journal paginates by issue.)
Standard form
(1993).
(1982).
Title of Article
Give the full title of the article, including the subtitle if one is given. Capitalize only
the first word of the title, and the first word of any subtitle; also capitalize any proper
names in the title. Separate title and subtitles with a colon (:). Journal articles do not get
any other special formatting: no quotation marks or underlining. End the title with a
period.
Standard form
Statistical Methods
Title and subtitle
Statistical Methods: Concepts and Applications.
Title of Journal
The title of the journal is given in full, including the subtitle if any. Capitalize only
the first word of the title, and the first word of any subtitle; also capitalize any proper
names in the title. Separate title and subtitle with a colon (:). Italicize the title and subtitle
and follow them with a comma, which is also in italics.
Standard form
Prestige International Journal of Technology and Management
Title and subtitle
Sanchayan: Prestige international journal of technology and
management
Volume Number
The volume number indicates the total number of years a particular journal has been
A Handbook for Writing Research Paper
32
published-one volume per year. Sometimes a journal prints its volume number in Roman
numerals; if this is the case, translate the volume number into Arabic (regular) numerals.
The volume number is preceded by a comma and space, followed by a comma. If no
issue number is necessary (see next section), the journal title, comma and space, volume
number, and comma are italicized continuously. If an issue number is present, only the
journal title, comma and space, and volume number are italicized. The issue number,
and the comma which follows it, is never italicized.
Volume alone
Journal title, 25,
Volume and issue
Journal title, 18 (6),
Issue Number
An issue number is only provided if the particular journal starts pagination over at
page 1 at the beginning of each issue. If pagination does not start over for every issue,
issue numbers are redundant-they give more information than is necessary to re-locate
the source. However, if each issue’s pagination begins with page 1, give the issue number
in your reference entry. After the volume number, put a space, then the issue number in
parentheses, then a comma. The issue number, the space before it, and the comma after
it are not italicized.
Standard form
Journal title, 25 (6),
Journal title, 18 (3),
Page Numbers
Page numbers give the range of pages for the journal article. The first number is the
first page on which the article appears; the second number is the last page of the article’s
text, notes or bibliography (whichever comes last). The page numbers come directly after
the comma that follows the volume or issue number, and are preceded by a space, separated
by a hyphen, and followed by a period.
After volume
18, 94-156.
After issue
9 (6), 221-238.
Citation Formats
Author, A. A. (1996). Title of journal article. Title of journal, volume number, first page-last page.
Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (1996). Title of journal article: Subtitle of journal article. Title of journal,
Volume number, first page-last page.
Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (1996). Title of journal article. Title of journal: Subtitle of
journal, volume number (issue number), first page-last page.
Citation in Chapter
Author, A. A. (1996). Title of chapter. In E. E. Editor (Ed.), Title of book (pp. first page-last page). City:
Publisher.
Guide to Write Research Paper
33
Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (1996). Title of chapter: Subtitle of chapter. In E. E. Editor, & F. F. Editor
(Eds.), Title of book: Subtitle of book (edition, pp. first page-last page). City, ST: Publisher.
Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (1996). Title of chapter: Subtitle of chapter. In E. E. Editor,
F. F. Editor, & G. G. Editor (Eds.), Title of book: Subtitle of book (edition, pp. first page-last
page). City, Country: Publisher.
Unpublished refers to any information source that is not officially released by an individual, publishing
house, or other company, and can include both paper and electronic sources. Some examples of
unpublished sources may include manuscripts accepted for publication but still "in-press," data
from an unpublished study, letters, manuscripts in preparation, memos, personal communications
(including e-mails), and raw data.
Author, A. A. (1996). Title of paper or manuscript. Unpublished manuscript.
Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (1996). Title of paper: Subtitle of paper. Manuscript submitted for publication.
Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (1996). [Topic of study or untitled work]. Unpublished
raw data.
Huge quantities of information are now available electronically via the Internet. Most
college students now have access to the World Wide Web, either on computers at school
or at home by dialing up a server with a modem. Electronic texts (or "e-texts") are popping
up more and more in research papers. There are a number of reasons for this. On one
hand, the internet gives users access to the information on hundreds of thousands of
servers throughout the world-the breadth and depth of available knowledge is incredible.
On the other hand, the documents on the internet are "surfable" from a single location,
bringing a global library to your computer. However, several problems have arisen from
this surge in the availability and popularity of electronically-accessed information.
First, many researchers have no idea how to cite electronic texts. Only the most current
style manuals give any hint as to how to write a reference entry for, say, a Web page;
even then, the citation formats are sometimes confusing and outdated. Interestingly enough,
it is Web sites like this one that can help solve this problem.
Second, compared to print-based resources, e-texts are relatively unstable. While a
book consists of information encoded in ink on a printed page, an e-text exists as magnetic
pulses over a telephone line. Discounting mishaps such as fire, flood, and theft, books
are fairly permanent. As anyone who uses computers can tell you, though, servers go
down and phone connections get cut. Electronic documents can literally be here today
and gone tomorrow. As we've mentioned before, the whole purpose of a
Volume number only
Journal Title [On-line serial], 56.
Issue number only
Journal Title [On-line serial], (3).
Volume and issue
Journal Title [On-line serial], 56 (3).
None
Journal Title [On-line serial].
reference is to allow readers to find a source themselves. If the source itself no longer
exists, this causes problems for validity and verification.
One possible solution to this problem is to keep careful records. Saving e-texts (either
as screenshots or text files) will allow you to produce the source for a reader, even if the
A Handbook for Writing Research Paper
34
document has disappeared from the server on which you found it. In addition, it's also
wise to use many different types of documents-books and journals, as well as e-textsrather than relying heavily on one kind of source.
Necessary information and where to find it
Author(s) of document
If an author is given it is usually at the very beginning or very end of
a particular document; when in doubt, look for an email address-this
will often lead you to the name of the person who authored the document
Date of publication
If given, the document's date will be included somewhere in its text.
There is a special way to note if the document has no specific date. Date
of publication on the web (or the date of most recently version)
Title of document
The placement of documents' titles varies. Generally, web authors place
a title at the top of the actual web page. If no title is there, use the title
of the window as it opens in your web browser
Type of document
Varies according to the source of the document. See below for details
on this citation element
Volume and issue number
(on-line journals)
If a volume and issue number is given, it will probably be in the header
for the document, close to the title
Volume and/or Issue Number (On-line Journals)
For on-line journals which give a volume number only, put the volume number after
the comma which follows the journal's title and descriptor, and follow it with a period.
The volume number, like the title, should be underlined. If the on-line journal in question
gives an issue number only, put the issue number in parentheses, after the comma which
follows the journal's title and descriptor. Follow the issue number--or rather, the parenthesis
which brackets it, with a period. Issue numbers are never underlined.
For on-line journals which give a volume number and issue number, put a comma
after the journal title and descriptor, then a space, then the volume number, then a space,
then the issue number in parentheses, then a period. Only the journal title and volume
number are underlined. If an on-line journal gives neither volume nor issue number,
simply put the journal's title and descriptor, and end with a period.
Citation Formats for Online Journal
Author, A. A. (1996). Title of electronic text [E-text type]. Location of document
Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (1996). Title of electronic journal article. Title of electronic journal [Online serial], Volume number (Issue number). Email address and request message
CITATION FORMATS
Author, A. A. (1996). Title of book. City: Publisher.
Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (1996). Title of book: Subtitle of book. City, ST: Publisher.
Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (1956/1996). Title of book: Vol. 1. Title of series. City,
Country: Publisher.
Guide to Write Research Paper
35
Journal Articles
Citation Formats
Author, A.A. (1996). Title of journal article. Title of journal, volume number, first page-last page.
Author, A.A., & Author, B.B. (1996). Title of journal article: Subtitle of journal article. Title of journal,
volume number, first page-last page.
Author, A.A., Author, B.B., & Author, C.C. (1996). Title of journal article. Title of journal: Subtitle of
journal, volume number (issue number), first page-last page.
Chapters in Edited Books
Citation Formats
Author, A.A. (1996). Title of the article. In E.E. Editor, Title of book (pp. 1-25). City: Publisher.
Author, A.A., & Author, B.B. (1996). Title of the article. In E.E. Editor, & F.F. editor, Title of book: Subtitle
of book (2nd. ed., pp. 1-25). City, ST: Publisher.
Author, A.A., Author, B.B., & Author, C.C. (1956/1996). Title of the article. In E.E. Editor, F.F. Editor,
& G.G. Editor, Title of book: Subtitle of book (Rev. ed., pp. 1-25). City, Country: Publisher.
Eric Documents
Citation Formats
Author, A. A. (1996). Title of ERIC document (Report No. AB-12). City, ST: Sponsoring Entity. (ERIC
Document Reproduction Service No. ED 123 456)
Institutional Author. (1996). Title of ERIC document (Report No. AB-12). City, Country: Sponsoring
Entity. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 123 456)
Internet Documents
Citation Formats
Author, A. A. (1996). Title of electronic text [E-text type]. Location of document
Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (1996). Title of electronic journal article. Title of electronic journal [Online serial], Volume number. Email address and request message
Checklist-7






Check the information for authors for writing styles
Do not site too old reference.
Order it according to the requirement of publisher(alphabetically or by appearance)
Cite your own publish work also.
Check if there are red marks in the word file it indicate typos in the work.
Check if there are green marks in the word file for grammatical error.
Important Consideration
Avoid Plagiarism-Documenting the Sources
Give credit to every single source used in the article, even if the information is changed
into own words. When writer's exact wording is used, put quotation marks around those
36
A Handbook for Writing Research Paper
words and use a citation. Plagiarism means writing facts, opinions or quotations taken
from someone else or from books, magazines, newspapers, journals, movies, television
or tapes as if they were own and without identifying the source. Unintentional plagiarism
still is plagiarism. Document all sources using the citation style of either the American
Psychological Association (APA). Include the works cited at the end of the research paper.
The researcher must acknowledge the source of any:
 Statistic
 Paraphrase
 Concrete fact
 Direct quotation
 Idea other than your own
 Opinion held by someone else
 Information not commonly known
Is It Premature?
Many papers are rejected because they are "premature". This characterization means
that the work appears to be interesting, but it has not progressed far enough to be worth
reporting in a conference paper. The paper may have more conjectures or opinions than
results. Perhaps there are ideas that look promising, but they have not been worked out
in enough detail. Perhaps more analysis of the issues is needed. Perhaps the proposed
technique sounds interesting, but its value cannot be determined until it has been
implemented. An experience paper may be called premature if it offers conjectures about
expected results rather than reporting observed results.
The decision to accept or reject a paper that is premature is a judgment call by the
program committee. A committee may choose in some cases to accept a paper that presents
early work of a profound or provocative nature.
Is it Sound?
If the correctness of the work is in doubt, the paper will probably be rejected. Soundness
of ideas or techniques can often be demonstrated by the depth and clarity of the analysis,
or by reference to a working implementation. Questions of soundness often arise for
papers that present algorithms or proofs (see the next two sections).
Proofs
A formal proof is of value only if it is convincing. While a reviewer may be able to
spot an error in a faulty proof, one cannot expect a reviewer to validate a proof. Therefore,
any sloppiness in the formalism is grounds for suspicion (and likely rejection of the
paper). It is better to avoid formality than to misuse it.
In addition to being convincing, a proof must prove something worth proving. It is
not worth anyone's time to read a paper that proves an irrelevant result. Be careful about
including a proof in an effort to make your paper more "prestigious". This approach
may backfire, as a sloppy or unmotivated proof can easily cause a paper to be rejected
that otherwise might have been accepted.
Guide to Write Research Paper
37
Generality
A paper that can demonstrate the value (or disadvantage) of a subject could be of
great interest to all researchers of the same subject.
Don't be Isolated
If the researcher is writing a research paper, it is important that to be familiar with
the larger area, and not isolate to the narrower domain of object technology.
Writing
Effective communication is important for a successful paper. A paper has little value
if its intended audience cannot understand it. An incomprehensible paper cannot even
be reviewed. Most authors will benefit from having their paper reviewed by a skilled
writer. If your native language is not English, you have an extra burden. If at all possible,
try to have your paper reviewed by a native or fluent speaker of English.
Feedback
Most papers are substantially improved by getting feedback from other people. Giving
a talk to a small group is an excellent way to get feedback and to force you to organize
the thoughts. The reviewers operate under strict time constraints, and the committee
must make quick decisions. A paper will not receive the careful attention that it would
from a journal. Furthermore, the committee may need to satisfy other constraints in putting
together a successful program. As a result, some good papers will be rejected. Authors
should carefully consider any reviewer comments and get opinions from experienced
colleagues before deciding whether to abandon the effort or to revise the paper and
submit it elsewhere.
A Handbook for Writing Research Paper
38
2
Illusion of Trust and its Effect Performance:
A Study of Teams During a Workshop
Dr. S.S. Bhakar, Prof. Sneha Rajput, Prof. Sushma Suri, Ms. Iram Naaz,
Mr. Muwaya Ahmad, Pritviraj Mathur, Tanmayee Pandit, Anjali Sharma
& Sonal Kushwaha
ABSTRACT
With the growing complexities in the Modern Organizations, where the cutthroat competition
to prove oneself exist along with the necessity for high performance. Working individually or in
a Hierarchical manner is entirely different as compared to working in teams where the presence
of trust leads to elevated performance. The current study focuses on the impact of Trust on
performance. The study was conducted during the ongoing research Workshop in which 80
participants were present out of which 70 candidates responded to the questionnaire. Out of 70
candidates, 8 did not disclosed Either age or Gender or both. Finally the study was done on 62
complete questionnaires. Trust was taken as Independent variable and Performance as dependent
one. The Reliability of the study was quite high, in case of trust it was .859 and in case of Performance
it was .794. The overall model fit was evaluated using F Test having value of 11.369, which was
significant at0.000 level of significance, indicating that the model has high fit. The effect of trust
was evaluated on Team performance which was found to be significant at0.000 level of significance
. But the gender and age do not have any significant Effect on Team performance neither individually
nor collectively as the value was found insignificant at .497 and .972 respectively and in case
collective significance value was .636.Thus the study concludes the impact of Trust on Team
Performance But no significant impact of Age and Gender was found on Performance.
Key Words: Trust, Team Performance and Teams.
1.1. Trust
Trust means being able to forecast what other people will do and what situations
Illusion of Trust and its Effect Performance: A Study of Teams During a Workshop
39
will occur. If we can surround ourselves with people we trust, then we can create a safe
present and an even better future. Trust means making an exchange with someone when
you do not have full knowledge about them, their things they are offering to you. Trust
means giving something now with an expectation that it will be repaid, possibly in some
unspecified way at some unspecified time in the future.
David et al.(2004) identified four types of interpersonal trust in their study- Calculative
Competence, Relational, Integrated Trust. The study disclosed association between
calculative, competence, and relational interpersonal trust and performance and also
positive association between integrated interpersonal trust and performance not only
yields the strongest support for a relationship between trust and VCR i.e. Virtual
Collaborative Relationship performance but also contradicts prior research. The study
also established that if any one type of trust is negative, then it is very likely that VCR
performance will not be positive. The findings indicated that integrated types of
interpersonal trust are interdependent, and the various patterns of interaction among
them are such that they are mutually reinforcing.
Covey in his book named “The Speed of Trust” has given remarkable statement
regarding trust and its importance in all the walk of life saying “There is one thing that
is common to every individual, relationship, team, family, organization, nation, economy,
and civilization throughout the world—one thing which, if removed, will destroy the
most powerful government, the most successful business, the most thriving economy,
the most influential leadership, the greatest friendship, the strongest character, the deepest
love”.
Trustcan also be viewed as a unilateral attribution, and as a personality trait
generalizable across situations, without much concern for reciprocity (Mayer, Davis and
Schoorman, 1995). The organization’s culture would have an important impact on levels
of trust that are likely to develop. Trust can be considered as the most important determinant
of the performance and more over it is a concept that help up to understand the other
person in an positive manner and that any of his or her action will not lead in making
harm to our positive action. The presence of trust on other generates high degree of
faith in others and the feeling that person will perform all his or her task positively
towards us.
1.2 Performance
Performance can be defined as an act of performing; the carrying in to execution or
action; execution; achievement; accomplishment; representation by action; as, the
performance of an undertaken of a duty (ardictionary.com). Perceived performance is in
some ways the most important aspect of performance, especially for GUI applications.
Performance is really in the eye of the beholder. Users rarely measure performance with
a stopwatch-for GUI applications in particular, what’s important is how fast the program
feels, rather than how fast it really is.(java.sun.com)
Performance Management may be a system of evaluating employees to help them
reach reasonable goals and thus ensure that the company performs better (wisegeek.com)
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A Handbook for Writing Research Paper
Armstrong and Baron (1998), has defined Performance Management is both a strategic
and an integrated approach to delivering successful results in organizations by improving
the performance and developing the capabilities of teams and individuals.
“Taking action in response to actual performance to make outcomes for users and
the public better than they would otherwise be”.(idea.gov.uk.)
1.3 Teams
Katzenbach and Smith(1993) defined it as “A team is a small number of people with
complementary skills who are committed to a common purpose, performance goals, and
approach for which they are mutually accountable.” Lewis-McClear & Taylor (1998)”A
group in which members work together intensively to achieve a common group goal.”
And as the reduction of complexity(Luhmann, 1988)
YourDictionary defines teamwork as the actions of individuals, brought together for
a common purpose or goal, which subordinate the needs of the individual to the needs
of the group. In essence, each person on the team puts aside his or her individual needs
to work towards the larger group objective. The interactions among the members and
the work they complete is called teamwork.(yourdictionary.com)
Gondal and Khan (2008) described the word team that it is belong to a small group
in which the members keep a common purpose, interdependent roles and complementary
skills. One team is a mixture of members who have similar backgrounds and work
experiences and may contain a rich diversity of individuals from different business
functions, and with different cultural backgrounds and work styles. They examined that
team empowerment and team performance keep positive relationship. The results are
useful for team leaders and middle managers to understand why empowerment is
important for teams and how to support the team research and also help the project
managers/team leaders to create empowerment for the work teams. Managers should
be aware of effect of the team empowerment on team performance.
Giles Hirst (2009) has shown in his study that performance depends on the alignment
of the team’s design, processes, and personnel means teams as interdependent systems.
2. Review of Literature
Benoit A. Aubert, Barbara L. Kelsey (2000) in an empirical study reveled the fact that
ability and integrity as the antecedents trust formation in Virtual teams.The study also
explained the fact that effective team performance was found to be independent of the
formation of trust a behavior. As per the research done by Knack(1848) the Conjoint
action is possible just in proportion as human beings can rely on each other. He also
discussed in the same research that Trust potentially can influence economic performance
through either of two major channels, “micro-economic” and “macro-political.” At the
micro level, social ties and interpersonal trust can reduce transactions costs, enforce
contracts, and facilitate credit at the level of individual investors and at macro level
social cohesion underlying trust may strengthen democratic governance, improve the
Illusion of Trust and its Effect Performance: A Study of Teams During a Workshop
41
efficiency and honesty of public administration, and improve the quality of economic
policies.
Peterson and Behfar (2003) explored the dynamic relationships between intragroup
conflict and performance with a longitudinal design.The study was done on 67 groups,
the researched surveyed all 252 students in 67 teams in the first year of an MBA class
twice during that initial term and the result suggested that initial performance feedback
to groups can have significant consequences for future team interaction. The study found
evidences to suggest that, (a) negative initial group performance feedback results in later
increases in both task and relationship conflict, but that (b) groups with high early intragroup
trust are buffered from experiencing the worst of future relationship conflict.
Rempel, Holmes and Zanna (1985), disclosed in their study that individuals come to
trust others by watching their interactions, looking for consistent patterns of positive
behavior. Sashittal et al (1998) has confirmed from his study that Managers are concerned
about the link that can exist between their own perception of their performance and
others’ evaluation of their performance. The study revolves around the impact of trust
managers develop with their colleagues and superiors, on performance evaluation. In
his study with 105 subjects, he also mentioned that although trust represents an important
feature of inter-personal relationships, its influence on performance evaluations remains
largely understudied, the case is made that in addition to other factors, the nature of
trust strongly impacts how managers’ performance is evaluated.
Though many authors have explained various factors that leads to trustworthiness
but the contribution of Butler (1991) is much significant, as he listed factors that are
important to attribute trustworthiness to another party. In the same list he included
availability, competence, consistency, discreetness, fairness, integrity, loyalty, openness,
promise fulfillment, and receptivity as the major ones.
Mayer and Schoorman(1998), found in his study on two dimensions of Organizational
Commitment i.e. Value Commitment and Continuance Commitment, differential
antecedentsof these two dimensions. Organizational tenure, retirement benefits, education
and age were more highly correlated with Continuance commitment, while felt
participation, perceived prestige, job involvement, and role ambiguity were more highly
correlated with Value commitment. With the help of LISREL 7 pattern of relationship
between the antecedents and the two commitment dimensions was supported.
Mayer and Norman (2004)in their article emphasized that need to study the requirement
of Trust is not only limited till interorganization but it is highly required at
intraorganizational level too. Their study Based on the 1995 Mayer, Davis, & Schoorman
model of trust, describes exercises that allow students to inductively discover the importance
of a trustee’s ability, benevolence, and integrity to the assessment of trustworthiness.
The above factor definitely leads to quick decision making too as the overall performance
effectiveness leads to the same. More the degree of trust more is the presence of Group
Cohesiveness. Festinger(1950) defined Cohesiveness as the resultant of all the forces acting
on the members to remain in the group. These forces may depend on the attractiveness
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A Handbook for Writing Research Paper
or unattractiveness of either the prestige of the group, members in the group, or the
activities in which the group engages. Kline(2000), has also summarized the findings of
his research by saying that cohesive workplace teams can an do make intuitive decisions,
same was supported by Dyaram and Kamalanabhan (2005). Social cohesion as a socioeconomic phenomenon in which group values and ethics play a significant role in
influencing behavior (Heuser, 2005)
Freda et. Al (2003) revealed in his research which was done on 148 members of 28
teams across four organizations in two organizations that there exist a strong relationship
between trust and performance. The first organization has the strongest relationships
between trust and performance (positive correlations were found in 23 of28 situations)
suggesting that team performance increases as trust increases. For the second organization,
positive correlations were found in 16 of28 situations. In addition, in both these
organizations, the relationship between critical errors of teams and specific trust items
was inversely correlated - as trust increases, critical quality errors decrease. Thus, it can
be said that increasing trust among team members seems to increase team performance
for these organizations. A limited correlation was seen between trustand performancefor
the third and fourth organizations. This relationshipwas not supported in most ofthe
items, especially for the fourth organization.So, other factors are needed to be discovered.
Kanfer and Ackerman’s (1989) theory offers insights into the relationship between
trust and performance: an issue that diverts one’s focus of attention from a task may
hurt performance. Others have also noted the importance of the ability to focus attention
on performance (George & Brief, 1996; McAllister, 1995). This reasoning appears to clarify
the relationship between trust and performance.
Kirkman et al (1997) mentioned various criteria on which the Team performance can
be evaluated. The criteria he explained were evidence of continuous problem solving,
the continual search for alternative solutions, continuous improvement of quality of outputs,
error and wastage rates, productivity improvement.
Benoit A. Aubert, Barbara L. Kelsey(2000) finded that trust among the members of
a team having the opportunity to meet face to face is consistently higher than trust with
the members with whom the interactions are strictly virtual. This result was obtained
even if teams had access to a rich environment (mail, chat, forums, web site, exchange
of photos on the web site, etc.) to increase the quality of their interactions. The results
also indicate that, contrary to what was anticipated, trust among interacting parties does
not increase with time and number of interactions. In fact, results showed that trust
increased among sub-groups interacting face to face but decreased among members meeting
only in cyberspace.
Barbara Misztal in her book attempts to combine all notions of trust together. She
points out three basic things that trust does in the lives of people: It makes social life
predictable, it creates a sense of community and it makes it easier for people to work
together.
Dirks & Ferrin, (2001, 2002) have suggested trust as one of the important and beneficial
factors for increasing performance.
Illusion of Trust and its Effect Performance: A Study of Teams During a Workshop
43
Carson, Madhok, Varman, and John (2003) argued that the effect of trust on task
performance in vertical R&D collaborations strengthens with the clients’ ability to
understand the tasks involved. Langfred (2004) argued that the effect of trust on the
performance of self-managing teams reverses when individual autonomy is high.
Coyel (2002) have studied the trust in relation to OCB( i.e. Organization Citizenship
Behavior).The results of this study supported the contention that the psychological contract
is distinctive from other social exchange constructs that focus exclusively on the
inducements received in the exchange relationship. Along with this the study also explained,
the anticipation of future inducements is important in explaining employees’ willingness
to engage in OCB beyond the motivational influence of present inducements as well as
the difference between perceived obligations and inducements is supported in terms of
their respective relationship with OCB. The main finding which can help the current
study says that trust in the employer strengthens the relationship between employer
obligations and OCB; acceptance of the norm of reciprocity strengthens the relationship
between employer inducements and OCB.
Higgs (2005) study confirmed a apparent relationship between team composition
(diversity), difficulty of task and team performance. Diversity was found to be positively
related to performance for difficult tasks and negatively related for straightforward tasks.
He indicated that there can be benefit in considering the complexity of a task or project
before assembling a team. The degree of complexity could inform the mix of individuals
to be included in the team in terms of diversity of personal traits.
Nakat, Zhu and Kraimer (2008), determined that IT capability contributes to market
and financial performance via customer orientation and depends on intra-organizational
trust. Also, as managers learn to harness IT capability for per-formance gains, they can
bear in mind the difficulty of relationships shown in their study.
Berman & Jason (1998), in their study revealed that superiors construct their reality,
and in this context, construct their view of how managers perform, it is based on subjective
analyses of the nature of trust that exists in their relationships with managers, and in
the relationship between managers and colleagues. They found that affective trust as a
key compare of performance evaluation. To get positive performance evaluations seems
far more about being perceived as someone who likes his/her colleagues and superiors,
and trusts the firm’s internal environment .Therefore, team oriented organizations in
flatter, socially expert, confident, and comfortable managers appear to win.Dirks (1999)
suggested in his study that trust understood as a construct that influences group
performance indirectly by channelling group member’s energy toward reaching alternative
goals. Qureshi, M. Tahir Khan, A. Shafkat, Khan, & B. Mohammad (2008), described that
MBO practices, Coaching and mentoring, Performance Based Reward, Employee
participation and Job Description are positively contributing towards organizational and
employee performance but employee participation and Coaching & Mentoring are major
contributors. Kearney (2008), showed in their study that the age difference between the
team leader and the team members was examined as a moderator of the relationship
between transformational leadership and team supervisors’ longitudinal ratings of team
A Handbook for Writing Research Paper
44
performance. Data collected by him reveals that relationship was positive when the leader
was older than the other team members, but non-significant when the leader’s age was
closer to the mean age of the team members.
3. Objective
3.1 To develop standardize a measure for evaluating a illusion of trust and performance.
3.2 To evaluate to relationship between trust and performance.
3.3 To identify the factors underline illusion of trust.
3.4 To identify the factors underline team performance.
3.5 To evaluate the cause n effect relationship between illusion of trust as independent
variable and team performance as dependent variable.
3.6 To evaluate the effect of gender and age on the perception of team performance.
3.7 To identify new areas for research.
4. Research Methodology
4.1
The study
The study was causal in nature with survey method being used for collecting data.
4.2
Sampling Design
4.21 Population - will include participants from workshop.
4.22 Sampling frame - since data will be collected through personal contact sampling
frame will include participants from workshop only.
4.23 Sample size – sample size will be 62 respondent.
4.24 Sample element – Individual respondent will be sample element.
4.25 Sampling techniques – perceptive sampling technique will be used to evaluate
the data.
4.3
Tools for data collection
Self design questionnaire will be used to evaluate Illusion Of TrustAnd Performance.
The data will be collected on a seven point Likert type scale where 1 will indicate minimum
agreement and 7 will indicate maximum agreement.
4.4 Tools for data analysis
4.41 -
Relaibility
4.42 -
Factor analysis
4.43 -
Anova
Illusion of Trust and its Effect Performance: A Study of Teams During a Workshop
45
5. Rationale of the Study
Many researches have been conducted on Trust, team performance and on teams
.On the basis of previous researches the fact is very transparent that trust do affect the
performance but is this applicable and existing all circumstances and in all types of team
has remained unstudied.
The current study would be focusing on finding out relationship between trust and
performance and also the effect of gender and age on the same.
6. Results and Discussions
6.1 Reliability Measure
Cronbach alpha method has been applied to calculate reliability of all items in the
questionnaire. Reliability test using SPSS software and the reliability test measures are
given below:
Cronbach’s Alpha (Trust) =.859
Cronbach’s Alpha (Performance) = .794
It is considered that the reliability value more than 0.7 is good and it can be seen that
in statistics, reliability value was quite higher than the standard value, so all the items
in the questionnaire are highly reliable. In case of consistency, question number 1,4,5,20,22,
33,35,36 were dropped from the study and as we dropped the reliability of the questionnaire
increased.
6.2 Validity Test
Validity of the questionnaire was checked through face validity method and was
found to be high.
6.3 Factor Analysis
6.31 Factor Analysis of Trust
Factor Eigen
No.
Value
1.
2.87
Factor
Name
Team
Cohesiveness
Variable No/Variable Statement
7. Team members seem to be successful in
the activities they undertake
11. Team members are concerned about
what is important to the team.
17. Team members display a solid work ethic
19. Members can be counted on to do what
they say they will do.
14. Team members have a strong sense of
commitment
%of
Loading
Variance
Explained
14.352
0.68
0.671
0.662
0.637
0.633
A Handbook for Writing Research Paper
46
2.
3.
4.
2.254
1.937
1.92
12. Team members will do everything in
their capacity to help the team perform.
5. Team members are well qualified.
13. Team members try hard to be fair in
dealing with one another.
6. Team members are very capable of
performing their tasks
20. Members are honest in describing their
experiences and abilities.
8. Team members are very concerned about
the ability of the team to get along
15. I am never doubtful about whether the other
team members will do what they promised.
9. Outcomes of this project are very important
to the other team members.
4. The other team members have specialized
capabilities that can increase our performance.
Team lucidity 18. Most members tell the truth about the
11.27
limits of their knowledge.
2. Wish I had a good way to oversee the work of
the other team members on the project.
Team
1. Would be comfortable giving the other
9.683
Responsiveness team members complete responsibility for
the completion of this project.
3. Team members have much knowledge about
the work that needs to be done
Constancy
16. Like the work values of the members on
9.602
this team.
10. Team members would not knowingly do
anything to disrupt or slow down the project
0.632
0.613
0.608
0.553
0.549
0.543
0.499
0.481
0.404
0.62
0.449
0.632
0.454
0.572
0.448
Discussion of Factors
1. Team Cohesiveness: a dynamic process which is reflected in the tendency for a
group to stick together and remain united in the pursuit of goals and objectives.
Team Cohesiveness has been considered as the most important factor in the
measurement of trust and has received the highest Eigen Value of 2.870 with the
%of variance explained 14.352.and fourteen statements were clubbed in this factor.
2. Team Lucidity: Team Lucidity is synonymous with team articulacy, team eloquence,
self expression, Team clarity etc. Team Lucidity has received the second highest
Eigen Value of 2.254 with %of variance explained 11.270.
3. Team Responsiveness: Team responsiveness is the group process of selfmanagement in terms of actions and behavior in relation to given responsibilities
(tasks, goals and challenges, desired outcomes).(dessertation.ub.rug.n).This factor
Illusion of Trust and its Effect Performance: A Study of Teams During a Workshop
47
has received third position in case of eigen value i.e.1.937 and %of variance explained
is 9.683.
4. Team Loyalty has received the lowest eigen value of 1.92 with the %of variance
explained of 9.602.
6.32 Factor Analysis of Team Performance
Factor
No.
Eigen
value
Factor
Name
1.
2.647
Effectiveness
Variable No/Variable Statement
%of Explained
Variance
7. Team accomplishes work quickly
and effectively.
33.085
1.902 Team Decision
making
0.851
6. Team members are fairly agreeable in
solving problems and making decisions.
0.807
3. Team is productive
0.764
5. Team shows evidence of moderate to
high task accomplishment.
0.599
1. Team uses an effective short and
long-term strategic planning process.
2.
Loading
2. Team meets its member’s requirements
0.52
23.773
0.801
4. Team functioning doesn’t interfere with
getting my own job done.
0.717
8. Team shows little evidence of task
accomplishment. The team’s problem solving
and decision making skills are undeveloped.
0.567
Discussion of Factors
1. Team Effectiveness: Cohen and Ledford et al (1996), has defined the team
effectiveness by using two major elements one is high performance and second
one is employee quality of work life and both should be high. It has received the
highest eigen value of 2.647 with the % of variance explained as 33.085.
2. Team Decision Making: Reason (1990) had explained that decision making can
be regarded as the mental processes (cognitive process) resulting in the selection
of a course of action among several alternative scenarios. Every decision making
process produces a final choice. The output can be an action or an opinion of
choice.It has received the second highest eigen value of 1.902 with the % of variance
explained as 23.773.
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48
6.4 Anova
Post hoc Results
Multiple Comparisons
perf
Tukey HSD
95% Confidence Interval
(I)
age
1.
2.
3.
(J)
age
Mean Difference (I-J)
Std. Error
Sig.
Lower Bound
Upper Bound
2
-.9078
2.01982
.895
-5.7730
3.9575
3
1.1931
2.84130
.908
-5.6509
8.0370
1
.9078
2.01982
.895
-3.9575
5.7730
3
2.1008
3.09580
.777
-5.3562
9.5579
1
-1.1931
2.84130
.908
-8.0370
5.6509
2
-2.1008
3.09580
.777
-9.5579
5.3562
Based on observed means. The error term is Mean Square(Error) = 47.521.
Levene’s Test of Equality of Error Variancesa
Dependent Variable:Teamperformance
F
.635
df1
5
df2
55
Sig.
.674
Tests the null hypothesis that the error variance of the dependent variable is equal
across groups.
a. Design: Intercept + Trust + Gender + age + Gender * age
Tests of Between-Subjects Effects
Dependent Variable:Teamperformance
Source
Type III
Sum of Squares
df
Mean Square
F
Sig.
Partial
Eta Squared
Corrected Model
Intercept
Trust
Gender
Age
Gender * age
Error
Total
Corrected Total
1499.103a
158.817
1426.933
10.300
1.266
20.030
1186.700
114103.000
2685.803
6
1
1
1
2
2
54
61
60
249.851
158.817
1426.933
10.300
.633
10.015
21.976
11.369
7.227
64.932
.469
.029
.456
.000
.010
.000
.497
.972
.636
.558
.118
.546
.009
.001
.017
a. R Squared = .558 (Adjusted R Squared = .509)
Illusion of Trust and its Effect Performance: A Study of Teams During a Workshop
49
The overall model fit was evaluated using F Test having value of 11.369, which was
significant at0.000 level of significance, indicating that the model has high fit. The effect
of trust was evaluated on Team performance which was found to be significant at0.000
level of significance. But the gender and age do not have any significant Effect on Team
performance neither individually nor collectively as the value was found insignificant
at .497 and .972 respectively sand in case collective significance value was 0.636. The
result of Post Hoc shows that the three categories of age do not have any significant
effect on each other. As we can seen in the Post hoc Table the value of significance of
Group one on second is 0.895 and on third is 0.908, of second on first is 0.895 and on
third is 0.777 and of third on first is 0.908 and second is 0.777 which is insignificant.
Implications of the Study
1. This study is a useful contribution towards Organizational as well as Team
Effectiveness and for increasing Work Performance
2. This study can be used by different researchers for further research.
3. This study is a useful contribution to understand the importance of Trust for
Increasing the performance.
4. It will help organizations in knowing the parameters on which Trust and
Performance can be evaluated.
Suggestion of the Study
1. The study has been done by taking only a sample of 62 respondents
intraorganizational therefore it is suggested to take bigger sample size as well to
go for interorganization in order to obtain more accurate results.
2. The study has been done in Gwalior region only so it is suggested to take larger
area or other region so that more appropriate results can be obtained.
3. The study resulted in the fact that trust and performance are interrelated and
trust has significant impact on performance in the area of Workplace Teams similarly
effect of trust can be checked in other fields like product performance etc.
4. The Current study has been conducted in an educational Organization but research
can also be conducted in other sectors.
5. Only two demographic variables are used in the study i.e. age and gender, as
and when we add few more demographic variables the result may vary.
Conclusion
This study examined the impact of Trust on the performance in an educational
organization in Gwalior region. The questionnaires were filled by the participants of an
ongoing workshop. By applying test like item to total correlation, validity, reliability,
factor analysis and anova. It has been concluded that there is an impact of trust on workplace
performance
A Handbook for Writing Research Paper
50
This study reflects the high degree of correlation between trust as independent variable
and performance as dependent variable.
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Impact of Service Quality and Customer Satisfaction on Behavioral Intentions
53
3
Impact of Service Quality and Customer
Satisfaction on Behavioral Intentions:
A Study of Hospitality Industry in
Gwalior Region
Dr. S.S. Bhakar, Prof. Sneha Rajput, Prof. Sumit Narula, Dr. Ashu Pasricha,
Dr. Nishchaya Upmanyu, Prof. Monika Mittal & Abhijeet Khandekar
ABSTRACT
The current study focuses on the impact of Service Quality and Customer Satisfaction on
Behavioral Intentions. The study was conducted in Gwalior region on a sample of 100 respondents.
Service Quality and Customer Satisfaction was taken as Independent variable and Behavioral
Intentions as dependent one. The Reliability of the study was quite high in case of Service Quality
it was 0.972 ,in case of Customer Satisfaction it was 0.965 and in case of Behavioral Intentions
it was 0.937. The value of adjusted R square is 0.882 that indicates Service Quality and Customer
Satisfaction explains 88.2% variance in dependent variable Behavioral Intentions. The model
used for regression has good fit as indicated by F-value 370.106 which is significant at 0 % level
of significance indicating a high predictability of model. The relationship between Service Quality
as independent and Behavioral Intentions as dependent variable is indicated by standardized
coefficient Beta with a value of 0.477. The significance of beta is tested using T-test and value
for t is 5.664 which is significant at 0% level of significance indicating significant relationship
between Service Quality and Behavioral Intentions. The relationship between Customer Satisfaction
as independent and Behavioral Intentions as dependent variable is indicated by standardized
coefficient Beta with a value of 0.484. The significance of beta is tested using T-test and value
of t is 5.750 which is significant at 0% level of significance indicating significant relationship
between Customer Satisfaction and Behavioral Intentions. Thus the study concludes the is impact
A Handbook for Writing Research Paper
54
of Service Quality and Customer Satisfaction as Independent variable on Behavioral Intentions
as dependent one.
Key Words: Service Quality, Customer Satisfaction and Behavioral Intentions.
Service Quality
Grönroos (1984), service quality has two components, namely, technical quality and
functional quality. The technical quality refers to the primary care attributes like treatment
provided, infrastructure, etc. whereas functional quality indicates secondary care attributes
or how the service is delivered like friendliness of service personnel, timely delivery,
etc. Poon and Low (2005) has done research in hospitality industry and by using factory
analysis they obtained the factors like - hospitality, accommodation, food and beverages,
recreation and entertainment, supplementary services, transportation, location, security
and safety, innovation and value added services, appearance, pricing and payment as
the major ones to perform better.
The definition varies from one business function to other business fuction. For example,
the Production definition is different from that of Marketing. The definition also varies
from industry to industry.For example, Hospitality industry and Entertainment Industry.
Vargo and Lusch (2004) suggest, the common denominator in most definitions of service
is that it is a “process” that occurs over a period of time.
Willis (2005) says regarding Quality of service (QoS) that it is well known but difficult
to define completely. The problem is that both the words ‘quality’ and ‘service’ are
themselves open to many interpretations. It may include-value for money, ease of use,
friendliness, style, flexibility, productivity, reliability, security.
Zeithaml et al. (1990) outline five dimensions of service quality: (1) reliability;
(2) responsiveness; (3) assurance; (4) empathy; and (5) tangibles.
Customer Satisfaction
Hunt (1977) provides a detailed review of Herzberg’s work and tests a two-factor
model of customer satisfaction yet does so using quantitative methods ofanalysis.customer
satisfactionhave proposed that customersmay not be just satisfied or dissatisfied; rather,
they may be simultaneously satisfied and dissatisfied .
Crosby et al. (1990) states that satisfaction is a summarizing construct which contains
an evaluation of the quality of all the previous interactions with the supplier. There exist
two types of satisfaction. First, we have overall satisfaction which is cumulative over all
the transactions and interactions. It is a customers’ cognitive and affective evaluation
based on their personal experience across all service episodes within the
relationship.Secondly, we have transactional satisfaction which is transaction specific.
We are of course interested in the overall satisfaction because this cumulative satisfaction
is the basis for the expectations about future interactions with the supplier.
Customer satisfaction does have a positive effect on an organisation’s profitability.
According to Hoyer and MacInnis (2001), satisfied customers form the foundation of
Impact of Service Quality and Customer Satisfaction on Behavioral Intentions
55
any successful business as customer satisfaction leads to repeat purchase, brand loyalty,
and positive word of mouth.
Behavioral Intentions
Loewenstein et al. (2001) defines Behavioral Intentions as goal states in the expectancy
value tradition that are the result of a conscious process that takes time, requires some
deliberation, and focuses on consequences and also behavioral plans that enable attainment
of a behavioral goal. (Ajzen, 1996)
2. Literature Review
Hsi, chen, Liang et al. (2006), explored the relationship among service quality, customer
satisfaction and loyalty in the leisure industry to provide operators with a reference to
improve their quality. The review done by them focused investment decisions, development
mechanism and strategies of sightseeing towns in the leisure industry. A questionnaire
survey was conducted on visitors to Yueh-Mei Sightseeing Sugar Mill in Taiwan. The
results indicated that the partial demographic statistics variable has significant relationship
with service quality, customer satisfaction and loyalty in the leisure industry while
significant differences show between importance and satisfaction of service quality of
leisure industry. Along with this they have confirmed that satisfaction of leisure industry
service quality and overall customer satisfaction have significant relationship with customer
loyalty.
Dean and Lang (2008), investigated a relatively new signal of service quality, thirdparty evaluation of a service brand. In the study the third-party signal was compared
with, word-of-mouth and popularity of a service brand. Third-party evaluation accounted
for the greatest proportion of variance in the dependent variable, and had strongest
negativity effect and significant interaction was found between word-of-mouth
communication and third-party evaluation. This study strongly suggests that third-party
evaluation is perceived as a product quality signal by consumers. Incorporating a favorable
third-party signal into advertising may allay consumer uncertainty of service quality
and increase the likelihood of service brand purchase.
Saunders and Petzer (2010), studied in banking sector by using the SEM model the
interrelationship between overall perceptions of service quality, satisfaction and behavioural
intentions, based on the customer’s stage in the service delivery process. The data were
collected in two stages early and late with 260 and 264 respondents respectively. The
findings provided support for the hypothesis that satisfaction mediates the relationship
between service quality and behavioural intentions for both service delivery stages.
The research done by Bolton (1998) analyzed the customers’ rating of a service
organization at various stages of the relationship and resulted that a customer ’s ratings
of the service provider obtained prior to a decision to cancel or stay loyal to the service
organization were positively related to the length of the relationship
The discovery of Athanasspopulos et al (2001) is remarkable in the field of Customer
satisfaction. The finding indicates that when customers assess customer satisfaction to
56
A Handbook for Writing Research Paper
be high, they decide to stay with the existing service provider; and subdue their negative
behavioural intentions. The findings also included that customer satisfaction is associated
positively with word-of-mouth communications.
Olorunniwo et.al (2006) investigated the possibility that the typology of a service as
well as the operationalization of the service measurement scale may determine the nature
of the service quality (SQ) construct and its relationship with those of customer satisfaction
(SAT) and behavioral intentions (BI). The factor analysis indicated that Responsiveness,
Tangibility, Reliability, Knowledge, and Accessibility dimensions contribute significantly
to service quality. And finally Olorunniwo and Hsu (2006) observed that SAT fully mediates
the impact of SQ on BI i.e.service quality and Behavioral Intentions.
Alexandris et al. (2002) showed that service quality predicted significant amount of
variation in all the behavioral intentions, i.e. word of mouth communication, intention
to purchase and price sensitivity. Dagger and Sweeney (2007) have developed a model
for measuring service quality that takes into account the dynamic nature i.e. consumption
stage of service delivery.
Mittal et al (2001) focused on the weightings of service quality dimensions over a
period of credit card ownership, rather than comparing the weightings of service quality
dimensions during the initial acquisition process with those during the later stages of
ownership. Study of Bolton et al.(2003)and Bendall et al.(2003)focused on the one of the
charateristics of service i.e inconsistency of service quality on service outcomes such as
loyalty or retention. Willis (2005) has explained how classification, marking, policing,
scheduling, shaping, routing and admission control are important methods to implement
QoS in packet networks and for postal systems employing postmen with small panniers.
According to the study of Martin, Watson, McKenna (1994), the concept of total quality
management and guidelines for the successful implementation of the technique into the
service sector of the economy of Northern Ireland are suggested. Same study revealed
that Firstly Managers must organize themselves and others for dealing with quality issues,
Leadership skills of managers in service organizations can contribute significantly to
quality of service(Rausch, 1999) and Secondly, ensure that the customer is the main priority
throughout the organization. Another study which was done by Feigenbaum (1983), have
provided insights into the characteristics of the managerial environment which are necessary
to sustain quality efforts. Such work forms the foundations on which the principles of
total quality management are built.
Linklow (1989) identified seven core values and beliefs. The core values includedCustomer focus, Employee focus, Teamwork, Safety, Candour (Truthfulness from the
employee side regarding quality), Total involvement (employees at all are responsible
for quality specially at operational level), Process focus (continuous improvement of
overall work processes)
3. Rationale of the Study
Not Many researches have been conducted on Service Quality, Customer Satisfaction
and Behavioral Intention in a combined way. Though, these variables have been studied
Impact of Service Quality and Customer Satisfaction on Behavioral Intentions
57
individually in different contexts but the current study will try to find out the the impact
of Service Quality and Customer Satisfaction on Behavioral Intention in Hotel Industry
in Gwalior Region.
The current study would be focusing on finding out relationship Service Quality,
Customer Satisfaction and Behavioral Intention.
4. Objectives
 To evaluate the relationship between Service Quality and Customer Satisfaction
as independent variables and Behavioral Intentions as dependent variable.
 To find out the underlying factors of Service Quality and Customer Satisfaction
as independent variables and Behavioral Intentions in Indian context.
 To identify ideas for further research.
5. Research Methodology
5.1 The Study
The study was exploratory in nature with survey method being used to complete
the study.
5.2 Sampling Design
5.21 Population: Population included all the customers of Hotels who are using
different services of hotels in Gwalior region.
5.22 Sampling Element: Individual customers of hotels were the sampling element.
5.23 Sampling Technique: Non-Probability purposive sampling technique was
used to select the sample.
5.24 Sample Size: Sample size was 100 Respondents.
5.3 Tools Used for data Collection
Many researchers have conducted their study on the above mentioned variables
therefore standardize questionnaire is also available. So the study was conducted by
using pre researched questionnaire (Olorunniwo, Hsu and Udo, 2006) but it as current
study is in Indian Context so reliability as well as Factor Analysis was applied again to
find out the underlyingfactors of all the variables
5.4 Tools Used for Data Analysis
 The measure was standardized through computation of reliability and validity.
 Factor analysis Test was applied to find out the underlying factors of Service
Quality, customer satisfaction and Behavioral Intention.
 Regression test was applied to find relationship between customer satisfaction,
relationship quality and their impact on Behavioral Intention.
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58
6. Rationale of the Study
Not Many researches have been conducted on Service Quality, Customer Satisfaction
and Behavioral Intention in a combined way. Though these variables have been studied
individually in different contexts but the current study will try to find out the the impact
of Service Quality and Customer Satisfaction on Behavioral Intention in Hotel Industry
in Gwalior Region..
The current study would be focusing on finding out relationship Service Quality,
Customer Satisfaction and Behavioral Intention.
7. Results and Discussions
7.1 Reliability Measure
Cronbach alpha method has been applied to calculate reliability of all items in the
questionnaire. Reliability test using SPSS software and the reliability test measures are
given below:
Cronbach’s Alpha (Service Quality) =.972
Reliability Statistics
Cronbach’s Alpha
.972
Cronbach’s Alpha Based on Standardized Items
N of Items
.973
29
Cronbach’s Alpha (Consumer Satisfaction) = .965
Reliability Statistics
Cronbach’s Alpha
.965
Cronbach’s Alpha Based on Standardized Items
N of Items
.965
4
Cronbach’s Alpha(Behavioral Intentions)=.937
Reliability Statistics
Cronbach’s Alpha
.937
Cronbach’s Alpha Based on Standardized Items
N of Items
.938
3
It is considered that the reliability value more than 0.7 is good and it can be seen that
in statistics, reliability value was quite higher than the standard value, so all the items
in the questionnaire are highly reliable.
7.2 Validity Test
Validity of the questionnaire was checked through face validity method and was
found to be high.
Impact of Service Quality and Customer Satisfaction on Behavioral Intentions
59
7.3 Factor Analysis
Factor Analysis of Service Quality
S.
No
Eigen
value
Factor
Name
1.
7.544
ResponsiveNess and
Accessiblity
2.
6.343
Tangibles
and Trust
Variable Statement
%of Variance
Explained
27. employees quickly apologize when
service mistakes are made
26.015
26. employees are empowered to provide
compensations for inaccurate service
23. employees are easily accessible
when needed
15. employees provide adequate information
about hotel/motel activities/facilities
22. hotel/motel is conveniently located
29. Information on alternative lodging is
provided when the hotel/motel is full
17. employees are aware of group
rates/special rates
10. requests are handled promptly
13. employees adapt well to handle peak
customer traffic
9. employees give us special attention
16. employees are knowledgeable about
hotel/motel equipment (e.g. computer
system and exercise facilities)
0.767
21. The reservation system (e.g. telephone/
internet reservation) is easy to use
4. hotel/motel facilities are up-to-date
20. time it took to check in/check out is not
too long
1. hotel/motel is clean
18. employees provide error-free records
(e.g. receipts)
5. employees are neat-appearing
3. Interior design is attractive
6. lobby area is comfortable
8. employees are courteous
19. front desk employee accurately verifies
the reservation requests
12. Room maintenance is adequate
21.871
Loading
0.781
0.75
0.682
0.662
0.648
0.592
0.584
0.581
0.574
0.571
0.722
0.676
0.668
0.664
0.65
0.637
0.616
0.577
0.566
0.553
0.52
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60
3.
5.741
Comfort
level and
Employee
Knowledge
7. parking space is adequate
19.817
0.818
28. Smoking rooms are treated to accommodate
non-smoking guests if needed
0.784
2. Outside appearance is attractive
0.574
24. Express checkout is available for guests
0.57
25. Services are accessible to disabled guests
0.563
14. Employees’ knowledge of hotel procedures
makes me feel comfortable
0.544
11. employees adapt services to our needs
0.53
Discussion Of Factors
1. Responsiveness and Accessibility
Razalli(2008), defined responsiveness as capability in providing speedy services, variety
of services, and willingness to help customers within the service delivery processes and
accessibility is a general term used to describe the degree to which a product, device,
service, or environment is available to as many people as possible. Accessibility can be
viewed as the “ability to access” and benefit from some system or entity(wikipedia.org).This
factor has received highest Eigen Value of 7.544 with percentage of Variance Explained
of 26.015, eleven statements were clubbed in this factor.
2. Tangibles and Trust
A tangible product is something which a company produces which the customer can
see or hold, as against something like advice(wiki.answer.com) and Trust is Ability to
perform the promised service dependably and accurately(Parasuram et al ,1988).
This factor has received second Highest Eigen Value i.e. 6.343 with the Percentage of
Variance explained as 21.871. In this factor also eleven statements were clubbed.
3. Comfort Level and Employee Knowledge
This factor has received the lowest Eigen value among all three i.e. 5.741 with the
Percentage of Variance expalined as 19.817. In this factor also seven statements were
clubbed.
Factor Analysis of Consumer Satisfaction and Behavioral Intention
As the number of statements in both the variables were few and they have been
clubbed under single factor only and thus couldn’t be rotated, Sothe Eigen value was
3.623 and 2.673 for Consumer Satisfaction And Behavioral Intention respectively and
percentage of variance expalined is 90.586 and 89.085 for Consumer Satisfaction And
Behavioral Intention respectively. Both the variables have been explained in detained in
Impact of Service Quality and Customer Satisfaction on Behavioral Intentions
61
the conceptual framework as well as in the review of literature so same has not been
mentioned here for the sake of repetition.
7.4 Regression Analysis
Model Summaryb
Model
R
1
.940
R Square
Adjusted R Square
Std. Error of the Estimate
.884
.882
1.29545
a
a. Predictors: (Constant), consat, servqual
b. Dependent Variable: behint
Anovab
Model
1
Sum of Squares
Df
Mean Square
F
Sig.
1242.216
2
621.108
370.106
.000a
Regression
Coefficientsa
Model
Unstandardized Coefficients
B
1
Std. Error
(Constant)
-2.408
.747
servqual
.067
.012
Standardized Coefficients
t
Sig.
-3.224
.002
.477
5.664
.000
5.750
.000
Beta
consat
.351
.061
.484
Residual
162.784
97
1.678
Total
1405.000
99
a. Dependent Variable: behint
Y= a +bx +cz+ 
Y= -2.408 +.067Servqual+0.351Consat+ 
Y= Behavioral Intentions (dependent variable)
Service Quality (independent variable)
Customer Satisfaction (independent variable)
= error
The value of adjusted R square is 0.882 that indicates Service Quality and Customer
Satisfaction explains 88.2% variance in dependent variable Behavioral Intentions. In other
words indicates Service Quality and Customer Satisfaction contribute 88.2 % to Behavioral
Intentions.
The model used for regression has good fit as indicated by F-value 370.106 which is
significant at 0 % level of significance indicating a high predictability of model.
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A Handbook for Writing Research Paper
The relationship between Service Quality as independent and Behavioral Intentions
as dependent variable is indicated by standardized coefficient Beta with a value of 0.477.
The significance of beta is tested using T-test and value for t is 5.664 which is significant
at 0% level of significance indicating significant relationship between Service Quality
and Behavioral Intentions.
The relationship between Customer Satisfaction as independent and Behavioral
Intentions as dependent variable is indicated by standardized coefficient Beta with a
value of 0.484. The significance of beta is tested using T-test and value of t is 5.750 which
is significant at 0% level of significance indicating significant relationship between Customer
Satisfaction and Behavioral Intentions.
Impact of Service Quality and Customer Satisfaction on Behavioral Intentions
63
Explanation of Histogram and PPP
The histogram shows the normal distribution of Residual and the PP Plot explains
whether the relationship or prediction between the variable is linear or not. More it is
close to the line explains more perfect is the prediction. So we can see here that the
relationship between the Expected and observed outcome is perfectly predicted.
8. Implications of the Study
1. This study is a useful contribution towards Hotel industry for increasing the service
quality and also customer satisfaction.
2. This study can be used by different researchers for further research.
3. This study is a useful contribution to understand the importance of customer
satisfaction and service quality with reference to behavioral intentions.
4. It will help Hotels in knowing the parameters on which customer satisfaction,
service quality and behavioral intentions can be evaluated.
5. This study can be useful contribution towards the Hotel industry in analyzing
their service quality and determining the areas where the hotels can improve.
9. Suggestions of the Study
1. The study has been done by taking only a sample of 100 respondents therefore
it is suggested to take bigger sample size in order to obtain more accurate results.
2. The study has been done in Gwalior region only so it is suggested to take larger
area or other region so that more appropriate results can be obtained
3. The study resulted in the fact that customer satisfaction and service quality has
significant impact on behavioral intention similarly effect of customer satisfaction
and service quality can be evaluated on other variables.
4. The research on impact of customer satisfaction and service quality and its impact
on behavioral intention can also be conducted in other sectors.
5. The study resulted in the fact that there are some other factors also other than
customer satisfaction and service quality that have impact on behavioral intention.
So similar kind of study can be done to evaluate the impact other variables on
behavioral intention
10. Conclusion
This study examined the impact of customer satisfaction and service quality on
behavioral intention in Hotel industry in Gwalior region. The questionnaires were filled
by service users of various hotels in Gwalior and by applying test like validity, reliability,
factor analysis and regression. It has been concluded that there is an impact of customer
satisfaction and service quality on behavioral intention and customer satisfaction and
service quality play an eminent role in retaining customers in Hotel industry.
A Handbook for Writing Research Paper
64
This study reflects the high degree of correlation between customer satisfaction and
relationship quality as independent variable and customer retention as dependent variable.
REFERENCES
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(Eds.), Social Psychology: Hand book of Basic principles, 297-328.
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6. Bolton R.N., Lemon K.N. and Bramlett M.D. (2006), The effect of service experiences over time
on a supplier ’s retention of business customers, Management Science, 52(12), 1811-1823.
7. Chang H.Y., Hsis C. and Gow L.H. (2006), A Study of Service Quality, Customer Satisfaction
and Loyalty in Taiwanese Leisure Industry Journal of American Academy of Business, Cambridge,
9(1), 126-132.
8. Crosby L., Evans K. and Cowles D. (1990). Relationship Quality in Services Selling: An Interpersonal
Influence Perspective, Journal of Marketing, 54, 68-81
9. Dagger T.S. and Sweeney J.S. (2007), Service Quality attribute weights: How do short-term and
longer-term customers construct service quality perceptions?, Journal o f Service Research,10(1),
22-42.
10. Dean D.H. and Lang J.M. (2008), Comparing three signals of service quality, 22(1), 48-58.
11. Feigenbaum A.V. (1983), Total Quality Control, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY.
12. Gronroos, C. (1984), A service quality model and its marketing implications, European Journal
of Marketing, 18(4), 36-44.
13. Hoyer W.D. and MacInnis D.J. (2001), Consumer Behaviour, 2nd Edition, Boston, Houghton Mifflin
Company.
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Proceedings of conference conducted by Marketing Science Institute. MSI Report No. 77-103.
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on January 2012.
16. Linklow(1989), Is Your Culture Ready for Total Quality, Quality Progress, November.
17. Loewenstein G.F., Weber E.U., Hsee C.K., Welch N. (2001). Risk as feelings, Psych Bulletin, 127,
267-286.
18. Mittal V, Katrichis J.M. and Kumar P. (2001), Attribute performance and customer satisfaction
over time: Evidence from two field studies, Journal of Services Marketing, 15(5), 343-56.
19. Neill M., Watson H. and Mckenna M. (1994), Service quality in the Northern Ireland hospitality
industry, Managing Service Quality, 4(3), 36
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20.
Olorunniwo F., Hsu M.K. and Udo G.( 2006)Service quality, customer satisfaction, and behavioral
intentions in the service factory, The Journal of Service Marketing, 20(1), 59-72.
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Olorunniwo F.and Hsu M.K. ( 2006),A typology analysis of service quality, customer satisfaction
and behavioral intentions in mass services Managing Service Quality, 16(2), 106-123.
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Parasuraman A., Zeithaml V.A. Berry L.L. (1988), SERVQUAL: A multiple-item , scale for measuring
consumer perception of service quality, Journal of Retailing , 64, 12-40.
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Poon W.C. and Low K.L.T. (2005), Are travelers satisfied with Malaysian hotels?, International
Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management,17(3), 217-27.
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Rausch E.(1999), More effective leadership can bring higher service quality, 9(3), 154-157.
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Razalli (2008)The Consequences Of Service Operations Practice And ServiceResponsiveness on
Hotel Performance: Examining Hotels In Malaysia.Thesis submitted in fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy April 2008http://eprints.usm.my/9349/
1 / T H E _ C O N S E Q U E N C E S _ O F _ S E RV I C E _ O P E R AT I O N S _ P R A C T I C
E_AND_SERVICE_RESPONSIVENESS_ON_HOTEL_PERFORMANCE.pdf retrieved on January
2012.
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Saunders S.G. and Petzer D.J. ( 2010),The interrelationship between service quality, satisfaction
and behavioural intention by customer stage in the service delivery process, Management Dynamics,
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Vargo S. L. and Lusch R.F. (2004). The four service marketing myths: Remnants of a goodsbased, manufacturing model. Journal of Service Research, 6(4), 324-335.
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Zeithaml V.A., Parasuraman A., and Berry L.L. (1990), Delivering Quality Services: Balancing
Customer Perceptions and Expectations, The Free Press, New York, NY.
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66
4
Exchange Rate Dynamics and its Relationship
with Stock Market Volatility:
Evidence from SAARC Countries
Dr. Anindita Chakraborty, Alok Shrivastava, Charu Chandrika Dubey,
Neha Manjhi, Shweta Agarwal, Sonam Bhadauriya, Bhawana Mishra,
Abdesh Singh Kushwah & Samta Jain
ABSTRACT
The study showed the relationship between Foreign Exchange Markets and Stock Market,
and determined whether movements in exchange rates have an effect on stock market in SAARC
countries. The correlation was used in establishing the relationship between exchange rate volatility
and stock market volatility it ranges from negative to positive and small to large. Kruskal-Wallis
test was applied to test whether there was a significant difference in the exchange rate volatility
of SAARC countries and results showed a significant difference. Mann-Whitney U test was
applied to find out the significant difference between the exchange rate volatility and the results
depicted a significant difference between two rates.
Keywords: Exchange rate, volatility, SAARC
Introduction
International equity investments are increasing rapidly since mid-1980 and with the
increasing investments investors are now prone to foreign exchange volatility. Foreign
exchange volatility has critical implications for the stock market of a country. A country’s
financial position is subject to its foreign exchange volatility. Foreign exchange market
developments have cost implications for everyone included in the economy such as the
households, firms and the government. In previous researches it had been shown that
Exchange Rate Dynamics and its Relationship with Stock Market Volatility
67
exchange rate volatility had real economic costs that affect price stability, firm’s profitability
and a country’s stability.
As the international equity investments are increasing due to internationalization of
capital markets resulted in huge inflow of funds between countries and in the crosslisting of equities. Therefore, investors and firms are more interested in the study of
foreign exchange rate volatility and its effect on stock market volatility. According to
Yucel and Kurt (2003) floating exchange rate appreciation reduces the competitiveness
of export markets; and has a negative effect on the domestic stock market.
Foreign exchange market or FOREX market as commonly known is place where trading
of national currencies are taken place. The Forex market is a place for individuals, central
banks, businesses, financial institutions, the public sector and countries to make a profit
off the varying currency prices. This is done through trading in those currencies whose
prices are rising against the other currencies whose prices are falling. These currencies
are traded in pairs. This generally means that every currency will pair against every
other currency and have a price. For example, trading between Indian rupee and US
dollars and both currencies fall 10% that means the investors are in the same spot as
they were before so there will be no loss. Another benefit of Forex Market is, it is not
complicated as the stock market but a greater deal of knowledge is required. The main
difference between the international stock markets and the forex markets is the immense
volume of trades that takes place on the forex market. 3.9 trillion dollars are traded
every day on the forex market. This volume of money is much greater than the money
traded on the stock market of any country on a daily basis.
The objective of the present study is to find a relationship between Forex market
volatility and stock market volatility. The study used the trading pair of SAARC countries/
Euro and SAARC countries/US dollar. The reason behind selecting the SAARC countries
was the previous researches which focused on examining this relationship for the developed
countries with very little consideration on the developing countries.
SAARC (The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation) is an economic and
political organization of eight countries namely India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka,
Nepal, Bhutan, Maldives, and Afghanistan, the latest member since April 2007. Established
on December 8, 1985, SAARC is a unique concept. This esteem group is the one combined
vision of eight different countries of South-east Asia. These SAARC nations are home to
nearly 1.5 billion people or about 22% of world’s population. So, the Heads of the State
or Government of these aforementioned countries has created SAARC, keeping in view
the welfare of the people, peace, stability and progress of South Asian region by fostering
mutual understanding, meaningful cooperation and good neighbourly relations among
these nations.
Review of Literature
The first ever study conducted in this area was by Franck and Young (1972) who
examined the relationship between stock prices and exchange rates. They used six different
exchange rates and found no relationship between these two. While a study conducted
68
A Handbook for Writing Research Paper
in the same period by Aggarwal (1981) depicted contradictory results. The study showed
that stock prices and the value of the U.S. dollar were positively related and this relationship
was stronger in the short run than in the long run. The research conducted by Soenen
and Hanniger (1988) during the period of 1980-1986 realized a strong negative relationship
between the value of the U.S. dollar and the change in stock prices.
Ajayi and Mougoue (1996) explained that an increase in aggregate domestic stock
price had a negative short-run effect on domestic currency value but in the long-run
increases in stock prices had a positive effect on domestic currency value. On the other
hand, currency depreciation has a negative short-run effect on the stock market. In a
current study by Kumar (2010) who investigated the long and short-run relationship
between stock index and exchange rates for India and suggested that there was no longrun relationship between them. Muhammad and Rasheed (2002) suggested that in SouthAsian countries stock prices and exchange rates are unrelated in the short-run, therefore,
investors cannot use information obtained from one market to predict the behavior of
other market.
Empirical results showed that the exchange rate uncertainty has a significantly negative
effect on Investment. Applying a rolling standard deviations method, Goldberg (1993)
found evidences from the US industry-level investment that exchange rate uncertainty
had significantly negative long-run effects on investment. Darby et al. (1999), using a
single-equation estimation in their study, find a similar negative exchange rate effect on
aggregate investment based on the data from five OECD countries. Choudhary (2005)
founds that the effects of exchange rate variability on real exports were, in general,
significantly negative.
The significant volatility spillovers from stock returns to exchange rate changes have
important implications for the ‘asset approach’ to exchange rate determination (Branson,
1983; and Frankel 1983), particularly when international equity investments have been
rising since the mid-1980s. The higher level of cross-border financial assets flows between,
for example, domestic and foreign share markets results in the changes of demand for
and supply of currencies in which the international equities are priced in. Exchange
rates have to be adjusted according to the international equity flows. Therefore, the ‘asset
approach’ to exchange rate determination suggests significant volatility transmission
from the stock market to the foreign exchange market. While Kanas (2000) finds a significant
volatility spillover from stock return changes to foreign currency fluctuations, it might
not be the case for the NZ economy. Choi et al. (n.d) provided empirical evidence that
the “asset approach” to exchange rate determination does not fit to small markets like
NZ, whose currency is driven by international factors although they found significant
volatility spillovers from the foreign currency movements to stock return in NZ. Similar
results were found by Dungey (1999) who argued that international factor mainly affects
the volatility of NZ dollars and volatility shocks in the local NZ stock markets had little
effects on the movement of the NZ currency.
In contradiction Schwert (1990) analyzed the behaviour of stock return volatility more
or less stock market crashes and discovered that stock market volatility jumps considerably
Exchange Rate Dynamics and its Relationship with Stock Market Volatility
69
during the crash and returns to low pre-crash levels quickly. While Adjasi and Biekpe
(2005) found the relationship between stock market returns and exchange rate movements
in seven African countries. Co-integration tests showed that in the long-run exchange
rate depreciation leads to increases in stock market prices in some of the countries, and
in the short-run, exchange rate depreciations decrease stock market returns.
Fidora et al. (2007) which focuses on the role of exchange rate volatility as a driver
of portfolio home bias and investigate the effect of real exchange rate volatility on the
traditional measure of home bias. Karoyli and Stulz (2003) provide excellent reviews of
the home bias literature. The home bias revolves around different motives of investors,
including explicit barriers to international investment, hedging motives, information
asymmetries and behavioural biases. Adler and Dumas (1983) state that should there be
zero inflation, investors can hedge foreign exchange risks through money market positions,
therefore, in principle, foreign exchange risks do not affect equity portfolios.
Objectives of the Study
1. To evaluate the exchange rate volatility of SAARC countries.
2. To compare the exchange rate volatility of SAARC countries in respect of Euro.
3. To compare the exchange rate volatility of SAARC countries in respect of US
dollar.
4. To evaluate the relationship between exchange rate volatility of SAARC countries
and Euro market.
5. To evaluate the relationship between exchange rate volatility of SAARC countries
and US market.
Research Methodology
The main purpose of the study is to examine the impact of stock market volatility on
the exchange rate volatility of SAARC nations with strong currencies. The study was
empirical in the nature and the total population includes all the countries of SAARC
countries. The exchange rates were the sampling elements and the sampling frame was
from 2005-2009. The complete enumeration sampling technique was used to analyze the
data. The sample size includes eight of SAARC countries named Afghanistan, Bangladesh,
Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka and. Daily exchange rates of
countries against US dollar and Euro were taken from www.oanda.com. Stock market
data of US (NASDAQ) and Euro (Frankfurt) was taken from www.yahoo.finance.com.
Data was analyzed through variance, Kruskal-Wallis test, Mann-Whitney and correlation.
 The daily returns of the indices were computed by logarithmic returns using MS
Excel. Inferential statistics was computed with the help of SPSS 17. Rt = 100 *ln
(Pricest /Pricest-1)
Where, Rt is the daily mean return percent from the index, P is the price index, t and
t – 1 represent the current and immediate preceding day.
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70
i. Normality of the data was tested through Kolmogorov-Smirnov test.
ii. Kruskul-Walis test: Applied to test whether or not the exchange rate volatility in
each month of the year are equal.
iii. Mann-Whitney U test: It is a non-parametric test for assessing whether two samples
of observations come from the same distribution.
Ho= There is no significant difference in the exchange volatility of Euro and US
Dollar.
iv. Spearman Rank Order Correlation was applied to test the relationship between
exchange rate volatility and stock market volatility.
Results and Discussions
A. Descriptive Statistics
(i) Descriptive for SAARC/Euro
Table 1: Descriptive Statistics
N
Min
Max
Mean
Std.
Deviation
Variance
Skewness
Kurtosis
Statistic
Statistic
Statistic
Statistic
Statistic
Statistic
Statistic
Std.
Error
Statistic
Std.
Error
Afghanistan
2006
-16.51
4.25
.0016
.62528
.391
-8.871
.055
245.956
.109
Bhutan
2006
-3.45
11.21
.0039
.57460
.330
3.986
.055
78.493
.109
India
2006
-2.81
2.63
.0018
.52152
.272
.162
.055
3.044
.109
Srilanka
2006
-5.15
4.47
.0012
.89353
.798
-.239
.055
9.079
.109
Pakistan
2006
-5.30
4.48
-.0141
.70067
.491
-.380
.055
11.555
.109
Maldives
2006
-11.46
10.84
.0057
.59946
.359
-.539
.055
121.351
.109
Bangladesh
2006
-3.01
2.83
.0049
.53492
.286
-.102
.055
3.851
.109
Nepal
2006
-3.94
3.52
.0028
.61162
.374
-.175
.055
5.861
.109
The above table 1 presented the descriptive statistics of foreign exchange rates of
SAARC countries against Euro. The returns were calculated using the daily closing rates
of exchange rates. Concretely, the fourth column of the table records the average or mean
daily percentage returns, which was negative for Pakistan (M=-0.0141), while the highest
returns were available in case of Maldives (M=0.0057). Volatility, as it is expressed in
terms of standard deviation and variance, was highest for Srilanka (S.D= 0.89353,
Variance=0.798). This high level of standard deviation and variance demonstrated the
presence of high degree of foreign exchange risk. Table 1 also presented the average
minimum and maximum FOREX return during the studying period, which were -16.51
for Afghanistan and 11.21 for Bhutan correspondingly. The skewness and kurtosis values
show the non-normality of the data.
Exchange Rate Dynamics and its Relationship with Stock Market Volatility
71
(ii) Descriptive for SAARC/Dollor
Table 2: Descriptive Statistics
N
Min
Max
Mean
Std.
Deviation
Variance
Skewness
Kurtosis
Statistic
Statistic
Statistic
Statistic
Statistic
Statistic
Statistic
Std.
Error
Afganistan
2006
-16.89
4.30
-.0037
.42675
.182
-30.061
.055 1231.209
.109
Bhutan
2006
-3.81
11.38
-.0013
.42605
.182
9.902
.055
271.920
.109
India
2006
-2.48
3.19
-.0035
.42536
.181
.168
.055
6.792
.109
Srilanka
2006
-4.84
4.48
-.0041
.76168
.580
-.171
.055
17.451
.109
Pakistan
2006
-5.89
5.09
-.0193
.54773
.300
-.526
.055
34.672
.109
Maldives
2006
-11.15
11.15
.0005
.37573
.141
.005
.055
775.692
.109
Bangladesh
2006
-2.36
2.23
-.0003
.38274
.146
-.168
.055
10.940
.109
Nepal
2006
-3.70
3.36
-.0024
.55734
.311
-.075
.055
8.284
.109
Statistic
Std.
Error
The above table 2 presented the descriptive statistics of foreign exchange rates of
SAARC countries against dollar. Concretely, the fourth column of the table records the
average or mean daily percentage returns, which was positive for Maldives (M=0.0005),
while in case of other countries it was negative. Volatility, as measured by standard deviation
and variance, was highest for Srilanka (S.D= 0.76168, Variance=0.580) and lowest for
Maldives (S.D= 0.37573, Variance=0.141). The average minimum and maximum FOREX
return during the studying period were -16.89 for Afghanistan and 11.38 for Bhutan
correspondingly. The skewness and kurtosis values show the non-normality of the data.
B. Inferential Statistics
 Test of Normality
Table 3: Kolmogorov-Smirnov
Kolmogorov-Smirnov (USD)
Kolmogorov-Smirnov (Euro)
Statistic
df
Sig.
Statistic
df
Sig.
Afganistan
.437
60
.000
.377
60
.000
Bhutan
.373
60
.000
.305
60
.000
India
.247
60
.000
.233
60
.000
Nepal
.163
60
.000
.210
60
.000
Maldives
.444
60
.000
.278
60
.000
Bangladesh
.226
60
.000
.172
60
.000
Pakistan
.363
60
.000
.314
60
.000
Srilanka
.247
60
.000
.189
60
.000
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72
The Kolmogorov-Smirnov statistic assesses the normality of the distribution of scores.
A non-significant result (Sig. value of more than .05) indicates normality. In this case the
Sig. value is 0.000 for each group, suggesting violation of the assumption of normality.
 Kruskal-Wallis Test: Test of Equality of Variance
The results of the Kruskal-Wallis Test uses the rankings of the mean variances and
tests whether all the countries mean variances were significantly equal or not. As per
table 4 the analytical results showed that the variances in all the countries were significantly
different at 0 % level of significance. This confirms the presence of Forex volatility for
all the SAARC countries against Euro and US dollar both.
Table 4: Results of Kruskal-Wallis Test
Index
K-W Test
Euro
Chi-square 65.068
df 7
P value 0.000
US dollar
Chi-square 165.748
df 7
P value 0.000
 Mann-Whiney U Test: Independent Comparison of the Exchange Rate Volatility
As per table 5, the results suggested that there was a significant difference in the
exchange rate volatility of SAARC/Euro and SAARC/USD at 5% level of significance
so the null hypothesis was rejected.
Table 5: Results of Mann-Whitney U Test
Volatility Pair
Euro/USD
Hypothesis Not rejected/Rejected
Afghanistan
Z -7.931P 0.000
Rejected
Bhutan
Z -4.677 P 0.000
Rejected
India
Z -4.325 P 0.000
Rejected
Maldives
Z -8.710 P 0.000
Rejected
Bangladesh
Z -4.919P 0.000
Rejected
Srilanka
Z -2.724P 0.006
Rejected
Pakistan
Z -5.511P 0.000
Rejected
Nepal
Z -2.241P 0.025
Rejected
 Spearman Rank Order Correlation
(i) To calculate the strength of the relationship between exchange rate volatility of SAARC/Euro and
Frankfurt stock market volatility
Exchange Rate Dynamics and its Relationship with Stock Market Volatility
73
The relationship between exchange rate volatility and stock market volatility was
investigated using Spearman Rank Order test. The results below depicted in table 6 a
small to medium, positive correlation between the exchange rate of volatility and Frankfurt
stock market volatility.
Table 6: Correlation between Euro/SAARC and Frankfurt
Frankfurt
Afghanistan
Bhutan
India
Maldives
Bangladesh
Srilanka
Pakistan
Nepal
rho=0.320
P=0.013
rho=0.298
P=0.021
rho=0.422
P=0.001
rho=0.283
P=0.029
rho=0.310
P=0.016
rho=0.15
P=0.247
rho=0.395
P=0.002
rho=.181
P=0.167
There was a small positive and significant correlation between Forex volatility and
stock market volatility for Maldives (rho=0.283, p=0.029). There was a small but insignificant
relationship for Srilanka (rho=0.152,p=0.247) and Nepal (rho=0.181, p=0.167), suggesting
that the currency pairs had low degree of relationship with Frankfurt stock exchange.
There was a medium positive and significant correlation between Forex volatility and
stock market volatility of Afghanistan (rho=0.320, p=0.013), Bhutan (rho=0.30, p=0.021),
India (rho=0.422, p=0.001), Bangladesh (rho=0.310, p=0.016), Pakistan (rho=0.395, p=0.002),
suggesting that the currency pairs had low degree of relationship with stock exchange.
(ii) To calculate the strength of the relationship between exchange rate volatility of SAARC countries
against USD and NYSE volatility
The relationship between exchange rate volatility and stock market volatility was
investigated using Spearman Rank Order test. The results below depicted in table 6 a
small to medium, positive correlation between the exchange rate of volatility and Frankfurt
stock market volatility. There was a small positive and significant correlation between
Forex volatility and stock market volatility for Afghanistan (rho=0.293, p=0.023). There
was a small but insignificant relationship for Maldives (rho=0.225, p=0.084) and Pakistan
(rho=0.252, p=0.052), suggesting that the currency pairs had low degree of relationship
with Frankfurt stock exchange. There was a medium positive and significant correlation
between Forex volatility and stock market volatility of Nepal (rho=0.403, p=0.001). There
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74
was a high positive and significant correlation between Forex volatility and stock market
volatility Bhutan (rho=0.60, p=0.000), India (rho=0.646, p=0.000), Bangladesh (rho=0.555,
p=0.000), suggesting that the currency pairs had high degree of relationship with Frankfurt
stock exchange. There was a very small negative and insignificant correlation between
Forex volatility and stock market volatility for Srilanka (rho=-0.007, p=0.955), suggesting
that the currency pairs had negative relationship with stock indices.
Table 7: Correlation between USD/SAARC and NYSE
NYSE
Afghanistan
rho=0.29
P=0.023
Bhutan
India
Maldives
Bangladesh
Srilanka
Pakistan
Nepal
rho=0.60
P=0.000
rho=0.65
P=0.000
rho=0.23
P=0.084
rho=0.56
P=0.000
rho=-0.007
P=0.955
rho=0.25
P=0.05
rho=0.40
P=0.001
Conclusion
Many empirical studies have been conducted by the previous researchers to define
the relationship between foreign exchange rates and stock market. However, the relationship
still remains uncertain in both theory and research. While some empirical studies like
Smith (1992), Solnik (1987), and Aggarwal (1981) find some relations and causality, other
studies show no relationship between these two variables (Franck and Young, 1972).
Moreover, relationship changes from one economy to another and from one time period
to another (Franck and Young, 1972). Also, the empirical studies for a specific economy
may show different results for this relation (Soenen and Hanniger, 1988). The reason for
these differences can be explained by time period used for data, methods used for analysis
and economic policies of countries.
In this study, we investigated the relationship between mentioned variables in SAARC
countries using daily data from 1st January 2005 to 31st December 2009. The stock indices
of NYSE (NYSE Composite) and Frankfurt stock exchange (FSTE 100) were taken. The
results of empirical study indicated that there was positive relationship between exchange
rate and all stock market indices. While negative and insignificant relationship exists
for Srilanka and NYSE Composite. The reason behind this may be the one-way international
Exchange Rate Dynamics and its Relationship with Stock Market Volatility
75
trade flow of Srilanka with US where the export share to US was about 23.20%. While
in context of European countries was the relationship was low and insignificant because
of low export from Srilanka to Europe. The results also show that the highest degree of
correlation of India with Europe and US market.
While studying the exchange rate volatility of the currency pairs it was found that
Srilanka was more volatile than other peer countries. Kruskal-Wallis test showed that
the variances of exchange rates were significantly different for both the currency pairs.
By the help of Mann-Whitney test it was revealed that there was significant difference
the exchange rate volatility SAARC countries against the currency pairs of USD and
Euro.
These results are consistent with the views that financial markets become more
integrated and the volatility relationship between stock returns and exchange rate
movements change over time. The results of the study are similar to the previous studies
of Smith (1992), Solnik (1987), and Aggarwal (1981).
REFERENCES

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
Adler, M., and Dumas, B. (1983). International portfolio choice and corporation finance: A synthesis.
Journal of Finance, 38, 925-984.

Aggarwal, R. (1981). Exchange Rates and Stock Prices: A Study of U.S. Capital Market under
Floating Exchange Rates. Akron Business and Economic Review, 7-12

Ajayi, Richard A, and Mougoue, Mbodja (1996). On the Dynamic Relation between Stock Prices
and Exchange Rates. Journal of Financial Research, 19, 193-207.

Branson, W.H. (1983). Macroeconomic Determinants of Real Exchange Rate Risk, in R.J. Herring
(ed.), Managing Foreign Exchange Risk (Cambridge, University Press, MA).
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Choi, D.F.S., V. Fang, and T.Y. Fu (n.d). Volatility Spillovers between Stock Market Returns and
Exchange Rate Changes: the New Zealand Case. Retrieved on August 30, 2010 from http://
www.mssanz.org.au/MODSIM07/papers/40_s2/VolatilitySpilloverss2_Choi_.pdf.

Choudhry, T. (2005). Exchange rate volatility and the United States exports: evidence from Canada
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Cohen, J. W. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd edn). Hillsdale, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
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Darby, J., Hughes H.A., Ireland, J., and Piscatelli, L. (1999). The impact of exchange rate uncertainty
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Dungey, M. (1999). Decomposing exchange rate volatility around the Pacific Rim. Journal of Asian
Economics, 10, 525 - 535.
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Fidora, M., Fratzscher, M., and Thimann, C. (2007). Home bias in global bond and equity markets:
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Franck, P. And Young, A. (1972). Stock price Reaction of Multinational Firms to Exchange
Realignments. Financial Management, 1, 66-73.
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 Frankel, J.A. (1983). Monetary and Portfolio- Balance Models of Exchange rate Determination,
in J.S. Bhandari and B.H. Putman (eds.), Economic Interdependence and Flexible Exchange rates (MIT
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 French, K.R., Schwert, G.W. and Stanbaugh, R.F. (1987). Expected Stock Returns and Volatility,
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 Goldberg, L.S. (1993). Exchange rates and investment in United States industry. Review of Economics
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 Kanas, A. (2000). Volatility spillover between stock returns and exchange rate changes: International
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 Kumar, Manish (2010). Causal relationship between stock price and exchange rate: evidence for
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 Muhammad, Naeem and Rasheed, Abdul (2002). Stock Prices and Exchange Rates: Are they
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 Soenen, L.A. and Hennigar, E.S. (1988). An Analysis of Exchange Rates and Stock Prices: the
U.S. Experience between 1980 and 1986. Akron Business and Economic Review, 7-16.
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Finance, 6(1), 27-59.
77
5
Effect of Bonus Issue Announcement on
Stock Returns
Dr. Tarika Singh, Mr. Saurav Shivhare, Mr. Manish Yadav,
Ms Deepali Agrawal & Ms Anju Pandey
ABSTRACT
Bonus issues are generally considered to have positive sentimental effects on the market.
But there is no strong empirical proof for this sentiment. The present study is an effort to check
the stock index movement in Indian context around bonus issue announcement. NIFTY index
has been taken for the study purpose from the year 2004-2010. The results have significant value
contribution in the theory and practice.
Key Words: Bonus Issue, Stock return, Price Effects
Introduction
The term bonus means an extra dividend paid to shareholders in a joint stock company
from surplus profits. When a company has accumulated a large fund out of profits much beyond its needs, the directors may decide to distribute a part of it amongst the
shareholders in the form of bonus. Bonus can be paid either in cash or in the form of
shares. Cash bonus is paid by the company when it has large accumulated profits as
well as cash to pay dividend. Many a time, a company is not in a position to pay bonus
in cash in spite of sufficient profits because of unsatisfactory cash position or because of
its adverse effects on the working capital of the company. In such a position, the company
pays a bonus to its shareholders in the form of shares; a free share thus issued is known
as a bonus share.
A bonus share is a free share of stock given to current/existing shareholders in a
company, based upon the number of shares that the shareholder already owns at the
A Handbook for Writing Research Paper
78
time of announcement of the bonus. While the issue of bonus shares increases the total
number of shares issued and owned, it does not increase the value of the company. Although
the total number of issued shares increases, the ratio of number of shares held by each
shareholder remains constant.
An issue of bonus shares is referred to as a bonus issue. Depending upon the
constitutional documents of the company, only certain classes of shares may be entitled
to bonus issues, or may be entitled to bonus issues in preference to other classes.
Bonus share is free share in fixed ratio to the shareholders. For example reliance
India ltd. issue bonus share in 1:1 ratio and Rs.13.00 as dividend/share. Sometimes a
company will change the number of shares in issue by capitalizing its reserve. In other
words, it can convert the right of the shareholders because each individual will hold the
same proportion of the outstanding shares as before. Main reason for issuance is the
price of the existing share has become unwieldy.
Benefits of Bonus Issue
 Conservation of Cash: The issue shares allows the company to declare a dividend
without using up the cash that may be used to finance the profitable investment
opportunities within the company and thus company can maintain its liquidity
position.
 Under Financial Difficulty and Contractual Restrictions: When a company faces
stringent cash difficulty and is not in a position to distribute dividend in cash, or
where certain restrictions to pay dividend in cash are put under loan agreement,
the only way to satisfy the shareholders or to maintain the confidence of the
shareholders is the issue of bonus shares.
 Remedy for Under-Capitalization: In the state of under-capitalization, the rate
of divided is very much high. In order to lower down the rate of dividend, the
company issued bonus shares instead of paying dividend in cash.
 Widening the Share Market: If the market value of a company’s share is very
high, it may not appeal to small investors. By issuing bonus shares, the rate of
dividend is lowered down and consequently share price in the market is also
brought down to a desired range of activity and thus trading activity would increase
in the share market. Now small investors may get an opportunity to invest their
funds in low priced shares.
 Economical Issue of Securities: The cost of issue of bonus shares is the minimum
because no underwriting commission, brokerage etc. is to be paid on this type of
issue. Existing shareholders are allotted bonus shares in proportion to their present
holdings.
Stock prices as a rule adjust to new information. In an efficient market, this adjustment
is instantaneous and accurate. Event studies to test market. Efficiency, therefore, examine
the speed of adjustment of stock prices to the release of new, relevant information to
investors. One such ‘event’ is the announcement of bonus issues by companies. While
Effect of Bonus Issue Announcement on Stock Returns
79
accountants view bonus issues as pure book-keeping entries which leave total equities
and total assets unchanged and hence have no real economic significance, for investors,
however, bonus issues lead to an upward revision in their expectations regarding future
earnings and dividends. Generally, therefore, an upward drift in stock prices is associated
with such announcements. If markets are efficient, and no learning lags exist, the adjustment
in stock prices would be prompt.
Literature Review
The relationship between bonus issue and share prices has been the subject of much
empirical discussion within the finance literature. Empirical research have shown that
the market generally reacts positively to the announcement of a bonus issue (see for
example, US - Foster & Vickrey (1978), Woolridge (1983), Grinblatt et al (1984), and
McNichols & Dravid (1990); Canada – Masse et al (1997); NZ- Anderson et al (2001);
Sweden – Lijleblom (1989)). The hypothesis that has received strongest support in explaining
the positive market reaction to bonus issue announcements is the signalling hypothesis,
which suggests that ‘the announcement of a bonus issue conveys new information to
the market in instances where managers have asymmetric information’. This hypothesis
has received almost unequivocal support with few exceptions (Papaioannou, Travlos
and Tsangarakis (2000).
Having a global look it is found that stock dividend announcements in Greece are
almost fully anticipated by the market and do not contain any new information; thus,
they have little signaling benefit. However, a Canadian study Masse et al. (1997), revealed
investigating the impact of stock dividend announcements on the value of firms listed
on the Toronto Stock Exchange, found significant and positive abnormal returns around
the announcement date.
Ganga and Gunuratne (2009) in respect to CSE (Colombo stock Exchange) suggested
that the market responds significantly on bonus issues with a large price appreciation
on the announcement day itself. Positive sentiments start well prior to the event and
continue up to about further 6 market days creating both statistically and financially
significant arbitrage opportunities.
According to a research conducted by Balasingham & Sally (2001) examined the price
reaction to bonus issues announcements in the Australian Companies. They concluded
that Bonus issue announcements led to statistically significant positive price reaction
around announcement dates for uncontaminated and contaminated events. Whereas Miller
and Modigliani (1961) demonstrated theoretically that the bonus issues, along with other
types of dividends, do not alter shareholder ’s wealth. Sloan (1987) provided Australian
evidence that bonus issues do not affect shareholder’s wealth. Ball, Brown, and Finn
(1977) investigated stock price reaction around the announcements of ‘stock capitalization
changes’ (bonus stock issues, stock splits and rights issues) in Australia for the period
between 1960 and 1969 using monthly data. They found 20.2% abnormal returns for 13
months up to end including the month of bonus issue announcements. Adaoglu and
Lasfer (2008), examined (Istanbul Stock Exchange (ISE)) market valuation of bonus issue
80
A Handbook for Writing Research Paper
which are mainly financed by the revaluations of assets equity reserves in an inflationary
economic setting. They found a positive excess return on the announcement day for
these bonus issues similar to the market reaction to stock dividends.
Studies have been carried out in recent years to test the announcement effect of bonus
issue in the Indian stock market. Ramachandran (1985) examined mixed evidence for
semi-strong form efficiency of Indian stock market. Obaidullah (1992) and Rao (1994)
found positive stock market reaction to equity bonus announcements. Foster and Vickrey
(1978), Grinblatt (1984), McNichols and Dravid (1990), Lijleblom (1989), reviewed in their
study that the market reacts positively to the announcement of bonus issue. In an
investigation done by Dhar and Chhaochharia in Indian Stock Market found that Bonus
issues are considered to be cosmetic events. Interestingly, they found that bonus issues
results in sharp spike on the announcement date. Mishra (2003) found a positive cumulative
abnormal return around the bonus issue announcement.
Fama et al. (1969) carried out his study on relation of announcement effect to stock
split and stock dividend and concluded that two types of events are associated with
positive stock market effect. Since then other studies have done in the same area. According
to Lakonishoke & Lev (1987), a stock split and a stock dividend change the stock price
to a more optimal trading range thus increases the demand for stock, leading a positive
stock price effect.
Forjan and McCorry (1995) argued for the increase market liquidity. Number of
shareholders also increases after a stock split (Dolly, 1933, Barker, 1956, and Lamoureuxs
and Poon, 1987).Other studies have also supported optimal trading range (Johanson,
1966, Mcnocholas and Dravid, 1990, Mayers and Barkay, 1956).
Market makers are more active in promoting the stock leading to a positive stock
market effect (Angel, 1977; and Shultz, 2000).Ross (1977) & Leyland and Pyle (1977)
examined that mangers make use of the financial decisions regarding stock split and
stock dividend to convey private information about the current value of the firm. Brennan
and Copeland (1988), Brennan and Hughes (1991) study revealed that, the declarations
of bonus issues convey favorable private information about the future earnings to the
investors.
Rao and Geetha (1996) investigated that one could not make excess money in the
stock market by studying that patterns of abnormal returns of announcements made
earlier. Srinivasan (2002) found extremely large positive abnormal returns on ex-bonus
and ex-rights dates for equity stocks. Mishra (2005) found significant positive abnormal
returns for a five-day period prior to bonus announcement. Similar study by Budhraja
et al (2004) suggested that abnormal returns in stock prices around the bonus announcement
date over a three day trading period starting one day before the announcement date is
significant at 95% confidence limit. It also says that much of the information in the bonus
announcement gets impounded into stocks by the time of announcement. Barnes and
Ma (2002) observed the stock price behavior in response to the bonus issues and they
observe positive abnormal returns.
Effect of Bonus Issue Announcement on Stock Returns
81
Objectives of the Study
 To find out the bonus issues in Indian Stock Exchange.
 To find out the effect of bonus issues announcement on stock returns (Nifty).
 To find out the differences between pre and post returns of the bonus issue
announcement.
 To open new vistas for further research.
Research Methodology
The study was descriptive in the nature. The population of the study was the Companies
listed on the National Stock Exchange. The sampling frame of the study consisted of all
the companies involved in the formation of Indian Stock Exchange from the financial
years 2004-2010.The sample size was all the companies listed on the Indian Stock Exchange.
Individual Company, which issued bonus issues in Indian Stock Exchange, during the
study period, acted as the sampling element. In all there were eleven companies which
declared bonus issues during the study period. Out of them only for eight companies
data was available. Non-probability judgmental sampling technique was used. Secondary
data of all the stocks added in Indian Stock Exchange from 2004-2010 was collected from
official websites of Nseindia and individual companies was used for data collection.
Tools for Data Analysis
1. Price effects: Researcher has evaluated the price effects of National Stock Exchange
changes by examining the excess returns around the announcement day.
2. Normal Distribution Test: Firstly, normal distribution of all the stock was checked
through normal distribution test. This was done through One-Sample KolmogorovSmirnov Test on the SPSS software. It was found that all the companies’ stock
return and stock volume data was normally distributed. So the data was not
distributed abnormally.
3. T- Tests: T-test was applied in order to assess whether the means of stock returns
before and after the inclusion are statistically different from each other or not. It
means to examine whether there was any significant difference between them or
not. It was carried out on SPSS software and it was found that there is significant
level between them. Similarly T-test was applied in order to assess whether the
means of stock volume before and after the bonus issues are statistically different
from each other or not. It was carried out on SPSS software and it was found that
there is significant level between them.
The test of equality of mean in the data processing is basically using t test. The day
of execution (t0) is not included in the data compared to avoid the overreaction effect on
the day of bonus announcement. The research conducted by Nuryadin (2004) and
Lamoureux and Poon (1987) had done a similar methodology to study the volume change
of individual companies on the day of bonus announcement.
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82
Results and Discussion
Previous research on bonus issues has not discovered any significant differences in
price reaction around announcement dates between bonus issue announcements. One
of the most common experimental designs is the “pre-post” design. A study of this type
often consists of two measurements taken on the same subject, one before and one after
the introduction of a treatment or a stimulus. The basic idea is simple. If the treatment
had no effect, the average difference between the measurements is equal to 0 and the
null hypothesis holds. On the other hand, if the treatment did have an effect (intended
or unintended!), the average difference is not 0 and the null hypothesis is rejected.
In the present research impact of bonus issue on the stock return is seen. The difference
between the pre issue returns and post issue returns is seen on the companies listed
continuously in Nifty from 2005-06 to 2009-2010.
Stock returns are analysed over a sample frame from 30, 60, 90 and 240 days prior
to the bonus issue announcements to 30, 60, 90 and 240 days subsequent to the
announcement. Stock returns are calculated over various event windows. To reflect the
potentiality of event- induced variances this study used the paired sample t test.
The Paired-Samples T Test procedure is used to test the hypothesis of no difference
between two variables. The data may consist of two measurements taken on the same
subject or one measurement taken on a matched pair of subjects.
Testable Hypotheses
H1: Companies undertaking bonus issues will experience positive announcement
period stock returns.
H01: There is no significant difference between the pre and post returns mean for.
We hypothesized that the companies in our sample will experience positive
announcement period stock returns on the basis that these announcements convey favorable
information regarding the company’s future prospects to less informed market (Foster
and Vickrey (1978), Woolridge (1983), Grinblatt et al (1984), McNichols and Dravid (1990)
and Anderson et al (2001).
Table 1: T test Results for 30 days windows
Company Name
DABUR
GAIL
HCL
INFOSYS
ONGC
CIPLA
RELIANCE
TCS
30 days
t-test
Significance Level
Hypothesis Accepted/Rejected
0.618
0.467
-0.175
0.562
-0.701
1.304
0.575
0.276
0.545
0.646
0.863
0.58
0.493
0.211
0.572
0.786
Rejected
Accepted
Accepted
Accepted
Accepted
Rejected
Rejected
Accepted
Effect of Bonus Issue Announcement on Stock Returns
83
The results of paired t test applied on the pre and post 30 days returns showed that
For GAIL, HCL, INFOSYS, ONGC and TCS there is no difference between the pre and
post announcement returns.
For DABUR, CIPLA and RELIANCE the pre and post announcement period stock
returns have statistically significantly Difference. Therefore, for these companies we can
conclude that the positive reaction on announcement period is predominantly attributed
to bonus issue announcements. These findings support for the signaling hypothesis
consistent with our first hypothesis (H1).In summary, announcement period results indicate
strong support for hypothesis one, as companies issuing bonus shares appear to experience
positive and significant announcement period abnormal returns.
Table 2: T test Results for 60 days windows
Name of Company
t-test
Significance Level
HypothesisRejected/Accepted
DABUR
GAIL
HCL
INFOSYS
ONGC
CIPLA
RELIANCE
1.413
0.42
-0.457
-0.667
-1.116
1.409
0.486
0.166
0.677
0.651
0.508
0.272
0.167
0.63
Rejected
Accepted
Accepted
Accepted
Accepted
Rejected
Accepted
TCS
-0.063
0.95
Accepted
The results of paired t test applied on the pre and post 60 days returns showed that
For GAIL, HCL, INFOSYS, ONGC, RELIANCE and TCS there is no difference between
the pre and post announcement returns.
For DABUR and CIPLA the pre and post Announcement period stock returns have
statistically significantly Difference. Therefore, for these companies we can conclude that
the positive reaction on announcement period is predominantly attributed to bonus issue
announcements. These findings support for the signaling hypothesis consistent with our
first hypothesis (H1).In summary, announcement period results indicate strong support
for hypothesis one, as companies issuing bonus shares appear to experience positive
and significant announcement period abnormal returns.
Table 3: T test Results for 90 days windows
Name of Company
t-test
Significance Level
HypothesisRejected/Accepted
DABUR
GAIL
HCL
INFOSYS
ONGC
CIPLA
RELIANCE
TCS
0.435
0.724
-0.592
-0.771
-0.896
1.952
0.868
0.053
0.665
0.472
0.556
0.444
0.374
0.056
0.389
0.958
Accepted
Rejected
Accepted
Accepted
Accepted
Rejected
Rejected
Accepted
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84
The results of paired t test applied on the pre and post 90 days returns showed that
For, DABUR, HCL, INFOSYS, ONGC and TCS there is no difference between the pre
and post announcement returns.
For GAIL, CIPLA and RELIANCE the pre and post Announcement period stock returns
have statistically significantly Difference. Therefore, for these companies we can conclude
that the positive reaction on announcement period is predominantly attributed to bonus
issue announcements. These findings support for the signaling hypothesis consistent
with our first hypothesis (H1).In summary, announcement period results indicate strong
support for hypothesis one, as companies issuing bonus shares appear to experience
positive and significant announcement period abnormal returns.
Table 4: T test Results for 240days windows
Name of Company
t-test
Significance Level
HypothesisRejected/Accepted
DABUR
0.607
0.545
Rejected
GAIL
-0.441
0.66
Accepted
HCL
0.274
0.785
Accepted
INFOSYS
-1.047
0.297
Accepted
ONGC
-0.12
0.905
Accepted
CIPLA
1.828
0.069
Rejected
RELIANCE
0.703
0.483
Rejected
TCS
-1.769
0.079
Accepted
The results of paired t test applied on the pre and post 240 days returns showed that
For GAIL, HCL, INFOSYS, ONGC and TCS there is no difference between the pre and
post announcement returns.
For DABUR, CIPLA and RELIANCE the pre and post Announcement period stock
returns have statistically significantly Difference. Therefore, for these companies we can
conclude that the positive reaction on announcement period is predominantly attributed
to bonus issue announcements. These findings support for the signaling hypothesis
consistent with our first hypothesis (H1).In summary, announcement period results indicate
strong support for hypothesis one, as companies issuing bonus shares appear to experience
positive and significant announcement period abnormal returns.
Conclusion
This study examined the return reaction to bonus issues announcements. Bonus issue
announcements led to statistically significant positive price reaction around announcement
dates.
The results in general have indicated that HCL, INFOSYS, TCS, ONGC are the
companies which have no significant differences in the pre and post bonus issue
announcement returns. On the other side CIPLA came out to be the company whose
returns were significantly difference in the pre and post bonus issue announcement.
Effect of Bonus Issue Announcement on Stock Returns
85
Looking to the other side, GAIL is the organisation which shows no significant
differences in the pre and post bonus issue announcement returns for 30, 60, 240 days
window but for 90 days window significant differences in the pre and post bonus issue
announcement returns are seen. This mean impact of bonus share announcement is shown
after 90 days. Similarly for DABUR, there is a significant differences in the pre and post
bonus issue announcement returns when test are carried out for 30, 60, 240 days windows,
but for 90 days window, there comes no significant differences in the pre and post bonus
issue announcement returns.
This study provides additional evidence of industry influence. Results obtained for
IT companies (based on industry classification of the issuing Companies), indicated weaker
announcement period return reaction as compared to pharmaceutical company.
Overall, then, evidence presented in this paper lend considerable support for signaling
hypothesis and consistent with the findings in US, Sweden, Canada and New Zealand.
Signaling effect is stronger for industrial nonfinancial and mining companies than financial
companies.
REFERENCES

Anderson, H., Cahan, S. and L. C. Rose (2001), “Stock Dividend in an Imputation Tax Environment”,
Journal of Business Finance &Accounting, 28:5, pp. 653-669.

Anjel, J (1998), “ Tick Size, Share Prices, and Stock Splits,” Journal of Finance, Vol. 52, pp.655681.

Balachandran Balasingham & Tanner Sally (2001), Bonus Share Issues and Announcement Effect:
Australian Evidence.

Ball, R, Brown P and F.J Finn (1977), ‘Share Capitalisation Changes, Information and the Australian
Equity Market’, Australian Journal of Management, 2, 105-126.

Barnes, M.L., & Ma, S. (2000), The Behaviour of China’s Stock Prices in Response to the Proposal
and Approval of Bonus Issues, Working paper, University of Adelaide, Australia

Brennan, M.J. and P.J. Hughes, 1991, Stock prices and the supply of information,Journal of Finance,
46(5), 1665-1691.

Brennan, M.J., and T.E. Copeland, 1988, Stock splits, stock prices, and transaction costs, Journal
of Financial Economics, 22,83-101.

Dhar and Chhaochharia, “Market Reaction Around the Stock Splits and Bonus Issues: Some
Indian Evidence”

Fama, E F, L Fisher, M Jensen and R Roll (1969), “The Adjustments of Stock Prices to New
Information,” International Economic Review, Vol. 10, pp. 1-21.

Foster T.W and Vickrey D (1978) ‘The Information Content of Stock Dividend Announcements’
Accounting Review, 53:2 (April) pp. 360- 370

G. Lamoureux, & P. Poon, The market reaction to stock splits. Journal of Finance, 42, 1987, 1347–
1370.

Grinblatt M.S, Masulis R.W and Titman S (1984) The Valuation Effects of Stock Splits and Stock
Dividends’ Journal of Financial Economics, 13:4 (December) pp. 461 – 490.

Grinblatt, M.S, Masulis R.W and Titman, S (1984), “The Valuation Effects of Stock Splits and
Stock Dividends,” Journal of Financial Economics, Vol. 13:4 (Dec), pp. 461-90.
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 Guneratne, P.S.M., & Fernando, K.G.K., (2007)Market Response to Bonus Issues with Special
Reference to Impact of Bonus Issue Ratio and Ex-day Price Adjustments; Evidence from Colombo
Stock Exchange(2007) International Research Conference on Knowledge for Growth and
Development Faculty of Management &Finance, University of Colombo, Sri Lanka.
 Lakonishok, J and Lev, B (1987), “Stock Plits and Stock dividends: Why, Who and When,”
 Lijleblem, E (1989), “The Informational Imapct of Announcements of Stock Dividends and Stock
Splits,” Journal of Business Finance and Accounting, Vol. 16:5 (Winter), pp. 681-98.
 Lijleblom, E. (1989), The Informational Impact of Announcements of Stock Dividends and Stock
Splits’, Journal of Business Finance and Accounting, 16:5 (Winter) pp 681 – 698.
 Marsden, Shareholder wealth effects of rights issues: evidence from the New Zealand capital
market. Pacific- Basin Finance Journal 8, 2000, 419–442.
 Masse, I, Hanrahn, J.R and J. Kushner (1997), ‘The Effect of Canadian Stock Splits, Stock Dividends
and Reverse Splits on the Value of the Firm’ QJBE, 36:4 (Autumn) pp. 51 – 62.
 Masse, J.R. Hanrahn, & J. Kushner, The Effect of Canadian Stock Splits, Stock Dividends and
Reverse Splits on the Value of the Firm’ QJBE, 36(4) (Autumn), 1997, 51 – 62.
 McNichols M and Dravid A (1990) ‘Stock Dividends, Stock Splits and Signaling’ Journal of Finance
45:3 (July) pp. 857 – 879.
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Finance, Vol. 45:3 (July), pp.851-79.
 Miller, m. and Modigliani (1961), “ Dividend Policy, Growth and the Valuation of Shares,” Journal
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 Mishra, A.K.(2005), “An Empirical Analysis of Market reaction Around the Bonus Issues in India”,
The ICFAI Journal of Applied Finance, Vol. 11, No. 7, pp. 21-39.
 Obaidullah, How do Stock Prices React to Bonus Issues?, Vikalpa, 17(1), 1992, 17-22.
 Papaioannou G.J, Travlos N.G, Tsangarakis, N.V (2000) ‘Valuation Effects of Greek Stock Dividend
Distributions’, European Financial Management, 6:4 pp. 515-531
 S.C. Myers, & N.S. Majluf, Corporate financing and investment decisions when firms have
information that investors do not have. Journal of Financial Economics, 13, 1984, 187–222.
 Schuitz, P (2000), “Stock Splits, tick size and sponsorship”, Journal of Finance, 55, pp. 429-50.
 Sloan, R. G (1987). “Bonous Issues, Share Splits and Ex-day Share Price Behavior : Austrailian
Evidence,” Australian Jouranal of Management, Vol. 12.
 Woolridge R (1983) ‘Stock Dividends as Signals’ Journal of Financial Research, 6:1 (Spring)
pp. 1 – 12.
Emotional Maturity and Self Confidence: Study on College Students
87
6
Emotional Maturity and Self Confidence:
Study on College Students
Dr. Garima Mathur, Dr. Sushma Suri, Iram Naz, Manjari Agarwal,
Umesh Sharma, Sweety Dubey & Nisha Tiwari
ABSTRACT
For most of the students college life is the best place to learn and develop. The level of confidence
they gain during this period is highest as the level of their maturity also increases. Although
students differ in their emotional maturity level and the difference is clearly visible among gender.
The present study is intended to study the emotional maturity level of male and female students
and its relationship with self confidence. For the purpose of this study various tests such as
regression were applied and the results indicate that emotional instability is the only factor of
emotional maturity that affected self confidence of students.
Key Words: Emotional Maturity and Self Confidence
Introduction
Emotional Maturity implies controlling your emotions rather than letting your emotions
get the better of you. Your emotional maturity depicts your capacity to manage and to
check your emotions, to evaluate others’ emotional state and to persuade their judgment
and actions. A person’s emotional maturity is very much influenced by his/ her relationship
history. Emotional intelligence makes an important part of life, together with intellectual
intelligence and relationship intelligence. Such intelligence can help one to assess emotional
maturity and emotional freedom. How well do you tackle any relationship, is a major
discernible factor to check your level of emotional maturity.
According to Goleman (1998) “Our emotional intelligence determines our potential
for learning the practical skills that are based on its five elements: self-awareness,
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A Handbook for Writing Research Paper
motivation, self-regulation, empathy, and adeptness in relationships. Our emotional
competence shows how much of that potential we have translated into on-the-job
capabilities”. Emotional maturity is not only the effective determinant of personality
pattern but it also helps to control the growth of adolescent’s development.
The concept “mature” emotional behavior of any level is that which reflects the fruits
of normal emotional development. A person who is able to keep the emotions under
control, who is able to break delay and to suffer without be self- pity might still be
emotionally stunned and childish. Morgan (1934) stated the view that an adequate theory
of emotional maturity must take account of the full scope of the individuality, powers
and his ability to enjoy the use of his powers.
According to Smitson (1974) emotional maturity is a process in which the personality
is continuously striving for greater sense of emotional health, both intra physically and
intra personally. Hollingworth (1928) mentioned some characteristics of emotionally mature
person such as capablity of responding in graduation or degree of emotional responses.
He is also able to delay his responses as controlled with the impulsiveness of young
child and handing of self pity, instead of showing unrestrained self pity, he tries to feel
for him.
According to Cole (1994) the most outstanding mark of emotional maturity is ability
to bear tension. Other marks are indifference toward certain kinds of stimuli that affect
the child or adolescent and he develops moodiness and sentimentality. Beside, emotionally
mature person persists the capacity for fun and recreation. He enjoys both play and
responsibility activities and keep them in proper balance.
Mohsin (1960) has developed an Emotional Maturity Scale whereas Rao and Stewart
(1976) have adopted Stewart Maturity Scale in Indian conditions and Srivastava (1983)
has developed a Social Maturity.
Dr.Yashvir Singh and Dr. Mahesh Bhargava prepared a list of five broad factors of
emotional maturity which is given below:
 Emotional Stability: Emotional Stability refers to a characteristics of a person
that does not allow him to react excessively or given to swings in mood or marked
changes in any emotive situation. The emotionally stable person is able to do
what is required of him in any given situation. Contrary to it, emotional instability
is a tendency to quick changing and unreliable responses.
 Emotional Progression: Emotional progression is the characteristic of a person
that refers to a feeling of adequate advancement and growing vitality of emotions
in relation to environment to ensure a positive thinking imbued with righteousness
and contentment. Whereas emotional regression is also a broad group of factors
representing such syndromes as feeling of inferiority, restlessness, hostility,
aggressiveness and self- centeredness.
 Social Adjustment: Social adjustment refers to a process of interaction between
the needs of a person and demands of the social environment in any given situation,
so that they can maintain and adapt a desired relationship with the environment.
Emotional Maturity and Self Confidence: Study on College Students
89
Therefore, it may be described as a person’s harmonious relationship with his
social world. Whereas socially maladjusted person shows lack of social responsibility
should hatred, reclusive but boasting, liar and shirker.
 Personality Integration: Personality integration is the process of firmly unifying
the diverse elements of an individual’s motives and dynamic tendencies, resulting
in harmonious coactions and de-escalation of the inner conflict in the undaunted
expression of behavior, whereas disintegrated personality includes all those
symptoms like reaction, phobias formation, rationalization, pessimism, immorality
etc. such a person suffers from inferiorities and hence reacts to environment through
aggressiveness, destruction and has distorted sense of reality.
 Independence: Independence is a capacity of a person’s attitudinal tendency to
be self reliant or of resistance to control by others, where he can take his decisions
by his own judgment based on facts by utilizing his intellectual and creative
potentialities. He would never like to show any habitual reliance upon another
person in making his decision or carrying out difficult actions, whereas a opened
person shows parasitic dependence on other is ego tic and lacks “objective interests”.
People think of him an unreliable person.
Self Confidence
Basavanna (1975) defined “self confidence refers to an individual’s perceived ability
to act effectively in a situation to overcome obstacles and to get things go all right”.
Review of Literature
John, Manoharan, Doss (August 2007) found that the emotional maturity of Post
Graduate students is influenced by sex, class and group. The level of emotional maturity
of female students is higher than that of the male students. It is also to be noted that
students of the second year are more mature than those of the first year. It is also found
that there is significant positive relationship between the group chosen for study and
level of emotional maturity: Arts group students have higher numerical score than the
science students –which means science students have greater emotional maturity. The
emotional maturity found to be related with the working and non-working aspect of
mothers. In a study Hangal and Aminabhavi (2007) compared the emotional maturity
level of employed and home maker mothers. The results indicated that children of employed
mothers have significantly high emotional maturity compared to their counterparts.
Children of homemakers have significantly higher emotional instability, emotional
regression and personality disorganization compared to children of employed mothers.
Female children of homemakers have significantly higher emotional maturity compared
to male children. The children of both homemakers as well as employed mothers differed
significantly in different modes of self concept. In contrast with above results Aleem
(2005) found male students to be more emotionally stable as compared to their female
counterparts. Pastey and Aminbhavi (2006) concluded that adolescents with high emotional
maturity have significantly higher stress and self confidence than those with lower emotional
A Handbook for Writing Research Paper
90
maturity. The stress and self confidence were not influenced by sex and order of birth
among siblings. Where more number of siblings has influenced positively the self confidence
of adolescents when compared to those having less number of siblings. The income of
the family and educational level of parents has no influence on the self confidence of
their adolescent children. Similarly, Jha (2002) reported a significant positive relationship
between self-confidence and emotional maturity vigilant style of decision making in
case of executives.
Goleman (1998) in his work with emotional intelligence suggested Emotional
intelligence is the potential for learning these competencies. Being high in emotional
intelligence does not guarantee that the person will have the acquired skills necessary
to excel in work, it only means that (s) he has a high potential for learning them.
Benabou and Tirole (Mar 2000) in their paper self confidence and social interaction
studies interactions between an individual’s self esteem and his social environment in
the workplace, at school, and in personal relationships. Because a person generally has
only imperfect knowledge of his own abilities, people who derive benefits from his
performance (parent, spouse, friend, teacher, manager, etc.) have incentives to manipulate
his self confidence. They first study situations where an informed principal chooses an
incentive structure, such as offering payments or rewards, delegating a task, or giving
encouragement. We show that extrinsic rewards may have hidden costs as stressed by
psychologists in that they undermine intrinsic motivation. As a result, they may be only
weak reinforces in the short run, and become negative rein forcers once withdrawn.
Similarly, empowerment is likely to increase motivation, while offers of help may create
dependence. More generally, they identify when the hidden costs of rewards are a myth
or a reality. They next consider situations where people criticize or downplay the
performance of their spouse, child, colleague, or subordinate. They formalize ego bashing
as reflecting battles for dominance or authority within the relationship. Finally, we turn
to the self presentation strategies of privately informed agents. They study in particular
how depressed individuals may engage in self-deprecation as a way of seeking leniency
or a helping hand’ on various obligations.
Objectives




To identify the maturity level of college students
To measure the confidence level of college students
To standardize the measure to evaluate self confidence
To compare the self confidence level of different students on the basis of emotional
maturity.
Hypothesis Formation
To find out relationship between emotional maturity and self confidence a hypothesis
was formed:
H01: It states that there is no significant effect of emotional maturity on self confidence
of students.
Emotional Maturity and Self Confidence: Study on College Students
91
Research Methodology
The Study and Sample: The study is empirical in nature. A survey of different graduate
and post graduate students was conducted to collect the data. A sample of 300 students
(150 graduate students and 150 post graduate students which is again divided into 75
males and 75 females at both graduate and post graduate level) was taken for the purpose
of study. The sample was collected by judgmental sampling. Data was collected from
Students of different colleges.
The Measure: The data was collected on two scales:
Emotional Maturity Scale: Hindi version of the scale constructed and standardized
by Dr. Yashvir Singh and Dr. Mahesh Bhargava (1990) to measure Emotional Maturity
of the subjects was taken. It measures Emotional Maturity on five dimensions namely,
Emotional Instability, Emotional Regression, Social Maladjustment, Personality
Disintegration and Lack of Independence. Higher level of responses showed higher
emotional immaturity.
Self Confidence Scale: To measure the level of self confidence a 25 item self reported
measure was prepared in Hindi. Higher scores on self confidence shows higher confidence.
Procedure: The subjects were contacted personally and requested to cooperate for
data collection. To compute the self confidence level of different students on the basis of
emotional maturity REGRESSION using SPSS was applied.
Results and Discussion
On the basis of objectives Mean, Standard Deviation and regression were applied.
The table indicates that self confidence was highest among the post graduate females
showing mean value of 94.7727. On the contrary under graduate females showed least
self confidence level (Shown in table 1). Emotional maturity of most of the post graduate
females was reported as unstable as compared to others.
Table 1: Descriptives
Self Confidence
N
Mean
Std.
Deviation
Std.
Error
95% Confidence
Interval for Mean
Lower
Bound
Upper
Bound
Minimum
Maximum
1.
75
88.1951
15.02867
2.34708
83.4515
92.9388
55.00
117.00
2.
75
92.8000
10.04988
2.00998
88.6516
96.9484
74.00
116.00
3.
75
87.4255
14.86277
2.16796
83.0617
91.7894
53.00
114.00
4.
75
94.7727
14.73623
2.22157
90.2925
99.2530
64.00
118.00
300
90.5414
14.44596
1.15291
88.2641
92.8187
53.00
118.00
Total
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Descriptives
Emotion Mat
N
Mean
Std.
Deviation
Std.
Error
95% Confidence
Interval for Mean
Lower
Bound
Upper
Bound
Minimum
Maximum
1.
75
1.1498E2
34.18661
5.33905
104.1850
125.7662
70.00
207.00
2.
75
1.0556E2
19.95637
3.99127
97.3224
113.7976
76.00
146.00
3.
75
1.2109E2
31.98765
4.66588
111.6932
130.4770
60.00
183.00
4.
75
20.94430
3.15747
91.4505
104.1858
64.00
158.00
29.52739
2.35654
105.8420
115.1517
60.00
207.00
Total
97.8182
300
1.1050E2
Reliability
Reliability was checked through Cronbach Alpha and the reported value was 0.908
indicated high consistency of the questionnaire.
Reliability Statistics
Cronbach’s Alpha
Cronbach’s Alpha Based on Standardized Items
N of Items
.908
25
.907
Normality
Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was applied to check normality. The results suggest that
the sample was normal as statistic (0.052) was significant at 0.200 so null hypothesis
was not rejected which states that the test distribution is normal.
Tests of Normality
Kolmogorov-Smirnova
Self Confidence
Shapiro-Wilk
Statistic
df
Sig.
Statistic
df
Sig.
.052
296
.200
.985
296
.089
*
a. Lilliefors Significance Correction
*. This is a lower bound of the true significance.
Regression
Multiple Regression: The data was further analysed through regression. Firstly the
relationship was measured between emotional maturity and self confidence through simple
regression. The adjusted R-square indicated 10% variance by all the factors of emotional
maturity in the self confidence.
Emotional Maturity and Self Confidence: Study on College Students
93
Model Summaryb
Model
R
1.
.360
R Square
Adjusted R Square
Std. Error of the Estimate
.130
.102
15.82289
a
Durbin-Watson
2.050
a. Predictors: (Constant), LackIndependence, EmotInstab, Emotreg, SocialMaladjust, PersDisorg
b. Dependent Variable: SelfConfdence
ANOVA table indicating good model fit as F-value (4.615) is significant at 0.001. The
dimensions of emotional maturity were then regressed with self confidence to check
individual impact on self confidence.
ANOVAb
Model
1.
Sum of Squares
Regression
df
Mean Square
5777.390
5
1155.478
Residual
38806.387
155
250.364
Total
44583.776
160
F
Sig.
4.615
.001a
a. Predictors: (Constant), LackIndepend, EmotInstab, Emotreg, SocialMaladjust, PersDisorg
b. Dependent Variable: SelfConfdenc
The ‘F’ is not showing a higher value indicating that the model is not fitting well
and the results of regression were further substantiate by stating that only one factor of
emotional maturity was found to be negatively significantly related with self confidence.
Coefficientsa
Model
1
Unstandardized
Coefficients
B
Std. Error
(Constant)
107.490
5.449
EmotInstab
-.561
.262
Emotreg
.261
SocialMaladjust
.053
PersDisorg
LackIndepend
Standardized
Coefficients
t
Sig.
Beta
19.725
.000
-.248
-2.140
.034
.296
.110
.881
.380
.329
.022
.162
.871
-.435
.313
-.205
-1.389
.167
-.152
.384
-.049
-.396
.693
a. Dependent Variable: Self Confdence
The results of multiple regression revealing that only emotional instability showing
significantly negative impact on self confidence. As Beta value (-0.248) is significant at
A Handbook for Writing Research Paper
94
3.4% whereas the factors, Personal disintegration and Lack of independence were found
to be negatively insignificantly related with self confidence. Pastey and Aminbhavi (2006)
found a relationship between higher emotional maturity and self confidence which is
not revealed in present study. The students do not associate their personal disintegration
aspects like their phobias, aggressiveness, depression as well as their independence with
their self confidence. The reason may be attributed to the fact that students are already
entertaining their independence. Hence they do not need further independence to enhance
their confidence. Similarly the students were also higher on their personal integration
and hence it is also not related with self confidence. In fact the factors emotional progression
and social maladjustment were also found to be unrelated.
Conclusion
The study analysed the relationship between emotional maturity dimensions and
self confidence. Most of them did not report any significant relationship. However,
emotional instability showed significant negative relationship with self confidence. Logically
also it is true that the people who are not good at handling their emotions, find it difficult
to become self confident. On the present data set where students of graduation and post
graduation are considered indicates that there also exist insignificant negative relationship
between Personal disintegration, Lack of independence and self confidence. The students
must be helped to become more emotionally stable to enhance their self confidence in
comparison to any other dimension of emotional maturity.
REFERENCES
 Aleem Sheema (2005), Emotional Stability among College Youth, Journal of the Indian Academy
of Applied Psychology, January - July 2005, Vol. 31, No. 1-2, 100-102.
 Aujla, H. Aujla P (2006), Physiological and Psychological Stressors among Working and Non
Working Women. J. Hum. Ecol., 20(2): 121-123.
 Basavanna, M. (1975). Manual for the self confidence Inventory”, Varanasi: Rupa Psychological Center.
 Bénabou, Roland, and Jean Tirole (2000). “Self-Confidence and Social Interactions” NBER Working
Paper No. 7585
 Cole, P.M., Michel, M.K., & Teti, L.O. (1994). The development of emotion regulation and
dysregulation: a clinical perspective. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development,
59, 73-100.
 Dixit and Srivastava (1997), Reaction to Frustration Scale, American Psychological Association,
National Psychological Corporation, Agra.
 Goleman, D (1998). Working With Emotional Intelligence. America: Bantam Books.
 Hangal, S., Aminabhavi, V.A. (2007) Self- Concept, Emotional Maturity and Achievement Motivation
of the Adolescent Children of Employed Mothers and Homemakers. Journal of the Indian Academy
of Applied Psychology, 33, 1, 103-110.
 Hollingworth, L.S. (1928). The psychology of the adolescent. New York: D. Appelton and Company.
 Jha Praveen Kumar (2002). The Function of Self Confidence and Emotional Maturity in Decision
Making Styles of the Executives, Journal of Community Guidance and Research, 19, 419- 422.
Emotional Maturity and Self Confidence: Study on College Students
95

John Louis R and Doss Manoharan I. Christie (2007). Experiments in Education Vol. XXXV, No.
8. Emotional Maturity of Post-Graduate Students in Pondicherry Region.

Mohsin, S.M. (1960). A measure of emotional maturity. Psychological Studies, 5 (2), 78-83.

Morgan, John J.B. (1934). Child Psychology. Revised Ed. New York, Farrar & Rinehart, pp. VIII,
502.

Pastey, G.S., Aminbhavi, V.A. (2006). Impact of Emotional Maturity on Stress and Self Confidence
of Adolescents, Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology, 33(1), 66-70.

Singh, Y. & Bhargava, M. (1990) Manual for Emotional Maturity Scale. National Psychological
Corporation, Agra.

Smitson, W.S. (1974). The meaning of emotional maturity. MH, Winter 58, 9-11.
A Handbook for Writing Research Paper
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7
Marital Status and Frustration Among
Working and Non-Working Females
Dr. Garima Mathur, Smriti Rathor, Chetna Pandey, Priyadarshini Nagori,
Parul Kulshrestha, Sweety Dubey & Sandeep Dixit
ABSTRACT
Frustration is the key factor which determines human behaviour. Life has become over stressed
for individuals especially women. They are required to play different roles. The status of the
females, whether they are married or not and they are working or non-working determines the
level of frustration. Both working and non-working women have their own type of stresses which
enhances levels of frustration. In this study the levels of frustration in the females was compared
and measured. The results indicate that working and non-working females differ in frustration
especially in case of their level of aggression. Though, they were similar on other modes of frustration.
Key Words: Frustration, Working and Non Working
Introduction
Frustration is an emotion that occurs in situations where a person is blocked from
reaching a desired outcome. In general, whenever we reach one of our goals, we feel
pleased and whenever we are prevented from reaching our goals, we may give way to
frustration and feel irritable, annoyed and angry. Typically, the more important the goal,
the greater the frustration and resultant anger or loss of confidence Frustration is not
necessarily bad since it can be a useful indicator of the problems in a person’s life and,
as a result, it can act as a motivator to change. However, when it results in anger, irritability,
stress, resentment, depression, or a spiral downward where we have a feeling of resignation
or giving up, frustration can be destructive.
Marital Status and Frustration Among Working and Non-Working Females
97
Frustration is described as a feeling of dissatisfaction or discouragement that occurs
when an individual’s needs, goals or expectations are not met. When you feel that your
efforts are being blocked or cannot be achieved, it is quite common to become frustrated
and discouraged.
Frustration is one of the most dominating factors influencing individual behavior.
The sources of frustration are many and diversified the specific situations that bring
about frustrations are endless but they can generally be put into three main make up.
Besides its inability, frustration is a phenomenon of a great consequence to human happiness.
Many psychologists have pointed out the importance of frustration towards constructive
side. The frustration may spur individual to greater and more well organized efforts,
determine to achieve ultimate success and satisfaction. It may increase the strength of
the motive and to re double the efforts to go ahead with the blocked line of activity.
Many of the outstanding achievements in human, social and individual history have
sprung out of deeply frustrating situations or backgrounds.
“Frustration occurs when ever the organism meets a more or less insurmountable
obstacle or obstruction in its root to the satisfaction of any vital need”- (Rosenzweig,
1941) and according to Stagner (1961) “frustration is a state of emotional stress characterized
by confusion, annoyance and anger. Interruption to goal seeking behavior causes
frustration”. The person is aware of his inability to satisfy his drives and his failure to
reach the goals he has set for himself and so he fells helpless and suffers from injured
pride (Writ, 1956).
Fraud (1933) reported that aggression is an expression of frustration. According to
him, frustration occurs whenever pleasure- seeking or pain avoiding behavior is blocked.
Feeling of fear of failure, thus germinate frustration. The frustration-aggression hypothesis
asserts that the occurrence of aggression always presupposes the existence of frustration
always lead to some of aggression (Filler, 1952).
As opposed to the Frustration-Aggression hypothesis, Barker, Dembo and Lewin (1952)
advanced “Frustration –Regression” hypothesis which reveals that frustration of one
activity will produce lowered quality of performance in the second activity. To the extent
that it leads to the making of responses that are incompatible with are interfere with the
responses of the second activity (Baker et. al. 1941).According to Freud (1933) FrustrationRegression hypothesis causes an individual to revert to modes of action that had
characterized his behavior to earlier developmental stage. Maier (1940) has advanced
the theory of Frustration-Fixation, which states that “Abnormal fixations” produced under
frustration are different in kind from behaviors produced from motivated learning.
Subsequently Maier (1956) revised his thinking and restated that ‘Motivation is separated
from causation as explanatory concept.
Modes of Frustration
Frustration has a different set of behavior mechanism. It is expressed in various modes:
aggression, resignation, fixation, and regression.
98
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Aggression: Aggression is behavior, verbal or physical, intended to physically hurt
or harm in some other way another person or thing. It may be expressed in terms of
irritation, quarreling and fighting, disrespect to elders, and negative reaction to traditions
and believes etc. Freud (1933) has developed the concept of frustration in human beings
goes to. He has established the causal relationship between frustration and aggression
according to him aggression plays a prominent role in behavior disorders. Mc Clelland
and Apicella (1945) have also done significant work in the context of frustration-aggression
hypothesis.
Resignation: Resignation is a formal act of quitting or giving up one’s position. It is
a severe state of frustration. In resignated behavior, there is extreme elimination of needs,
no plans, no future orientations withdrawal from social contacts, isolation, lack of interest
in surrounding etc.
Fixation: It is the state in which an individual becomes obsessed with an attachment
to another person, being or object. ‘A strong attachment to a person or thing, especially
such an attachment formed in childhood or infancy and manifested in immature or neurotic
behavior that persists throughout life’.
Maier (1949, 1956) contends that fixation behavior cannot be explained by using learning
principles. Here behavior is repeated over and over again without variations and shows
a degree of resistance to change. In other words, fixated behavior as such remains
compulsive. Fixated person usually attached with interests and emotional attitudes
belonging to an early stage of development may occur due to frustration of the normal
expression of instinctual drive, or it’s over gratification or trauma and weakens the ego
of the individual.
Regression: According to Fraud (1933) regression is a defense mechanism leading to
the temporary or long-term reversion of the ego to an earlier stage of development rather
than handling unacceptable impulses in a more adult way. He has also suggested frustrationregression hypothesis. His notion was that frustration could cause an individual to revert
to modes of action that had characterized his behavior to earlier developmental stage.
Lewin (1937) has stated that people under stress regress to a more ‘primitive’ level, when
he has learned habits at younger age. A famous study of regressive behavior in humans
was that of Barker, Dembo, and Lewin (1941) where they have taken children between
2 to 5 years as subjects in their experiment. Regression lowers constructiveness and
represents a backward step in development. It is expressed in behavior characteristics
like- defective speech, homesickness, escapist attitude, lack of self control, thinking old
days, excessive day dreaming etc.
Thus frustration has its own system. It has four modes of reactions to a situationaggression, resignation, fixation, and regression. Aggression indicates frustration dynamics
in hostile situation, resignation is the extreme escapism from reality. Regression is the
condition to go back and fixation is the compulsive type of behavior.
Marital Status and Frustration Among Working and Non-Working Females
99
Review of Literature
Aleem and Danish (April 2008) concluded that pressure and hassles of jobs not only
affect marital life but also proved to be a major source of anxiety particularly among
women. Marital satisfaction among working women hardly gets disturbed due to their
multiple role but the thought processes seemed to be disturbed that can be seen in the
form of prevalence of higher anxiety among them. Narimani and Basharpour (2009)
conducted a study in order to comparing of perfectionism and self alienation in employed
women and unemployed women. Statistical society of this study comprised of whole
employed women in Ardabil City and the total of housekeeper women that had any job
at out of home comprised normal society. Thirty employed women were selected randomly
as a study group and 30 unemployed women were selected by this way as a comparison
group. They were tested individually by perfectionism and self alienation questionnaire.
Collected data were analyzed by MANOVA and regression and Pearson correlation tests.
The results of multivariate variance (MANOVA) showed that there was no significant
difference in positive perfectionism and social isolation between two groups. But there
were significant differences between two groups at negative perfectionism and norm
lessness and powerlessness. The result of regression analysis showed that self alienation
can explained about 15% variance of positive perfectionism and 13% variance of negative
perfectionism.
Efere (2005) suggested that one should bear in mind that almost every frustration or
problem has a solution to it. According to him all we need to do is apply a step by step
approach to identify that solution. In conclusion, it can clearly be seen that it is advisable
for us to follow the constructive behavior path when confronted by frustration. In
increasingly complex Western societies, frustration is a daily occurrence. Inability to contain
frustration could result in catastrophic consequences, some of which are: Stress, Illness,
Violence, Domestic violence and abuse, Mental Illness, Alcoholism and drug abuse, Road
rage, Suicide, Homicide Constructive behavior in the face of frustration will help prevent
these negative consequences.
Mehta, Kulshrestha and Chowdhry (July 2006) conduct a study to see the effect of
widowhood on repression - sensitization tendency taking four groups of women i.e.
non working widows, working widows, non working married and working married
women, who are middle aged and residing in urban setting. The study was conducted
on 70 widows (35 non working and 35 working) and 90 married women (45 non working
and 45 working) aged between 35 to 50 years using R-S scale by Mehta and Koradia was
used to assess the repression - sensitization tendency. Data was analyzed using‘t’ Test.
The findings reveal that widows were found to be having significantly higher level of
sensitization tendency in comparison to married women irrespective of non working/
working status of theirs or of married women.
Harshpinder and Paramjit Aujla (2006) examined Psychological and physiological
stressors among working and non-working women have been in their study. Data were
collected from 75 working and 75 non -working women from four localities of Ludhiana
city. Results indicated that common factors of stress in both categories were unfinished
A Handbook for Writing Research Paper
100
tasks, compulsion of doing disliked activities, death of close relative, improper sleep. In
working women, stressors were ‘pleasing others’ (mean score 0.92) and overburden of
work (1.04), whereas in non- working women stressors were ‘wrong working posture’
(0.97) and ‘non – involvement in decision making by family’ (1.02). This study shows
that working women were more stressed as compared to non-working Saxena (2008-09)
confirmed in the study that the working woman has higher level of frustration than the
non- workingwomen.
Gaur (August 2009) concluded in their research that old people with low level of
adjustment, the dimensions of reaction to frustration i.e. Aggression, regression, fixation,
and resignation are high whereas where the adjustment levels are high, the reaction to
frustration is low supported by the research indicating that it is reported that nearly
60% of the Aged were not satisfied with personal and financial help extended.
Objectives
 To identify the frustration level of working and non working females.
 To compare the difference in the frustration level of working and non working
females.
 To measure the impact of marital status on frustration of working and non working
females.
Hypothesis Formation
To find out relationship between marital status and frustration among working and
non working females a hypothesis was formed:
H01: It states that there is no significant between marital status and frustration among
working and non working females
H02: It states that there is no significant difference in the modes of frustration of married
and unmarried females.
Research Methodology
The Study and Sample: The study is empirical in nature. A survey of working and
non working females was conducted to collect the data. A sample size 200 (100 working
and 100 non working females) was taken for the purpose of study. The sample was collected
by judgmental sampling. The working women were from different occupational background
such as education, insurance etc.
The Measure: The data was collected on a reaction to frustration measure (Hindi
version) proposed by Dixit and Srivastava (1997). The Reaction to Frustration Scale (RFS)
covers four kinds of reactions namely aggression, resignation, fixation and regression as
scientifically described by Maier (1949). It consisted of 40 items out of which each reaction
to frustration had 10 items equally divided in to positive and negative items. These items
are presented in the simple statements and provide six alternative response options graded
Marital Status and Frustration Among Working and Non-Working Females
101
on a six – point scale. The scale has the satisfactory reliability coefficient when positive
and negative items of each mode of reactions to frustration are correlated. The reliability
and validity scores of the frustration scale were 0.92 and 0.61 respectively.
The Tools: To measure the level of frustration the calculation was done on the basis
of test scores given by Dixit and Srivastava (1997). To compare the frustration level Ttest using SPSS was applied. The impact of marital status was also measured through Ttest by checking differences. The overall differences were measured through ANOVA.
Ethical Consideration: Prior permission for filling the data was taken from all the
respondents. Only the willing subjects were taken for the study and they were convinced
to keep the confidentiality.
Results and Discussion
The data was put to various statistical tests for the purpose of analysis. Various modes
of all the females were calculated on the basis of scoring key provided by Dixit and
Srivastava (1997). The results of scoring key indicates the
Calculation through test scores of RFS
The level of frustration was measures among females in married and unmarried.
The different modes and percentile score for females are shown below in table 1. The
scoring table of reaction to frustration is given below. The values indicates the scoring
level under different modes and total indicates the over all frustration level.
Table 1: Modes of Reaction to Frustration
Percentiles
Aggression
Resignation
Fixation
Regression
Total
Interpretation
100959080
34302723
44383431
44403734
43413853
124119116112
Very High
Frustration
75(Q3)70
2221
3029
3332
3432
110108
High
Frustration
191816
272523
302926
312927
10410299
Average
Frustration
3025(Q1)
1413
2119
2423
2524
9493
Low
Frustration
20105
1297
181511
221916
222018
918783
Very Low
Frustration
6050(Md)40
On the basis of frequencies in the above table show the level of frustration of females
was calculated.
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102
Table 2: Frequencies Showing Different Modes of Reaction to Frustration
Percentile
Aggression
Resignation
Fixation
Regression
Total
43
7
29
34
35
Very high Frustration
High Frustration
6
7
5
16
8
Average Frustration
8
32
32
18
25
Low Frustration
01
10
15
11
26
Very Low Frustration
01
21
22
10
65
The frequencies are shown in table 2. The data shows that 35 females were in very
high frustration level, 8 females were in high frustration, 25 were in average frustration
level, where as 26 were having low frustration and 65 females were having very low
frustration. The frequencies showing mediate values were not considered in the table 3.
Table 3: Showing Results of Descriptive Statistics for Over all Frustration
Descriptive Statistics
N
Mean
Std. Deviation
Variance
SW
40
1.0892E2
14.45131
208.840
SNW
40
1.0455E2
12.82416
164.459
MW
40
1.0350E2
15.38897
236.821
MNW
40
1.1448E2
13.22195
174.820
Valid N (listwise)
40
Results of descriptive statistics indicate that married non-working females exerts highest
level of frustration as compared to others. A further analysis has been conducted by
applying t-test.
Analysis
The data was further analysed by using inferential statistics.
ANOVA
Anova was applied to check differences in the marital status and working and nonworking on the basis of reaction to frustration model. Before applying ANOVA the data
was checked for various assumptions.
Assumptions
1. Normality
The data was checked for normality and it was found to be normally distributed as
Kolmogorov-Smirnov test value indicates that the hypothesis is not rejected.
Marital Status and Frustration Among Working and Non-Working Females
103
2. Homogeneity of Variance
Second assumption for ANOVA was checking homogeneity of variance which was
achieved through Levene’s test. The Levene’s statistic indicates that the homogeneity of
variance exist as the value is significant at 0.201.
The value of F is also significant at 0.017 showing the overall model frustration.
The TUKEY HSD test shows that there is no difference in the frustration level of
single working & single non-working, single working & married working, single working
& married non-working, single non-working & married working, single non-working &
married non-working. Only married working & married non-working shows significant
difference in the frustration level.
The LSD test shows that there is no difference in the frustration level of single working
& single non-working, single working & married working, single working & married
non-working, single non-working & married working whereas single non-working &
married non-working, married working & married non-working shows significant
difference in the frustration level.
The DUNNETT T3 test shows that there is no difference in the frustration level of
single working & single non-working, single working & married working, single working
& married non-working, single non-working & married working, single non-working &
married non-working whereas married working & married non-working shows significant
difference in the frustration level.
The above results demonstrate that regardless of marital status it is the job that
differentiated the women in their frustration level.
t-test
T-test was applied to find out the differences in various modes of reaction to frustration
on the basis of marital status. Firstly, t-test was applied to verify Ho1 that is, to study
differences in the overall frustration level as well as among different modes of frustration
in married and unmarried females.
t-tests for Aggression: The hypothesis was formed on the basis of Levene’s test again.
The value of F-test (3.889) is significant at 5% level of significance, so the second hypothesis
indicating “Equal variance not assumed” was considered. Further, the value of t statistic
indicates that the hypothesis is not rejected as the value was not significant (t-value=1.518,
p-value=.131). Thus, indicates that married and unmarried females vary in their level of
aggression. The mean value of single women is (Mean=27.65, S.D. = 5.589) higher than
the married women (Mean=26.21, S.D. = 6.361) which shows that single women have
high degree of aggression as compared to their married counter part.
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104
Table 4: Showing Results of Independent Samples Test for Aggression
N
Group Statistics
Mean
Std. Deviation
Std. Error Mean
1
2
80
80
27.6500
26.2125
5.58955
6.36186
.62493
.71128
Levene's Test
for Equality of
Variances
F
Sig.
t-test for Equality of Means
t
df
Sig.
(2tailed)
Mean
Difference
Std. Error
Difference
95% Confidence
Interval of the
Difference
-.43278 -.43254
.94681
.94681
1.43750 1.43750
.131
.131
155.425 158
1.518
1.518
.050
3.889
Equal
Equal
variances variances
AGGRESSION
Lower
Upper
3.30778 3.30754
AGGRESSION
Groups
t-tests for Resignation: The results in table-5 indicates the value of ‘F’ (.011) in Levene’s
test was insignificant, so the hypothesis indicating “Equal variance assumed” was
considered. Further, the value of t statistic indicates that the hypothesis is not rejected
as the value was not significant. Thus, indicates that married and unmarried females
have same level of resignation.
Table 5: Showing Results of Independent Samples Test for Resignation
Group Statistics
Groups
RESIGNATION
N
Mean
Std. Deviation
Std. Error Mean
1
80
21.0375
6.38321
.71366
2
80
21.9125
6.78083
.75812
Marital Status and Frustration Among Working and Non-Working Females
105
Levene's Test for
Equality of
Variances
t-test for Equality of Means
95% Confidence
Interval of the
e
Upper
1.18143
-2.93143
Lower
1.18149
.402
Difference
-2.93149
158
-.840
1.04118
Difference
1.04118
tailed)
-.87500
Differenc
-.87500
Mean
.402
df
Sig. (2-
157.427
.917
t
-.840
Sig.
.011
Equal
variances
assumed
F
Equal
variances
not
assumed
RESIGNATION
Std. Error
t-tests for Fixation: The results in table-6 indicates the value of ‘F’ (.408) in Levene’s
test was again insignificant, so the hypothesis indicating “Equal variance assumed” was
considered. The value of t statistic indicates that the hypothesis is not rejected as the
value was not significant (t-value=-.840, p-value=.402). Thus, indicates that married and
unmarried females have same level of fixation.
Table-6 showing results of Independent Samples Test for Fixation
Group Statistics
Groups
FIXATION
N
Mean
Std. Deviation
Std. Error Mean
1
80
28.4625
7.10490
.79435
2
80
29.1750
7.25097
.81068
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106
-.628
157.935 .531
-.71250
1.13499
95% Confidence
Interval of the
Difference
Upper
1.52921
Lower
-2.95421
Std. Error
Differenc
e
1.13499
Mean
Difference
-.71250
df
.531
.524
Equal
variances
not
assumed
t
Sig. (2tailed)
158
Sig.
t-test for Equality of Means
-.628
F
.408
Equal
variances
assumed
Levene's Test for
Equality of
Variances
-2.95422 1.52922
t-tests for Regression: The results in table-7 indicates the value of ‘F’ (.408) in Levene’s
test was again insignificant, so the hypothesis indicating “Equal variance assumed” was
considered. The value of t statistic indicates that the hypothesis is not rejected as the
value was not significant (t-value=-.628, p-value=.531). Thus, indicates that married and
unmarried females have same level of regression.
Table 7: Showing Results of Independent Samples Test for Regression
Levene's Test for
Equality of
Variances
t-test for Equality of Means
-.71250
1.13499
-2.95421
1.52921
-.71250
1.13499
-2.95422
1.52922
Upper
.531
Lower
.531
.524
df
158
.408
t
Std. Error
Differenc
e
157.935
Sig.
Mean
Difference
-.628
F
Sig. (2tailed)
-.628
Equal variances
not assumed
Equal variances
assumed
95% Confidence
Interval of the
Difference
Marital Status and Frustration Among Working and Non-Working Females
107
Many studies have been conducted to check frustration among women. There should
be no surprise that single women, whether they are unmarried, divorced, or widowed,
live different lives than women who are married. Different, however, does not mean
better or worse. Statistics reported that women married females live a longer average
life than the single one. Women who are married tend to have children earlier and more
frequently than women who are not especially in Indian context. Moreover, women who
are married have traditionally held fewer jobs than women who are not. But, these are
simply numbers and statistics. There are tangible differences between married and notmarried women in other studies. But in this study overall no differences found in the
frustration of both females. In fact they were similar in other modes also such as fixation,
regression and resignation. But the single women were found to be more aggressive
than married one.
Conclusion
The total number of females in very high frustration group is more indicating that
mostly females are having higher level of frustration. The reaction to frustration was
similar for single working and non-working females but for married females there were
differences among working and non working. The married non working females reflected
higher level of frustration as most of the time women start feeling that their lives have
been limited to there house and they could not achieve whatever they are worth. More
over in Indian context behaviour of other members of society also make them feel that
they are not so important. Unmarried females were differing on aggression to married
one where single women were higher on aggression. The reason may be attributed to
the fact that married females take things calmly as they have learned not to react on
most of the things.
REFERENCES

Aleem, S., Danish, L. (2008), Marital Satisfaction and Anxiety among Single and Dual Career
Women Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology, 34, 141-144

Aujla, H. Aujla P (2006), Physiological and Psychological Stressors among Working and Non
Working Women. J. Hum. Ecol., 20(2): 121-123

Dixit and Srivastava (1997), Reaction to Frustration Scale, American Psychological Association,
National Psychological Corporation, Agra.

Efere Prince (2005), Frustration, Notes for Trans-Atlantic College, London.

Freud, S. (1933), New Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis, New York: Norton.

Gaur, J (2008). Adjustment in ageing adults a predictor of reaction to Frustration, Shodh, Samiksha
aur Mulyankan International Research Journal, II (7).

Harshpinder and Paramjit Aujla (2006), Physiological and Psychological Stressors among Working
and Non Working Women, J. Hum. Ecol., 20(2): 121-123.

Lussier M.L., Schwab, C, Koninck, J. (1985) Working mothers versus homemakers: Do dreams
reflect the changing roles of women, sex roles, 12: 1009-102.

Maier, N.R.F. (1956),”Frustration: The study of behavior without a goal, New York, McGraw
Hill.
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 Mc Clelland, D.C. and Apicella, F.S. (1945)”A Functional Classification of Verbal reactions to
experimentally included failure. Journal of Abnormal and Social psychology, 40: 376-390.
 Mehta, M. Kulshrestha U, Chowdhry R. (2006) Effect of widowhood on repression – sensitization
tendency Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology 32, (3), 221 – 225.
 Narimani, M., Basharpour S., (2009). Comparison perfectionism and self-alienation in working
women and non-working women. J. Applied Sci., 9: 4038-4043.
 Rosenzweig, S. (1994), An Outline of Frustration Theory in J.Mc.V.Hunt (Ed) Personality and
The Behavior Disorders Vol. 1, New York Ronald Press Chapter II.
 Saxena, P. (2009), A Comparative Study of Frustration among Working and Non- Working Women.
Shodh,Samiksha aur Mulyankan International Research Journal II, (5) 446.
 Stagner, Ross (1961), The Nature of Personality Structure, pp. 69-86 in Ross Stagner, Psychology
of Personality, 3d ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Employees Induction Program and its Effect on Employees Job Satisfaction
109
8
Employees Induction Program and its Effect on
Employees Job Satisfaction:
A Study of Insurance Sector
Gaurav Jaiswal, Amit Tiwari, Nandan Velankar,
Neha Kotwani & Kritika Sharma
ABSTRACT
In the absence of Information and Support, there is likely to be anxiety and fear, insecurity
and nervousness in the mind of a new employee, joins an organization. He may undergo, reality
shock caused by a gap between his expectation and real situation. A proper induction program
has many positive effects upon the worker and his work output. Employees’ Job Satisfaction is
also one of the work outputs, which is most important for an organization. The insurance industry
is one of the industries where employees undergo in many pressures and feelings. His work is
very demanding and he has to complete all the targets time to time. A proper induction program
may help the employees to better understand his job and job profile so that employees will stay
with the organization for a longer duration. That’s why it is interesting to know the effect of
Employees Induction on overall Job Satisfaction of employees. This study is an effort to analyze
the effect of the Induction program on employee job satisfaction in the Insurance Industry.
Introduction
Induction is a systematic process of familiarizing the new recruits to the organization
functioning so that they become productive in the least possible time. Induction is the
tool to orient the new recruits to various aspects of the organization and his /her job.
The aim of the induction process is to help new employees make a smooth, positive
adjustment to the workplace. It enables the new employee to gain familiarity with the
work environment and to acquire a sense of belonging that will build a commitment to
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the organization. On the other hand Job satisfaction is in regard to one’s feelings or
state-of-mind regarding the nature of their work. Job satisfaction can be influenced by
a variety of factors, eg, the quality of one’s relationship with their supervisor, the quality
of the physical environment in which they work, degree of fulfillment in their work,
etc.. A well planned induction programme can help an employee to perform well and
give better outcomes.
Review of Literature
Ragsdale & Mueller (2005) identified that Orientation programs concentrate on why
employees perform their duties. They discovered that formal orientation programs are
essential in retaining and motivating employees, lowering turnover, increasing productivity,
improving employee morale, facilitating learning, and reducing the anxiety of new
employees.
Hacker (2004) cautioned that substandard orientation programs can affect an
organization’s present and future recruitment efforts. He also found that just by improving
the orientation program, organizations had the ability to increase their retention rates
by up to 25%.
McKersie (2003) stated that new employee orientation programs have the power to
do two positive things: increase employee satisfaction and improve employee retention.
Klein and Weaver (2000) conducted a study focusing on evaluating the impact of
formal organizational-level orientation programs, which they identify as a common tactic
for socializing new hires.
Ragsdale & Mueller (2005) stated that when designing widespread orientation
programs, there are three things organizations should think about: (a) their adult learners,
(b) creating programs that allow information to be shared, and (c) providing opportunities
for that information to be implemented in the organization.
Parry (2005) suggests that the design of the program is important because orientation
programs have the power to shape employees’ attitudes about their job duties. First
impressions and the components of an orientation program are important to the program’s
success. “Mapping out your orientation process with every attention to detail to make
a great first impression”.
Hacker (2004) cautions that the essence of new employee orientation programs should
be more than providing group introductions and completing paperwork. Hacker advises,
however, for organizations not to create information overload for their new employees.
New employees usually have a list of questions, and the more organizations can anticipate
those concerns, the quicker the employee can get on board
Ragsdale and Mueller (2005) state that “new employees need to be introduced to
the structure, culture, and standards of the hiring facility”. It will be beneficial to employees
to understand their role within the company and be given a big picture break down.
Also important is providing employees with the information necessary so they know
what is expected of them and what they can be expecting as well (Ragsdale & Mueller).
Employees Induction Program and its Effect on Employees Job Satisfaction
111
One of the purposes of an orientation program is to explain a new employee’s role
and duties which will aid in the employee’s commitment to the organization.
McKersie (2003) suggests employees get introduced to “the company’s long- term
goals, key projects in progress, the organizational structure and how the new employee’s
role contributes to the overall strategy for success”. What new employees do not need,
however, is to be bombarded with every little detail about the organization.
Gray (2005) stated that providing a new employee with a group of individuals they
can go to for advice and direction should be a necessary component of the orientation
process. Just as important as the content of the program is the way the program is presented.
The lecture-based format will not be the best method for every aspect of the program.
For instance, it may not be “effective as the primary or predominant model for inculcating
values, enhancing critical thinking, and encouraging individual participation”.
Hacker (2004) summarizes the important aspects of an orientation program. Orientation
in its most ideal form is ongoing. It starts with recruitment and selection, and continues
throughout the new employee’s first year on the job. Many successful companies mix
and match mentors or buddies with new hires, including those from departments outside
their own.
McKersie (2003) stated that Effective orientation programs have a number of benefits.
New employees will quickly be able to get up to speed, have rational expectations, and
exhibit positive attitudes. These programs can also cause turnover rates to reduce and
be a time saver for employee supervisors.
Kelly (1980) defined Satisfaction as the discrepancy between actual accomplishment
and expectation of reward. Job satisfaction is often viewed through Herzberg’s (1959)
“two-factor” theory which identifies satisfiers and dissatisfies.
Arends and Winitzky (1999) looks at several induction programmes in greater depth
in terms of their governance and funding, beginning teachers’ experience, support providers,
assistance processes and procedures, and professional development for both new teachers
and their mentors. It goes on to make recommendations at the levels of policy, practice
and research.
Dawis and Lofquist (1984) defined job satisfaction as the result of the workers appraisal
of the degree to which the work environment fulfills the individuals needs.
According to Arnett, Laverie and McLane (2002), “job satisfaction refers to an
employee’s general affective evaluation of his or her job”.
Spector (1997) defines the concept more simply as “how people feel about their jobs
and different aspects of their jobs”. He also considers it as a “related constellation of
attitudes about various aspects or facets of the job”.
Objectives of the Study
1. To evaluate the Satisfaction with Employees Induction Program in Insurance Sector.
2. To evaluate the Overall Job Satisfaction among the Employees of Insurance Industry.
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112
3. To know the underlying factors of Employees Induction Program.
4. To know the underlying factors of Job satisfaction.
5. To evaluate the effect of Employees Induction on Employees Job Satisfaction.
6. To open new vistas of further researches.
Research Methodology:
The Study
The exploratory survey method was used for study.
Sampling Design
Population: Population included the employees of HDFC Standard Life Insurance
Company working in Gwalior region.
Sampling Element: Individual employees were the sampling element.
Sampling Technique: Non – Probability purposive sampling technique will be
used to select the sample.
Sample Size: 50 respondents.
Data Collection Instrument
 Self designed questionnaire were used to measure the satisfaction with Employees
Induction Program and Overall Employees Job Satisfaction. The data were collected
on a Likert type scale where 1 stands for minimum agreement and 5 stands for
maximum agreement.
Tools Used for Data Analysis
 Item to total correlation was used to check the internal consistency of the
questionnaire.
 The measures were standardized through computation of reliability and validity.
 The factor analysis test was used to find out the underlying factors of Induction
Program and Overall Employees Job Satisfaction.
 Linear Regression Test was used to evaluate the effect of Induction Program on
Overall Employees Job Satisfaction.
Results and Discussion
Induction Program
Consistency Measure
First of all consistency of all the Items was checked through item to total correlation.
Under this total of every item with the total of all the Items was measured and the computed
Employees Induction Program and its Effect on Employees Job Satisfaction
113
value is compared with standard value (i.e.0.2960). If the computed value is found less
than standard value than whole statement is dropped and was termed as inconsistent.
No item was dropped, as the computed value was more than standard value.
Table 1: Item to Total Correlation of Induction Program Questionnaire
Items
Computed
Correlation value
Consistency
Accepted/
Dropped
1. Made to feel welcome
.788
Consistent
Accepted
2. Introduced to other members
.707
Consistent
Accepted
3. Boss attention
.751
Consistent
Accepted
4. Well planned induction
.831
Consistent
Accepted
5. The company’s benefits explanation
.706
Consistent
Accepted
6. Workspace set up
.762
Consistent
Accepted
7. Organization tour
.584
Consistent
Accepted
8. Availability of necessary forms
.734
Consistent
Accepted
9. Received relevant literature
.656
Consistent
Accepted
10. Learned company’s future plans
.759
Consistent
Accepted
11. Final Job Description
.626
Consistent
Accepted
12. Observation of colleague’s work
.569
Consistent
Accepted
13. Job Assignment
.506
Consistent
Accepted
14. Policies Explanation
.517
Consistent
Accepted
15. Awareness of the communication facilities
.704
Consistent
Accepted
16. Opportunities for asking questions
.767
Consistent
Accepted
17. Feeling as a team member
.709
Consistent
Accepted
Note:- All the items of questionnaires were having value more than the standard value (0.2960). Therefore
no statement was dropped and all were termed as consistent.
Reliability Measure
Reliability test was carried out using SPSS software and the reliability test measures
are given below
Cronbach Alpha
0.943
The value of reliability test was more than the standard value 0.7, hence the reliability
of the questionnaire was considerably acceptable.
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114
Table 2: Item to Total Correlation of Job Satisfaction Questionnaire
Items
Computed
Correlation value
Consistency
Accepted/
Dropped
18. Overall satisfaction
.628
Consistent
Accepted
19. Understanding of the long term
strategy of the company
.673
Consistent
Accepted
20. Confidence in the company’s leadership
.745
Consistent
Accepted
21. Authority in decision making
.808
Consistent
Accepted
22. Like the allotted work
.562
Consistent
Accepted
23. Job security
.698
Consistent
Accepted
24. Frequency of corporate communication
.812
Consistent
Accepted
25. Trust in company
.803
Consistent
Accepted
26. Spirit of cooperation
.728
Consistent
Accepted
27. Supervisor’s treatment
.695
Consistent
Accepted
28. My involvement in decision making
.705
Consistent
Accepted
29. Gain initial training
.663
Consistent
Accepted
30. Fair salary
.774
Consistent
Accepted
Note:- All the items of questionnaire of job satisfaction were more than the standard value (0.2960).
Therefore no statement was dropped and termed as consistent.
Reliability Measure
Reliability test was carried out using SPSS software and the reliability test measures
are given below
Alpha
0.939
The value of reliability test was more than the standard value 0.7, hence the reliability
of the questionnaire was considerably acceptable.
Factor Analysis
Principle component factor analysis with Varimax rotation was applied by SPSS 16.0.
The raw scores of 17 items were subjected to factor analysis to find out the factors that
contribute towards different aspects of Induction Program. The factor analysis resulted
in 4 factors. The details about factors, the factor name, Eigen value, Variable convergence,
Loadings, Variance% and cumulative% are given in the table.
Employees Induction Program and its Effect on Employees Job Satisfaction
115
Table 3: Table of Factor Analysis–Induction Program
Factor Name
Observation and
Planned Learning
Job Assignment and
documentation
Proper Communication
Conducive Environment
Eigen value
Total
%age of
Variance
9.137
53.749
1.508
1.150
1.129
8.871
6.765
6.644
Variable convergence
Loading value
Observation of colleague’s work
.866
Learned company’s future plans
.720
Well planed induction
.684
Introduced to other members
.666
Opportunities for asking questions
.471
Organization tour
.831
Received relevant literature
.798
Availability of necessary forms
.576
Made to feel welcome
.561
Job Assignment
.560
Policies Explanation
.914
Awareness of the communication
facilities
.669
Final Job Description
.578
Boss attention
.744
Feeling as a team member
.673
Work space set up
.663
Factor Analysis-2
Principle component factor analysis with Varimax rotation was applied by SPSS 16.0.
The raw scores of 13 items were subjected to factor analysis to find out the factors that
contribute towards different aspects of Induction Program. The factor analysis resulted
in 2 factors. The details about factors, the factor name, Eigen value, Variable convergence,
Loadings, Variance% and cumulative% are given in the table.
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Table 4: Table of Factor Analysis – Job Satisfaction
Factor Name
Eigen value
Motivating Policies &
System
Overall Satisfaction &
Trust
Total
%age of
Variance
7.595
58.424
1.184
9.108
Variable convergence
Loading value
Gain initial training
.790
Frequency of corporate
communication
.767
Like the allotted work
.764
Fair salary
.750
Authority in decision making
.677
Trust in company
.662
My involvement in decision making
.647
Supervisor’s treatment
.640
Spirit of cooperation
.637
Overall satisfaction
.880
Confidence in the company’s
leadership
.830
Understanding of the long term
strategy of the company
.822
Job security
.568
Regression Analysis
The regression was calculated by taking the total of Employees Induction Program
and Job Satisfaction by using SPSS 16.0 software. In this the Employees Induction Program
has taken as an independent variable and Job Satisfaction as a dependent variable. Therefore,
regression was calculated by taking dependent and independent variable.
Null hypothesis (Ho): It states that there is no relationship between Employees
Induction Program and Employees Job Satisfaction.
Model Summaryb
Model
1
R
R Square
Adjusted R Square
Std. Error of the Estimate
.828a
.686
.678
5.56772
a. Predictors: (Constant), Induction_Pro
b. Dependent Variable: Job_Satisfaction
Employees Induction Program and its Effect on Employees Job Satisfaction
117
Coefficientsa
Model
Unstandardized
Coefficients
1 (Constant)
Induction_Pro
B
Std. Error
7.911
3.931
.635
.067
Standardized
Coefficients
Beta
.828
Collinearity Statistics
t
Sig.
2.012
.051
9.456
.000
Tolerance
VIF
1.000
1.000
a. Dependent Variable: Job_Satisfaction
Y = a + bx
Y= 7.911 + (.635)x
X = Employees Induction Program (independent variable)
Y = Employees Job Satisfaction (dependent variable)
The significance level is .000 which is less than the standard value (.05). It means
that the result is significant. Therefore Null hypothesis is rejected. There is a reliable
relationship existed between Employees Induction Program and Job Satisfaction of
Employees.
Conclusion
Hacker (2004) mentioned that “It costs money - lots of money when you lose good
people, sometimes because they got off to a rocky start”. In this study we have tried to
explore the relationship of Well Planned Employees Induction Program and Employees
Job Satisfaction. We have also tried to explore the underlying factors of these two variable
of this study. Factor analysis of the Employees Induction program resulted in to Four
Factors, among which observation and Planned Learning had emerged as the most
important factor. Other factors were Job Assignment and Documentation, Proper
Communication and Conducive Environment. Factor Analysis of Job Satisfaction resulted
in to Two Factors, which were Motivating Policies & System and Overall Satisfaction &
Trust. The result of the Linear Regression Test indicated that there was a significant
relationship existed between Well Planned Employees Induction Program and Employees
Job Satisfaction. It means by using a well planned induction program, organizations can
enhance the employees Job Satisfaction.
REFERENCES

Arends RI, Winitzky N (1999) Beginning Teacher Induction: Research and Examples of
Contemporary Practice. Largo, Florida: Suncoast Academy for Teacher Induction, Pinellas County
Schools.

Arnett, D.B., Laverie, D.A., & McLane, C. (2002, April). Using job satisfaction and pride as internalmarketing tools. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 87- 96. At Your Request:
Room Service Dining. (n.d.). (CD). Avon, CT: Sodexho Health Care Services.

Bruening, T. H., & Hoover, T.S. (1991). Personal life factors as related to effectiveness and satisfaction
of secondary agricultural teachers. Journal of Agricultural Education, 33 (4), 37-43.
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 Cano, J. & Miller, G. (1992). A gender analysis of job satisfaction, job satisfier factors, and job
dissatisfier factors of agriculture education teachers. Journal of Agricultural Education, 33(3),
40-46.
 Dinham, S. & Scott, C. (1998). A three domain model of teacher and school executive career
satisfaction. Journal of Educational Administration, 36(4), 362-378.
 Dawis, R.V., & Lofquist, L.H. (1984). A psychological theory of work adjustment.
Minneapolis:University of Minnesota Press.
 Gray, A. (2005, December 19). Getting off on the right foot with a new employee [electronic
version]. Fairfield County Business Journal, 9. Retrieved June 19, 2006, from Regional Business
News database.
 Hacker, C.A. (2004, Winter). New employee orientation: Make it pay dividends for years to
come [electronic version]. Information Systems Management, 89-92. Retrieved June 19, 2006,
from Business Source Elite database.
 Kamrneyer-Mueller, J.D. & Wanberg, C.R. (2003). Unwrapping the organizational entry process:
Disentangling multiple antecedents and their pathways to adjustment [electronic version]. Journal
ofApplied Psychology, 88(5), 779-794. Retrieved September 29,2006, from Psyc ARTICLES database.
 Kelly, E.F. (1980) Problems in the measurement of student satisfaction in ATI studies: Proposals
for a new measure. Paper presented at the meeting of the American Educational Research
Association, Boston.
 Klein, H.J., & Weaver, N.A. (2000). The effectiveness of an organizational-level orientation training
program in the socialization of new hires [electronic version]. Personnel Psychology, 53,47-66.
Retrieved September 29,2006, from Business Source Elite database.
 Kyriacou, C., & Sutcliffe, J. (1977). Teacher stress; A review. Educational Review, 29, 299-306
 McKersie, E. (2003, June 13-26). The first 90 days: Helping new employees succeed [electronic
version]. NH Business Review, 10B. Retrieved June 19, 2006, from Regional Business News database.
 Parry, C. (2005, July 25) Employee orientation make right first impression [electronic version].
Inside Tucson Business, 9. Retrieved June 19,2006, from Regional Business News database.
 Ragsdale, M.A., & Mueller, J. (2005) Plan, do, study, act model to improve an orientation program
[electronic version]. Journal of Nursing Care Quality, 20(3), 268-272. Retrieved June 19, 2006,
from Academic Search Elite database.
 Reese, D. (2005). Get organized with an orientation database [electronic version] Nursing
Management, 36(1 I), 10,14. Retrieved June 19,2006, from Academic Search Elite database.
 Spector, P.E. (1997). Job satisfaction: Application, assessment, causes, and consequences. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage.
Dynamics between Mutual Fund Inflows and Stock Returns: Empirical Evidence
119
9
Dynamics between Mutual Fund Inflows and
Stock Returns: Empirical Evidence
Dr. Navita Nathani, Prof. Amitabha Maheshwari, Prof. K.K. Panday,
Shweta Dani, Kayam Singh & Bhupendra Chahar
ABSTRACT
This paper studied the dynamics between BSE stock returns and aggregate equity mutual
fund flows in the Indian financial market. Study differentiated the impact of fund inflow and
outflow, respectively, on the Stock Returns. Under which Inflow and Outflow Fund is evaluated
in three Scheme- Income, Balanced & Growth. The result found that there is no significant effect
of any scheme of mutual fund flow on the stock returns. And it was concluded that there is
hardly any effect of inflow and outflow mutual fund on the stock returns in long run.
Key Words: Mutual Fund, Stock Returns, Schemes of Mutual fund
Introduction
Contrarian investments tactic claims that “Today’s losers are tomorrow’s winners
and today’s winners are tomorrow’s losers’ and for this reason the investment tactic
based on buying today’s losers and selling today’s winners should cause greater returns.
But we know it is not possible for investors to generate excess returns by using trading
strategies based on historical price information. This implies that the analysis which is
entirely based on historical returns should not generate excess returns. So here is an
attempt to find an empirical evidence of overreaction hypothesis from Indian markets.
This paper studies the dynamics between BSE stock returns and aggregate equity
mutual fund flows in the Indian financial market. More specifically, the collected information
from the BSE stock market and AMFI the official site of mutual fund and examine the
possibility of causality between stock returns and mutual fund flows.
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A Handbook for Writing Research Paper
Literature Review
Kim (2007), investigated dynamic relations between stock returns and equity mutual
fund flows at the macro level; they combined information from the stock market with
information from bond and money markets in a system method. The empirical evidence
from SURECM and Granger causality tests pointed out that there seems to be a positive
long-run relationship between stock returns and fund flows, and stock returns were likely
to lead fund flows. Hence they found that investors tend to move their money to the
securities that yield higher returns, and the most important element explaining equity
mutual fund flows appeared to be security performance in the US market.
Edelen & Warner (1999, August) studied the relation between market returns and
unexpected aggregate flow into U.S. equity funds, using semi-weekly and daily flow
data. They found that reaction of flow and return —whether it be one reacting to the
other, or both reacting to a third factor was fast and strong. The flow-return relation was
mainly concurrent, but flow also follows returns with a one-day lag. The lagged response
of flow indicated either a common response of both returns and flow to new information,
or positive feedback trading. Additional tests suggested that the concurrent relation reflects
flow driving returns.
Berk & Green (2002) developed a simple rational model of active portfolio management
that provides a natural benchmark against which to evaluate observed relationship between
returns and fund flows. Many effects widely regarded as anomalous are consistent with
this simple explanation. In the model, investments with active managers did not outperform
passive benchmarks due to the competitive market for capital provision, combined with
decreasing returns to scale in active portfolio management. A strong relationship between
past performance and the flow of funds exists in their model: indeed, this was the market
mechanism that ensures that no predictability in performance exists.
Edelen and Warner (2001) re-analyzed the relation between market returns and
aggregate fund flow, using daily data in the sense of the price impact (pressure) of
institutional trading. They showed that the concurrent relation reflects flow and institutional
trading affecting returns.
Ko & Kim (2003) studied the relation between international mutual fund flow and
local/home market returns following Warther (1995) and Froot, O’Connell and Seasholes
(2001). Author examined that the concurrent relation between the local return and the
international mutual fund flow could be explained by information hypothesis rather
than price pressure effect in the context of international mutual funds. And the lagged
local market returns do not have any significant effect on the flow, implying that no
positive-feedback trading exists. It was found that the coefficients of lagged exchange
rates for Japan-related funds were negative and statistically significant. That could be
called positive-feedback trading from the viewpoint of exchange rate. Last, the U.S. market
factor was not statistically significant for explaining the international mutual fund flow,
but for the local return after controlling for the effects of expected and unexpected fund
flows.
Dynamics between Mutual Fund Inflows and Stock Returns: Empirical Evidence
121
Friesen & Sapp (2007) observed the timing ability of mutual fund investors using
cash flow data at the individual fund level. They found that over 1991-2004 equity fund
investor timing decisions reduced fund investor average returns by 1.56% annually and
under performance due to poor timing is greater in load funds & funds with relatively
large risk-adjusted returns. In particular, the magnitude of investor underperformance
due to poor timing largely offsets the risk-adjusted alpha gains offered by good-performing
funds. Investors in both actively managed funds and index funds exhibit poor investment
timing. They revealed that their empirical results were consistent with investor return
chasing behavior.
Ali & Chen et al (2008) used portfolio holdings and returns of mutual funds to examine
whether sophisticated investors trade on post earnings announcement drift (PEAD) and
whether they profit from it. The key finding was that a subset of funds persistently trade
on the anomaly, optimize their trading in the presence of transaction costs, and profit
from such trading. Nonetheless, it was found that mutual funds avoid highly-illiquid
high-SUE stocks, and funds actively pursuing the drift strategy exhibit high performance
volatility and high flow volatility. using time series analysis, we show that the subset of
funds most actively trading on the drift anomaly play the role of marginal investors that
reduce the magnitude of post earnings announcement drift.
Ederington & Golubeva (November 2008) discovered a strong negative Relationship
between changes in expected market volatility as measured by the VIX index and net
equity fund flows. They found that the negative volatility – net flow relationship is entirely
due to the effect of volatility on outflows. When volatility increases, equity fund inflows
actually increase - just not as much as outflows. In contrast, returns on equity funds
only impact inflows, i.e., when returns increase aggregate inflows rise but outflows do
not slow which showed that the mutual fund investor purchase decisions are primarily
driven by returns while redemption decisions are primarily driven by risk perceptions.
They also found an asymmetry in the investor reaction to risk in that both inflows and
outflows increase significantly (with a much stronger effect on outflows).
Philippas (2002) examined the hypothesis that mutual funds may act as instability
factors in financial markets within a VAR framework. Daily data from a period, that the
emerging market of Greece had no particular trend, were used. Their empirical evidence
suggested that mutual fund flows can be predicted by lagged flows and index returns.
They also found a negative relationship between index returns and lagged mutual fund
flows, and they got no correlation between contemporary flows and Index returns. Their
analysis implied that mutual fund shareholders were unsophisticated, frequently wrong
(noise traders) and often worse than informed investors. However, they got no evidence
for price pressure and the snowball scenario.
Chang & Wang (2002, May) investigated the impact of institutional trading on the
market by examining the daily relation between aggregate flow into US equity funds
and market volatility. They differentiated the impact of fund inflow and outflow,
respectively, on the market volatility. Their results revealed that there exit an asymmetric
concurrent relationship between fund flow and market volatility, fund inflow was negatively
A Handbook for Writing Research Paper
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correlated with market volatility while fund outflow is positively correlated with market
volatility.
Objectives
1. To calculate the stock index returns.
2. To calculate the mutual fund inflows in various scheme.
3. To calculate aggregate flow during the sampling frame.
4. To establish the relationship between mutual fund inflows and stock returns.
The Study
The design chosen for this study was descriptive in nature. The major purpose of
descriptive research was the description of the state of affairs, as it exists at present.
Target respondents were 30 companies listed in BSE Index and aggregate Mutual Fund
Inflows of various scheme during the sampling frame. Stock Index returns and various
schemes of mutual fund were the sampling element. The sampling frame of the study
was from year 2001-2009.
Tools for Data Collection
a) Data was collected from secondary sources i.e. through website of BSE and the
data of mutual fund inflow from official website of AMFI.
b) Data that used for examining the returns of stock index consist 30 Companies
listed in Bombay Stock Exchange and the data of aggregate mutual fund inflow
consist of different schemes of mutual fund.
Tools for Data Analysis
For the purpose of detailed analysis, in accordance with the present research, expected
stock returns were calculated. Initially it was considered necessary to calculate excess
stock return from Bombay stock exchange on the basis of the following formulaRp = Current Month Index price – Previous Month Index price
———————————————————————————————————* 100
Previous Month Index price
To check the normality of the data Kolmogrov Smirmov test was applied. To know
the difference between stock return and aggregate inflow of mutual fund mann whitney
test was applied.
Hypothesis:
Ho = there is no significant difference between the stock return and aggregate inflows
of mutual fund during 2001-2009.
Dynamics between Mutual Fund Inflows and Stock Returns: Empirical Evidence
123
Results and Discussions
The study was conducted into two main parts; one part is effects of Mutual Fund
inflow on Stock returns and second is effect of Mutual Fund Outflow on Stock Returns.
Inflow and Outflow Mutual fund is further evaluated under three schemes - Income,
Growth and Balanced.
Normality
To check the normality of data Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test was applied and found
the data was not normal.
One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test
One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test
VAR00001 VAR00002 VAR00003
N
Normal Parametersa
Most Extreme
Differences
141
141
141
Mean
2898.0851
901.5319
23.9220
Std. Deviation
8.16491E3 2.34685E3 101.64420
Absolute
.361
.373
.476
Positive
.355
.373
.476
Negative
-.361
-.350
-.407
4.290
4.428
5.649
.000
.000
.000
Kolmogorov-Smirnov Z
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
a. Test distribution is Normal.
Inflow Mutual Fund (See Annexure From Table 1 to Table 10)
Income Scheme
Open
Z Value
1.634
Closed
Assured
Total
Sig. Value
Z Value
Sig. Value
Z Value
Sig. Value
Z Value
Sig. Value
.102
-.081
.936
1.183
.237
.352
.725
Man Whitney Test was applied between mutual fund inflow of income scheme and
stock returns. The result of this test indicate that there is no significant difference between
mutual fund inflow and stock returns in the year 2001-2009 as our calculated value in
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[Open (1.634), Closed (0.081), Assured (1.183)] is less than the standard value (1.96) at
5%significant in all the cases. The results could be concluded that inflow of the mutual
fund income do not affect the stock returns in long run.
Growth Scheme
Open
Z Value
Closed
Assured
Total
Sig. Value
Z Value
Sig. Value
Z Value
Sig. Value
Z Value
Sig. Value
.403
1.109
.267
-.752
.452
-.667
.505
. 836
Man Whitney Test was applied between mutual fund inflow of growth scheme and
stock returns. The result of this test indicate that there is no significant difference between
mutual fund inflow and stock returns in the year 2001-2009 as our calculated value in
[Open (0.836), Closed (1.109), Assured (0.752)] is less than the standard value (1.96) at
5%significant in all the cases. The result could be concluded that inflow of the mutual
fund growth scheme hardly effect the stock returns in long run.
Balanced Scheme
Open
Z Value
Closed
Assured
Total
Sig. Value
Z Value
Sig. Value
Z Value
Sig. Value
Z Value
Sig. Value
.049
1.582
.114
-.752
.452
2.774
.006
1.973
Man Whitney Test was applied between mutual fund inflow of balanced scheme
and stock returns. The result of this test indicate that there is no significant difference
between mutual fund inflow and stock returns in the year 2001-2009 as our calculated
value in [Open (1.973), Closed (1.582), Assured (0.752)] is less than the standard value
(1.96) at 5%significant in all the cases. The result concluded that inflow of the mutual
fund balanced scheme do not affect the stock returns in long run.
Outflow Mutual Fund (See Annexure From Table 11 to Table 19)
Income Scheme
Open
Z Value
-1.466
Closed
Assured
Total
Sig. Value
Z Value
Sig. Value
Z Value
Sig. Value
Z Value
Sig. Value
.143
.081
.936
.585
.559
1.847
.065
Dynamics between Mutual Fund Inflows and Stock Returns: Empirical Evidence
125
Man Whitney Test was applied between mutual fund outflow of income scheme and
stock returns. The result of this test indicate that there is no significant difference between
mutual fund inflow and stock returns in the year 2001-2009 as our calculated value in
[Open (1.466), Closed (0.081), Assured (0.585)] is less than the standard value(1.96) at
5%significant in all the cases. The study could be concluded that outflow of the mutual
fund hardly effect the stock returns in long run.
Growth Scheme
Open
Z Value
Closed
Assured
Total
Sig. Value
Z Value
Sig. Value
Z Value
Sig. Value
Z Value
Sig. Value
.553
.198
.843
-.752
.452
535
.593
.594
Man Whitney Test was applied between mutual fund outflow of growth scheme and
stock returns. The result of this test indicate that there is no significant difference between
mutual fund inflow and stock returns in the year 2001-2009 as our calculated value in[Open
(0.594), Closed (.198), Assured (0.752)] is less than the standard value at 5%significant in
all the cases. The study could be concluded that outflow of the mutual fund hardly effect
the stock returns in long run.
Balanced Scheme
Open
Z Value
-.498
Closed
Assured
Total
Sig. Value
Z Value
Sig. Value
Z Value
Sig. Value
Z Value
Sig. Value
.618
.220
.826
. 752
.452
-.059
.953
Man Whitney Test was applied between mutual fund outflow of Balanced scheme
and stock returns. The result of this test indicate that there is no significant difference
between mutual fund inflow and stock returns in the year 2001-2009 as our calculated
value in [Open (0.498), Closed (0.220), Assured (0.752)] is less than the standard value(1.96)
at 5%significant in all the cases. The study could be concluded that outflow of the mutual
fund hardly affect the stock returns in long run.
Conclusion
The study, concluded macro level research explaining the relationship between stock
returns and aggregate inflow and outflow of mutual fund scheme. The study found no
relation between inflow and outflow of mutual fund scheme and stock returns during
the sampling frame. It shows that the fund flows do not respond to eliminate the deviation
in the stock market. Previous changes in stock returns may cause changes in equity fund
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126
flows in the same direction. However, the same is not true for inflow and outflow fund
flows of mutual fund schemes. Our empirical findings are not likely to support the popular
notion of mutual fund flows as a driving force behind rallies in security markets.
REFERENCES
 Ali, A., Chen, X., Yao, T. & Yu, T. (April 2008). Profiting from the Post Earnings Announcement
Drift: Mutual Fund Trades, Market Frictions, and Market Efficiency. Retrieved August 13, 2010
from http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1108717
 Berk, J. B. & Green, R. C. (2002, December). Mutual Fund Flows and Performance in Rational
Markets. 13th Annual Utah Winter Finance Conference Retrieved August 13, 2010 from http:/
/papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=383061
 Chang, E.C. & Wang, Y. (2002, May). A study of Mutual fund Flow and market Return Volatility.
Retrieved August 13, 2010 from from http://www.hiebs.hku.hk/working_paper_updates/pdf/
wp1065.pdf
 Edelen, R. & Warner, J. (2001). Aggregate price effects of institutional trading: a study of mutual
fund flow and market returns. Journal of Financial Economics. 59, 195-220.
 Edelen, R.M., & Warner, J.B. (1999, August). Why Are Mutual Fund Flow and Market Returns
Related? Evidence from High frequency Data. Retrieved August 20, 2010 from http://
fm.whut.edu.cn/lunwen/teacher%20fang/4.pdf
 Ederington, L. & Golubeva J. (2009,July). Evidence on Investor Behavior From Aggregate Stock
Mutual Fund Flows. Retrieved August 13, 2010 from http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/
papers.cfm?abstract_id=1442127
 Friesen, G.C. & Sapp, T.R.A. (2007). Mutual Fund Flows and Investor Returns: An Empirical
Examination of Fund Investor Timing Ability. Journal of Banking and Finance. 31, 2796-2816.
 Froot, K., O’Connell P. & Seasholes, M. (2001). The portfolio flows of international investors.
Journal of Financial Economics. 59, 151-193.
 Kim, J. (August 2007). Stock Returns and Aggregate Mutual Fund Flows: A System Approach.
Retrieved August 13, 2010 from http://69.175.2.130/~finman/Orlando/Papers/
JBUSDynamicsnFMAn.pdf
 Ko, K. & Kim, M. (2003). International Mutual Fund Flow and Local Markets: The Case of U.K.
Unit Trusts and OEICs. Retrieved August 13, 2010 from papers.ssrn.com/sol3/Delivery.../
SSRN_ID415244_code030730500.pdf
 Philippas, N. D. (2002). The interaction of mutual funds flows and security returns in emerging
markets: The case of Greece. Retrieved August 13, 2010 from from http://www.aislab.aueb.gr/
hfaa/ar/Philippas.pdf
 Warther, V., (1995). Aggregate mutual fund flows and security return. Journal of Financial
Economics. 39:209-235.
Dynamics between Mutual Fund Inflows and Stock Returns: Empirical Evidence
127
Annexure
Descriptive Statistics
N
Mean
Std. Deviation
Minimum
Maximum
VAR00001
141
2.8981E3
8164.91343
.00
52620.00
VAR00002
141
9.0153E2
2346.84781
.00
16740.00
VAR00003
141
23.9220
101.64420
.00
673.00
Table 1: Test Statistics
InOpen
Mann-Whitney U
929.000
Wilcoxon W
2.105E3
Z
-1.634
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
.102
a. Grouping Variable: Category
Table 2: Test Statisticsa
InClosed
Mann-Whitney U
1.141E3
Wilcoxon W
2.317E3
Z
-.081
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
.936
a. Grouping Variable: Category
Table 3: Test Statisticsa
InAssured
Mann-Whitney U
997.000
Wilcoxon W
2173.000
Z
-1.183
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
.237
a. Grouping Variable: Category
Table 4: Test Statisticsa
InTotal
Mann-Whitney U
1.104E3
Wilcoxon W
2.280E3
Z
-.352
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
.725
a. Grouping Variable: Category
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128
Table 5: Test Statisticsa
GrOpen
Mann-Whitney U
1.038E3
Wilcoxon W
2.214E3
Z
-.836
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
.403
a. Grouping Variable: Category
Table 6: Test Statisticsa
GrClosed
Mann-Whitney U
1005.000
Wilcoxon W
2181.000
Z
-1.109
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
.267
a. Grouping Variable: Category
Table 7: Test Statisticsa
GrAssured
Mann-Whitney U
1056.000
Wilcoxon W
2232.000
Z
-.752
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
.452
a. Grouping Variable: Category
Table 8: Test Statistics
BalOpen
Mann-Whitney U
890.000
Wilcoxon W
2.066E3
Z
-1.973
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
.049
a. Grouping Variable: Category
Table 9: Test Statistics
BalClosed
Mann-Whitney U
946.000
Wilcoxon W
2122.000
Z
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
a. Grouping Variable: Category
-1.582
.114
Dynamics between Mutual Fund Inflows and Stock Returns: Empirical Evidence
Table 10: Test Statistics
BalAssured
Mann-Whitney U
1056.000
Wilcoxon W
2232.000
Z
-.752
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
.452
a. Grouping Variable: Category
Table 11: Test Statistics
IncOpen
Mann-Whitney U
952.000
Wilcoxon W
2.128E3
Z
-1.466
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
.143
a. Grouping Variable: VAR00005
Table 12: Test Statistics
IncClose
Mann-Whitney U
1.141E3
Wilcoxon W
2.317E3
Z
-.081
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
.936
a. Grouping Variable: VAR00005
Table 13: Test Statistics
IncAssured
Mann-Whitney U
1073.000
Wilcoxon W
2249.000
Z
-.585
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
.559
a. Grouping Variable: VAR00005
Table 14: Test Statistics
GrwOpen
Mann-Whitney U
1071.000
Wilcoxon W
2247.000
Z
-.594
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
.553
a. Grouping Variable: Category
129
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130
Table 15: Test Statistics
GrwClose
Mann-Whitney U
1125.000
Wilcoxon W
2301.000
Z
-.198
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
.843
a. Grouping Variable: Category
Table 16: Test Statistics
GrwAssured
Mann-Whitney U
1056.000
Wilcoxon W
2232.000
Z
-.752
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
.452
a. Grouping Variable: Category
Table 17: Test Statistics
BalaOpen
Mann-Whitney U
1084.000
Wilcoxon W
2260.000
Z
-.498
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
.618
a. Grouping Variable: Category
Table 18: Test Statistics
BalnClose
Mann-Whitney U
1122.000
Wilcoxon W
2298.000
Z
-.220
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
.826
a. Grouping Variable: Category
Table 19: Test Statistics
BalnAssured
Mann-Whitney U
1056.000
Wilcoxon W
2232.000
Z
-.752
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
.452
a. Grouping Variable: Category
Assessment of Students towards Social Responsibility
131
10
Assessment of Students towards
Social Responsibility
Dr. Navita Nathani, Prof. Amitabha Maheshwari, Prof. K.K. Panday,
Prof Suman Bisht, Prof Vidhi Tyagi, Prof Mukta & Satyam Dubey
ABSTRACT
Social responsibility through examination of ethical implications of knowledge, actions and
social policies is one of the prime objectives of any of the education institute. Morris(1999) summarized
the history of accountability in education. The family was the first in the education system and
when children began attending the schools the accountability shifted from the parents to the
school teachers and later on to college teachers. But what should be the accountability of students
in this respect is always a debatable question. This paper is an attempt to assess the students
towards social responsibility while attending the classes, maintaining relationship and in general
context. The study revealed the perceptual difference between male and female students.
Key Words: Accountability, Resistance and Proactive approach
Introduction
Man is a social animal – as somebody rightly said; we the privileged human beings
posses 6 senses who are ultimately responsible for the preservation of this beautiful world
by our socially responsible actions and activities.
Everything does matters and makes either a positive or a negative impact on everything
around us. The need for the stimulation and promotion of socially responsible behavior
through the display of various forms of moral behavior, adoption of positive styles of
interaction and compliance to existing social rules and norms is generally appreciated
by all members of the society.
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A general tendency is that females exhibit greater levels of socially responsible behavior
as compared to males as proposed by Entwisle et al. (2000).Social responsibility and its
dimensions are closely related to student’s performance. Good measure of social
responsibility not only in school but also out of school situations can motivate students
to enhanced academic achievement. Assessment of social responsibility comes from
accumulating observations in a wide variety of situations that taken together can provide
a useful outline of student development.
Socially responsible individuals show community mindedness in their responses to
school, local, national, and global issues and events and will make an effort to create a
positive effect on others and enrich environment. This attitude is the basis of a functioning
and flourishing democratic society. Human and social development is one of the primary
goals of the education system. This broad goal further specifies that students are expected
to develop a sense of social responsibility and a tolerance and respect for the ideas and
beliefs of others.
The major performance standards for social responsibility for student development
can be categorized as:
Contributing to the Classroom and School Community
Sharing responsibility for their social and physical environment Participating and
contributing to the class and to small group
Solving Problems in Peaceful Ways
Managing conflict appropriately, including presenting views and arguments respectfully,
and considering others’ views
Using effective problem-solving steps and strategies
Valuing Diversity and Defending Human Rights
Treating others fairly and respectfully; showing a sense of ethics
Recognizing and defending human rights
Exercising Democratic Rights and Responsibilities
Knowing and acting on rights and responsibilities (local, national, global)
Articulating and working toward a preferred future for the community, nation, and
planet—a sense of idealism
Social Responsibility
The online dictionary Wikipedia says: “Social responsibility is an ethical or ideological
theory that an entity whether it is a government, corporation, organization or individual
has a responsibility to society. This responsibility can be “negative,” in that it is a
Assessment of Students towards Social Responsibility
133
responsibility to refrain from acting (resistance) or it can be “positive,” meaning there is
a responsibility to act (proactive).
Social responsibility have become common terms in both the world of social activism
and the world of business (e.g., socially responsible investing). The state of being fit to
be trusted, worthy of confidence, and dependable for the improvement of the health of
society and its members. Thus, a socially responsible individual is a person who promotes
a healthy society.A community that employs activities that contribute to the happiness,
health, and prosperity of its members. It logically follows, therefore, that a socially
responsible individual is a person who takes part in activities that contribute to the
happiness, health, and prosperity of a community and its members.
The basic purpose of education is to produce ideal persons to face the responsibilities
of the future. This aim can be achieved only when the students are sincere and they
acquire the education in the real sense. Just copying a few questions and passing the
examination is not an education. A student can never be educated until and unless he
does not put his heart and should to the cause of education. A student is a person, who
devotes himself to the pursuits of knowledge and learning. It is therefore, the first and
foremost duty of an ideal student to seek knowledge. The pursuit of knowledge demands
hard work and full devotion. Unfortunately, the students do not realize their duties.
They have confined the education. Their greatest purpose is to get good grade in the
examination by hook or by crook. They adopt all the foul means to get through the
examinations. The ideal student enriches himself with knowledge. In practical life only
those students come out with best colors, who had acquired knowledge.
An ideal student enjoys learning. He goes deep and deep in search of the knowledge.
He is not a bookworm. He knows that a healthy body is necessary for healthy mind. He
takes interest in all the activities that promote his physical health. He goes to the play
ground with the same pleasure and enthusiasm with which he studies in the library. An
ideal student is not unsocial. He loves his fellow students and takes part in all the collective
activities.
The ideal student respects and honors his teachers. He knows the place of teachers,
who are opening the gate of glories for him. He is humble and obedient. The more he
learns from his teachers, the more grateful he is to them. The more knowledge he gets,
the more humble he becomes. An ideal student is not a frog in a well but a person with
greater visions and ideals. He is regular and punctual. He does not participate in adverse
and negative activities. He confines himself to his studies and task. He does not keep
association with such elements whose purpose is to damage the cause of education. He
believes in simple and plain living. He is kind and generous.
Importance of Student Responsibility
According to Davis and Murrell (1975) social responsibility is important in three aspects.
First, student responsibility is the key to all development and learning. Research has
demonstrated that college outcomes are tied to the effort that students put into their
work and the degree to which they are involved with their studies and campus life.
134
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Second, irresponsible students diminish our collective academic life. Within an
individual classroom, the behavior of even a few highly irresponsible students or, worse,
a large number of passive, disaffected students can drag a class down to its lowest common
denominator. For an institution, the erosion of an academic ethos can lead to a culture
that is stagnant, divisive, and anti-intellectual.
Third, the habits of responsible civic and personal life are sharpened and refined in
college. Will employers, international economic competitors, or future history itself be
tolerant of students who fail to develop sufficient self-control and initiative to study for
tests or participate in academic life? Finally, if colleges are to reclaim the public trust,
they must learn not to make promises that cannot be kept. Colleges have responsibilities
to students and society. Yet, colleges are not solely responsible for the outcomes of their
students. A clear acknowledgment of the mutual obligations of all members of the academic
community is a prerequisite to restoring the academy’s balance and clarity of purpose.
Litreture Review
Student Assumption of Responsibility
Hughes (1976) observed that society places great responsibility upon the educational
system for the education of students stated that the teacher has the responsibility for
teaching, and the students have the responsibility for learning. Johnson emphasized the
need for students to assume responsibility for their own learning. He noted: Just as kids
become dependent on the institution to regulate their behavior, so they depend on teachers
to fill them with learning as if they were empty vats.
Bratter(1977) noted that a need exists for schools to help students assume responsibility
for their learning and for their living. He stated: In brief, students are encouraged not
only to assume total responsibility for their behavior, but also to accept the natural
consequences for their decisions. Students can select activities which interest them, as
long as no one is disturbed. In so doing, students learn a respect for the right of others.
Several authors including Miller and Rosser and Ford (1972) stated a belief that teachers
should not be held responsible for lack of student achievement when factors outside of
teacher control were involved. Miller cited experiences obtained in the home and community
environments as factors beyond teacher control. Rosser and Ford stated that pupils’ attitudes
and inborn abilities are two factors that influence achievement of students and are beyond
teacher control. Coleman reported that the extent to which students believe they have
control over their own destinies is a stronger factor related to achievement than all the
school factors combined,
Johnson continued by stating that students must be forced out of that passive role
and forced into accepting responsibility for learning. He suggested use of open classrooms,
inquiry methods, and independent study in the freshman through the senior years of
high school. He indicated the existence of a relationship between student assumption of
responsibility and student self-direction and self-motivation. Most of all, he believed,
“They will have discovered that it is possible to learn independently of teachers and
that such learning is stimulating and fun”
Assessment of Students towards Social Responsibility
135
In 1971, Grunwald reported that there were increasing problems and malcontent among
students and teachers. She illustrated the impending crisis with examples of students
not listening and of students rebelling, going on strike, and burning down school buildings.
Grunwald stated a need for students and teachers to share responsibility in the educative
process. She stated that one can no longer run schools for children, they must learn how
to run schools with children. One must take them in as partners in the educative process.
For one thing, teachers cannot and should not be held accountable for everything that
happens in class. Everyone in class is accountable for what happens in the classroom.
Grunwald added that teachers need to help students in assuming responsibility toward
themselves as well as toward others.
Sigelman, Ater, and Spanhel (1978) conducted a study to assess assumption of
responsibility in the home. Findings in the study indicated that normal children assumed
greater household responsibility than mentally retarded persons living at home, and
mentally retarded persons living at home assumed greater household responsibility than
mentally retarded persons living in an institution.
Gallant et. al (2010) explored university students’ attitudes of social responsibility
and participation in volunteering, probed how these were related to prior experiences
of mandatory community service in high school. Students’ perceptions of the quality of
their mandatory community service experience were found to be powerful predictors of
their attitudes towards social responsibility, while ongoing volunteering was found to
be influenced more significantly by school and community influences, most notably prior
volunteer involvement. Author concluded that community service experiences, when
perceived as being of high quality, may engender ongoing civic engagement. They suggested
that aligning mandated community service with serious leisure might enlarge quality of
experience, and provide an avenue to experience the rewards and benefits associated
with civic participation.
Maliki1 et al (2010) examined the relationship between background variables, social
responsibility and academic achievement among senior secondary school students in
Bayelsa State of Nigeria. The sample of the study was made up of 450 senior secondary
three students randomly selected from the secondary schools in Bayelsa State. From the
data analyzed, it was found out that various dimensions of social responsibility are
significantly related to academic achievement. The study also revealed that parental
educational attainment and number of siblings are related to sex. It was also discovered
that there was no significant relationship between social responsibility and age of parents.
Loh (2006) discussed that how a Singapore hospice, in working with student volunteers,
successfully diverted its volunteer efforts towards building society. The program had
proven to be a successful tool in inculcating social responsibility among students who
opt to do their community work at the hospice as part of a Community Involvement
Programme (CIP). While some not-for profit organizations (NPOs) and volunteer hosting
organizations (VHOs) do not appear to recognize the value of CIP hours and student
volunteers, others have leveraged such efforts to benefit both the organization and its
clients. The hospice had gone one step beyond by turning the described program into
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136
an effective tool to instill in student volunteers a sense of social responsibility, better
preparing them for active citizenship.
Davis et al emphasized the importance of student effort and involvement in their
academic and co-curricular activities as the decisive elements in promoting positive college
outcomes. As colleges have struggled to extend opportunities, an accompanying expectation
for students to assume responsibility for their own education often had been lacking.
Author found that Institutions must work to create a climate in which all students feel
welcome and able to fully participate. It was equally important to nurture an ethic that
demands student commitment and promotes student responsibility. Students can contribute
to their own learning and to the development of a campus climate in which all can grow
and learn.
Objectives
1. To develop and standardized the measure to evaluate the students towards social
responsibility
2. To identify the underlying factors towards the social responsibility of students.
3. To compare the perception of female and male students towards social responsibility.
Research Methodology
Questionnaire Designing
While designing the questionnaire, focus was to formulate un-ambiguous and straight
questions to which respondents should have full flexibility to express their opinion. While
building the flexibility in the design of questionnaire, due care has been taken not to
dilute the precious findings of idea engineering.
Face Validity
Face validity has been done in order to verify the definition of the variables as perceived
by the researcher and intended for operational through the survey research. For
accomplishing this objective, help was taken from academicians. As a result of such
deliberation it became possible to finalize the set of attributes for each variable and evolve
the operational definition for them.
Content Validity
Content validity of the questionnaire was checked through the experts of different
specialization viz. finance, marketing, human resource and production. Very few changes
were suggested by experts and their views were incorporated suitably.
The study was empirical in nature with survey method being used to collect the
data. The total population was the students of professional and non professional courses.
The sample size was 200 students. Individual respondent was the sampling element. A
self-designed questionnaire was used for taking the responses of the students on likerttype scale of 1to5. The tools used for data analysis were item to total correlation which
Assessment of Students towards Social Responsibility
137
wasl be applied to check the internal consistency of various items used in the questionnaire.
For testing the reliability, Cronbach alpha was applied to the items. Factor analysis using
SPSS 13.0 software was applied to identify the underlying factors. Finally t-test was be
applied to compare the perception between male and female students.
Results and Discussions
Consistency Measure of
Item
no.
Item
Computed
correlation value
Consistency
Accepted/
Dropped
1.
Brings necessary materials to class such
aspaper, pen, pencils, and assignments
.677
Consistent
Accepted
2.
Keeps books in good condition
.600
Consistent
Accepted
3.
Corrects mistakes when papers are returned
.435
Consistent
Accepted
4.
Leaves College property in good condition
.602
Consistent
Accepted
5.
Uses own possessions such as books, paper,
pen, and pencils
.543
Consistent
Accepted
6.
Writes neatly and readable
.631
Consistent
Accepted
7.
Helps keep the classroom neat and clean
.621
Consistent
Accepted
8.
Carries an identity card
.572
Consistent
Accepted
9.
Promptly returns papers that must be signed
.607
Consistent
Accepted
10.
Promptly returns borrowed items such as
the Faculty ‘s reference books
.661
Consistent
Accepted
11.
Promptly takes care of fees
.630
Consistent
Accepted
12.
Promptly returns borrowed items such as pen
pencils, books, and notes of friends.
.570
Consistent
Accepted
13.
Switching off electric equipment while leaving
the classroom.
.485
Consistent
Accepted
14.
Uses available class time to work on assignments
.647
Consistent
Accepted
15.
Completes assignments on time
.690
Consistent
Accepted
16.
Promptly makes up work missed during absences
.655
Consistent
Accepted
17.
Brings other work to do after completing
class work
.597
Consistent
Accepted
18.
Studies for tests
.579
Consistent
Accepted
19.
Asks questions when explanations are
not understood
.511
Consistent
Accepted
20.
Uses sources allowed to complete work
.654
Consistent
Accepted
21.
Contributes to class discussions in a positive way
.467
Consistent
Accepted
22.
Is well groomed
.466
Consistent
Accepted
23.
Voluntarily comes for extra help from the Faculty
when needed
.532
Consistent
Accepted
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138
24.
Is seated when the bell rings
.512
Consistent
Accepted
25.
Follows directions of your seniors
.510
Consistent
Accepted
26.
Does work to the best of ability
.680
Consistent
Accepted
27.
Concentrates on the work of the class during
the class period
.679
Consistent
Accepted
28.
Avoids disturbing others
.522
Consistent
Accepted
29.
Whispering in presence of faculty/when class is
going on.
.018
Consistent
Accepted
30.
Obeys institute rules
.616
Consistent
Accepted
31.
Obeys class rules
.658
Consistent
Accepted
32.
Asks questions relating to topic
.592
Consistent
Accepted
33.
Accepts results of own behavior
.614
Consistent
Accepted
34.
Follows class routine willingly
.668
Consistent
Accepted
35.
Attends College regularly
.645
Consistent
Accepted
36.
Behaves well when visitors are present
.708
Consistent
Accepted
37.
Speaks in a way that is easily heard
.559
Consistent
Accepted
38.
Using cell phones when the class is going on
-.198
Consistent
Accepted
39.
Respects the Faculty
657
Consistent
Accepted
40.
Respects the Faculty’s belongings
.652
Consistent
Accepted
41.
Waits for a turn for the Faculty’s help
.605
Consistent
Accepted
42.
Run after the subject faculty when the class is over.
.233
Consistent
Accepted
43.
Listens to others when they talk
.326
Consistent
Accepted
44.
Respects other students’ belongings
.653
Consistent
Accepted
45.
Encourages other students to be quiet
.573
Consistent
Accepted
46.
Allows the Faculty to settle serious problems
.585
Consistent
Accepted
47.
Helps other students understand information
.528
Consistent
Accepted
48.
Cooperates with the Faculty
.672
Consistent
Accepted
49.
Cooperates with the students
.630
Consistent
Accepted
Reliability Measure
It is being considered that reliability value should more than 0.7 and it can be seen
that in the reliability method applied here, reliability value is quite higher than the standard
value, so all the questionnaire are highly reliable and the value of Cronbachs, alpha is
.772.
Assessment of Students towards Social Responsibility
139
Reliability Statistics
Cronbach’s Alpha
N of Items
.957
49
Factor Analysis
KMO and Bartlett’s Testa
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy.
Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity
Approx. Chi-Square
.941
7.970E3
Df
1176
Sig.
.000
a. Based on correlations
1.
Factor
name
Eigen
value
% of
variance
explained
Self–
6.370
13.001
Restraint
Reliable
5.574
11.375
Item
converged
Factor
loading
9. Promptly returns papers that must be signed
.681
10. Promptly returns borrowed items such as
the Faculty‘s reference books
.645
7. Helps keep the classroom neat and clean
.620
12. Promptly returns borrowed items such as
pen-pencils, books, and notes of friends.
.618
11. Promptly takes care of fees
.612
4. Leaves College property in good condition
.578
8. carries an IC
.549
5. Uses own possessions such as books, paper,
pen, and pencils
.529
17. Brings other work to do after completing
class work
.470
20. Uses sources allowed to complete work
.446
18.Studies for tests
.438
6. Writes neatly and legibly
.437
3. Corrects mistakes when papers are returned
.401
40. Respects the Faculty’s belongings
.724
39. Respects the Faculty
.713
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140
Compliant 5.493
Receptive 4.497
Multi-
2.385
11.211
9.178
4.867
tasking
Creating
1.681
3.431
Nuisance
49. Cooperates with the students
.694
48. Cooperates with the Faculty
.590
46. Allows the Faculty to settle serious problems
.559
41. Waits for a turn for the Faculty’s help
.552
33. Accepts results of own behavior
.498
47. Helps other students to understand information
.494
44. Respects other students’ belongings
.467
31. Obeys institute rules
.678
30. Attends to personal business before class starts
.669
2. Keeps books in good condition
.658
1. Brings necessary materials to class such aspaper,
pen, pencils, and assignments
.585
25. Follows direction of your seniors
.559
36. Behaves when visitors are present
.545
35. Attends College regularly
.529
26. Does work to the best of the ability
.422
19. Asks questions when explanations are not
understood
.647
21. Contributes to class discussions in a positive way
.641
32. Asks questions relating to topic
.566
15. Completes assignments on time
.496
27. Concentrates the best of the class period
.468
22. Is well groomed
.454
23. Voluntarily comes for extra help from the Faculty
when needed
.449
42. Run after the subject faculty when the class is over
.752
43. Listens to others when they talk
.489
16. Promptly makes up work missed during absences
.435
29. Whispering in presence of faculty/when
.825
class is going on
38. Using cell phones when the class is going on
.664
Description of Factors
1. Self-Restraint:- This factor has emerged as the most significant determinant of
research with a total variance of 13.001. Key elements of this factor include “Promptly
returns papers”(.681), “Promptly returns borrowed item to Faculty “(.645),
“Promptly returns borrowed item to Friends”(.618), “Helps to maintain class room
Assessment of Students towards Social Responsibility
141
neat and clean”(.620),”Timely fees deposit”(.612), “Take care college property”(.578),
“Brings an IC”(.549), “Uses own possessions”(.529), “Brings other work after
completing class”(.470), “Promptly uses source after completing class”(.446), “
Required study for test” (.438), “Writes neatly and legibly” (.437), “.Improves
mistakes when papers are returned”(.401).
2. Reliable:- This factor has a total variance of 11.375.Key elements of this factor
include “Respect the faculties belongings”(.724), “Respect the faculties
belongings”(.713), “Cooperate with the faculty “ (.590), “Cooperate with the
students” (.694), “ Faculty decision acceptance in case of serious issues” (.559),
“Self-realization” (.498), “Care other students to understand information” (.494),
“Respects other students belongings” (.467).
3. Compliant:- This factor has a total variance of 11.211.Key elements of this factor
include “Comply with institute rules” (.678), “Attends to personal business before
class starts” (.669), “Keeps books in good condition” (.658), “carry required materials
to class” (.585), “Comply with the senior” (.559), “Behaves in presence of visitors”
(.545), “Attends College regularly” (.529), Application of self-skill” (.422).
4. Receptive:- This factor has a total variance of 9.178. Key elements of this factor
include “Asks quarries” (.647), “positive attitude while class discussion”(.641),
“Asks topic relating quarries” (.566), Timely submission of assignment” (.496),
“Focus the class period”(.468), “Is well groomed”(.454), “self-motivation to take
help from faculty “(.449).
5. Multi-tasking:- This factor has a total variance of 4.867. Key elements of this
factor include “Run after the subject faculty when the class is over” (.752), “Listens
to others when they talk”(.489), “Promptly makes up work missed during
absences”(.435).
6. Creating Nuisance:- This factor has a total variance of 3.431. Key elements of
this factor include “Whispering in presence of faculty/when class is going on”(.825),
“Using cell phones when the class is going on”(.664).
t- Test
Group Statistics
malefemale
VAR00002
N
Mean
Std. Deviation
Std. Error Mean
1
184
1.9011E2
33.32190
2.45652
2
114
2.0032E2
32.49792
3.04371
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142
Independent Samples Test
Levene's
Test for
Equality
of
Variances
t-test for Equality of Means
Mean
Std.
95% Confidence
Error
Interval of the
Sig. (2- Differe Differe
F
mal Equal
efe variances
mal assumed
e
Equal
variances not
assumed
.76
2
Sig.
.384
t
Df
-
2.596
nce
nce
-
296
- 244.1
2.612
tailed)
82
Difference
Lower Upper
-
.010 10.2158 3.93450 17.9590
7
0
-
-
.010 10.2158 3.91135 17.9201
7
6
2.47273
2.51157
The null Hypothesis in Levene’s test is that the variances of the two populations are
equal.
The test statistics F as a value of .762 is at a significance (p value) of .384 (38.4%).
Since we are assuming the equal variances for this test statistic, T equals – 2.596 at
p value .01(1%). It means that there is a significant difference between the perceptions
of male and female students towards social responsibility.
Conclusion
Social responsibility is an ethical philosophy or concept that an entity, be it an
organization or individual, has an obligation to act to benefit society at large. This
responsibility can be passive, by avoiding engaging in socially harmful acts, or active,
by performing activities that directly advance social goals.
Assessment of Students towards Social Responsibility
143
The study was accompanied to develop standardized the measure of social responsibility
those are supportive for student evaluation. Factor analysis Categorized seven main factors
namely as Self Restraint, Reliable, Compliant, Receptive, Multi-tasking, Creating Nuisance
with 6.370, 5.574, 5.493, 4.497, 2.385, 1.681respactive Eigen values.
Students should take accountability for contributing to the school environment rather
than abolishing it through damage and misconduct but after compilation of research we
can conclude that the perception of female student differ with the male student.
REFERENCES
1.
Hughes, G, Edward, (1976). “Accountability: Let’s Tell It Like It Is-” Illinois Schools Journal 56
(Spring 1976): 21-23,
2.
Johnson, Christopher. (1978). “Secondary Schools and Student Responsibility.” Phi Delta Kappan
59 (January 1978): 338-41.
3.
Bratter, Thomas Edward. (1977). “From Discipline to Responsibility Training: A Humanistic
Orientation for the School.” Psychology in the Schools 14 (January 1977): 45-54.
4.
Miller, William C. (1972), Accountability Demands Involvement, Educational Leadership 29 (April
1972): 613-17,
5.
Rosser, Don, and Ford, Faye. (1975), They Say—Somebody’s Responsible for My Son’s School
Failures, Pennsylvania School Journal ,124 ,75-77, 88.
6.
Coleman, James S,; Campbell, Ernest Q,; Hobson, Carol J,; McPartland, James; Mood, Alexander
M,; Weinfeld, Frederic D,; and York, Robert L, Equality of Education Opportunity
7.
Hughes, G, Edward, (1976). “Accountability: Let’s Tell It Like It Is-” Illinois Schools Journal 56
(Spring 1976): 21-23,
8.
Janeksela, Galan M. (1978). “Responsibility and Freedom to Learn.” Improving College and
University Teaching 26 (Summer 1978): 171-73.
9.
Grunwald, Bemice. (1971). “Strategies for Behavior Change in Schools.” Counseling Psychologist
3 (Number 1, 1971): 55-57.
10.
Sigelman, Carol; Ater, Carolyn; and Spanhel, Cynthia, (1978). “Sex- Role Stereotypes and the
Homemaking Participation of Mentally Retarded People.” Mental Retardation 16 (October1978):
357-58.
11.
Gallant K., Smale B., & Arai S. (2010).Civic Engagement Through Mandatory Community Service:
Implications Of Serious Leisure. Journal Of Leisure Research. 2010, Vol. 42, No. 2, pp. 181-201
12.
Maliki1 A. B. , Sibiri E & Kebbi J. (2010). Background Variables, Social Responsibility And Academic
Achievement Among Secondary School Students In Bayelsa State of Nigeria. Stud Home Comm
Sci, 4(1): 27-32
13.
Michael Loh (2005).Instilling Social Responsibility Among Student Volunteers:
Observations From A Successful Singapore Hospice Experience. The International Journal Of
Volunteer Administration. Vol. XXIV, Number 2.
14.
Davis T.M. & Murrell P.H. (). Turning Teaching into Learning: The Role of Student Responsibility
In The Collegiate Experience.
A Handbook for Writing Research Paper
144
Annexure
QUESTIONNAIRE
Dear Respondents
The statements listed below are responsibilities. For each statement, decide how often
you, as a student, show the responsibility stated. There is no right or wrong answer.
There are only opinions. Keep the following definition in mind as you read and answer
each of the statement below “Responsibility involves doing something you know you
are supposed to do without having to be told to do so”.
Please rate the following statement in the scale of 1-5, where 1 stands for strongly
disagree and 5 stands for strongly agree.
1. Brings necessary materials to class such aspaper, pen,
pencils, and assignments
2. Keeps books in good condition
4. Corrects mistakes when papers are returned
5. Leaves College property in good condition
6. Uses own possessions such as books, paper, pen, and pencils
7. Writes neatly and readable
8. Helps keep the classroom neat and clean
9. Carries an identity card
10. Promptly returns papers that must be signed
11. Promptly returns borrowed items such as the Faculty ‘s
reference books
12. Promptly takes care of fees
13. Promptly returns borrowed items such as pen pencils, books, and
notes of friends.
14. Switching off electric equipment while leaving the classroom.
Personal Responsibilities
1. Uses available class time to work on assignments
2. Completes assignments on time
3. Promptly makes up work missed during absences
4. Brings other work to do after completing class work
5. Studies for tests
Assessment of Students towards Social Responsibility
145
6. Asks questions when explanations are not understood
7. Uses sources allowed to complete work
8. Contributes to class discussions in a positive way
9. Is well groomed
10. Voluntarily comes for extra help from the Faculty when needed
11. Is seated when the bell rings
12. Follows directions of your seniors
13. Does work to the best of ability
14. Concentrates on the work of the class during the class period
15. Avoids disturbing others
16. Whispering in presence of faculty/ when class is going on.
17. Obeys institute rules
18. Obeys class rules
19. Asks questions relating to topic
20. Accepts results of own behavior
21. Follows class routine willingly
22. Attends College regularly
23. Behaves well when visitors are present
24. Speaks in a way that is easily heard
25. Using cell phones when the class is going on
Relationship Responsibilities
1. Respects the Faculty
2. Respects the Faculty’s belongings
3. Waits for a turn for the Faculty’s help
4. Run after the subject faculty when the class is over.
5. Listens to others when they talk
6. Respects other students’ belongings
7. Encourages other students to be quiet
8. Allows the Faculty to settle serious problems
9. Helps other students understand information
10. Cooperates with the Faculty
11. Cooperates with the students
Name:
Sex:
Age:
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146
11
Profitability Determinants of
Indian Banking Sector
Dr. Pushpa Negi, Ms. Shwati Singhai, Ms. Hina Agrawal,
Ms.Trapti Tripathi, Ms. Rakhi Chauhan & Ms. Sonu Sidwani
ABSTRACT
This paper analyzed the profitability of 26 Public, 21 Private and 30 Foreign banks of India
over the period from 2007 to 2010. Our profitability determinants included six bank-specific
characteristics, Cost-income ratio, Loan loss provisions over total loans, Yearly growth of deposits,
Bank size, Interest income share and Funding costs. The performance of a bank was measured by
its return on assets (ROA). To find out the quantifying effect of different independent variable
on Bank’s performance, Multiple Regression using SPSS-16 has been applied. The results of the
study indicated that in case of Public Sector Banks the Cost Income, Credit Quality and Funding
Cost affected the Return on Asset and in case of Private Sector banks the Bank Size and Interest
Income affected the Return on Asset. On the other hand only one Independent Variable Funding
Cost affects the Return on Asset of the Foreign Sector Banks of India.
Introduction
Restructuring and reform increases the competition in the banking sectors as a result
it encourage to mobilize savings, lead to a more efficient allocation of resources, increasing
level of deposits, credits and profitability and decrease in non-performing assets. All
these developments would certainly have implications on the interest margin and
profitability of the Indian banking industry. Like all businesses, banks increases profit
by earning more money than what they pay in expenses. The major portion of a bank’s
profit comes from the fees that it charges for its services and the interest that it earns on
its assets. Its major expense is the interest paid on its liabilities. The major assets of a
bank are its loans to individuals, businesses, and other organizations and the securities
Profitability Determinants of Indian Banking Sector
147
that it holds, while its major liabilities are its deposits and the money that it borrows,
either from other banks or by selling commercial paper in the money market.
The profitability, which is an important criterion of measuring the performance of
banks, has now considered the key topic for the research because of changing environment
of the banking sectors. Lots of studies have been conducted to find out the effect of
various factors on the performance of the banks (Molyneux and Thornton (1992), Demirguc
and Huizinga (1999), Abreu and Mendes (2002), Staikouras and Wood (2004)). This paper
intends to characterize the impact of various bank-specific factors on the profitability of
the Public, Private and Foreign banks of India.
Review of Literature
Some of the studies on the determinants of bank’s interest margin and profitability
have focused on a particular country (Berger, 1995; Guru, Staunton and Balashanmugam,
2002; Barajas, Steiner, and Salazar 2001; Ben and Goaied, 2001) and some focused on a
panel of countries (Abreu and Mendes, 2002; Demerguç- Kunt and Huizingha, 1999).
But most of the studies on bank performance are conducted in the US and emerging
markets. Indranarain (2009) analyzed that credit risk triggers a negative impact on
profitability, capital tends to consolidate profits and the results suggested that Taiwanese
banking system is well-diversified.
Andreas and Gabrielle (2010) analyzed the profitability of 453 commercial banks in
Switzerland over the period from 1999 to 2008. In order to take into account the impacts
of the recent financial crisis, they additionally consider the pre-crisis period and the
crisis years 2007-2008 separately. Güven and Onur (2009) determined return on assets
(ROA) and return on equity (ROE) for banks in Turkey. The regression results of their
study demonstrate that consumer price index inflation and first difference of ratio of
off-balance sheet transactions to total assets affect profitability indicators negatively in
a statistically significant manner, and on the other hand first differences of industrial
production index, the ratio of budget balance to industrial production index and the
ratio of equity to total assets affect profitability indicators positively in a statistically
significant way. Berger (1995) identified that capital adequacy ratio affected ROE of USA
banks positively. Wilson, Molyneux and Goddard (2004) investigated that capital adequacy
ratio affected ROE positively in the period of 1992-1998 using data from banking sectors
of France, Germany, Spain, Denmark, Italy and England.
Bennaceur and Goaied (2008) investigated the impact of banks’ characteristics, financial
structure and macroeconomic indicators on banks’ net interest margins and profitability
in the Tunisian banking industry for the 1980-2000 periods. They found that the
disintermediation of the Tunisian financial system was favorable to the banking sector
profitability and partial liberalization has a negative impact on the interest margin whereas
complete liberalization strengthens the ability of Tunisian banks to generate profit margins.
Demerguc-Kunt and Maksimovic (2002) presented evidence on the impact of financial
development and structure on bank profitability using bank level data for a large number
of developed and developing countries over the 1990-1997 period. The paper found that
A Handbook for Writing Research Paper
148
financial development has a very important impact on bank performance. Afanasieff,
Lhacer and Nakane (2002) used the panel data techniques to uncover the main determinants
of the bank interest spreads in Brazil. The results suggest that macroeconomic variables
are the most relevant elements to explain bank interest spread in Brazil.
Athanasoglou, Brissimis and Delis (2005) investigated the effects of bank-specific,
industry-related and macroeconomic variables on bank profitability by applying a GMM
technique to a panel of Greek banks that covers the period 1985-2001. Naceur and Goaied
(2005) studied the determinants of commercial bank interest margin and profitability in
Tunisia. The expected determinants include individual bank characteristics (including
overhead, equity capital ratio, loan to total asset ratio, non-interest activities and size),
macroeconomic indicators (GDP and inflation), and financial structure factors (banking
sector size, stock market size and bank concentration). Berger, Hasan & Zhou (2006)
estimated the profit and cost efficiency frontiers to assess the efficiency of 38 Chinese
commercial banks over 1994-2003 with different majority and minority ownership structures,
and found that there is a strong favorable efficiency effect from reforms that reduce the
state ownership of banks in China and increase the role of foreign ownership.
Guru, Staunton and Balashanmugam (2002) identified the determinants of successful
deposit found out that efficient expenses management was one of the most significant
in explaining high bank profitability. Molyneux and Seth (1998) modeled the determinants
of foreign bank profitability in the U.S. They found that capital strength, assets composition,
commercial and industrial loan growth, and U.S. GDP growth were important factors in
determining foreign banks’ ROA. Ben & Goaied (2001) studied the determinants of
profitability of foreign banks operating in Australia. He found a positive effect of home
GDP on foreign banks’ profitability. Demirgc-Kunt and Huizinga (2001) used the annual
growth rate of GDP and GNP per capita to present evidence on the impact of financial
development and structure on bank profitability. They found a positive relationship between
inflation and interest rate on one side and bank profitability on the other. Berger (1995)
used GDP, unemployment rate and interest rate differential to identify possible cyclical
movements in bank profitability
Objectives of the Study
1. To find out the effect of Cost-income ratio, Loan loss provisions over total loans,
Yearly growth of deposits, Bank size, Interest income share and Funding costs on
Return on Asset of the Public Sector banks of India.
2. To find out the effect of Cost-income ratio, Loan loss provisions over total loans,
Yearly growth of deposits, Bank size, Interest income share and Funding costs on
Return on Asset of the Private Sector banks of India.
3. To find out the effect of Cost-income ratio, Loan loss provisions over total loans,
Yearly growth of deposits, Bank size, Interest income share and Funding costs on
Return on Asset of the Foreign banks of India.
Profitability Determinants of Indian Banking Sector
149
Hypothesis of the Study
The study was undertaken with the following hypotheses:1. H01: There is no effect of Cost-income ratio, Loan loss provisions over total loans,
Yearly growth of deposits, Bank size, Interest income share and Funding costs on
Return on Asset of the Public Sector banks of India.
2. H02: There is no effect of Cost-income ratio, Loan loss provisions over total loans,
Yearly growth of deposits, Bank size, Interest income share and Funding costs on
Return on Asset of the Private Sector banks of India.
3. H03: There is no effect of Cost-income ratio, Loan loss provisions over total loans,
Yearly growth of deposits, Bank size, Interest income share and Funding costs on
Return on Asset of the Foreign Sector banks of India.
Research Methodology
The primary aim of this paper was to investigate the impact of Bank Capital, Costincome ratio, Credit Quality, Growth, Size, Interest income share and Funding cost on
profitability of Indian Banking sector. This was achieved by developing a similar empirical
framework first used by Andreas, & Gabrielle (2010).
The Study & Sample
This study was descriptive in nature. Total Population on the study was all the banks
of India. The sample size was 26 Public, 21 Private and 30 Foreign sector banks of India.
The period of the study cover the three Financial year from 2007 to 2010.
Data Collection
The Data was collected from secondary sources i.e. through website of Indian bank
association and money control.com. The dependent variable of the study was the Return
on Asset (ROA) of the banks and the independent variable were Bank Capital, Costincome ratio, Credit Quality, Growth, Size, Interest income share, Funding cost and Return
on Asset of individual Public and Private and Foreign sector bank of India.
In this study, the performance of the bank was measured by its Return on Assets
(ROA). The ROA, defined as Net Income (Interest and Non Interest) divided by Total
Assets, reveal how efficiently the bank’s management is in using the bank’s real investment
resources to generate profits.
The different independent variables of the study are:
1. Cost-Income Ratio: The cost-to-income (CIR) ratio is defined as the operating
costs (such as the administrative costs, staff salaries, and property costs, excluding
losses due to bad and nonperforming loans) over total generated revenues. This
ratio measures the effect of efficiency on bank profitability. We therefore expect
higher cost-income ratios to have a negative effect on bank profitability.
2. Credit Quality: The Credit Quality (CQ) of the banks has measured by the Loan
A Handbook for Writing Research Paper
150
loss provisions over total loans. The ratio of loan loss provisions over total loans
is a measure of a bank’s credit quality. A higher ratio indicates a lower credit
quality and, therefore, a lower profitability. Thus, we expect a negative effect of
the loan loss provisions relative to total loans on bank profitability.
3. Growth: We measure a bank’s Growth by the annual growth of its deposits. One
might expect that a faster growing bank would be able to expand its business
and thus generate greater profits.
4. Size: We measure bank Size by total assets. It is considered in the theories that
Size is one of the most important factor which maximizes bank profitability. For
example, both Smirlock (1985) and Pasiouras and Kosmidou (2007) argue that a
growing bank size is positively related to bank profitability. This is because larger
banks are likely to have a higher degree of product and loan diversification than
smaller banks, which reduces risk, and because economies of scale can arise from
a larger size.
5. Interest Income Share: The Interest Income Share (IIS) was calculated by dividing
the interest income to total income. Mostly the banks generate a large fraction of
their total income through traditional commercial banking activities (interest
operations) and to a lesser extent through “fee and commission income” and
“trading operations”. So the banks who earn a higher Interest Income, they are
also considered to have a good profitability.
6. Funding Costs: Funding costs (FC), which we define as interest expenses over
total deposits, vary among banks and over time. Overall, we expect better profits
from banks that are able to raise funds more cheaply.
Data Analysis Tool
As stated above in order to fulfill the objective of quantifying the effect of different
independent variable on Bank’s performance, Multiple Regression using SPSS has been
applied.
The Empirical Model
The following regression model was used for testing the Hypothesis:
ROA=+1CIR+2CQ+3Growth+ 4Size+5IIS+6 FC+ 
Where, ROA (Return on Asset) is Dependant Variable;
CIR (Cost-to-Income), CQ (Credit Quality), Growth, Size, IIS (Interest Income Share),
and (FC) Funding costs are Independent Variables;
 is constant term in the equation;
1-6 are coefficients of variables;
and  is residual term.
Profitability Determinants of Indian Banking Sector
151
Results and Discussion
Effect on Public Sector Banks
In the multiple regressions the data of dependent variable and independent variables
of different banks for three years are averaged and considered for the study. The adjusted
R square value (0.696) of the multiple regression models with Return on Asset as dependent
variable shows that the model can predict 69% of variance in the dependent variable.
The regression was found to be significant with ANOVA (10.683, P= 000). This indicates
that all the independent variables have a significant influence on the Return on Asset of
Indian Public Sector Banks.
The findings indicate that at 5 percent level of significance Cost Income, Credit Quality
and Funding Cost affected the Return on Asset of the Public Sector Banks of India. The
other Independent Variables like Growth, Size and Interest income did not affect the
Return on Asset of the Public Sector Banks. The beta value (-.122) of Cost Income and
Funding Cost (-.018) indicates significant negative relationship between the Cost income
and ROA and Funding Cost and ROA. The beta value of Credit Quality (1.04) indicates
the positive relationship between the Credit Quality and ROA.
Effect on Private Sector Banks
The adjusted R square value (0.744) of the multiple regression models with Return
on Asset as dependent variable shows that the model can predict 74% of variance in the
dependent variable. The regression was found to be significant with ANOVA (F=10.683,
P= 000). This indicates that all the independent variables have a significant influence on
the Performance of Indian Private Sector Banks.
The findings indicate that at 5 percent level of significance Size, Interest Income and
Growth affected the Return on Asset of the Private Sector Banks of India. The other
Independent Variables like Cost Income, Credit Quality and Funding Cost did not affect
the Return on Asset of the Private Banks of India. The beta value (-2.311) of Size indicates
significant negative relationship between the Size and ROA and. The beta value of Interest
Income (2.23) indicates the positive relationship between the Interest Income and ROA.
Effect on Foreign Sector Banks
In the multiple regressions the data of dependent variable and independent variables
of different banks for three years are averaged and considered for the study. The adjusted
R square value (0.758) of the multiple regression models with Return on Asset as dependent
variable shows that the model can predict 75% of variance in the dependent variable.
The regression was found to be significant with ANOVA (F=16.149, P= 000). This indicates
that all the independent variables have a significant influence on the Return on Asset of
Foreign Sector Banks of India.
The findings indicate that at 5 percent level of significance only one variable Funding
152
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Cost affect the Return on Asset of the Foreign Sector Banks of India. The other Independent
Variables like Growth, Size, Credit Quality, Interest Income and Cost Income Ratio did
not affect the Return on Asset of the Foreign Banks. The beta value of Funding Cost
(0.80) indicates significant positive relationship between the Funding Cost and ROA of
Foreign Sector Banks of India.
The coefficient of the Cost-to-Income Ratio is negative and highly significant for the
Public Sector Banks. It indicates the more efficient a bank is the higher is its profitability.
This result meets our expectation and stands in line with the results of Bourke (1989),
Jiang et al. (2003), and Athanasoglou et al. (2008). However, the cost-income ratio is not
significant in case of Private and Foreign Sector Banks of India. The other most significant
variable was the Funding costs in case of Public and Foreign banks. The results show
that the banks that raise cheaper funds are more profitable. The third important factor
which affects the performance of the public sector bank was the Credit Quality. As discussed
in the literature, asset quality is reflected in the ratio. The banks tend to be more profitable
when they are able to undertake more lending activities. But the higher ratio indicates
a lower credit quality and, therefore, a lower profitability. Thus, we expected a negative
effect of the loan loss provisions relative to total loans on bank profitability but the results
ware apposite what we expected. The results showed the positive relationship between
the Credit Quality and Return on asset of Public sector banks. On the other hand the
Credit Quality ratio did not affected the performance of Private and Foreign sector banks.
The yearly growth of deposits did not significantly affect the profitability of the Public,
and Foreign sector banks of India. The results were also supported by the Andreas &
Gabrielle (2010). They found non empirical evidence those banks in Switzerland ware
able to convert an increasing amount of deposit liabilities into significantly higher income
earning assets. The other non effected variable was the Bank Size. Smirlock (1985) and
Pasiouras and Kosmidou (2007) argued that a growing bank size is positively related to
bank profitability. This is because larger banks are likely to have a higher degree of
product and loan diversification than smaller banks, which reduces risk, and because
economies of scale can arise from a larger size. But the results of our study indicate
insignificant relationship between Bank Size and the performance of the Indian banking
sectors (Public, Private and Foreign). The results of the study also showed that the Interest
Income did not affect the profitability of the banking sectors of India. The major reason
behind it may be that the increase of nontraditional bank activity contributed more to
enhance profitability in the Indian banking industry.
Conclusion
The Results of the study clearly indicated that in case of Public Sector Banks the
Cost Income, Credit Quality and Funding Cost affected the Return on Asset of the Public
Sector Banks of India and other Independent Variables like Growth, Size and Interest
income did not affect the Return on Asset of the Public sector Banks. The variable Size,
Growthand Interest Income affected the Return on Asset of the Private Sector Banks of
Profitability Determinants of Indian Banking Sector
153
India. The other Independent Variables like Cost Income, Credit Quality and Funding
Cost did not affect the Return on Asset of the Private Banks of India. And in case of
Foreign Sector banks only one variable Funding Cost affect the Return on Asset of the
Foreign Sector Banks of India. The other Independent Variables like Growth, Size, Credit
Quality, Interest Income and Cost Income Ratio did not affect the Return on Asset of the
Foreign Banks.
REFERENCES
1.
Afanasieff, T., Lhacer, P.M.V. & Nakane, M. (2002). The determinants of bank interest spread in
Brazil”. Money Affairs, 15(2), 183–207.
2.
Andreas, Dietricha & Gabrielle, Wanzenried (2010). Determinants of bank profitability before
and during the crisis: Evidence from Switzerland, Retrieved August 6, 2010, from http://ssrn.com/
abstract=1370245.
3.
Athanasoglou, P., Brissimis, S., Delis, M. (2008). Bank-specific, industry-specific and macroeconomic
determinants of bank profitability. Journal of International Financial Markets, Institutions and
Money, 18 (2), 121-136.
4.
Athanasoglou, P.P., Brissimis, S.N. and Delis, M.D. (2005). Bank-specific industry-specific and
macroeconomics determinants of bank profitability. Emerging Markets Review, 5, 39-59.
5.
Barajas, A., Steiner, R. and Salazar, N. (2001). Interest spreads in banking in Colombia 1974-96,
IMF Staff Papers, 46, 196-224.
6.
Ben Naceur, S. & Goaied, M. (2001). The Determinants of the Tunisian Deposit Banks’ Performance.
Applied Financial Economics, 11, 317-19.
7. Bennaceur, S., Goaied, M. (2008). The Determinants of Commercial Bank Interest Margin and
Profitability: Evidence from Tunisia. Frontiers in Finance and Economics, 5(1), 106 – 130.
8.
Berger A. (1995). The relationship between capital and earnings in banking. Journal of Money,
Credit and Banking, 27, 404-431.
9.
Berger, A. (1995). The Profit – Structure Relationship in Banking: Tests of Market-Power and
Efficient-Structure Hypotheses. Journal of Money, Credit and Banking, 27 (2), 404-431.
10.
Berger, A. N, Hasan, I. and Zhou, M. (2006). Bank Ownership and Efficiency in China: What
Will Happen in the World’s Largest Nation?. Journal of Banking & Finance, 33, 113-130.
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Berger, N.A. (1995). The Relationship between Capital and Earnings in Banking. Journal of Money,
Credit and Banking, 27(2), 432-456.
12.
Bourke, P. (1989). Concentration and Other Determinants of Bank Profitability in Europe, North
America and Australia. Journal of Banking and Finance, 13 (1), 65-79.
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Demirguc, A., Huizinga, H. (1999). Determinants of Commercial Bank Interest Margins and
Profitability: Some International Evidence. World Bank Economic Review, 13 (2), 379-408.
14.
Demirgüc-Kunt, A., & Maksimovic, V. (2002). Funding Growth in Bank-Based an Market-Based
Financial Systems: Evidence from Firm-Level Data. Journal of Financial Economics, 65, 337-363.
15.
Guru, B., Staunton, J., & Balashanmugam, D. (2002). Determinants of commercial bank profitability
in Malaysis. Journal of Money, Credit, and Banking, 17, 69-82.
16.
Guven, Sayilgan and Onur, Yildirim (2009). Determinants of Profitability in Turkish Banking
Sector: 2002-2007. International Research Journal of Finance and Economics, Retrieved August
6, 2010, from http://www.eurojournals.com/finance.htm.
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17. Indranarain Ramlall (2009). Bank-Specific, Industry-Specific and Macroeconomic Determinants
of Profitability in Taiwanese Banking System: Under Panel Data Estimation. International Research
Journal of Finance and Economics, 34, Retrieved August 28, 2010, from http://
www.eurojournals.com/finance.htm
18. Jiang, G., N. Tang, E. Law and A. Sze (2003), “Determinants of Bank Profitability in Hong Kong,”
Hong Kong Monetary Authority Research Memorandum, September.
19. Molyneux, P. & Seth, R. (1998). Foreign Banks, Profits and Commercial Credit Extension in the
United States. Applied Financial Economics, Taylor and Francis Journals, 8 (5), 533-39.
20. Molyneux, P., Thornton, J. (1992). Determinants of European Bank Profitability: A Note. Journal
of Banking and Finance, 16 (6), 1173-1178.
21. Naceur, S.B. and Goaied, M. (2001). The Determinants of the Tunisian Deposit Banks’ Performance.
Applied Financial Economics, 11, 317-319.
22. Pasiouras, F., Kosmidou, K. (2007). Factors influencing the profitability of domestic and foreign
commercial banks in the European Union, Research in International Business and Finance, 21
(2), 222-237.
23. Smirlock, M. (1985). Evidence on the Relationship between Concentration and Profitability in
Banking. Journal of Money, Credit, and Banking, 17 (1), 69-83.
24. Staikouras, C., Wood, G. (2004). The determinants of European bank profitability. International
Business and Economics Research Journal, 3 (6), 57-68.
25. Wilson, J.O., Molyneux, S.P. and Goddard, J. (2004). The Profitability of European Banks: A CrossSectional and Dynamic Panel Analysis. Manchester School, 72 (3), 63-381.
Public Sector Banks
Model Summary
Change Statistics
Std. Error of
Model
R
.842a
1
R Square
R Square Adjusted R Square the Estimate
.708
.696
Change
167.70377
.708
Sig. F
F Change
df1
57.095
df2
6
Change
19
.000
a. Predictors: (Constant), FC, CQ, Growth, CIR, Size, IIS
ANOVAb
Model
1
Sum of Squares
Regression
Residual
Total
df
Mean Square
19.047
6
3.175
4.160
14
.297
23.207
20
a. Predictors: (Constant), FC, CQ, Growth, CIR, Size, IIS
b. Dependent Variable: ROA
F
10.683
Sig.
.000a
Profitability Determinants of Indian Banking Sector
155
Coefficientsa
Standardized
Unstandardized Coefficients
Model
1
B
(Constant)
Coefficients
Std. Error
Collinearity Statistics
Beta
.001
.010
CIR
-.960
.052
CQ
1.996
Growth
t
Sig.
Tolerance
VIF
.131
.898
-.122
-18.596
.000
.639
1.565
.011
1.044
180.445
.000
.822
1.216
-.002
.002
-.005
-.904
.377
.790
1.265
Size
.000
.003
-.001
-.179
.860
.542
1.845
IIS
.002
.002
.008
1.083
.292
.481
2.077
FC
-.034
.012
-.018
-2.740
.013
.627
1.596
a. Dependent Variable: ROA
Foreign Sector Banks
Model Summary
Change Statistics
Model
R
.899a
1
Adjusted R
Std. Error of
R Square
Square
the Estimate
Change
R Square
.808
.758
.85398
Sig. F
F Change
.808
df1
16.149
df2
6
Change
23
.000
a. Predictors: (Constant), VAR00007, VAR00004, VAR00003, VAR00005, VAR00006,
VAR00002
ANOVAb
Model
1
Sum of Squares
Df
Mean Square
Regression
70.662
6
11.777
Residual
16.773
23
.729
Total
87.436
29
a. Predictors: (Constant), FC, CQ, Growth, CIR, Size, IIS
b. Dependent Variable: ROA
F
16.149
Sig.
.000a
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156
Coefficientsa
Standardized
Unstandardized Coefficients
Model
1
B
Coefficients
Std. Error
Collinearity Statistics
Beta
(Constant)
.621
.807
CIR
.245
.266
CQ
.046
t
Sig.
Tolerance
VIF
.770
.449
.106
.922
.366
.634
1.577
.253
.017
.184
.856
.936
1.068
-.214
.225
-.103
-.952
.351
.718
1.393
.058
.094
.060
.613
.546
.875
1.143
IIS
-.595
.883
-.072
-.674
.507
.722
1.385
FC
1.444
.215
.800
6.705
.000
.586
1.707
Growth
Size
a. Dependent Variable: ROA
Private Sector Banks
Model Summary
Change Statistics
Model
R
R
Adjusted R
Std. Error of
R Square
Square
Square
the Estimate
Change
.906a
1
.821
.744
.54511
.821
Sig. F
F Change
df1
10.683
df2
6
Change
14
.000
a. Predictors: (Constant), VAR00007, VAR00003, VAR00005, VAR00004, VAR00002,
VAR00006
ANOVAb
Model
1
Sum of Squares
Regression
Residual
Total
Df
Mean Square
19.047
6
3.175
4.160
14
.297
23.207
20
a. Predictors: (Constant), FC, CQ, Growth, CIR, Size, IIS
b. Dependent Variable: ROA
F
10.683
Sig.
.000a
Profitability Determinants of Indian Banking Sector
157
Coefficientsa
Standardized
Unstandardized Coefficients
Model
1
B
(Constant)
Std. Error
1.545
1.326
CIR
-2.175
2.733
CQ
2.614
Growth
Size
Coefficients
Beta
Collinearity Statistics
t
Sig.
Tolerance
VIF
1.165
.263
-.120
-.796
.439
.561
1.783
12.154
.026
.215
.833
.866
1.155
-3.194
1.356
-.312
-2.355
.034
.728
1.374
-2.727
.409
-2.311
-6.675
.000
.107
9.361
IIS
2.668
.413
2.239
6.464
.000
.107
9.368
FC
1.257
.937
.200
1.342
.201
.579
1.728
a. Dependent Variable: ROA
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158
12
Switching Behaviour in Mobile Service Providers:
An Empirical Study
Shilpa Sankpal, Jitendra Gupta, Saurabh Sharma, Prashant Shrivastava,
Abhijit Khanwalkar, Jitendra Shrivastava & Aashish Mehra
ABSTRACT
The study looked at the reasons that influence switching behaviour for mobile service providers.
There is intense competition among these service providers and the consumer is not lacking for
the want of an alternative provider. This makes the life of the consumer a little easy and the
service pressure on the provider a little tight. Three factors have emerged as the contributing
reasons to the switching behaviour. The factors are competitive push, core service failure and
surplus benefits inadequacy.
Conceptual Framework
Mobile Telephony is not that ancient an onslaught in the Indian landscape. It was in
1994 that the license for offering mobile services was granted by the government of India
for the four metro cities. It was decided that the cellular mobile services would operate
as a duopoly (that is, only two cellular mobile operators could be licensed in each telecom
circle), under a fixed license fee regime for 10 years. It was the very next year that 19
more circles got mobile license and in August of the same year Kolkata became the first
metro to have a cellular network (COAI, 2010).
Since then the duopoly no longer exists, and several players both government and
player are now battling it out for market share in various circles. Changes in technology,
slashing of tariffs and user acceptance have made cell phones come down to the status
of necessity rather than luxury. With the increased competition, companies now find it
Switching Behaviour in Mobile Service Providers: An Empirical Study
159
hard to hold on to the customers, and have to constantly strategize their market moves.
Switching behaviour reflects in a consumer propensity to move to a rival firm for
obtaining a product/service that was being obtained from a particular provider. Stewart
(1994) and Hirschman (1970) define switching behaviour as defection or customer exit.
Similarly, Boote (1998) and Bolton & Bronkhurst (1995) posit that switching behaviour
reflects the judgement that a customer makes to stop purchasing a particular service or
patronising the service provider completely.
A customer who defects is a dent for the company that he was earlier patronizing.
Switching adds costs to the company’s sheets, and indicates that the rival has been effective
in the snatching. The consequences of switching behaviour have been studied in some
detail already. Reichheld (1996) and Keaveney & Parthasarathy (2001) find that customers’
switching behaviour reduces firms’ earnings and profits.
Extra revenue gets lost because the initial investment on the customer (e.g. consulting
promotion costs) get wasted and further costs are required to acquire a new customer
(Colgate et al, 1996; Reichheld & Sasser, 1990; Fornell & Wernerfelt, 1987).
In the study reported by Reichheld & Sasser (1990) customer defection is seen as
having a greater potential to adversely effect on revenue than on scale, market share,
unit costs, and other factors that are normally connected with competitive advantage.
Since the Indian customer is no longer bound to choose between only two, and that
it is easier to migrate to a different service with relative ease, switching is a common
phenomenon.
Review of Literature
Switching Behaviour has generated a lot of interest, especially since the competitive
landscape for marketers has tightened greatly. Benefits of having loyal customers and
the implications of customers lost are both ends of the spectrum that have been dwelt
upon.
Customers that remain with a firm offer several advantages to the firm they patronize.
In fact, it has been reported that continuing customers exhibit a lower price sensitivity
(Keaveney, 1995), greater usage of the firm’s services (Bolton and Lemon, 1999), better
receptivity to the firm’s new products (Hawkins et al., 2004), increased inclination to
engage in positive word-of-mouth and a greater resistance to rivals’ persuasion attempts
(Dick and Basu, 1994).
Besides increasing the firm’s revenues, the loyal customers also contribute to cutting
its costs, since they are less expensive to serve (Ganesh et al., 2000), the positive wordof-mouth they spread attracts new customers and reduces the costs needed to attract
them (Keaveney and Parthasarathy, 2001), and the uncertainty in the exchanges diminishes
due to the experience accumulated throughout the relationship (Heide and Weiss, 1995).
160
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Studies have also focussed on the reasons that force the customers to change or switch.
One of the several related studies is of Roos (1999) who interestingly distinguished three
determinants of switching decisions using the Switching Path Analysis Technique (SPAT):
pushing determinants (the reason to switch to another supplier), pulling determinants
(factors that motivate the customers to come back to the original supplier) and swayers
(they do not cause switching by themselves; they can only mitigate or strengthen the
switching decision).
Following a similar line of thought, Bansal et al. (2005), drawing from migration
literature, established a model of customers’ switching behaviour that identified the process
by which customers decide to switch service providers. Similar to Roos (1999), they
distinguished push, pull and mooring variables that were deemed as central to the switching
process.
Roos et al. (2004) extend the ‘determinants’ line of research by analyzing the differences
in such processes between five different service industries, showing the differential impact
of the determinants identified in function of the industry configuration. However one of
the most influential work in this field is that of Keaveney (1995) who in his pioneering
work, identified eight factors behind customers’ switching decisions in service industries,
including core service failures, pricing, employee responses to service failures, attraction
by competitors, or inconvenience.
Gerrard and Cunningham (2004) carried out a similar analysis for bank services,
incorporating the weight that customers give to each incident that provokes switching.
They obtained similar factors to Keaveney’s pioneering work. Besides the factors explicitly
pointed out, studies have brought out other contributors as well. These contributors
subsume dissatisfaction (Swinyard and Whitlark, 1994), perceived quality (Rust and Zahoric,
1993), awareness of alternatives (Capraro et al., 2003), location (Jones et al., 2003) and
switching costs (Klemperer, 1995; Burnham et al., 2003).
Studies have also examined switchers in terms of their behaviour. One such study is
that of Ganesh et al. (2000) in the financial services sector. The study reported that switchers
differed from stayers in aspects such as satisfaction, involvement and loyalty. Keaveney
and Parthasarathy (2001), examining online services, associated these differences with
dimensions relating to attitude, behaviour and socio-demographic characteristics.
Studies have included the time factor of relationships in pertinence of switching
decisions. As nascent the relationship is, the easier it is for a customer to jump the ship.
Possibly lack of nostalgia or emotional bond may contribute to it, but still this is what
studies have actually pointed out. Bolton et al’s (2004) study reported that the time since
the customer purchased the service (time since service purchase) is likely to influence
the strength of the relationship and the customer’s switching decisions. In fact, relevant
literature postulates that the early stages of the relationship are critical for its future
Switching Behaviour in Mobile Service Providers: An Empirical Study
161
continuity or dissolution (Bolton, 1998; Bowman, 2004). The chances of switching in these
initial stages is much greater than in the later ones (Ongena and Smith, 2001; Israel,
2005).
Objectives
1. To identify the reasons for switching behaviour in Mobile Service Providers.
2. To open new vistas for further research.
Research Methodology
The study was exploratory in nature and survey method was used to complete it.
The population comprised all consumers of mobile telephony in Gwalior city region.
Individual respondents were the sample element. The sample size was 80 individuals.
Since no sampling frame is available, non-probability quota sampling was used for the
study. The tools for data collection subsumed a self-developed questionnaire (see Annexure
A-1) that was developed to be a Likert-type measure. The collected data was then subjected
to item-to-total correlation, reliability measure and Factor Analysis.
Results
Item to Total Correlation
The Item-to-Total Correlation was computed on SPSS 16.0 and corresponding
improvement in reliabilities was considered. When all the 11 items were subjected to
ITC, the following output was observed:
Item-Total Statistics
Scale Mean if
Item Deleted
Scale Variance if
Item Deleted
Corrected ItemTotal Correlation
Cronbach’s Alpha if
Item Deleted
VAR00001
34.0500
34.478
.517
.635
VAR00002
34.2250
35.822
.440
.650
VAR00003
34.2000
38.516
.276
.677
VAR00004
34.1750
36.678
.359
.664
VAR00005
34.1500
37.825
.328
.669
VAR00006
34.9875
39.481
.157
.699
VAR00007
33.9500
36.580
.425
.654
VAR00008
34.3000
37.048
.367
.663
VAR00009
34.2750
37.518
.373
.663
VAR00010
34.5125
36.683
.283
.679
VAR00011
34.1750
39.539
.201
.688
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162
It was thus found that on dropping item 6 the reliability was rising, and hence that
item was dropped and the rest of the items were retained for analysis.
Reliability
The reliability with 11 items was computed at 0.689. On dropping item 6, the following
improvement was observed (see Annexure A-2).
Reliability Statistics
Cronbach’s Alpha
N of Items
.699
10
Validity
The validity of the measure was considered through face validity and found to be
high.
Factor Analysis
Principal Component Analysis with Varimax Rotation and Kaiser Normalization was
applied. The factor analysis resulted in three factors for reasons for Switching Behaviour
in Mobile Service Providers. The KMO Measure of Sampling Adequacy was 0.718 which
indicates that sample was adequate for the analysis.The details of the same are presented
below –
Table 3: Details of Factor Analysis (see Annexure A-3)
Factor
Factor Name
No
1.
Eigen Value
Total
Competitive
1.993
% of Variance
19.926
Push
2.
Core Service
Failure
1.929
Variable Convergence
19.292
Factor
Loading
10. if my location changes
0.770
3. if the competitor has a better
offer
0.640
7. if the cost of continuing with
the current one is too high.
0.606
9. if the service provider is not
able to match with what the rivals
are providing.
0.549
2. if there are recurrent billing
problems.
0.700
5. if it is no longer convenient to
continue with my existing service
provider.
0.666
8. if there are negative issues with
the services given.
0.665
1. if the price/tariff charged by
my service provider if too high.
0.561
Switching Behaviour in Mobile Service Providers: An Empirical Study
3
Surplus Benefits
Inadequacy
1.559
15.589
163
11. if my current service provider
does not provide as many value
added services as the rival.
0.795
4. if the customer care people do
not respond well to my problems.
0.669
Description of Factors
1) Competitive Push:- The most important Factor that came out of the study is
‘Competitive Push’ which comprises of 4 variables and explains 19.926% of the
variance. Total Eigen value is 1.993. The included variables are “If my location
changes” (.770), “If the competitor has a better offer “ (.640), “If the cost of continuing
with the current one is too high” (.606), “If the service provider is not able to
match with what the rivals are providing “ (.549).
2) Core Service Failure:- The second important factor is ‘Core Service Failure’ which
comprises of 4 variables and explains 19.292% of the variance. Total Eigen value
is 1.929. The included 4 variables those are “If there are recurrent billing problems”
(.700), “If it is no longer convenient to continue with my existing service provider”
(.666), “ If there are negative issues with the service given” (.665), “ If the price/
tariff charged by my service provider if too high” (.561).
3) Surplus Benefits Inadequacy:- The third important factor is ‘Surplus Benefits
Inadequacy’ which comprises of 2 variables and explains 15.589% of the variance.
Total Eigen value is 1.559. The included 2 variables those are “ if my current
service provider does not provide as many value added services as the rival”
(.795), “if the customer care people do not respond well to my problems” (.669).
Conclusion
The study looked at the reasons that influence switching behaviour for mobile service
providers. There is intense competition among these service providers and the consumer
is not lacking for the want of an alternative provider. This makes the life of the consumer
a little easy and the service pressure on the provider a little tight. Three factors have
emerged as the contributing reasons to the switching behaviour. The factors are competitive
push, core service failure and surplus benefits inadequacy.
REFERENCES
Bansal, H.S., Taylor, S.F. and James, S.T. (2005), Migrating to new service providers: toward a unifying
framework of consumers’ switching behaviors, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science,
3(1), pp. 96-115.
Bolton, R.N. (1998), A dynamic model of the duration of the customer ’s relationship with a continuous
service provider: the role of satisfaction, Marketing Science, 17(1), pp. 45-65.
164
A Handbook for Writing Research Paper
Bolton, R.N., & Bronkhurst, T.M. (1995), The relationship between customer complaints to the firm
and subsequent exist behaviour, Advances in Consumer Research, 22, 92-100
Bolton, R.N. and Lemon, K.N. (1999), A dynamic model of customers’ usage of services: usage as an
antecedent and consequences of satisfaction, Journal of Marketing Research, 36(2), pp. 171-86.
Bolton, R.N., Lemon, K.N. and Verhoef, P.C. (2004), The theoretical underpinnings of customer asset
management: a framework and propositions for future research, Journal of the Academy of
Marketing Science, 32(3), pp. 271-92.
Boote, J. (1998), Towards a comprehensive taxonomy and model of consumer complaining behaviour,
Journal of Consume Satisfaction, Dissatisfaction and Complaining Behaviour, 11, 141-149
Bowman, D. (2004), Customer retention in business services: determinants of duration in customersupplier relationships, working paper, ISBM Report 24997, ISBM, Penn State University, University
Park, PA.
Burnham, T.A., Frels, J.K. and Mahajan, V. (2003), Consumer switching costs: a typology, antecedents
and consequences, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 31(2), pp. 109-26.
Capraro, A.J., Broniarczyk, S. and Srivastava, R.K. (2003), Factors influencing the likelihood of customer
defection: the role of consumer knowledge, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 31(2),
pp. 164-75.
Colgate, M., Steward, K., & Kinsella, R. (1996), Customer Defection: A study of student market in
Ireland, International Journal of Bank Marketing, 14(3), 23-9.
Dick, A.S. and Basu, K. (1994), Customer royalty: toward an integrated conceptual framework, Journal
of the Academy of Marketing Science, 22(2), pp. 99-113.
Fornell, C., & Wernerfelt, B. (1987), Defensive marketing strategy by customer complaint management:
A theoretical analysis, Journal of Marketing Research, 24, 337-346.
Ganesh, J., Arnold, M.J. and Reynolds, K.E. (2000), Understanding the customer base of service providers:
an examination of the differences between switchers and stayers, Journal of Marketing, 64(July),
pp. 65-87.
Gerrard, P. and Cunningham, J.B. (2004), Consumer switching behavior in the Asian banking market,
Journal of Services Marketing, 18(3), pp. 215-23.
Hawkins, I., Best, J.B. and Coney, K.A. (2004), Consumer Behavior, Building Marketing Strategy, 9th
ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, NY.
Heide, J.B. and Weiss, A.M. (1995), Vendor consideration and switching behavior for buyers in hightechnology markets, Journal of Marketing, 59(July), pp. 30-43.
Hirschman, A. O. (1970). Exit, voice and loyalty. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.
Israel, M. (2005), Tenure dependence in consumer-firm relationships: an empirical analysis of consumer
departures from automobile insurance firms, The Rand Journal of Economics, 36, pp. 165-92.
Jones, M.A., Mothersbaugh, D.L. and Beatty, S.E. (2003), The effects of locational convenience on customer
repurchase intentions across service types, Journal of Services Marketing, 17(7), pp. 701-12.
Keaveney, S.M. (1995), Customer switching behavior in service industries: an exploratory study, Journal
of Marketing, 59(April), pp. 71-82.
Keaveny, S. & Parthasarathy, M. (2001), Customer switching behaviour in online services: An exploratory
Switching Behaviour in Mobile Service Providers: An Empirical Study
165
study of the role of selected attitudinal behaviour, and demographic factors, Journal of Academy
of Marketing Science, 29(4), 374-390.
Klemperer, P. (1995), Competition when consumers have switching costs: an overview with applications
to industrial organization, Macroeconomics and international trade, Review of Economic Studies,
62, pp. 515-39.
Ongena, S. and Smith, D.C. (2001), The duration of bank relationships, Journal of Financial Economics,
61, pp. 449-75.
Reichheld, F. F. (1996), The Loyalty Effect, Harvard Business School Press, Boston, MA.
Reichheld, F., & Sasser, W.E. Jr. (1990), Zero defections: Quality comes to services. Harvard Business
Review, 68(September/October), 105-111.
Roos, I. (1999), Switching processes in customer relationships, Journal of Service Research, 2(1), pp. 6885.
Roos, I., Edvardsson, B. and Gustafsson, B. (2004), Customer switching patterns in competitive and
non-competitive service industries, Journal of Service Research, 6(3), pp. 256-71.
Rust, R.T. and Zahoric, A.J. (1993), Customer satisfaction, customer retention, and market share, Journal
of Retailing, 69(2), pp. 193-215.
Stewart, K. (1994), Customer exit: Loyalty issues in retail banking, Irish Marketing Review, 7, 45-53.
Swinyard, W.R. and Whitlark, D.B. (1994), The effect of customer dissatisfaction on store repurchase
intention: a little goes a long way, The International Review of Retail, Distribution and Consumer
Research, 4(3), pp. 329-44.
http://www.coai.com/historyIndia.php Retrieved in August 2010.
ANNEXURE
A-1/QUESTIONNAIRE
The data being collected here is for academic purpose only. Kindly indicate the reasons that may
make you want to switch from your current mobile service provider (such as Idea or Airtel or Vodafone
etc). Responses should be given on a scale of 1 to 5 where 1 indicates Strongly Disagree and 5 indicates
Strongly Agree.
I am likely to shift to another mobile service provider:
1. if the price/tariff charged by my service provider is too high.
1
2
3
4
5
2. if there are recurrent billing problems.
1
2
3
4
5
3. if the competitor has a better offer.
1
2
3
4
5
4. if the customer care people do not respond well to my problems
1
2
3
4
5
5. if it is no longer convenient to continue with my existing service provider.
1
2
3
4
5
A Handbook for Writing Research Paper
166
6. if most of my friends/acquaintances have migrated to a different service provider.
1
2
3
4
5
7. if the cost of continuing with the current one is too high.
1
2
3
4
5
8. if there are negative issues with the services given.
1
2
3
4
5
9. if the service provider is not able to match up with what rivals are providing.
1
2
3
4
5
4
5
10. if my location changes.
1
2
3
11. if my current service provider does not provide as many value added services as the rival.
1
2
3
4
5
Personal Information
Name:
Gender:
A-2 / Reliability
Case Processing Summary
N
Cases
Valid
Excludeda
Total
%
80
100.0
0
.0
80
100.0
a. Listwise deletion based on all variables in the
procedure.
Reliability Statistics
Cronbach's
Alpha
N of Items
.699
10
Switching Behaviour in Mobile Service Providers: An Empirical Study
167
Item-Total Statistics
Cronbach's
Scale Mean if
Scale Variance if Corrected Item-
Item Deleted
Item Deleted
Alpha if Item
Total Correlation
Deleted
VAR00001
31.3375
31.239
.470
.655
VAR00002
31.5125
31.392
.482
.653
VAR00003
31.4875
34.253
.291
.687
VAR00004
31.4625
32.404
.381
.672
VAR00005
31.4375
33.768
.330
.681
VAR00007
31.2375
32.462
.439
.662
VAR00008
31.5875
32.929
.378
.672
VAR00009
31.5625
33.971
.335
.680
VAR00010
31.8000
32.922
.268
.696
VAR00011
31.4625
35.163
.221
.698
Scale Statistics
Mean
Variance
34.9875
Std. Deviation
39.481
6.28338
N of Items
10
A-3 / Factor Analysis
KMO and Bartlett’s Test
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy.
Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity
Approx. Chi-Square
df
Sig.
.718
124.197
45
.000
A Handbook for Writing Research Paper
168
Total Variance Explained
Component
Initial Eigenvalues
Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings
Total
% of Variance
Cumulative %
Total
% of Variance
1.
2.776
27.758
27.758
1.993
19.926
19.926
2.
1.523
15.232
42.989
1.929
19.292
39.218
3.
1.182
11.818
54.807
1.559
15.589
54.807
4.
.976
9.765
64.572
5.
.698
6.981
71.553
6.
.682
6.824
78.378
7.
.645
6.450
84.827
8.
.572
5.724
90.551
9.
.512
5.118
95.669
10.
.433
4.331
100.000
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.
Cumulative %
Switching Behaviour in Mobile Service Providers: An Empirical Study
169
Rotated Component Matrixa
Component
1
VAR00010
.770
VAR00003
.640
VAR00007
.606
VAR00009
.549
2
.458
VAR00002
.700
VAR00005
.666
VAR00008
.665
VAR00001
3
.438
.561
VAR00011
.795
VAR00004
.669
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis. Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization.
a. Rotation converged in 7 iterations.
Component Transformation Matrix
Compo
nent
1
2
3
1
.626
.667
.404
2
.737
-.338
-.585
3
.253
-.664
.703
Extraction Method: Principal Component
Analysis.
Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser
Normalization.
A Handbook for Writing Research Paper
170
Component Score Coefficient Matrix
Component
1
2
3
VAR00001
.153
.268
-.092
VAR00002
.069
.377
-.135
VAR00003
.377
-.343
.341
VAR00004
.004
.039
.416
VAR00005
-.093
.382
-.032
VAR00007
.294
.012
.056
VAR00008
-.155
.350
.161
VAR00009
.278
-.003
-.015
VAR00010
.425
-.027
-.238
VAR00011
-.068
-.080
.547
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis. Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization.
Preference for Social Networking Sties: A Study of Management Students
171
13
Preference for Social Networking Sites:
A Study of Management Students
Shilpa Sankpal, Jitendra Gupta, Aradhya Sharma, Anil Pandey,
Neel Rai & Priyanka Kushwah
ABSTRACT
Social Networking Sites are a common dimension in modern online life. Several people register
at scores of sites to stay in touch with friends and family. The current study was a brief attempt
to compare if males and females looked at different attributes in their preference for these sites.
The study was conducted on management students and the result indicated that there apparently
is no difference between males and females in terms of what they look for in a social networking
sites.
Conceptual Framework
Almost everybody who maintains an online presence gets connected to social
networking sites at some point or other. These networking sites are unique in their identity
and each of them offers something to its members. A virtual identity connected online
to other users has also come to redefine how humans view relationships, with online
interface also generating considerable amount of interest.
Boyd and Ellison (2007) define social network sites as web-based services that allow
individuals to create a public or semi-public profile within a bounded system, define a
list of other users with whom they share a connection, and view and go through their
list of connections and those made by others within the system. It then follows that
these networking sites have pre-defined levels of privacy, and a user has control over
how a non-user of a site, a random user must and a connection can actually see through
in their online profile. The degree of personalisation can also be affected by the user in
172
A Handbook for Writing Research Paper
certain cases. For e.g. vis-à-vis Facebook, Orkut allows users the option of a ‘theme’ for
their profile pages.
Boyd and Ellison (2007) believe SixDegrees.com to be the first recognizable social
network site. It was launched in 1997 and the users could create profiles, list connections
and further 1998 onwards could go through the connections list of other friends. The
consolidated features present here were available in parts at other places. AIM and ICQ
also featured friends list, but it was not traversable by others. Similarly Classmates.com
allowed people to ‘group’ as per their alumni details, but profile building got added
much later.
A common notion about these networking sites is that they focus on adding as many
users as possible. After all, most of these sites are free and seem to work their financial
viability through the mode of advertising. This notion is incorrect by the fact of presence
of websites where entry is restricted. Activity-focused sites such as Couchsurfing and
identity-primed sites such as BlackPlanet get limited by the demographic angle of their
members. To appear selective sites such as BeautifulPeople allow entry only when some
criterion is fulfilled (which happens to be physical attractiveness).
Review of Literature
There has been a flurry of research about the adoption and usage related dimensions
of social networking sites. Many studies have been dedicated to a specific or a group of
social networking sites. Efforts to develop insight into member behaviour on these sites
have also been done.
Looking at member behaviour in the spurt that Flickr and Yahoo! 360 experiences,
Kumar et al (2006) postulated that members ranging from dormant ones, inviters to linkers
completely participate in the social evolution of a network. This implies that everybody
who is a member will directly or indirectly cause a change to the network’s growth
chart.
Studies focused on LiveJournal have encompassed a Friendship classification scheme
(Hsu et al, 2007), an investigation of the role of language in the topology of Friendship
(Herring et al., 2007), a study of the importance of geography in Friending (Liben-Nowell
et al, 2005), and studies on what motivates people to join particular communities (Backstrom
et al, 2006).
Spertus, Sahami, and Büyükkökten (2005) used Orkut data and identified a classification
of users through their membership in certain communities; they suggest that sites can
use this to recommend additional communities of interest to users. It is not a vain suggestion.
Today sites customize advertisements as per the expressed interests of its members and
also by taking clues from what a member views while being on the site. Pages and
communities are also suggested by taking hints from what the connections-list of the
person contains.
Liu, Maes, and Davenport (2006) argued that Friend connections are not the only
network structure worth investigating. They examined the ways in which the performance
Preference for Social Networking Sties: A Study of Management Students
173
of tastes (favorite music, books, film, etc.) constitutes an alternate network structure,
which they call a “taste fabric.” The study added a cultural realm to the plane on which
these sites operate; a clear mosaic of self-expression.
Privacy or the lack thereof is also an issue that has generated a lot of interest. It is
easier to create a reality that is not actual on the internet and to misrepresent. It is also
a considerable decision to choose to reveal or not reveal intimate details. Since many of
these sites will have online friends/connections that a person may never meet in real
life, one of the ideas underlying is what to communicate and what to hold back.
Acquisti and Gross (2006) state that there is often a disconnect between students’
desire to protect privacy and their behaviours, a notion also explored in Stutzman’s (2006)
survey of Facebook users and Barnes’s (2006) description of the “privacy paradox” that
occurs when teens are not aware of the public nature of the Internet. Teenagers who
land in trouble online are often ones who reveal too much to a stranger who misuses the
vested trust. Teenagers have also been found to use the online communities as a measure
of popularity, and thus a component of self-image.
In the same trust field, Dwyer et al(2007) argued that trust and usage goals may
impact what people are willing to share. They found that Facebook users expressed greater
trust in Facebook than MySpace users did in MySpace and hence were more willing to
share information on the site. Differentiated levels of privacy also affect the trust levied
on a site.
A few culture based studies have documented the role of national identity. Fragoso
(2006) investigated into the Brazilian invasion of Orkut and the resulting culture clash
between Brazilians and Americans on the site. Such studies are still few and far in between.
The impact of these sites in academia is also under investigation. Researchers are
looking into the implication of these sites with respect to academic environment such as
schools and universities and libraries. Studies have examined how students feel about
having professors on Facebook (such as Hewitt & Forte, 2006) and how faculty participation
affects student-professor relations (such as Mazer et al, 2007). The spilling over of offline
connections onto the online world is bound to create ripples.
Objectives
1. To compare the preference for networking sites on the basis of gender of users.
2. To open new vistas for further research.
Research Methodology
The study was exploratory in nature and survey method was used to complete it.
The population comprise all management students in Gwalior city region. Individual
respondent were the sample element. The sample size was 80: 40 males, 40 females.
Since no sampling frame was available, non-probability quota sampling was used for
the study. The tools for data collection subsumed a self-developed questionnaire (see
Annexure A-1) that asked respondents to rank attributes. The collected data was subjected
A Handbook for Writing Research Paper
174
to Mann-Whitney Test to report the findings.
H01: The rankings for preference for attributes of social networking sites are similar
for males and females.
Results and Discussion
The data collected was entered into SPSS 16.0 for analysis. The totals of responses
per respondent were added into the data sheet.
The totals were then subjected to Mann-Whitney U-test. The output is shown below:
Table 1: Output of the Mann-Whitney U-test (see Annexure A-2)
Test Statisticsa
VAR00001
Mann-Whitney U
752.000
Wilcoxon W
1572.000
Z
-.462
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
.644
a. Grouping Variable: VAR00002
On the basis of the results, it is obvious that for the given sample, z becomes significant
at 64.4% level of significance. Hence the null hypothesis is not rejected. It implies that
males and females do not have different preferences in terms of their attribute preferences
in social networking sites.
The researchers found a lot of contrary echo to the results that were elicited from the
current study. Hindu Business Line (2009) quoted an Australian study about what kind
of applications were preferred by the two genders and came to the conclusion that males
and females preferred different kinds of applications. In fact, it was found that females
preferred applications that allowed self-expression, while males preferred applications
that allowed for competing.
Similarly, Goudreau in Forbes (2010) article reported that women and men use social
media in non-similar manner. Women are more likely to use social networking sites to
make connection and share details of their intimate life with the world. Men are apparently
more prone to use the sites to gather information and organize it on increase their status.
Avenues for Further Research
The study currently reported here had a very limited scope majorly because it was
completed in the duration of the workshop. Review of literature reveals that most of the
publications in this area of study are only in a span of the recent two and a half decades
and that makes it a very vibrant area of study.
Preference for Social Networking Sties: A Study of Management Students
175
Also not many studies have been conducted in the Indian context which makes it
crucial for investigation in this context. The current study did not take any other
demographical variable into consideration than gender, and the inclusion of other such
variables would certainly enrich the study. Also, usage patterns can be looked into along
with the motives.
There is a gray area of study in the online communities and that is the realm of
privacy and extent of information sharing. Connected to this is the occurrence of identity
theft, and misrepresentation of self on the internet. This could also be a potent kind of
research. Some amount of misrepresentation is innocuous, such as under-reporting of
actual age, but when the misrepresentation leads to an online or offline crime, it can
have serious implications for the society and the trust levied on strangers in such
communities.
Conclusion
Social Networking Site memberships are almost as ubiquitous as e-mail accounts in
the life of netizens. The current study was a brief attempt to compare if males and females
looked at different attributes in their preference for these sites. The study was conducted
on management students and the result indicated that there apparently is no difference
between males and females in terms of what they look for in a social networking sites.
REFERENCES
1.
Acquisti, A., and Gross, R. (2006). Imagined communities: Awareness, information sharing, and
privacy on the Facebook, In P. Golle & G. Danezis (Eds.), Proceedings of 6th Workshop on Privacy
Enhancing Technologies, 36-58, Cambridge, UK: Robinson College.
2.
Backstrom, L., Huttenlocher, D., Kleinberg, J. and Lan, X. (2006). Group formation in large social
networks: Membership, growth, and evolution, Proceedings of 12th International Conference
on Knowledge Discovery in Data Mining, 44-54, New York: ACM Press.
3.
Barnes, S. (2006), A privacy paradox: Social networking in the United States. First Monday, 11(9),
Retrieved September, 2010 from http://www.firstmonday.org/issues/issue11_9/barnes/index.html
4.
Boyd, d. m., and Ellison, N.B. (2007), Social network sites: Definition, history, and scholarship,
Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 13(1), article 11, Retrieved August, 2010 from
http://jcmc.indiana.edu/vol13/issue1/boyd.ellison.html
5.
Dwyer, C., Hiltz, S.R. and Passerini, K. (2007), Trust and privacy concern within social networking
sites: A comparison of Facebook and MySpace, Proceedings of AMCIS 2007, Keystone, CO.
Retrieved September, 2010 from http://csis.pace.edu/~dwyer/research/DwyerAMCIS2007.pdf
6.
Fragoso, S. (2006), WTF a crazy Brazilian invasion, In F. Sudweeks & H. Hrachovec (Eds.),
Proceedings of CATaC 2006, 255-274, Murdoch, Australia: Murdoch University.
7.
Goudrea, Jenna (2010), What Men and Women are doing on Facebook, Retrieved in September
2010 from http://www.forbes.com/2010/04/26/popular-social-networking-sites-forbes-womantime-facebook-twitter.html
8.
Herring, S.C., Paolillo, J.C., Ramos Vielba, I., Kouper, I., Wright, E., Stoerger, S., Scheidt, L.A.
and Clark, B. (2007), Language Networks on LiveJournal, Proceedings of the Fortieth Hawaii
International Conference on System Sciences, Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE Press.
A Handbook for Writing Research Paper
176
9. Hewitt, A. and Forte, A. (2006, November), Crossing boundaries: Identity management and
student/faculty relationships on the Facebook, Poster presented at CSCW, Banff, Alberta.
10. Hindu Business Line (June 22, 2009), Men and Women ‘use Facebook differently’, Available at:
http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/blnus/18221160.htm, Retrieved in September 2010
11. Hsu, W.H., Lancaster, J., Paradesi, M.S.R., & Weninger, T. (2007), Structural link analysis from
user profiles and friends networks: A feature construction approach, Proceedings of ICWSM2007 (pp. 75-80). Boulder, CO.
12. Kumar, R., Novak, J., & Tomkins, A. (2006), Structure and evolution of online social networks,
Proceedings of 12th International Conference on Knowledge Discovery in Data Mining (pp.
611-617), New York: ACM Press.
13. Liben-Nowell, D., Novak, J., Kumar, R., Raghavan, P., & Tomkins, A. (2005), Geographic routing
in social networks, Proceedings of National Academy of Sciences, 102 (33), 623-11,628.
14. Liu, H., Maes, P., & Davenport, G. (2006), Unraveling the taste fabric of social networks, International
Journal on Semantic Web and Information Systems, 2 (1), 42-71.
15. Mazer, J. P., Murphy, R. E., & Simonds, C. J. (2007), I’ll see you on “Facebook”: The effects of
computer-mediated teacher self-disclosure on student motivation, affective learning, and classroom
climate, Communication Education, 56 (1), 1-17.
16. Spertus, E., Sahami, M., & Büyükkökten, O. (2005), Evaluating similarity measures: A largescale study in the orkut social network, Proceedings of 11th International Conference on Knowledge
Discovery in Data Mining (pp. 678-684), New York: ACM Press.
17. Stutzman, F. (2006), An evaluation of identity-sharing behavior in social network communities,
Journal of the International Digital Media and Arts Association, 3 (1), 10-18.
ANNEXURE
A-1 / QUESTIONNAIRE
The data being collected here is for academic purpose only. Kindly rank the following attributes from
most important (1) to least important (8) while considering the use of any social networking
site (such as Facebook, Orkut, Twitter etc).
Sr. No.
Attribute
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Ease of making new friends
Available games and applications
Features such as photo sharing
Ease of interaction
Privacy
Number of friends already using the site
Offers and Schemes
Chances of Personalization (such as themes, colour schemes etc.)
Personal Information:
Name:
Gender:
Social Networking Sites used:
Rank (1 - 8)
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
Preference for Social Networking Sties: A Study of Management Students
177
A-2 – Output of Mann-Whitney U-test
Descriptive Statistics
N
Mean
Std. Deviation
Minimum
Maximum
VAR00002
80
34.3000
11.10867
14.00
57.00
VAR00001
80
1.5000
.50315
1.00
2.00
Ranks
VAR00002
VAR00001
N
Mean Rank
Sum of Ranks
1
40
39.30
1572.00
2
40
41.70
1668.00
Total
80
Test Statisticsa
VAR00002
Mann-Whitney U
752.000
Wilcoxon W
1572.000
Z
-.462
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
.644
a. Grouping Variable: VAR00001
A Handbook for Writing Research Paper
178
List of Contributors
S.N. Names of the Authors
Affiliation
1.
Aashish Mehra
Faculty (Marketing), Prestige Institute of
Management, Gwalior
2.
Abdesh Singh Kushwah
Research Scholar, Institute of Commerce and
Management, Gwalior
3.
Abhijeet Khandekar
Professor, RGPV, Gwalior
4.
Abhijit Khanwalkar
Faculty (Marketing), RGVT, Gwalior
5.
Alok Shrivastava
6.
Amit Tiwari
Assistant Professor, Prestige Institute of
Management, Gwalior
7.
Anil Pandey
Faculty (Marketing), JBIMS, University of Mumbai,
Mumbai
8.
Anjali Sharma
Alumni, PIMG
9.
Aradhya Sharma
Student, MBA (FT), Prestige Institute of
Management, Gwalior
10.
Bhawana Mishra
Institute of Commerce and Management, Gwalior.
11.
Bhupendra Chahar
Student, MBA, Prestige Institute of Management,
Gwalior
12.
Charu Chandrika Dubey
List of Contributors
179
13.
Chetna Pandey
Assistant Prof., BVM College, Gwalior
14.
Dr Ashu Pasricha
Reader, Deptt of Gandhian Studies, Punjab
University, Chandigarh
15.
Dr Navita Nathani
Head, Management, Prestige Institute of
Management, Gwalior
16.
Dr. Anindita Chakraborty
Assistant Professor, Prestige Institute of
Management,
Gwalior.
17.
Dr. Garima Mathur
Associate Prof., Prestige Institute of Management,
Gwalior
18.
Dr. Nishchaya Upmanyu
Assistant Professor, Prestige Institute of
Management, Gwalior
19.
Dr. Pushpa Negi
Assistant, Prof., Prestige Institute of Management,
Gwalior
20.
Dr. Sushma Suri
Assistant Prof. Dept. of Psychology Jamia Millia
Islamia, New Delhi
21.
Dr. Tarika Singh
Associate Professor, PIMG
22.
Dr. S.S. Bhakar
Director, Prestige Institute of Management, Gwalior
23.
Gaurav Jaiswal
Assistant
Professor, Prestige Institute of
Management, Gwalior
24.
Iram Naz
Research Scholar, Dept. of Psychology Jamia Millia
Islamia, New Delhi
25.
Jitendra Gupta
Student, MBA (FT), Prestige Institute of
Management, Gwalior
26.
Jitendra Gupta
Student, MBA (FT), Prestige Institute of
Management, Gwalior
27.
Jitendra Shrivastava
Student, MBA (FT), SOS, Jiwaji University, Gwalior
28.
Kayam Singh
Student, MBA, Prestige Institute of Management,
Gwalior
29.
Kritika Sharma
Student, Prestige Institute of Management, Gwalior
30.
Manjari Agarwal
Research Scholar, MLB College, Jiwaji University,
Gwalior
31.
Mr. Manish Yadav
Almuni, PIMG
A Handbook for Writing Research Paper
180
32.
Mr. Muwaya Ahmad
Dofar University, College of Commerce and
Business AdministrationDepartment of Accounting
and Finance, Oman
33.
Mr. Saurav Shivhare
Student
34.
Ms Anju Pandey
Almuni, PIMG
35.
Ms Deepali Agrawal
Almuni, PIMG
36.
Ms. Iram Naaz
Research Scholar, Jamia Milia Islamia
37.
Ms. Sonu Sidwani
Assistant, Prof., Prestige Institute of Management,
Gwalior
38.
Ms. Hina Agrawal
39.
Ms. Rakhi Chauhan
40.
Ms. Shwati Singhai
41.
Ms. Trapti Tripathi
Icm Jiwaji Uni
42.
Nandan Velankar
Assistant Professor, GICTS Group of Institutions,
Gwalior
43.
Neel Rai
Faculty (Marketing & HR), Ojaswini Institute of
Management and Technology, Damoh (MP)
44.
Neha Kotwani
Student, Prestige Institute of Management, Gwalior
45.
Neha Manjhi
Student, MBA (FT), Prestige Institute of
Management, Gwalior.
46.
Nisha Tiwari
Students, Prestige Institute of Management,
Gwalior
47.
Parul Kulshrestha
Research Scholar, Jiwaji University, Gwalior
48.
Prashant Shrivastava
Faculty (Marketing), BCPS, Gwalior
49.
Pritviraj Mathur
Alumni, PIMG
50.
Priyadarshini Nagori
Assistant Prof., BVM College, Gwalior
51.
Priyanka Kushwah
Faculty (Marketing), BMIT, Jaipur
52.
Prof. Mukta
Visiting Faculty, ICM, Jiwaji University, Gwalior
53.
Prof. Suman Bisht
Head T&P, Prestige Institute of Management,
Gwalior
54.
Prof. Vidhi Tyagi
Faculty, IPS, Gwalior
Icm Jiwaji Uni
List of Contributors
181
55.
Prof. Amitabha Maheshwari
Assistant Professor, Prestige Institute of
Management, Gwalior
56.
Prof. Amitabha Maheshwari
Assistant Professor, Prestige Institute of
Management, Gwalior
57.
Prof. K.K. Panday
Assistant Professor, Prestige Institute of
Management, Gwalior
58.
Prof. Monika Mittal
Lecturer, Aditya College
59.
Prof. Sneha Rajput
Assistant Professor, , Prestige Institute of
Management, Gwalior
60.
Prof. Sushma Suri
Prof., DU
61.
Samta Jain
Assistant
Professor, Prestige Institute of
Management, Gwalior
62.
Sandeep Dixit
Students, Prestige Institute of Management,
Gwalior
63.
Satyam Dubey
Student, MBA, Prestige Institute of Management,
Gwalior
64.
Saurabh Sharma
Student, MBA (FT), Prestige Institute of
Management, Gwalior
65.
Shilpa Sankpal
Faculty (Marketing), Prestige Institute of
Management, Gwalior.
66.
Shweta Agarwal
Lecturer, SVITM, Gwalior.
67.
Shweta Dani
Student, MBA, Prestige Institute of Management,
Gwalior
68.
Smriti Rathor
Assistant Prof., Prestige Institute of Management,
Gwalior
69.
Sonal Kushwaha
Alumni, PIMG
70.
Sonam Bhadauriya
Research Scholar, Dayalbagh Education Institute,
Agra.
71.
Sumit Narula
Lecturer, Deptt of Mass Communication, Amity
University, Noida
72.
Sweety Dubey
Students, Prestige Institute of Management,
Gwalior
73.
Tanmayee Pandit
Alumni, PIMG
74.
Umesh Sharma
Assistant Prof., IPS College, Gwalior
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