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BIBLIOTHEK
INPOGERMAMSCHER GRAMMATIKEN
BEARBEITET VON
F.
BUCHELER,
E.
H,
SIEVERS, H,
HUBSOHMANN,
WEBER, W,
D,
BAND
A,
LESKIEN, G, MEYER,
WHITNEY, E, WINDISOH,
II.
INCLUDING BOTH THE CLASSICAL LANGUAGE, AND
THE OLDER DIALECTS, OF VEDA AND BRAHMANA
BY WILLIAM DWIGHT WHITNEY.
A SANSKRIT GRAMMAR,
LEIPZIG,
DRUCK UND VERLAG VON BREITKOPF UND HARTEL.
1879.
SANSKRIT GRAMMAR,
INCLUDING BOTH THE CLASSICAL LANGUAGE, AND THE
OLDER DIALECTS, OF VEDA AND BRAHMANA,
BY
WILLIAM DWIGHT WHITNEY,
PROFESSOR OF SANSKRIT AND COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY IN TALE COLLEGE, NEW-HAVENJ
CORRESPONDENT OF THE ACADEMIES OF BERLIN AND ST. PETERSBURG, AND OF THE
INSTITUTE OF FRANCE, ETC. ETC,
THIS
WORK IS
COPYRIGHT.
LEIPZIG,
BREITKOPF AND HARTEL.
LONDON, TRUBNER &
Co. 57
AND
59,
LUDGATE
HILL, E.
C. 8.
EXTI> STA. HALL.
1879.
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1879, by W. D. Whitney in the
of the Librarian of Congress at Washington D. C.
ofrice
(The Right of Translation and Reproduction
Printers
:
Breitkopf
&
Hartel, Leipzig.
is
reserved .)
PREFACE.
was
It
two
in June,
1875. as I chanced to be for a day or
was unexpectedly invited to prepare
in Leipzig, that I
grammar for the Indo-European series projected
and Hartel. After some consideration,
Messrs.
Breitkopf
by
and consultation with friends, I accepted the task, and have
the Sanskrit
what time could be spared from regular
engagements earlier formed.
If the delay seems a long one, it was nevertheless unavoidable and I would gladly, in the interest of the work itself
since devoted to
it
duties, after the satisfaction of
;
have made
ary
it still
longer.
In every such case,
make a compromise between measurably
to
it
is
necess-
satisfying a
present pressing need, and doing the subject fuller justice
at the cost of more time; and it seemed as if the call for
a Sanskrit grammar on a somewhat different plan from those
excellent as some of these in many respects
already in use
was urgent enough to recommend a speedy comare
pletion of the work begun.
The objects had especially in view in the preparation
of this grammar have been the following:
-
-
To make a
presentation of the facts
of the language
show themselves
in use in the literature,
and only secondarily as they are laid down by the native
grammarians. The earliest European grammars were by the
primarily as they
necessity of the case chiefly founded on their native predecessors and a traditional method was thus established which
;
has been perhaps somewhat too closely adhered to, at the
expense of clearness and of proportion, as well as of scientific
truth.
Accordingly,
my
attention has not been directed
toward a profounder study of the grammatical science of the
Hindu schools their teachings I have been contented to take
:
PREFACE.
vi
as
to
reported
already
Western learners in the existing
Western grammars.
include also in the presentation the forms and conof the older language, as exhibited in the Veda
To
structions
and the Brahmana. Grassmann's excellent Index- Vocabulary
Rig-Veda, and my own manuscript one to the Atharva-
to the
be able to make public), gave
mass of Vedic material and this,
with some assistance from pupils and friends, I have song] it
Veda (which
me
I
hope soon
to
in full detail the great
;
as far as the circumstances permitted, from the
and from the various works of the Brah-
to complete,
other Vedic texts
both printed and manuscript.
the language throughout as an accented one,
omitting nothing of what is known respecting the nature of
the Sanskrit accent, its changes in combination and inflection,
mana period,
To treat
and the tone of individual words
cessarily dependent especially
by the older accentuated texts.
-
-
being, in all this, ne-
upon the material presented
To cast all statements; classifications, and so on, into a
form consistent with the teachiogs of linguistic science. In
doing this, it has been necessary to discard a few of the
long-used and familiar divisions and terms of Sanskrit grammar --
for
example,
the classification and nomenclature of
"special tenses" and "general tenses" (which is so indefensible that one can only wonder at its
having maintained itself
so long), the order and
terminology of the conjugation-classes,
the separation in treatment of the facts of internal and external euphonic combination, and the like. But care has been
taken to
facilitate
and the changes,
the
transition
from the old
is
believed,
will
it
to the
new;
commend themselves
to unqualified acceptance.
It has been
sought also to help
an appreciation of the character of the
language by putting
its facts as far as
In this
possible into a statistical form.
respect the native
grammar
is
especially deficient
and mis-
leading.
Regard has been constantly had to the practical needs
of the language, and it has been
attempted,
by due arrangement and by the use of different sizes of
of the learner
PREFACE.
type,
to
make
vii
work as usable by one whose
the
object
acquire a knowledge of the classical Sanskrit alone
as those are in which the earlier forms are not included.
it
is to
The custom
all Sanskrit words into Eurowhich
has
become
usual in European Sanspean characters,
krit grammars, is, as a matter of course, retained throughout; and. because of the difficulty of setting even a small
Sanskrit type with anything but a large European, it is
of transliterating
practiced alone in the smaller sizes.
While the treatment of the facts of the language has
thus been made a historical one, within the limits of the
language
itself,
by bringing
to make it comparative,
forms and processes of other
have not ventured
I
in the analogous
related languages.
To do
this,
in addition to all that
was
attempted beside, would have extended the work, both in
content and in time of preparation, far beyond the limits
assigned to
it.
And, having decided
to leave out this ele-
ment, I have done so consistently throughout. Explanations
of the origin of forms have also been avoided, for the same
reason and for others, which hardly call for statement.
A grammar
is
necessarily in great part founded on
its
predecessors, and it would be in vain to attempt an acknowledgment in detail of all the aid received from other scholI have had at hand always especially the very scholars.
and
reliable brief summary of Kielhorn, the full and
arly
excellent work of Monier Williams, the smaller grammar of
Bopp (a wonder of learning and method for the time when
it Avas
and the volumes of Benfey and Mtiller.
prepared
As regards the material of the language, no other aid, of
course, has been at all comparable with the great Petersburg lexicon of Bohtlingk and Roth, the existence of which
,
gives by itself a new character to all investigations of the
Sanskrit language.
What I have not found there or in the
special collections made by myself or by others for me, I
have called below "not quotable*'
a provisional designation^ necessarily liable to correction in detail
of further researches.
and
their classification
by the
results
For what concerns the verb, its forms
and uses, I have had, as every one
PREFACE
viii
must have, by
.
most aid from Delbruck. in his Alt-
far the
indisches Verb urn and
syntactical contribuProf. Avery and Dr.
his various
Former pupils of my own.
have also helped me. in connection with
and with others, in a way and measure that
tions.
Edgren.
ject
this subcalls for
In respect to the important matter
public acknowledgment.
of the declension in the earliest language. I have made great
use of the elaborate paper in the Journ. Am. Or. Soc. (print-
ing contemporaneously with this work, and used by
almost, but not quite, to the end of the subject) by
me
my
former pupil Prof. Lanman; my treatment of it is founded
on his. My manifold obligations to my own teacher. Prof.
Weber
of Berlin, also require to be mentioned among other
things, I owe to him the use of his copies of certain unpublished texts of the Brahmana period, not otherwise accessible
to
:
me; and he was kind enough
me my work
in
its
valuable suggestions.
inchoate
For
thank Prof. Delbruck
to
condition,
look through with
favoring me with
this last favor I
have likewise
to
who, moreover, has taken the trouble
to glance over
for a like purpose the greater part of the
proof-sheets of the grammar, as they came from the press.
To Dr. L. Schroder is due whatever use I have been able
to make (unfortunately a
very imperfect one) of the important Matriayani-Sanhita.
Of the deficiencies of my work I am. I think, not less
aware than any critic of it. even the severest, is likely
Should it be found to answer its intended purpose
well enough to come to another edition, my endeavor will
be to improve and complete it; and I shall be grateful for
any corrections or suggestions which may aid me in making it a more efficient help to the study of the Sanskrit
language and literature.
fully
to be.
GOTHA, July
1879.
W.
D.
W.
INTRODUCTION.
BRIEF ACCOUNT OF THE INDIAN LITERATURE.
seems desirable to give here such a sketch of the
history of Indian literature as shall show the relation to
one another of the different periods and forms of the language treated in the following grammar, and the position
It
of the works there quoted.
The name "Sanskrit" (samskrta, 1087 d,
'adorned, elab-
popularly applied to the whole
ancient and sacred language of India, belongs more properly
only to that dialect which, regulated and established by the
labors of the native grammarians, has led for the last two
which
orated, perfected'),
is
thousand years or more an
artificial
life,
like that of the
Latin during most of the same period in Europe, as the
written and spoken means of communication of the learned
and
and which even at the present day fills
priestly caste
that office. It is thus distinguished, on the one hand, from
the later and derived dialects
as the Prakrit, forms of
;
language which have datable monuments from as early as
the third century before Christ, and which are represented
by inscriptions and coins, by the speech of the uneducated
below), and by a
limited literature ; the Pali, a Prakritic dialect which became
the sacred language of Buddhism in Farther India, and is
characters in the
Sanskrit dramas
(see
INTRODUCTION.
x
and yet later and more altered
;
to the languages of Modern
transition
the
tongues forming
it is
other
the
on
India.
hand,
distinguished, but
And,
from
the older dialects
and
less
much
widely,
sharply
very
still
in service there as such
or forms
the
of speech presented in the canonical literature,
Veda and Brahmana.
This
fact,
by learned treatment of an
of the fixation
mode
of expression, which should thenceforth be
authorized
to
rule in the intercourse of the educated,
used according
is the cardinal one in Indian linguistic history; and as the
grammatical literature has determined
native
the form of
the language, so it has also to a large extent determined
the grammatical treatment of the language by European
scholars.
Much
in the history
of the learned
movement
still
is
and opinions are at variance even as to points of
prime consequence. Only the concluding works in the development of the grammatical science have been preserved to
us; and though they are evidently the perfected fruits of a
obscure,
long series of learned labors, the records of the latter are
lost beyond recovery.
The time and the place of the creation of Sanskrit are
unknown
;
and
as to its occasion,
we
have only our inferences and conjectures to rely upon. It
seems, however, altogether likely that the grammatical sense
of the ancient Hindus was awakened in
great measure by
their study of the traditional sacred texts,
parison of
use.
its
different
and by
their
com-
language with that of contemporary
It is certain that the
grammatical study of those texts
(gakhas, lit'ly 'branches'), phonetic and other, was zealously
and effectively followed in the Brahmanic schools this is
;
by our possession of a number of phonetico-grammatical treatises,
firatigaJchyas (prati $ahham, 'belonging to
attested
each several text
one having for subject each principal
Vedic text, and noting all its
peculiarities of form; these,
both by the depth and exactness of their own researches
1
),
and by the number of authorities which
they quote, speak
plainly of a lively scientific activity continued during a long
time.
What part, on the other hand, the notice of differ-
INTRODUCTION.
xi
ences between the correct speech of the learned and the
of the vulgar may have home in the same
not easy to determine; hut it is not customary
that a language has its proper usages fixed by rule until
altered dialects
movement
is
the danger is distinctly felt of its undergoing corruption.
The labors of the general school of Sanskrit grammar
reached a climax in the grammarian Panini, whose text-book,
of the language cast into the highly
form of about four thousand algebraicrules (in the statement and arrangement of
containing
the facts
artful ancl
difficult
formula-like
which brevity alone is had in view,
ness and unambiguousness became
,
authoritative,
almost sacred,
norm
at the cost of distinct-
for
all
after
time the
of correct speech.
Re-
specting his period, nothing really definite and trustworthy
is known
but he is with much probability held to have
;
some time (two to four centuries) before the Christian
era. He has had commentators in abundance, and has undergone at their hands some measure of amendment and completion; but he has not been overthrown or superseded.
The chief and most authoritative commentary on his work
is that called the
Mahabhashya, -great comment', in which
strictures
on. his rules are examined arid disKatyayana's
lived
cussed by Patanjali.
A language, even
not a vernacular one, which is in
tolerably wide and constant use for writing and speaking,
if
of course, kept in life principally by direct tradition, by
communication from teacher to scholar and the study and
imitation of existing texts, and not by the learning of gram-
is,
matical rules;
yet the existence of grammatical authority,
and especially of a single one, deemed infallible and of prescriptive value,
could not
exert a very strong reguavoidance more and more of
fail to
lative influence, leading to the
what was, even if lingering in use, inconsistent with his
teachings, and also, in the constant reproduction of texts,
effacement of whatever they might contain
was unapproved. Thus the whole more modern literature of India has been Paninized, so to speak, pressed into
the mould prepared by him and his school.
What are the
to
the gradual
that
INTRODUCTION.
'
x ii
of this process is not yet known.
The attention of special students of the Hindu grammar
and the subject is so intricate and difficult that the number
limits of the
artificiality
exceedingly small of those who have mastered it suffion such general matters)
ciently to have a competent opinion
has been hitherto mainly directed toward determining what
the Sanskrit according to Panini really is, toward explaining
is
the
language from the grammar. Arid, naturally enough,
or wherever else the leading object is to learn to
in India,
speak and write the language correctly
ized
that
is,
as author-
proper course to
not the way really to understand
The time must soon come, or it has come
by the grammarians
This, however,
pursue.
the language.
that
is
the
is
when
the endeavor shall be instead to explain the
from
the language; to test in all details, so far
grammar
as shall be found possible, the reason of Panini' s rules
(which contain not a little that seems problematical, or even
to determine what and how much
sometimes perverse)
he
had
genuine usage
everywhere as foundation, and what
traces may be left in the literature of usages possessing an
already,
;
inherently authorized character, though unratified by him.
By the term "classical'' or "later" language, then, as
constantly used below in the grammar, is meant the lan-
guage of those
literary
monuments which
are written in con-
formity with the rules of the native grammar virtually, the
whole proper Sanskrit literature. For although parts of this
:
doubtless earlier than Panini,
are
it
is
impossible to
tell
parts, or how far they have escaped in their style
The whole, too,
levelling influence of the grammar.
just what
the
may be
called so far an artificial
literature as
it
is
written
a phonetic form (see grammar, 103) which never can
have been a truly vernacular and living one. Nearly all of
in
it is
metrical
(so far as
and
:
not poetic works only, but narratives, histories
anything deserving that
name can be
said to exist),
every variety, are done into verse ;
a prose and a prose literature
(except in the commentaries)
hardly has an existence. Of linguistic history there is next
to
scientific treatises of
nothing in
it
all;
but only a history of
style,
and
this
INTRODUCTION.
xiii
most part showing a gradual depravation, an increase
of artificiality and an intensification of certain more undesuch as the use of passirable features of the language
for the
sive
constructions
the substitution of
and of
participles instead of verbs,
compounds for sentences.
This being the condition of the later literature,
and
it is
of
so much the higher consequence that there is an earlier
literature, to which the suspicion of artificiality does not
attach, or attaches at least only in a minimal degree, which
has a truly vernacular character,
and abounds in prose
as
well as verse.
The results of the very earliest literary productiveness
of the Indian people are the hymns with which, when they
had only crossed the threshold of the country, and when
their geographical horizon was still limited to the riverbasin of the Indus with its tributaries, they praised their
gods, the deified powers of nature, and accompanied the
rites
of their comparatively simple worship.
these were
At what period
made and sung cannot be determined with any
approach to accuracy: it may have been as early as 2000
B.C. They were long handed down by oral tradition, preserved by the care, and increased by the additions and
generations; the mass was ever
change of habits and beliefs and
religious practices, was becoming variously applied
sung
in chosen extracts, mixed with other material into liturgies,
adapted with more or less of distortion to help the needs
of a ceremonial which was coming to be of immense elaboration and intricacy.
And, at some time in the course
of this history, there was made for preservation a great collection of the hymn-material, mainly its oldest and most
genuine part, to the extent of over a thousand hymns and
ten thousand verses, arranged according to traditional authorthis collection is
ship and to subject and length of hymn
the Rig-Veda, -Veda of verses (re) or hymns'.
Other collections were made also out of the same general mass of
imitations,
of succeeding
and, with the
growing,
:
traditional
relations
material
:
doubtless
later,
although
the
inter-
of this period are as yet too unclear to allow of
INTRODUCTION.
x iv
our speaking with entire confidence as to anything concern'Veda of chants (saman}\
ing them. Thus, the Sama- Veda.
as much, its verses nearly all
a
sixth
about
only
containing
found in the Rig-Veda also, but appearing here with numerous differences of reading; these were passages put together
Again, collections called
for chanting at the soma-sacrifices.
by the comprehensive name of Yajur-Veda, 'Veda of sacformulas (yajusV: these contained not verses alone,
but also numerous prose utterances, mingled with the former,
rificial
the order in which they were practically employed in
the ceremonies; they were strictly liturgical collections. Of
these, there are in existence several texts, which have their
in
mutual differences: the Vajasaneyi-Samhita (in two slightly
discordant versions, Madhyandina and Kanvd , sometimes
and the various and
also called the White Yajur-Veda
of
Black
texts
the
Yajur-Veda. namely
considerably differing
the Taittirlya-Samhita, the Maitrayam-Samhita, and the
Kathaka (the two last not yet published). Finally, another
historical collection, like the Rig-Veda, but made up mainly
of later and less accepted material, and called (among other
less current names) the Atharva-Veda, 'Veda of the Ath;
arvans (a legendary priestly family)'; it is somewhat more
than half as bulky as the Rig- Veda, and contains a certain
amount of material corresponding to that of the latter, and
also a
lection
the
number
is
name
of brief prose passages.
To this last colrefused
in
the
orthodox
literature
very generally
of Veda; but for us it is the most interesting of
after the Rig -Veda, because it contains the
largest
amount of hymn-material (or mantra, as it is called, in
distinction from the prose brahmana], and in a language
all.
which, though distinctly less antique than that of the other,
nevertheless truly Vedic.
Two versions of it are extant,
one of them only in a single known manuscript.
A not insignificant body of like material, and of various
is
period
latest
(although doubtless in the main belonging to the
time of Vedic productiveness, and in
part perhaps
the imitative
work
of a yet
more modern
time),
is
scattered
through the texts to be later described, the Brahmanas and
INTRODUCTION.
To assemble and
the Sutras.
sift
xv
and compare
it
is
now
one of the pressing needs of Vedic study.
The fundamental divisions of the Vedic literature here
mentioned
all
have had their various schools of sectaries,
its own. showing some differ-
each of these with a text of
ences from those of the other schools
:
but those mentioned
above are all that are now known to be in existence; and
the chance of the discovery of others grows every year
smaller.
The
labor of the
schools in the conservation of their
sacred texts was extraordinary, and has been crowned with
such success that the text of each school, whatever may
be
its
differences
from those of other schools,
without various readings, preserved with
is
virtually
all its peculiarities
of dialect, and its smallest and most exceptional traits of
phonetic form, pure and unobscured. It is not the place
here to describe the means by which, in addition to the
sectaries, this accuracy was secured:
of peculiarities and treatises upon them,
this kind of care began in the case of
religious
care
of the
forms of
text,
lists
and
so on.
When
text, and what of original character may have been
effaced before it, or lost in spite of it, cannot be told. But
it is certain that the Vedic records furnish, on the whole,
a wonderfully accurate and trustworthy picture of a form of
each
ancient Indian language
(as
well as ancient Indian beliefs
and institutions) which was a natural and undistorted one,
and which goes back a good way behind the classical Sanskrit.
Its differences from the latter the following treatise
endeavors to show in
detail.
Along with the verses
and
sacrificial formulas and
Black Yajur-Veda are given
long prose sections, in which the ceremonies are described,
their meaning and the reason of the details and the accom-
phrases in the texts
of
the
panying utterances are discussed and explained, illustrative
legends are reported or fabricated, and various speculations,
etymological and other, are indulged in. Such matter comes
to be called brahmana
(apparently 'relating to the brahman
or worship';.
In the White Yajur-Veda.
it
is
separated into
INTRODUCTION.
'
xv i
work by itself, beside the samhitci or text of verses and
formulas, and is called the Catapatha-Brahmana, 'Brahmana
of a hundred ways'. Other similar collections are found, beof Vedic study, and they
longing to various other schools
a
bear the
common name
of
Brahmana, with the name of the
some other distinctive title, prefixed. Thus, the
and Kamhitaki- Brahmanas, belonging to the
schools of the Rig- Veda, the Pancavinqa and Shadvin$aBrahmanas and other minor works, to the Sama-Veda; the
and a JaiminiGopatha-Brahmana, to the Atharva-Veda
Brahmana, to the Sama-Veda, has just (Burnell) been disschool, or
Aitar ey a
;
covered in India;
the Taittirlya-Brahmana is a collection
brahmana, like the samhita of the
of mingled mantra and
same name, but supplementary and
later.
These works are
likewise regarded as canonical by the schools, and are learned by their sectaries with the same extreme care which is
devoted
to
the
preservation
extent, there
material:
is
is
a fact
samhitas, and their condition of textual
of a kindred excellence.
To a certain
among them
the bearings
the possession of common
of which are not yet fully
understood.
Notwithstanding the inanity of no small part of their
contents, the Brahmanas are of a high order of interest in
their bearings on the history of Indian institutions; and
philologically they are not less important, since they represent a form of language in most respects intermediate
between the classical and that of the Vedas, and offer spe-
cimens on a large scale of a prose
style, and of one which
main a natural and freely developed one
the
oldest and most primitive Indo-European prose.
Beside the Brahmanas are sometimes found later ap-
is
in the
pendices, of a similar character, called Aranyakas ('forestsections'): as the Aitareya-Aranyaka, Taittirtya-Aranyaka,
Brhad-Aranyaka, and so on. And from some of these, or
even from the Brahmanas, are extracted the earliest Upanishads ('sittings, lectures on sacred subjects')
which,
how ever, are continued and added to down to a comparar
tively
modern time.
The Upanishads
are one of the lines
INTRODUCTION.
by which the Brahmana
xvii
literature passes over into the later
theological literature.
Another line of transition is
shown
in the Sutras
(
-lines,
The works thus named are analogous with the
rules').
Brahmanas in that they belong to the schools of Vedic
study and are named from them, and that they deal with
the religious ceremonies: treating them, however,
way of prescription, not of dogmatic explanation.
in
the
They,
too, contain some mantra or hymn-material, not found to
occur elsewhere. In part ($rauta or kalpa-sutras\ they take
up the great sacrificial ceremonies, with which the Brah-
manas have to do in part (grhya-sutras), they teach the
minor duties of a pious householder; in some cases (sa;
mayacarika-sutras) they lay down the general obligations of
one whose life is in accordance with prescribed duty. And
out of the last two, or especially the last, come by natural
development the law-books (dharma-$astras), which make
the oldest and
a conspicuous figure in the later literature
that
of
them
called
noted
most
being
by the name of
:
Manu
(an outgrowth,
school); to which are
it
is
added
believed, of the Manava Vedic
that of Yajnavalkya. and many
others.
Respecting the chronology of this development, or the
date of any class of writings, still more of any individual
work, the less that is said the better. All dates given in
Indian literary history are pins set up to be bowled down
Every important work has undergone so many more
again.
or less transforming changes before reaching the form in
that the question of original conit comes to us,
struction is complicated with that of final redaction.
It is
which
so with the law-book of Manu, just mentioned, which has
well-founded claims to being regarded as one of the very
oldest works of the proper Sanskrit literature, if not the
is variously assigned, to periods from six centuries
Christ
to soon after Christ).
It is so, again, in a
before
still more striking degree, with the great legendary epic of
oldest
(it
the Mahdbharata.
very early date;
The ground-work
but
it
of this
is
doubtless of
has served as a text into which
b
INTRODUCTION.
xv iii
materials of various character and period have been inwoven,
until it has become a heterogeneous mass, a kind of cyclo-
hard to separate into its conpedia for the warrior-caste,
The story of Nala, and the philosophical
stituent parts.
Bhagavad-Glta, are two of the most noted of its
poem
The Ramayana,
episodes.
a work of another kind:
is
more or
the production,
other
though
most famous epic,
worked over and
also
transmission to our time, it is
in the main, of a single author (Valmiki);
altered in
less
the
its
generally believed to be in part allegorical, representing the introduction of Aryan culture and dominion
into Southern India.
By its side stand a number of minor
and
it
is
of various authorship and period, as the Raghuvah$a
(ascribed to the dramatist Kalidasa), the Maghakavya, the
epics,
Bhattikavya (the
intent
last,
of illustrating
written chiefly with the grammatical
by use as many as possible of the
numerous formations which, through taught by the grammarians, find no place in the literature).
The Purdnas. a large class of works mostly of immense
extent, are best mentioned in connection with the epics.
They are pseudo-historical and prophetic in character, of
modern date, and of very small value. Real history finds
no place in Sanskrit literature, nor is there any conscious
historical element in any of the works composing it.
Lyric poetry is represented by many works, some of
which, as the Meghaduta and Gitagovinda, are of no mean
order of merit.
The drama is a still more noteworthy and important
The first indications of dramatical inclination and
on
the part of the Hindus are seen in certain
capacity
branch.
hymns
Veda, where a mythological or legendary
conceived dramatically, and set forth in the
of the
situation
is
form of a dialogue
well-known examples are the dialogue
of Sarama and the Panis, that of Yama and his sister Yami,
that of Vasishtha
and the
rivers,
that of
Agni and the other
but there are no extant intermediaries between these
gods
and the standard drama. The beginnings of the latter date
from a period when in actual life the higher and educated
INTRODUCTION.
xix
characters used Sanskrit, and the lower and uneducated used
the popular dialects derived from it, the Prakrits; and their
Then, however,
dialogue reflects this condition of things.
learning (not to call it pedantry) intervened, and stereotyped
the new element; a Prakrit grammar grew up beside the
Sanskrit grammar, according to the rules of which Prakrit
could he made indefinitely on a substrate of Sanskrit; and
none of the existing dramas need to date from the time of
vernacular use of Prakrit, while most or all of them are
much
undoubtedly
Kalidasa
is
Among
later.
incomparably the
chief,
the
dramatic
and
authors,
his Cakuntala as
His date has been a matter of
and
inquiry
controversy; it is doubtless some cen-
distinctly his
much
masterpiece.
later than our era.
The only other work deserving
be mentioned along with Kalidasa' s is the Mrchakafl of
Cudraka, also of questionable period, but believed to be
the oldest of the extant dramas.
turies
to
A
partly
dramatic character belongs also to the fable,
which animals are represented as acting and speaking.
The most noted works in this department are the Pancatantra, which through Persian and Semitic versions has made
its way all over the world, and contributes a considerable
in
quota to the fable-literature of every European language,
partly founded on
and,
the
it,
popular Hitopade$a ('salutary
Two
comparatively
recent and
instruction').
leading departments of Sanskrit scientific
the
literature,
legal and the grammatical, have been already
sufficiently noticed; of those remaining, the most important
by
of the
far is the philosophical.
The beginnings
of philosophic-
speculation are seen already in some of the later hymns
of the Veda, more abundantly in the Brahmanas and Aranal
The evoand then especially in the Upanishads.
lution and historic' relation of the systems of philosophy,
and the age of their text-books, are matters on which much
obscurity still rests. There are six systems of primary rank,
and reckoned as orthodox, although really standing in no
accordance with approved religious doctrines. All of them
seek the same end, the emancipation of the soul from the
yakas,
b*
INTRODUCTION.
xx
necessity
of
and
contiiiuing its existence in a succession of
unification with the All -soul; but they
its
bodies,
differ in regard to the
this end.
means by which they seek
to
attain
The astronomical science of the Hindus is a reflection
and its literature is of recent date; but
as mathematicians, in arithmetic and geometry they have
shown more independence. Their medical science, although
of that of Greece,
,
in the use of
its beginnings go back even to the Veda,
medicinal plants with accompanying incantations, is of little
account, and
its
proper literature by no means ancient.
CONTENTS.
Chap.
I.
II.
Page.
PREFACE
V
INTRODUCTION
ix
18
ALPHABET
SYSTEM OF SOUNDS
PRONUNCIATION
:
832
.
Vowels, 8; Consonants, 11; Quantity, 26; Accent, 27.
HI. RULES OF EUPHONIC COMBINATION
Introductory, 33
;
Principles,
36
;
3379
.
.
Rules of Vowel Com-
Permitted Finals, 46; Deaspiration, 50;
Surd and Sonant Assimilation, 51
Combinations of
Final s and r, 53
Conversion of s to s, 57
Con-
bination, 41;
;
;
version of
n
to n,
;
60
Conversion of Dental Mutes to
;
Linguals and Palatals, 62; Combinations of Final n,
63 Combinations of Final m, 65 the Palatal Mutes
;
;
the Lingual Sibilant, 71
and Sibilant, and h, 66
Extension and Abbreviation, 72; Strengthening and
;
Weakening Processes, 73;
;
Guna and
Vrddhi,
Vowel-lightening, 77
Increment, 78; Reduplication, 79.
Vowel-lengthening, 76
;
;
74;
Nasal
8098
IV. DECLENSION
Gender, Number, Case, 80:
Uses of the Cases, 81;
Endings of Declension, 92; Variation of Stem, 95;
Accent in Declension, 97.
99159
V. NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES
Stems in
Classification etc., 99; Declension I.,
100;
Declension II., Stems in i and u, 104; Declension
III., Stems in Long Vowels (a, I, u): A. Root-words
a,
Ill; Stems in Diphthongs, 116; B. Derivative
Stems etc. 117; Declension IV., Stems in r or ar,
etc.,
123; Declension V., Stems in Consonants, 127;
A. Root-stems etc., 129; B. Derivative Stems in as,
is,
us,
in in,
138;
145;
C.
Derivative Stems
E., in ant or at,
ticiples in vans,
Comparison, 156.
in
146;
an,
140;
D.,
F. Perfect Par-
152; G. Comparatives in yas, 155;
CONTENTS.
xxii
Chap.
VI.
160; Ordinals
Cardinals,
VIE.
160167
NUMERALS
166.
etc.,
PRONOUNS
168
Personal,
171
Demonstrative,
;
168
181
182
206
207
255
255
270
271
299
299
307
Interrogative,
;
176; Relative, 177; Emphatic, 179; Nouns used proPronominal Derivatives, Possessives
nominally, 179;
179; Adjectives declined pronominally, 181.
VIII.
CONJUGATION
Mode, Number,
Tense,
Voice,
Adjectives and Nouns, 185;
185; Personal Endings, 186
Optative, 193
196
Participles,
;
Secondary Conjugation,
Subjunctive Mode, 191
;
;
Imperative, 195
;
201
;
Verbal
Person, 182;
Uses of the Modes,
Augment, 201 Reduplication,
;
;
202; Accent of the Verb, 203.
IX.
THE PRESENT-SYSTEM
.
;.
[
,,,
.T.~
^ J-rt^
>
General, 207; Conjugations and Conjugation Classes,
208; I. Root-class (second or ad-class), 211; II. Re-
duplicating Class (third or ftu-class), 221
(fifth
III.
Nasal
and eighth, or su and tan-classes), 232; V. Na-
Class
(ninth
6ftu-classj,
or fcrz-class),
241
;
238;
VI. a-Class
VII. Accented d-Class
(first
or
(sixth or tud-
245; VIII. Fa-Class (fourth or diu-elass), 248;
class),
IX. Accented
Uses
;
Nu and w-Classes
Class (seventh or rwd/i-class), 229; IV.
yd-Class or Passive Conjugation, 252;
and Imperfect, 254.
of the Present
X. THE PERFECT-SYSTEM
Perfect Tense,
255; Perfect Participle, 266; Modes
the Perfect, 267; Pluperfect, 269; Uses of the
of
Perfect, 270.
XI.
THE AORIST-SYSTEMS
Classification,
273
4
;
278;
271;
Passive Aorist
II.
3.
Aorist, 285;
6.
I.
3d
Simple Aorist:
sing.,
277;
2.
1.
Root-aorist,
the a-Aorist,
Reduplicated Aorist, 281; III. Sibilant
4. the s-aorist, 286;
5. the is- Aorist,
the
>-aorist, 293; 7. the sa-Aorist,
Precative, 296; Uses of the Aorist, 298.
290;
XII.
294;
THE FUTURE-SYSTEMS
I.
The
s-future,
300; Modes of the 5-future,
302;
Participles of the s-future, 302; Preterit of the sfuture: Conditional, 303; II. The
Periphrastic Future,
303 Uses of the Futures and Conditional, 305.
;
CONTENTS.
xxiii
Chap.
XIII.
Page.
VERBAL ADJECTIVES AND NOUNS
PLES, INFINITIVES, GERUNDS
PARTICI-
:
307
321
321
347
347
357
357
370
370
424
424
456
457
460
SANSKRIT INDEX
461
475
GENERAL INDEX
476485
Passive Participle in ta or nd, 307
ticiple
in
310;
tavant,
Future
Past Active Par-
;
Passive
Participles:
Gerundives, 310; Infinitives, 313; Uses of the Infinitives, 315; Gerunds, 319; Adverbial Gerund in am,
321.
XIV. DERIVATIVE OR SECONDARY CONJUGATION
I.
.
Passive, 322; II. Intensive, 323; Present-System,
325; Perfect. Aorist, Future,
etc.,
329;
Desider-
III.
Present-System, 334; Perfect, Aorist,
Future, etc., 335; IV. Causative, 337; Present-System,
339; Perfect, Aorist, Future, etc., 340; V. Denomiative,
native,
331;
343.
XV. PERIPHRASTIC AND COMPOUND CONJUGATION
The Periphrastic Perfect, 347; Participial Periphrastic Phrases,
349
Composition with Prepositional
;
Prefixes, 350; Other Verbal
Compounds, 355.
XVI. INDECLINABLES
Adverbs, 358
;
Prepositions,
366
;
Conjunctions, 369
;
Interjections, 369.
XVH. DERIVATION
OF DECLINABLE STEMS
.
.
.
A. Primary Derivatives, 373; B. Secondary Derivatives, 403.
XVIII. FORMATION OF COMPOUND STEMS
Classification,
II.
425;
Determinative
Compounds, 432;
I.
Compounds,
B.
....
Copulative Compounds,
431
Descriptive
;
A.
428;
Dependent
Compounds, 437;
443; A. PosCompounds, 443; B. Compounds with Governed
Final Member, 452; Adjective Compounds as Nouns
and as Adverbs, 453; Anomalous Compounds, 455;
III.
Secondary Adjective Compounds,
sessive
Stem-finals altered in Composition,
Construction with Compounds, 456.
455
;
Irregular
APPENDIX
A. Examples of Varines Sanskrit Type 457
ple of Accentuated Text, 459.
;
B.
Exam-
ABBREVIATIONS.
XXIV
ABBREVIATIONS.
AB. Aitareya-Brahmana.
MS. Maitrayani-Sauhita.
APr. Atharva-Prati^akhya.
AV. Atharva-Veda.
PB. Pancavin^a-Brahmana.
BB. Bohtlingk and Roth (Petersburg
Ragh. Raghuvan^a.
RPr. Rigveda-Prati^akhya.
Lexicon).
9
or
ak.
Qakuntala.
$B. $atapatha-Brahmana.
QGS. Qankhayana-Grihya-Sutra.
GB. Gopatha-Brahmana.
R. Ramayana.
RV. Rig- Veda.
SB. Shadvin^a-Brahmaua.
SV. Sama-Veda.
TA. Taittiriya-Aranyaka.
H. Hitopade$a.
K. Kathaka.
TB. TaittirTya-Brahmana.
KB. Kaushitaki-Brahmana.
KSS. Katha-Sarit-Sagara.
M. Mann.
MBh. Mahabharata.
Tribh. Tribhashyaratna.
TS. TaittirTya-Sanhita.
V. Veda.
VPr. Vajasaneyi-Prati^akhyj
Megh. Meghadiita.
VS. Vajasaneyi-Sanhita.
TPr. Taittiriya-Prati^akbya.
CHAPTER
I.
ALPHABET.
THE
1.
natives of India write their ancient and sacred
language in a variety of alphabets
part of the
country,
in
generally,
each
same alphabet which they use
in the
The mode
for their
own
which
employed throughout the heart of Aryan India, or
in
is
vernacular.
Hindustan proper,
is
This
nagarl (perhaps, 'of the
or 'of the Brahmans.'
is
2.
Much
the
that
The
obscure.
relates
city');
history
monuments
containing the
inscriptions
A
value.
of
edicts
is
the
of
of
known
'nagarl of the gods,'
Indian alphabets is still
date in the country are
or Piyadasi,
A^oka
:
more comprehensive name
and deva-nagarl
the
to
earliest written
however,
alone adopted by European scholars
called the devanagari.
name is of doubtful origin and
it is
of writing,
of
about the
middle of the third century B. C.
They are in two different systems of
characters, of which one shows distinct signs of derivation from a Semitic
source, while the other is also probably,
same origin
From the
(Burnell).
racter (of Girnar),
come the
Aryan languages,
and
latter,
though much
the Lath,
later Indian alphabets,
those
of
the
southern
or
less evidently, of the
Southern Acoka cha-
both those of the northern
Dravidian
languages.
nagari, devanagari, Bengali, Guzerati, and others, are varieties of
and with them are related some
derivatives;
outside of India
as in Tibet
its
The
northern
the alphabets of peoples
of
who have adopted Hindu
and Farther India
culture or religion.
There
is
reason to believe that writing was
first
employed in India
for
and
correspondence and business and the like
The literature, to
only by degrees came to be applied also to literary use.
practical
purposes
a great extent,
for
and the more
fully in proportion to its claimed
authority, ignores all written record,
and assumes
to
sanctity
and
be kept in existence by
oral tradition alone.
3.
Of the devanagari
itself
differences of locality or of period,
Whitney, Grammar.
there
as
are
minor
varieties,
also of individual
hand
depending on
(see
1
examples
ALPHABET.
I.
in Weber's
of
catalogue
MSS.
of
notices
in
scriptions, and so
the Berlin
Indian
on);
Sanskrit MSS.,
the
in
libraries,
in
Rajendralala Mitra's
published fac-similes
of in-
and these are in some measure reflected in the type
But a student who
both in India and in Europe.
prepared for printing,
makes himself familiar with one style of printed characters will have little
difficulty with the others, and will soon learn, by practice, to read the manu-
A few specimens of types other than those used in this work will
scripts.
be given in an Appendix.
On account of the difficulty of combining them with the smaller sizes
of our
Roman and
the
Italic type,
devanagari characters will be used below
And, in accordance with
only in connection with the first or largest size.
the laudable usage of recent grammars, they will, wherever given, be also
transliterated in
italic
while the latter alone will be used in the
letters;
other sizes.
The student may be advised
to try to familiarize himself
with the devanagarl mode of writing. At the same
time, it is not necessary that he should do so until, having
learned the principal paradigms, he comes to begin reading and
and many will find the latter the more
analysing and parsing
4.
from the
start
practical,
and in the end equally or more
;
The
5.
European
which
:
diph-
thongs
I
long.
l
palatal
$
labial
3
u
u
lingual
^rd
*
f
dental
FT
I
palatal
^
e
labial
37 o
simple
(
and the
be used in transliterating them,
will
short.
:
way.
characters of the devanagarl alphabet,
letters
are as follows
Vowels
effective,
1}
ai
au
Visarga
Anusvara
n or
,
surd
m
(see 73)
surd asp.
guttural
is
1^
kh
sonant
19
*T
son. asp.
g
o
q gh
5
3T
palatal
23
3T Ch
24
Sf
j
lingual
2S
%
th
29
3"
d
jh
dh
dental
33
5T
th
34
$ d
ss
Cfi
ph
39
ST b
Mutes
labial
q
p
nasal
3T
n
31
HI
n
dh
se
^
n
bh
4i
IT
m
26
palatal
I.
4
ALPHABET.
scheme above are used only when the vowel
forms a syllable by itself, or is not combined with a prealphabetic
or preceded
is, when it is initial,
In combination with a consonant, other
that
ceding consonant:
by another vowel.
modes of representation are used.
B. If more consonants than one precede the vowel,
forming with it a single syllable, their characters must be
combined into a single compound character.
Ordinary Hindu usage does not divide the words of a senany more than the syllables of a word a final consonant
combined into one syllable with the initial vowel or consois
nant of the next following word.
tence,
;
Under A,
10.
be noticed that the modes of
to
is
it
indicating a vowel
combined with a preceding consonant
are as follows:
a.
The
short
sonant-sign
vowel-sign
^
a has no written sign at
itself implies a
is
attached to
following
(or else
it
T
all:
the con-
a, unless some other
the virama:
11).
Thus
the consonant-signs as given above in the alphabetic scheme
are really the signs of the syllables ka, kha, etc. etc. (to ha].
b.
The
-long ^T a
after the consonant:
c.
Short ^
for short
placed
i is
after
is
written by a perpendicular stroke
thus,
and long
i
5fiT
^
ka,
e,
EfT
by a
dha,
^T
similar stroke,
which
placed before the consonant and for long
it,
and in either case
is
Pr bhi, Ht bhi
;
ft
The hook above, turning
essential part of the
m',
jft
I is
connected with the
consonant by a hook above the upper line:
3ft ki',
ha.
thus,
f^R
ki,
nl.
to the left or to the right,
is
historically the
having been originally the whole of it; the
hooks were only later prolonged, so as to reach all the way down beside
the consonant. In the MSS., they almost never have the horizontal stroke
character,
drawn across them above,
though this
is
added in
all
the printed forms of
the characters*.
*
Thus, originally
dfi
W,
ofj it; in
the MSS.,
jcfj,
effj
;
in print,
WRITING OF VOWELS.
12]
The w-sounds,
d.
5
short and long,
are written
by hooks
attached to the lower end of the consonant-sign:
thus,
Sfj
du. On account of the necessities of
I du, I
ku; O
SX
combination, du and du are somewhat disguised: thus, If.
ku,
3\
6\
^; and
gular
the forms with ^ r and ^T h
thus,
:
The
ru,
"^\
ru
%
are
more
still
irre-
1
;
<^T
hu, f^ hu.
and long, are written by a subjoined hook, single or double, opening toward the right:
dr, ^ dr. In the /j-sign, the hooks
thus, ^\ kr, Sfj kf
e.
short
r- vowels,
;
^
are usually attached to the middle: thus,
As
to the
full
combination of r with preceding
The /-vowel
f.
hr.
see below, 14.
r,
written with a reduced form of
is
character:
initial
^
hr,
thus,
has no real occurrence
(23),
its
the corresponding long
efi kl:
but would be written with a
similar reduced sign.
The diphthongs
g.
are written
by
strokes,
single
double, above the upper line, combined, for Jt o and
thus. 3ft ke,
aUj with the #-sign after the consonant
:
or
ETF
fi
kai; ^t ko,
In some devanagari MSS. (as in the Bengali alphabet), the single stroke
or one of the double ones, is replaced by a sign like the a-sign
above,
before the consonant
11.
made
to
A
:
thus,
(off
fee,
consonant -sign,
signify
the
\fi\
fofil
feat,
|cftl
feo,
however,
consonant-sound
is
('rest,
stop'):
thus,
fi
k^
<
capable of being
alone,
added vowel, by having written beneath
the virama
feaw.
d,
it
^
without
an
a stroke called
h.
Since, as was pointed out above, the Hindus write the words of a
sentence continuously, like one word (9, end), the virama is in general called
But it is also occasionfor only when a final consonant occurs before a pause.
ally resorted
to
by
scribes,
or
in print,
in
order to avoid an
awkward
or
combination of consonant-signs; and it is used freely in published
texts which for the convenience of beginners have their words printed sepa-
difficult
rately.
12.
Under B,
it
is
to
be noticed that the consonant
combinations are for the most part not at
all difficult to
ALPHABET.
I.
6
make
The
simple signs.
that
familiar with
is
the
part of a consonant-sign
characteristic
be added to another
to
is
who
one
for
or to recognise
[12
is
taken
the
(to
exclusion
of the horizontal or of the perpendicular framing-line,
and they are put together according
of both),
ence, either side
by
side,
or one above the other:
combinations either arrangement
that
be pronounced
to
is
one order, and above
ST
f3T
first is
is
or
to conveni-
in
some
The consonant
allowed.
set before the other in the
in the other order.
it
Examples of the side-by-side arrangement
jja, C?j pya, ZTJ nma, f^T tiha, ^T bhya, F^I
are
:
ITf
gga,
ska,
STU
ma,
tka.
above-and-below
Examples of the
^T Ma,
^
sf cca,
^
nja,
In some cases,
13.
H
dda,
pta,
however,
arrangement are
^
:
tna.
there
is
more
or
less
abbreviation or disguise of the independent form of a con-
sonant-sign in combination.
3\
k in
t
in
fF
tta;
of ^
d
in
"%
dga,
of
m
and
ZT y,
Thus, of
of
thus,
rT
*T
^T kya, 3R
hma, ^T hya.
of
5T
krna,
^
dna, etc.;
when
^ nma,
by a consonant: thus, 31 pea,
usual
when
^T
dma, t% dya, ^T
W
praa,
$T
^j $va,
a vowel-sign
is
when
followed
V3J $ya.
The
added below:
(.
Other combinations,
nna,
^
2T nya,
of not quite
obvious
^ ddha, ^ dbha, ^ sta,
^ h: as ^r 7m, ^ A^a.
//a,
compounds of
value,
Tg stha;
are
and the
In a case or two, no trace of the constituent letters
recognisable
14.
:
5T cr.
thus, 5T pw,
O
ST
following other consonants
chya,
dhya ;
which generally becomes
is
etc.;
^
"5T
p,
same change
^\ Ida; and in ^HT kna
"^7 kid,
:
thus,
^
ksa,
The semivowel ^
is
^ jfia.
r,
in
making combinations with
COMBINATIONS OF CONSONANTS.
16]
other consonants,
treated in a wholly peculiar manner,
is
analogous with that of the vowels.
another consonant
(or
Pf
thus.
written with
is
pra,
a
R rka,
^
rsa (fP
written
T
combination),
thus,
El
gra,
with modifica-
and,
srva);
If pro-
rtsna).
below:
slanting stroke
sra (and CET grya,
T
is
it
to the right (like the subjoined
after another consonant (alone or in
nounced
it
pronounced before
If
consonant-combination),
with a hook above, opening
sign of r: 10 e):
7
tions of the preceding consonant-sign like those noted above,
"5T
pr,
"5T
tra,
When
is
dra.
?T
be combined with a following 5fJ r, it
the vowel which is written in full, with its initial char}T
and
acter,
r
is
the
to
consonant
in
subordination to
it:
thus,
ft rr.
Further combinations,
15.
five consonant-signs, are
of three
SET
to the
same
rules.
are:
Examples
dry a,
or four, or even
of three,
made according
dhrya,
consonants, f[ ttva,
t3
1ST
ddhya, $3 dvya,
psva, 5JT 9^ya, ^J
^J
of four consonants,
sty a,
^T
ktrya,
^
^1 hvya;
nksya,
^J strya,
rF?I tsmya;
of five consonants, fF^U rtsnya.
The manuscripts, and the type-fonts as well, differ from one another
their management of consonant combinations than in any other
more in
respect,
often having peculiarities which one needs a little practice to under-
stand.
It is quite useless to give in a
grammar the whole
series of possible
combinations (many of them excessively rare) which are provided for in any
There is nothing which due familiarity
given type-font, or even in all.
with the simple signs and with the above rules of combination will not enable
the student to analyse and explain.
16.
A
sign called the avagraha ('separator')
namely,
used in the manuscripts, sometimes in the manner
of a hyphen, sometimes as a mark of hiatus, sometimes to
vl
- - is
mark the
In printed
elision of initial
texts,
51
a after final
especially European,
it is
^
e or sqj o
(135).
ordinarily limited
ALPHABET.
I.
to the use last
mentioned: thus.
The
is
sign
In some
it
texts,
used
to
^
1,
bruvan, HT
2,
of something.
has also the value of a hyphen.
The numeral
1
l
mark an omission
Signs of punctuation are
17.
^^f^ te
abruvan, so abramt.
'bravit, for te
so
?t
[16
\
3,
In combination,
and
I
II.
figures are
9
to
4,
H
5,
|
6,
b
7.
TT
8.
$
express larger numbers,
they are
used in precisely the same way with European digits
^H
^0
25,
630, <(000 1000, ^T7b
0.
9,
:
thus,
1879.
call the different sounds, and
representing them, by a kara ('maker') added to
the sound of the letter, if a vowel, or to the letter followed by
Thus, the sound or character a is called
a, if -a consonant.
akara; k is kakara: and so on. But the kara is also omitted,
and a, ka, etc. are used alone. The r, however, is never called
the only example of a
rakara, but only ra or repha ('snarl'
The Hindu grammarians
18.
the characters
:
an alphabetic element of its class). The amispecific
svara and msarga are also known by these names alone.
name
for
CHAPTER
II.
SYSTEM OF SOUNDS; PRONUNCIATION.
I.
19.
THE
a,
i,
and
Vowels.
The Sanskrit has
^^-vowels.
these
three earliest and most universal vowels of Indo-European
language,
^
t
and
^
in
I.
both short and long form
% a and TT a,
3 u and 3T u. They are to be pronounced in
the "Continental" or "Italian"
pin and pique, pull and
20.
The a
is
manner
as in
far or father,
rule.
the openest vowel,
an utterance from the ex-
VOWELS.
24]
panded throat
with any of the
;
close
9
stands, therefore., in no relation
classes of consonantal sounds.
The
made with marked approach
vowels,
of kindred
it
organs to one another
:
i
is
palatal,
and u are
i
of the
articulating
shades through y into
and
u is similarly related,
the palatal and guttural consonant-classes
through v, to the labial class, as involving in its utterance a
narrowing and rounding of the lips.
;
The Paninean scheme (commentary
to Panini's
grammar,
i.
classes a
1. 9)
but apparently only in order to give that series as well as the
rest a vowel: no one of the Praticakhyas puts a into one class with k etc.
All these authorities concur in calling the i and w-vowels respectively palatal
as
and
guttural,
labial.
21.
The short a
is
in India with the
not pronounced
full
openness of a, as its corresponding short, but usually as the
"neutral vowel" (English so-called "short
", of but, son, blood,
This peculiarity appears very early, being acknowledged
etc.).
by Panini and by two of the Praticakhyas (APr. i. 36 VPr. i.
72), which call the utterance samvrta, 'covered up, dimmed'.
and it is justly wont to
It is, however, of course not original
be ignored by Western scholars (except those who have studied
;
;
in India).
The a- vowels
are the prevailing vowel-sounds of the
about twice as frequent as all the others (including diphthongs) taken together. The -vowels, again, are
about twice as numerous as the w-vowels. And, in each pair,
the short vowel is more than twice (2y2 to 3 times) as common
22.
language, being
as the long.
For more
alphabetic
precise
elements,
estimates
and
for
of
the
of
frequency,
way
in
these
and
of
the
other
which they were obtained,
see
below, 75.
23.
The
r
and /-vowels. To
the
three simple vo-
wels already mentioned the Sanskrit adds two
others,
the
both of them plainly generated
r-vowels and the /-vowel,
by the abbreviation of
syllables containing a ^" r or ^T /
with
the TR r coming (almost always
another vowel
along
ar or f ra, the FT / from FT al.
see 237, 241-3) from
T|"
:
:
Some
but this
is
of
the
Hindu grammarians add
only for the sake of an
artificial
to
the
alphabet
also
a
long
I
;
symmetry, since the sound does
not occur in a single genuine word in the language.
24.
r-sound,
The vowel
assuming
:fj
r
is
a vocalic
simply a smooth or untrilled
office
in
syllable-making
II.
10
like
by a
as,
SYSTEM OF SOUNDS.
abbreviation,
it
[24
has done also in certain Sla-
vonic languages. The vowel FT I is an -sound similarly
like the English /-vowel in such words as able,
uttered
angle, addle.
The modern Hindus pronounce these vowels as ri, ri, li
having long lost the habit and the facility of
Iri),
value to the pure r and ^-sounds. Their example
a
vowel
giving
and hence also the
is widely followed by European scholars
transliterations
and
ri,
n, li.
quite objectionable)
(distorting
There is no -real difficulty in acquiring and practising the true
even
;or
;
utterance.
Some
of
nearly the
the grammarians (see APr. i. 37, note) attempt to define more
in which, in these vowels, a real r or ^-element is combined
way
with something else.
25. Like their corresponding semivowels, r and I, these
vowels belong respectively in the general lingual and dental classthe euphonic influence of r and f (180) shows this clearly.
es
They are so ranked in the Paninean scheme but the Praticakhyas
in general strangely class them with the jihvcimuliya sounds, our
;
;
"gutturals".
is found in every variety of word and of
not rare, being just about as frequent as long u.
Long f is very much more unusual, occurring only in certain
The / is met with
plural cases of noun-stems in r (374, 378).
The
26.
and
position,
short r
is
only in some of the forms and
verbal root (kip).
derivatives of a single not very
common
The diphthongs. Of
27.
the
^
and
e
ETT
o,
In the Sanskrit,
sounds.
the four diphthongs, two,
are in great part original
Indo-European
they wear the aspect of
being
products of the increment or strengthening of ^ i and 3 u
respectively; and they are called the corresponding guna-
vowels to the
and
to
latter
(see
below, 235).
The other
two,
^
ai
by the prevalent and preferable opinion held
be of peculiar Sanskrit growth (there is no certain trace
t
au,
them
are
be found even in the Zend); they are also in
general results of another and higher increment of ^ i and
of
3
to
which they are called the corresponding vrddhivowels (below, 235). But all are likewise sometimes geneu,
to
32
DIPHTHONGS.
by euphonic combination
rated
common
is
28.
and
(127);
TT
o,
especially,
as result of the alteration of a final *3R as
The ^
e
and
3TF
o
are,
as long e (English "long
",
175).
both in India and in Euthat
usually pronounced as they are transliterated
rope,
is,
1 j
or e in they]
and o-sounds,
without diphthongal character.
Such they apparently already were to the authors of the
Praticakhyas, which, while ranking them as diphthongs \sandfa/afaara), give rules respecting their pronunciation in a manner
implying them to be virtually unitary sounds. But their euphonic
treatment (131-4) clearly shows them to have been still at the
period when the euphonic laws established themselves, as they
of course were at their origin, real diphthongs
ai (a -f- *) and
au \a-\- tf). From them, on the same evidence, the heavier or
vrddhi diphthongs were distinguished by the length of their aelement, as ai (a -{- i] and au (a -\- u).
,
The recognisable
thongs
is
distinctness
of
the
two
noticed by the Praticakhyas (see APr.
of those elements is either defined as equal,
tity
than the
i
elements in the vrddhi-diph40, note); but the relation
i.
or the a is
made
of less
quan-
and u.
29. The lighter or ywwa-diphthongs are much more frequent
or 7 times) than the heavier or vrddhi- diphthongs, and the
e and
Both pairs are
ai than the o and au (a half more).
somewhat more than half as common as the simple i and u(6
vowels
.
The general name given by the Hindu grammarians
30.
is
suara,
'tone';
simple vowels are called
to
samanaksara,
and the diphthongs are called sandhyaksara,
syllable',
The
the
the vowels
'homogeneous
i
combination-syllable'.
position of the organs in their utterance is defined to be one of openness,
or of non-closure.
As
to quantity
and accent, see below. 76
II.
31.
fester'.
i
sparca,
ff.
;
80
ff.
Consonants.
The Hindu name for 'consonant' is vyan/ana, 'maniThe consonants are divided by the grammarians into
i
contact' or 'mute', antahstha, 'intermediate' or semivowel',
'spirant'.
They will here be taken up and described
and usman,
in this order.
32. Mutes. The mutes, sparca, are so called as involving
a complete closure or contact \sparca], and not an approximation
SYSTEM OF SOUNDS.
II.
12
[32
which they are produced. They are
only, of the mouth-organs by
divided into five classes or series (varga], according to the organs
and each
and parts of organs by which the contact is made
series is composed of five members, differing according to the
accompaniments of the contact.
;
The
33.
mute-series are called respectively guttural,
five
dental,
lingual (or cerebral),
palatal,
and
and they
labial;
are arranged in the order as just mentioned, beginning with
made
the contact
ward from point
back in the mouth, coming forpoint, and ending with the frontmost
furthest
to
contact.
In each series there are two surd members,
34.
sonant, and one nasal (which
and
in the labial series,
are
and
3^b
Vf^ph,
tj^p
The members
also sonant):
is
by the Hindu grammarians
and 'last' or 'fifth'.
^bh, and
called
two
for example,
respectively
?T
m.
'first',
1
'second',
'third',
'fourth
,
The surd consonants
as ghosavant,
are
'having tone'
known
as
aghosa,
'toneless',
and the descriptions
and the sonants
of the
grammarians are in
accordance with these terms.
All alike recognise a difference of tone, and
not in any manner a difference of force, whether of contact or of expulsion,
as separating the two great classes in question.
That the difference depends
;
on vivara, 'opening', or sarhvara,
by them.
35.
The
first
'closure'
(of
the
is
glottis),
and third members of each
also
recognised
series are the
ordinary corresponding surd and sonant mutes of European
languages: thus,
36.
What
is
Nor
m
q^
is
is
^k
and
\g,
to
^p
and
3[^,
expulsion
and
or
own
also each other nasal to its
into
and
t^t
d,
the character of the nasal any
^n
to
p and ^
b.
more doubtful.
and
t^t
series of mutes
:
<
d, that
a sonant
while the mouth-
the nose,
through
q
organs are in the mute-contact.
The Hindu grammarians
(anunasika,
give
'passing through the
mouth and nose together;
distinctly
this
definition.
The
nasal
sounds are declared to be formed by
or their nasality
(anunasikya) to be given them
nose')
by unclosure of the nose.
37.
The second and fourth of each
thus, beside the surd
mute
^
series are aspirates
:
k we have the corresponding
38
ASPIRATE MUTES.
^
surd aspirate
and beside the sonant
kh,
ponding sonant aspirate % gh. Of
acter is more obscure and difficult.
the corres-
Tf.^,
the precise char-
these,
them, are real mutes or contact sounds, and
and ph and ch, etc.), is beyond question.
also not doubtful in what way the surd M, for example, differs
That the aspirates,
not fricatives
It is
1$
all of
th
European
(like
from the unaspirated t: such aspirates are found in many Asiatic languages,
and even in some European they involve the slipping-out of an audible bit
of flatus or aspiration between the breach of mute-closure and the following
:
it may be.
They are accurately enough represented by the
with which, in imitation of the Latin treatment of the similar ancient
Greek aspirates, we are accustomed to write them.
sound, whatever
th etc.,
The sonant
in
a
similar
with a perceptible
But there
mute-closure.
are
of accepting this explanation
and described
generally understood
are
aspirates
way,
ft-sound
insuperable
;
and some
theoretical
of the
the breach
after
made
as
of
sonant
in the
difficulties
observers
best phonetic
way
(as
deny that the modern Hindu pronunciation is of such a character,
and define the element following the mute as a "glottal buzz", rather, or an
A.
J. Ellis)
emphasized utterance of the beginning of the suceeding sound. The question
one of great difficulty, and upon it the opinions of the highest authorities
is
are
still
much
variance.
at
Sonant aspirates are
still
in
use in India,
in
the pronunciation of the vernacular as well as of the learned languages.
By the
the
Pratic.akhyas,
of
aspirates
both
classes are
called
sosman:
which might mean either 'accompanied by a rush of breath' (taking usman
in its more etymological sense), or 'accompanied by a spirant' (below, 59).
And some
made by the combination
own corresponding surd spirant; and the
authorities define the surd aspirates as
of each surd non-aspirate
with
sonant aspirates,
sonant non-aspirate
of each
But
ft-sound (below, 65).
this
its
make
quite diverse character, and would also
which
as cf
with the sonant spirant,
would make the two classes
th
the same as
any measure plausible only of the
the scheme given in his comment
is in
name for aspirates
them mahaprana,
;
1
to
'great expiration
last.
the
of aspirates of
ts,
th as ts, ch
Panini has no
(to i. 1
.
9)
attributes
and to the non-aspirates alpaprana^
,
'small expiration'.
usual
It is
among European
scholars to pronounce both
classes of aspirates as the corresponding non-aspirates
a following h: for example,
hook,
on.
m ph
This
is
as in haphazard,
(as
with
th nearly as in
2T
T
we have seen
English boatdh as in madhouse, and so
above) confessedly accurate
only as regards the surd aspirates.
38.
The sonant
aspirates are
at least represent, original
(in
the
opinion of most), or
Indo-European sounds, while the surd
II.
14
i38
SYSTEM OF SOUNDS.
as a special Indian development.
aspirates are generally regarded
The former are more than twice as common as the latter. The
much more frequent
nasal) mutes are very
unaspirated (nonthan the aspirates
(5 times)
original gh, see
50 and
66)
the special frequency of bh and
and among them the surds are more
(for
;
numerous (2Y2 times) than the sonants. The nasals (chiefly n
and m) are nearly as frequent as the surd non-aspirates.
We take up now the several mute-series.
Guttural series:
T^kh, JT^, \gh, 3" n.
These are the ordinary European k and ^-sounds, with their
39.
^
k,
corresponding aspirates and nasal (the
in singing}.
The gutturals
are
last,
like English
ng
by the Pratic.akhyas as made
by contact of
and they are called, from
The Paninean scheme
'tongue-root sounds'.
defined
the base of the tongue with the base of the jaw,
the former organ, jihvamullya,
From the euphonic
describes them simply as made in the throat (kantha).
influence of a k on a following s (below, 180), we may perhaps infer that
in their utterance the tongue was well drawn back into the hinder mouth.
40. The k is by far the commonest of the guttural series,
occurring considerably more often than all the other four taken
The nasal, except as standing before one of the others
together.
of the series, is found only as final (after the loss of a fol-
lowing k), and in a very small number of words.
41. The Sanskrit guttural series represents only a minority
of Indo-European gutturals
these last have suffered more and
more general corruption than any other class of consonants. By
processes of alteration which are proved to have begun in the
Indo-European period, since the same words exhibit connected
;
changes also in other languages of the family, the palatal mutes,
the palatal sibilant c, and the aspiration h, have come from
gutturals.
42.
whole
See these various sounds below.
Palatal series
series is
derivative,
original gutturals.
The
c
:
r( c,
^
ch,
s?F
j, 37 jh, 3T n.
This
being generated by the corruption of
comes from an original k
as does
by another degree of alteration, the palatal sibilant c (see
below, 64). The /, in like manner, comes from a g ; but the
Sanskrit j includes in itself two degrees of alteration, one cor-
also,
responding to the alteration of k to c, the other to that of k to g
in the Zend, these two
(see below, 219
degrees are held disThe c is somewhat more common than the j
tinctly apart).
:
(about as four to three). The aspirate ch is very much less frequent (a tenth of c), and comes from the original group sk.
The sonant aspirate jh is excessively rare
(occurring but once
PALATAL AND LINGUAL MUTES.
45]
in the Vedic
nas)
texts,
where found,
;
15
and not half-a-dozen times
in the
Brahma-
anomalous
the so-called root ujh, it comes
either onomatopoetic or of
is
it
or not Indo-European origin iin
from j and h}. The nasal, n, never occurs except immediately
before
number
in a small
or,
one of the others of the
of words,
also after
(201)
series.
43. Hence, in the euphonic processes of the language, the
treatment of the palatals is in many respects peculiar. In some
or, as
situations, the original unaltered guttural shows itself
it
appears from the
of view of the Sanskrit, the palatal
No palatal ever occurs as a final.
point
reverts to its original guttural.
The j
is differently treated, according as it represents the one
or the other degree of alteration. And c and j (except artificially,
in the algebraic rules of the grammarians) do not interchange,
as corresponding surd
The
44.
the
palatal
modern Hindus
and sonant.
mutes are by European scholars, as by
also, pronounced with the compound
sounds of English ch and
j
(in
church and judge}.
Their description by the old Hindu grammarians, however, gives them
a not less absolutely simple character than belongs to the other mutes.
They are called talavya, 'palatal and declared to be formed against the
1
,
They seem to have been, then,
brought forward in the mouth from the guttural point, and made against the
hard palate at a point not far from the lingual one (below, 45), but with
middle
by
the
the upper
flat
palate
all
languages,
of the ch as
of
tongue.
easily
making the preceding vowel "long by
t -f-
uttered with the tip
t,
3" th,
the native
all
:
of the tongue
and
position" (227),
(203), lead to the suspicion that
p
this character from the beginning
lingual mutes are by
The value
the (English) ch and ./-sounds.
into
Lingual series:
45.
Such sounds, in
surface of the tongue instead of its point.
pass
frequent origination from
may have had
the
it.
its
at least,
compare 37, above.
Z d,
?o
dh, HT n.
authorities
The
denned
as
turned up and drawn
back into the dome of the palate (somewhat as the usual
English smooth r is pronounced). They are called by the
grammarians murdhanya,
cephalics'; which term
rendered by 'cerebrals'
no attempt
kritists,
dentals
:
t
is
w.ith the rest.
is
.
literally
is
in
'head-sounds,
capitals,
many European grammars
In practice, among European Sans-
made
pronounced
to distinguish
like
rT
t,
J d
them from the
like
e["
d,
and so
II.
16
[46
linguals are another non-original series of sounds,
The
46.
SYSTEM OF SOUNDS.
coming mainly from the phonetic alteration of the next series,
the dentals, but also in part occurring in words that have no
traceable Indo-European connection, and are perhaps derived from
the aboriginal languages of India. The tendency to lingualization
dentals easily
is a positive one in the history of the language
pass into linguals under the influence of contiguous or neighborand all the sounds
ing lingual sounds, but not the contrary
:
;
become markedly more frequent in the
of the class
ture.
these
:
later litera-
The conditions of their ordinary occurrence
a. s comes from s, much more rarely from
below
are
briefly
ks,
j,
q,
in
b. a
218, etc.)
dental mute following s is assimilated to it, becoming lingual
c. n is often changed to n after a lingual vowel or
th, n)
(t,
semivowel or sibilant in the same word (189 etc.) d. dh, which
is of very rare occurrence, comes from assimilation of a dental
after s (198 a) or h (222);
e. t and d come occasionally by
substitution for some other sound which is not allowed to stand
circumstances
euphonic
stated
(180,
;
;
;
When
as final (142, 145).
letters
may be regarded
as
originated in these ways, the lingual
normal
in any other cases of their
;
occurrence, they are either products of abnormal corruption, or
signs of the non-Indo-European character of the words in which
they appear.
In a
number
certain
of
passages
numerically
the abnormal occurences of lingual mutes were
number
(74 out
of 159),
more frequent in the
an abnormal t; only
and most
of
them
less
(43)
examined
(below,
75),
than half of the whole
were of n:
all
were found
In the Rig- Veda, only 15 words have
6, such a th; only 1, such a dh; about 20 (including
of which have derivatives) show an abnormal d, besides
later passages.
9 roots, nearly all
9 that have nd; and 30 (including 1 root) show a n.
Taken
the linguals are by far the rarest class
(about iy2 per cent, of the alphabet)
hardly half
as frequent even as the palatals.
all
together,
of mutes
47.
are
Dental series:
called
by
the
Hindus
These
<^t, Z^tk, <[ d, V^dk, ^n.
also dantya, 'dental', and
described as formed at the teeth
teeth),
by the
tip of
equivalents of our
the tongue.
European
t,
(or
at
They
the roots
are
of the
are practically the
d, n.
But the modern Hindus are said
tip
of the
to pronounce their dentals with the
tongue thrust well forward against the upper teeth, so that these
sounds get a slight tinge of the quality
belonging to the English and Modern
The absence of that quality in the European (especially
Greek tft-sounds.
LABIAL MUTES; SEMIVOWELS
52]
the English) dentals
latter
doubtless the reason
is
more analogous with his
appear
to
why
17
the
ear of
and he
linguals,
is
Hindu the
a
use
apt to
the
European words.
linguals in writing
The
dentals are one of the three Indo-European original
In their occurrence in Sanskrit they are just about
as frequent as all the other four classes taken together.
48.
mute-classes.
49. Labial series: q ^
Cfi *
ph ^*X b. ^-X bh,^ 3}^X m.
X p
-X
These sounds are called osthya, 'labial by the Hindu grammarians also. They are, of course, the equivalents of our
1
,
p,
b,
m.
50.
culiar.
The numerical relations of the
Owing to the absence (or almost
the Sanskrit b
Indo-European,
quency by bh,
aspirates, as
ph
which
is
the
is
the least
labials are
a
little
entire absence)
pe-
of b in
also is greatly exceeded in fremost common of all the sonant
common
The nasal
of the surd.
m
(not-
withstanding its frequent euphonic mutations when final: 212 ff.)
occurs just about as often as all the other four members of the
series together.
3
Semivowels:
51.
v.
The name
f y,
given
^" r, s$ I,
sounds by the Hindu grammarians is antahstha, "standing between'
either from their character as utterances intermediate between vowel and
to this
of
class
consonant,
or
(more probably)
from the circumstance of their being placed
between the mutes and spirants in the arrangement of the consonants.
The semivowels
are clearly akin with the several
and they are classified
mute
series
along with
those series
though not without some discordances of view
by the Hindu grammarians. They are said to be produced
in their physical
character,
with the organs "slightly in contact"
contact"
(duhsprsta]
The
52.
(isatsprsta),
or "in imperfect
.
^
r is clearly
shown by
its
influence in the
euphonic processes of the language to be a lingual sound,
or one made with the the tip of the tongue turned up into
It thus resembles
the English
the dome of the palate.
smooth
r,
and, like
this,,
seems
The Paninean scheme reckons
to
have been untrilled.
r as a lingual.
None
of the Praticakhyas,
however, does so; nor are they entirely consistent with one another in its
description. For the most part, they define it as made at 'the roots of the
teeth'.
This would give
it
a position like that of the vibrated r; but no au-
thority hints at a vibration as belonging to
Whitney, Grammar.
it.
2
II.
1
SYSTEM OF SOUNDS.
[52
In point of frequency, r stands very high on the list of
with v, n, m, and y, and only
it is about equal
consonants
exceeded by t.
;
The
53.
defined and classed
The
a sound of dental position,
T I is
by
character
peculiar
and
is
so
all the native authorities.
of
an
Z-sound,
as
involving
expulsion at the
sides of the tongue along with contact at its tip, is not noticed
by any Hindu
phonetist.
It is a disputed question whether r and I were distinguished from one
another in Indo-European speech ; in the Sanskrit, at any rate, they are very
widely interchangeable, both in roots and in suffixes: there is hardly a root
with r; words written with
containing an I which does not show also forms
the one letter are found in other texts, or in other parts of the same texts,
In the later periods of the language they are more
written with the other.
more frequent,
separated, and the I becomes decidedly
rarer than the r (only as 1 to 7 or 8 or 10).
though always much
54. Some of the Vedic texts have another -sound, written
with a slightly different character (it is given at the end of the
alphabet, 5), which is substituted for a lingual d (as also the
same followed by h for a dh] when occurring between two vowels.
one made by breach (at the
It is, then, doubtless a lingual I,
sides of the tongue) of the lingual instead of the dental muteclosure.
55.
The
<ET
y in Sanskrit, as in other languages gene-
stands in the closest relationship with the vowel ^ i
(short or long); the two exchange with one another in
rally,
cases innumerable.
And in the Veda (as the metre shows) an i is very often to be read
where, in conformity with the rules of the later Sanskrit euphony, a y is
written.
Thus, the final i- vowel of a word remains i before an initial vowel
;
that
of
a stem maintains itself
of derivation
as ya,
tya
unchanged before an ending; and an ending
has i instead of y.
Such cases will be con-
sidered in more detail later, as they arise. The constancy of the phenomenon
in certain words and classes of words shows that this was no merely optional
interchange.
Very probably, the
everywhere more of an
European sound.
Sanskrit y had
i-character than belongs to the corresponding
The y is by its physical character a palatal utterance
classed as a palatal semivowel by the Hindu phonetists.
It is one of the most common of Sanskrit sounds.
56.
and
;
it is
57.
The
pronounced as English or French v
(German w) by the modern Hindus
except when preof
v
is
SEMIVOWELS; SPIRANTS.
60]
19
ceded by a consonant in the same syllable, in which case
it has the sound of English w; and European scholars follow
same practice (with or without the same
the
exception).
By its whole treatment in the euphony of the language,
however, the v stands related to an w- vowel precisely as y to
an /-vowel.
It is,
then, a v only according to the original
that is to say, a z^-sound in the
Roman value of that letter
though (as was stated above for the y] it may
English sense
well have been less markedly separated from u than English w,
more like French ou in oui etc. But, as the original w has in
:
most European languages been changed to v (English), so also
and that from a very early time the Paninean scheme
and two of the Praticakhyas (VPr. and TPr.) distinctly define
the sound as made between the upper teeth and the lower lip
in India,
:
which, of course, identifies it with the ordinary modern v-sound.
As a matter of practice, the usual pronunciation need not be
yet the student should not fail to note
seriously objected to
that the rules of Sanskrit euphony and the name of "semivowel"
have no application except to a zp-sound in the English sense
a v-sound (German w) is no semivowel, but a spirant, standing
on the same articulate stage with the English M-sounds and
;
:
the/.
58.
V
classed
is
phonetical authorities.
than the y.
semivowel
as
a
It
has a somewhat
labial
the
by
greater
Hindu
frequency
In the Veda, under the same circumstances as the y (above, 55), v
be read as w.
is
to
Spirants. Unjler the name usman (literally 'heat,
steam, flatm\ which is usually and well represented by
some of the Hindu authorities include all the
'spirant',
59.
remaining sounds of the alphabet;
only
it
to
others
apply the term
the three sibilants and the aspiration
will here also
The term
is
which
different
treatises
be restricted.
not found in
the Paninean scheme;
by
the guttural and labial breathings, these and the visarga, or
svara, are called
to
usman
(see
APr.
described as being in the position
i.
31 note).
all
The organs
of the mute-series
to
these and anu-
of utterance are
which each spirant
belongs respectively, but unclosed, or unclosed in the middle.
60.
this
is
The H
the
s.
Of
the three sibilants,
or surd spirants,
one of plainest and least questioned character:
2*
it
SYSTEM OF SOUNDS.
II.
20
the
is
-- a
s
ordinary European
hiss
[60
expelled between
and the roof of the mouth directly behind the
the tongue
upper front teeth.
It
is,
It
by all the Hindu
Indo-European sibilant.
great losses which it suffers in Sanskrit
dental,
then,
authorities.
as
one
the
is
it
is
classed
primitive
Notwithstanding the
euphony, by conversion to the other sibilants, to r, to visarga,
etc., it is still very high among the consonants in the order of
frequency, or considerably more common than both the other
two sibilants together.
61.
there
The
Ef *.
As
no ground
is
to the character of this sibilant,
for real question
in the lingual position,
verted into the
s^-sound;
dome
tip of the
tongue rethen, a kind of
It is,
German
(French ch,
also,
the one produced
it is
and by European Sanskritists
an ordinary sh
as
or with the
of the palate.
:
is
it
sch\
pronounced
no attempt
being made (any more than in the case of the other lingual
sounds 45) to give it its proper lingual quality.
:
shown by its whole euphonic influence,
described and classed as lingual by all the Hindu author(the APr. adds, i. 23, that the tongue in its utterance
Its lingual character is
and
it is
ities
In its audible quality, it is a sA-sound
trough-shaped)
than a s-sound; and, in the considerable variety of
sibilant-utterance, even in the same community, it may coincide
with some people's sh. Yet the general and normal sh is
palatal
and therefore the sign s, marked in accordance
(see below, 63)
with the other lingual letters, is the only unexceptionable transliteration for the Hindu character.
is
.
rather
;
In modern pronunciation in India,
the
too,
MSS.
are apt to
s
is
much confounded with kh; and
exchange the characters.
take note of the relationship (see Weber's
62.
This sibilant
(as
Later grammatical treatises,
Pratijfia,
was noticed above,
p.
84).
46,
and
will
be
more
particularly explained below, 180 fF.) is no original sound,
but a product of the lingualization of s under certain
euphonic
conditions.
The exceptions are extremely few (9 out of 145
noted occurrences
75), and of a purely sporadic character. The
Rig- Veda has (apart from
sah, 182) only twelve words which
:
show a
The
y
s
under other conditions.
final
s
of a root
has in
some cases attained a more independent
SPIRANTS.
65
and does not revert
value,
to
when the euphonic
s
but shows anomalous forms (225
The
63.
thing in
on
described as
history or
its
is
all
by
the native author-
nor
palatal,
there any-
is
euphonic treatment to cast doubt
its
such.
character as
its
conditions are removed,
.
This sibilant
g>
and
classed
ities
5T
21
It is,
made with
then,
the
flat
of the tongue against the forward part of the palatal arch
that
to say,
is
European scholars
the usual and normal sA-sound.
is
it
it is
more
variously pronounced
By
often,
perhaps, as s than as sh.
The two
s/i-sounds,
s
and
are
p,
made
in
the same part of the mouth
but with a different part of the tongue
and they are doubtless not more unlike than, for example, the two t-sounds,
written t and t ; and it would be not less proper to pronounce them both as
(the s probably rather further back),
one sh than
to
;
To neglect the
pronounce the linguals and dentals alike.
is much less to be approved.
The very near relationship
difference of s and f
of
s
and
extent
f is
the
which
attested by their euphonic treatment,
and by
same,
is
to a considerable
confusion
not infrequent
their
by the writers
of manuscripts.
64. As was mentioned above (41), the r,
from the corruption of an original &-sound, by
contact
well as forward shift
as
of this derivation,
"reverts" to k
that is,
virtue
convertible
exceeds the
the
like the usual
is
In
articulating point.
less often than c)
original k appears instead of it
a s/j-sound, it is to a certain
;
as
In
s.
of
point of
it
frequency,
slightly
latter.
The remaining
65.
This
to
comes
mute-
c,
sometimes (though
it
on the other hand,
while,
extent
the
of
like
loss
not,
spirant,
^
hy
is
ordinarily
European surd aspiration
however,
its
true character.
It is
pronounced
h.
defined by
all
the native
not a surd element, but a sonant (or else an utterance intermediate between the two)
and its whole value in the euphony of the language
authorities
as
;
is
that of a sonant:
but what
Paninean scheme ranks
is
its
precise value
is
The
very hard to say.
means nothing.
The Pratic.akhyas bring it into no relation with the guttural class one of them
quotes the opinion of some authorities that "it has the same position with
the beginning of the following vowel" (TPr. ii. 47)
which so far identifies it with our h.
There is nothing in its euphonic influence to mark it
it
as guttural,
as
it
does also a
:
this
:
as retaining
native
any trace of gutturally articulated character.
phonetists
it
is
By some
of
the
identified with the aspiration of the sonant aspirates
SYSTEM OF SOUNDS.
II.
22
[65
This view
with the element by which, for example, gh differs from g.
the
h
from
of
by
derivation
paragraph),
the
aspirates (next
is supported by
h from dh (54), and by the treatment of initial h after a final
that of l
+
mute
(163).
as already noticed, is not an original sound,
nearly all cases from an older gTi (for the few
instances of its derivation from dh and bh, see below, 223). It
is a vastly more frequent sound than the unchanged gh (namely,
as 7 to 1): more frequent, indeed, than any of the guttural
mutes except k. It appears, like j (219), to include in itself
66. The
but comes in
h,
two stages of corruption of gh:
one corresponding with that of
of k to c; see below, 223, for the
c, the other with that
Like the other
roots belonging to the two classes respectively.
sounds of guttural derivation, it sometimes exhibits "reversion"
k to
to its original.
67.
The
:
h.
or visarga (visarjamya,
as it is uniformly
called by the Prati^akhyas and by Panini, probably as 'be-
longing to the end' of a word), appears to be merely a surd
breathing,
a final A-sound
(in
the European
sense
of
h),
uttered in the articulating position of the preceding vowel.
One Praticakhya
(TPr.
ii.
48)
gives just
this last description of
it.
It
by various authorities classed with ft, or with h and a: all of them are
alike sounds in whose utterance the mouth-organs have no definite shaping
is
action.
The visarga is not original, but always only a substifor final s or r, neither of which is allowed to maintain
68.
tute
unchanged. It is a comparatively recent member of the
alphabetic system; the other euphonic changes of final s and r
have not passed through visarga as an intermediate stage. And
the Hindu authorities are considerably discordant with one anitself
other as to
how
one,
initial surd.
permitted
far
h
is
a necessary substitute, and
with a sibilant, before a
alternative
how
far a
following
69. Before a surd guttural or labial, respectively, some of
the native authorities permit, while others require, conversion of
final s or r into the so-called
jihvamutiya and upadhmariiya spirants.
It may be fairly questioned,
perhaps, whether these two
sounds are not pure grammatical abstractions, devised
the
(like
long /-vowel 23) in order to round out the alphabet to greater
At any rate, neither printed texts nor manuscripts
symmetry.
(except in the rarest and most sporadic cases) make any account
of them. Whatever individual character
they may have must be,
:
ANUSVABA.
71]
it
would seem,
When
and
23
(German) ch and ^sounds.
to be transliterated by %
in the direction of the
written
at all,
wont
are
they
(p.
The
70.
that
closure
nasal
mute
-
anusvara, n or
of the
(36);
a nasal sound lacking
is
7
which
organs
in
w
required to
is
utterance there
its
make
a
nasal resonance
is
along with some degree of openness of the mouth.
71.
There
discordance
is
opinion both
of
among
the
Hindu phonetists
and their modern European successors respecting the real character of this
element hence a little detail is necessary here with regard to its occurrence
:
and their views
Certain
of
nasals
it.
in Sanskrit
are of servile
character,
always to be assi-
milated to a following consonant, of whatever character that may be.
Such
are final
in sentence-combination (213), the penultimate nasal of a root,
m
and a nasal of increment (255)
in general.
If
one of these nasals stands
before a contact-letter or mute, it becomes a nasal
that
latter
a nasal utterance in the
is,
which gives the succeeding mute.
sonant does not involve a contact
element
is also without-
The question
contact
:
mute corresponding
same position
of the
on the other hand, the following con-
If,
(being a semivowel or spirant),
is
it
to the
mouth-organs
the nasal
a nasal utterance with unclosed
mouth-
now, whether this nasal utterance becomes merely
a nasal infection of the preceding vowel, turning it into a nasal vowel (as
organs.
is,
French on, en, un, etc., by reason of a similar loss of a nasal mute); or
it is an element of more individual character, having place between
the vowel and the consonant; or, once more, whether it is sometimes the one
in
whether
thing and sometimes the other.
are briefly as follows
The opinions
of the Praticakhyas
and Panini
:
The Atharva-Pratic.akhya holds that the result is everywhere a
when n or m is assimilated to a following I in that
vowel, except
n
m
or
,
becomes a nasal
I:
that
is,
the
nasal
utterance
made
in
the
and has a perceptible i-character.
^-position,
The other Praticakhyas teach a
conversion into a nasal counter-
similar
part to the semivowel, or nasal semivowel, before y and
I
and v (not before
acknow-
In most of the other cases where the Atharva-Pratic.akhya
r also).
ledges
is
nasalized
case, the
a
vowel
nasal
namely,
before
r
and the spirants
the
others
teach the intervention after the vowel of a distinct nasal element, called the
anusvara, 'after-tone'.
Of the nature of this nasal afterpiece to the vowel no intelligibly clear
account is given. It is said (RPr.) to be either vowel or consonant; it is
declared (RPr., VPr.) to be made with the nose alone, or (TPr.) to be nasal
like the nasal
mutes;
the nasal mutes
(RPr.)
;
no contact.
There
are,
it
is
held by
in its formation
As
,
some (RPr.)
to
be the sonant tone of
as in that of vowel
to its quantity,
and spirant, there
is
see farther on.
however, certain cases and classes of cases where these other
24
II.
SYSTEM OF SOUNDS.
authorities also acknowledge a nasal vowel.
n
treated (208; as if
is
a small
number
were ns
it
of specified words.
So,
[71
especially,
finally,
and
final
also in
also meiitiou the doctrine of nasal
They
vowel instead of anusvara as held by some (and TPr.
sistent in its choice between the one and the other).
In Panini,
wherever a
historically older form);
(its
the prevailing doctrine
is
is
that
uncertain and incon-
of
anusvara every-
even allowed in many cases where the Pratic.akhyas prescribe only a nasal mute. But a nasal semivowel is also allowed instead before a semivowel, and a nasal vowel is allowed in the cases (mentioned above)
where;
and
it
is
where some of the Pratic,akhyas require it by exception.
It is evidently a fair question whether this discordance and uncertainty
Hindu phonetists is owing to a real difference of utterance in different classes of cases and in different localities, or whether to a different schoof the
lastic
analysis
svara
is
of
what
is
really
the
everywhere
a nasal element following
same
utterance.
If
anu-
cannot well* be any thing
but either a prolongation of the same vowel-sound with nasality added, or a
nasalised bit of neutral-vowel sound (in the latter case, however, the
altering
influence of an
is
i
or w-vowel
the vowel,
on a following
it
s
ought to be prevented, which
not the case: see 183).
72. The assimilated nasal element, whether viewed as
nasalized vowel, nasal semivowel, or independent anusvara, has
the value of something added, in making a heavy
syllable, or
length by position
(79).
The Praticakhyas (VPr., RPr.)
give
the anusvara combining with a short
make
determinations of the
quantity of
and with a long vowel respectively
to
a long syllable.
73. Two different signs, 1 and -, are found in the MSS.,
indicating the nasal sound here treated of.
Usually they are
written above the syllable, and there
they seem most naturally
to imply a nasal affection of the vowel of the
a nasal
syllable,
(anunasika)
vowel.
Hence some
(Sama and Yajur Vedas),
bring one of the signs down
texts
when
they mean a real anusvara,
into the ordinary
consonant-place but the usage is not general.
As between the two signs, some MSS. employ, or tend to
employ,
the - where a nasalized
(anunasika) vowel is to be recognized,
and elsewhere the 1; and this distinction is
consistently observed
in many European printed
texts; and the former is called the
;
anunasika sign: but
it is
very doubtful whether the two are not
and properly equivalent.
It
common custom of the manuscripts to write
is^a very
the anusvara-sign for any nasal
following the vowel of a syllable,
either before another consonant or as final
(not before a vowel),
without any reference to whether it is to be
pronounced as nasal
originally
mute, nasal semivowel, or anusvara.
this slovenly
and undesirable'habit
;
Some printed texts follow
but most write a nasal mute
TABLE OF ALPHABETIC SOUNDS.
751
whenever
it
assimilated
It
is
m
to be
pronounced
m
excepting
where
is
it
an
(213).
convenient also
is
25
in
transliteration
distinguish the
to
special sign, m, from the anusvara of more
independent origin, n; and this method will be followed in the
assimilated
by a
present work.
the whole system of sounds recognised by the
for certain transitional sounds, more or less
widely recognised in the theories of the Hindu phonetists, see
74.
This
is
written character;
below, 230.
75.
The whole spoken
alphabet, then,
in the following manner, so as to show,
in a single scheme, the relations
of
its
various
members
may be arranged
so far as is possible
and important
classifications
:
Vowels
Semivowels
Son.
Nasals
Anusvara
Aspiration
Visarga
Surd
Sibilants
111
Son.
asp.
1-27
b
unasp
.46
ph
Surd
asp.
.
SYSTEM OF SOUNDS.
II.
2(j
The
the
under
set
figures
percentage of frequency
number of times which
[75
characters
the
give
average
of each sound, found by counting the
in an aggregate of 10,OOC
it occurred
sounds of continuous text, in 10 different passages, ^of 1,000
literature
sounds each, selected from different epochs of the
one from the Atharva-Veda,
the
from
two
Veda,
Rignamely,
two from different Brahmanas, and one each from Manu, Bhaand Vasavadatta*.
gavad-Gita, Qakuntala, Hitopade9a,
:
Quantity of sounds and syllables.
III.
the
to define
The Hindu grammarians take the pains
76.
consonant
of a
quantity
distinction
(without
among
consonants of different classes) as half that of a short vowel.
77.
also
They
vowel or diphthong
no distinction in
prefab-diphthongs
Besides
78.
this
two vowel-quantities,
these
called
quantity of a short vowel.
three cases; in
rather
pluta
A
or
Hindus
'swimming'),
three times the
protracted vowel
is
marked
are practically of rare occurrence (in
fifteen; in the Brahman a literature,
AV.,
more
They are
frequent).
of a balancing between
especially
(literally
the
thus, 5TT$ a 3.
by a following figure 3:
The protracted vowels
RV.,
making
respect between the guna and the
and having three moras,
or protracted,
vowel
.
a third,
acknowledge
of a long (dirgha)
the quantity
define
as twice that of a short
used in cases of questioning,
two alternatives, and also of
calling to a distance or urgently. The protraction is of the last
and the protracted
syllable in a w ord, or in a whole phrase
syllable has usually the acute tone, in addition to any other
r
;
accent the word
is
made
may have
;
sometimes
it
takes also anusvara,
or
nasal.
Examples are: adhdh svid asi3d updri svid asl3t (RV.), 'was it, forsooth,
it, forsooth, above?' iddm bhUydS id$3m Hi (AV.),
'saying, is this
below? was
more, or
that?'
is
thy spouse
dgndSi pdtmvdSh
A
diphthong is protracted
thus, e to a3i, o to a3u.
*
See
s6mam
piba (TS.),
'oh
Agni! thou with
drink the soma'.
!
J.
A. 0.
S., vol.
X.
by
prolongation
of
its
first
or
a-element:
QUANTITY.
82]
The sign
of
protraction
when
centual combination,
is
sometimes written as the result of ac-
also
so-called
occurs: see below,
kampa
For metrical purposes,
79.
37
syllables
90b.
are
(not vowels)
distinguished by the grammarians as 'heavy' (guru) or 'light'
A
heavy if its vowel is long, or short
and followed by more than one consonant ("long by poAnusvara and visarga count as full consonants in
sition").
(laghu).
syllable
making a heavy
mary
is
The
syllable.
of a verse)
division
last syllable of a
pada
(pri-
reckoned as either heavy or
is
light.
The
distinction in
vowel-sound and that
and should be
of
terms between the difference of long and short in
heavy and light in syllable-construction is valuable,
retained..
Accent.
IV.
80.
The phenomena of accent
marians of
all
by the Hindu gramdescribed and treated as depend-
ages alike,
are,
ing on a variation of tone or pitch;
stress involved,
The primary tones
81.
two
:
a
they make no
higher
(anudatta,
(udatta,
'raised'),
or
'not raised'),
(svara)
grave.
a term of doubtful meaning),
of any
difference
of
account.
is
or
A
or accent-pitches
acute
;
are
and a lower
third (called svarita
:
always of secondary origin,
being (when not enclitic see below, 85) the result of actual
combination of an acute vowel and a following grave vowel
:
into one syllable.
in pitch,
a
uniformly defined as compound
It is also
union of higher and lower tone within the
limits of a single syllable.
character with the Greek
entitled to be called
It
is
thus identical in physical
and Latin circumflex,
and
fully
by the same name.
82. Strictly, therefore, there is but one distinction of tone
in the Sanskrit accentual system
the accented syllable is raised
:
in tone
above the unaccented
while then further, in certain
cases of the fusion of an accented and an unaccented element
;
SYSTEM OF SOUNDS.
II.
2
into one
compounded tone
the
that syllable retains
syllable,
[82
of
both elements.
svarita or circumflex is only rarely found on a
or diphthong, but almost always on a syllable
vowel
pure long
in which a vowel, short or long, is preceded by a y or v reacute t or w-vowel.
presenting an originally
In transliteration, in this work, the udatta or acute will be
The
83.
marked with the ordinary sign of acute, and the svarita or circumflex (as being a downward slide of the voice forward) with
what is usually called the grave accent
thus, d, acute
ya or
:
va,
,
circumflex.
The Praticakhyas distinguish and name separately the circumflexed
84.
of combination
tones arising by different processes
thus,
:
the
circumflex
is
called
a. Ksaipra ('quick'),
when an
verted into y or v before
a
acute
i
w-vowel
or
(short or long)
vowel of grave tone
dissimilar
thus,
:
con-
is
vyhpta
from vi-apta, apsvantdr from apsu antdr.
b.
Jatya
further back,
('native')
the
in
belongs to a word in
svhr
(stiar),
nybk
or
nitya
('own'),
circumstances of
all
(nfak),
when
the
stem or form,
of a
make-up
its
same combination
and so
is
occurrence: thus, kva (from
budhnya (budhnfa), kanyh
(fcanla),
lies
constant,
nadyas
or
fcwa),
(nadf-as),
tanvh (tanU-a).
The words of both these classes are in the Veda, in the great majority
of cases, to be read with restoration of the acute vowel as a separate syllable
In some texts, part of them are
apsu antdr, suar, nadias, etc.
thus,
:
.
written correspondingly
c.
:
thus,
suvar, tanuva, budhnfya.
when the acute and grave vowels
Praflista,
are of such character that
they are fused into a long vowel or diphthong (128): thus divi 'va (RV.
J
and AV.), from
iva; shdgata (TS.), from su-udyata; nai 'vh friiyat
(B.), from nd evd apniyat.
dM
d.
when an
Abhinihita,
or 6 (135): thus,
85.
But
claring the
te
initial
'bruvan, from
further,
(naturally
the
grave a
te
is
absorbed by
abruvan;
t>
'bravit,
a final
from
Hindu grammarians agree
grave)
syllable
following
acute
e
so abravlt.
in de-
an acute,
whether in the same or in another word, to be svarita or
circumflex - - unless, indeed, it be itself followed by an
acute or circumflex; in which case
This
is
called
it
retains
by European scholars the
its
grave tone.
enclitic or
depend-
ent circumflex.
Thus, in tena and te ca, the syllable na and word ca are
but in tena te and te ca
regarded and marked as circumflex
svar they are grave.
:
METHODS OF WRITING ACCENT.
87]
This
seems
mean
to
which
that the voice,
29
borne up at the higher
is
the end of the acute syllable, does not ordinarily drop to grave pitch
by an instantaneous movement, but descends by a more or less perceptible
to
pitch
slide in the course
of the
following
No Hindu
syllable.
the theory of a middle or intermediate tone for the
authority
suggests
any more than
enclitic,
For the most part, the two are identified
independent circumflex.
one another, in treatment and designation.
The enclitic circumflex islikewise divided into a number of sub-varieties, with different names: they
for the
with
are of too
little
consequence
The
shown
86.
flex is
and following
it
independent
situations, while the
acute
the
enough by these
two kinds of circum-
facts
:
a.
the independent
of the acute as the proper accent of
is the mere shadow following an acute,.
in another
the
over,
of
essential difference
clearly
circumflex takes the place
a word, while the enclitic
b.
be worth reporting.
to
word
precisely as in the
same word
;
maintains its character in all
enclitic before a following circumflex or
circumflex
loses its circumflex character,
many of the systems of
c. in
and becomes grave
moremarking accent (below, 88),
;
the two are quite differently indicated.
87.
The accentuation
older literature
:
is marked in manuscripts only of the
namely, in the different Vedic texts, in two of
(Taittirlya and Qatapatha), and in the TaittiriyaThere are a number of methods of writing accent,
more or less different from one another the one found in MSS of
the Rig- Veda, which is most widely known, and of which most of
the
Brahmanas
Aranyaka.
.
;
the others are only slight modifications, is as follows
the acute
the circumflex, whether independent
syllable is left unmarked
or enclitic, has a brief perpendicular stroke above; and the grave
next preceding an acute or (independent) circumflex has a brief
:
;
Thus
horizontal stroke below.
stcfjtri
juhdti;
rp^T tanvh; WT
kva.
The introductory grave stroke below, however, cannot be given
syllable is initial, whence an unmarked syllable at the beginning
is to
be understood as acute
;
and hence
also,
if
an acute
of a
word
several grave syllables precede
an acute at the beginning of a sentence, they must
sign.
if
all
alike
have the grave
Thus,
^:
mdrah;
ft
te
;
cflf^fH
All the grave syllables, however,
karisyasi
which follow
a
;
rT%TfTT
tuvijatd.
marked circumflex are
left
unmarked, until the occurrence of another accented syllable causes the one
which precedes it to take the preparatory stroke below. Thus,
sudfcikasamdrk
but
jV__j
;
H^lfctiH^J JNIH sudfftkasamdrg gdvam
SYSTEM OF SOUNDS.
II.
30
[88
88. The other methods it is not worth while to attempt to set forth.
They may be found illustrated in the different texts, and explained by the
editors of them.
In part, their peculiarities consist in other forms or places
the acute is itself
given to the grave and circumflex signs. In some methods,
circumflex is
In
thte
above.
stroke
a
independent
several,
slight
marked, by
'
The most peculiar systems
distinguished from the enclitic.
are
the
scanty
and imperfect one of the Qatapatha-Brahmana, with a single sign, written
below and the highly intricate one of the Sama-Veda, with a dozen different
;
written above.
signs,
89. In this work, as everything given in the devanagari charit
will in general be
is also given in
transliteration,
unnecessary to mark the accent except in the transliterated form
where, however, the case is otherwise, there will be adopted the
acters
;
method*
of marking only the accented syllables, the acute
and the independent circumflex the latter by the usual svaritasign, the former by a small u (for udatta] above the syllable
:
:
thus,
*^3\
as
indra,
Mi4
dgne,
These being given, everything else which the Hindu theory recognises
dependent on and accompanying them can readily be understood as im-
plied.
90. The theory of the Sanskrit accent, as here given (a consistent and
body of phenomena), has been overlaid by the Hindu theorists,
intelligible
especially of the Praticakhyas,
more questionable character.
with a number of added features, of a
Thus
much
:
The unmarked grave
a.
syllables, following a circumflex (either at the
the near approach of another acute), are declared
to have the same high tone with the
They are called
(also unmarked) acute.
end
of a sentence,
pracaya or pracita
or
till
('accumulated':
because liable to occur in an indefinite
series of successive syllables).
b. The circumflex, whether independent or enclitic, is declared to begin
on a higher pitch than acute, and to descend to acute pitch in ordinary cases
:
the'
the
concluding instant of
case
another
of
it
being brought down
an independent circumflex
ascent of the
voice
to
higher
which
pitch
to
is
(in
grave pitch, however, in
immediately followed by
acute or independent cir-
cumflex).
This last case, of an independent circumflex followed by acute or cirreceives peculiar written treatment.
In the Rig- Veda method, a
cumflex,
or 3 is set after the circumflexed
fignre
vowel,
long, and the signs of accent are thus applied:
1
*
according as
it
is short or
Introduced by Bohtlingk, and used in the Petersburg lexicon and elsewhere.
ACCENT.
93]
:
31
apsv alntdh from apsu antdh;
raybS 'vdnih from rayo avdnih
The other methods, more
or less akin with this,
scholastic utterance of such a syllable is
In the
or roulade of the voice,
which
called
is
Panini gives the ambiguous
C.
kampa
name
.
need not be given.
or
made
a peculiar quaver
vikampana.
of eka$ruti
('monotone')
to the
pra-
and says nothing of the uplifting of the circumflex to a higher
plane: he teaches, however, a depression below the grave pitch for the marked grave syllable before acute or circumflex, calling it sannatara (otherwise
cita syllables,
anudattatara).
91. The system
ed
the
in
artificial
of accentuation as
recitation
traditional
which
in
form,
(equally, the enclitic
the
of
marked
in the Vedic texts has
the Brahmanic
designated
syllables,
schools
grave
assum-
a peculiar
and
and
circumflex
and the independent circumflex), have acquired a conthe acute, has sunk into insigni-
while the undesignated,
spicuous value,
ficance *.
92. The Sanskrit accent taught in the native grammars and
represented by the accentuated texts is essentially a system of
No general attempt is made (any more than
word-accent only.
in the Greek system) to define or mark a sentence-accent, the
emphasis and modulation of the sentence in moThe only
difying the independent accent of individual words.
approach to it is seen in the treatment of vocatives and personal
effect of the
verb-forms.
vocative is usually without accent except at the beginning
for further details, see the chapter on Declension.
of a sentence
personal verb-form is usually accentless in an independent clause, except when standing at the beginning of the clause
for further details, see the chapter on Conjugation.
A
:
A
:
93. Certain other words also are, usually or always, without
accent.
a.
The
particles ca,
vd, u, sma, iva, cid, svid,
fta,
are always without
accent.
b. The same
ndu, na<, tvd,
c.
The
te,
is
true of certain pronouns and pronominal stems
i?am, vas,
:
md, me,
ena-, tva-.
cases of the pronominal stem a are sometimes accented
and some-
times accentless.
An
accentless
ning of a sentence
a verse
;
a
pada
is,
word
:
is
not allowed to
also not of a
stand at
in all matters relating to accentuation,
ed like an independent sentence.
*
the begin-
pada or primary division of
Hang, Wedischer Accent, in Abh.
d. Bayr.
Akad., vol. XIII, 1874.
treat-
SYSTEM OF SOUNDS.
II.
32
94. Some words have more than a single accented syllable.
Such are
:
a. Dual collective
b.
its
A
compounds
:
own accent
as
:
also their further
as
fndravdrunau.
member
in which each
few other compounds,
vdnaspdti, brhaspdti.
tdnundpat,
irregularly
retains
In a rare case or two,
compounds, as brhaspdtipramitta.
C. Infinitive datives in tavdf: as etavaf,
d.
A
word naturally barytone, but having
78.
The particle vdvd (in the Brahmanas).
final syllable
its
protracted
:
see above,
e.
On
95.
krit
the
word there
the
either
place
is
no
number
following syllables.
restriction
or
the
whatever depending upon
or
of the
quantity
The accent
derivation
or
inflection
of the accented syllable in a Sans-
preceding
or
where the rules of
rests
composition
place
it,
without
regard to any thing else.
Thus, indre, agnau, indrena, agnina, agriintim, bahucyuta,
dnapacyuta, parjdnyajinvita, abhimatisahd dnabhimlatavarna, abhicas}
ticatana,
96.
ture,
hiranyavacimattama
Since the accent
and
the
.
is
statements
marked only
of
the grammarians,
deduced rules of accentuation, are
to
settle
all
cases,
the place
is
a general
from being
far
of the
considerable part of the vocabulary
it
in the older litera-
is
stress
with the
sufficient
of voice for a
undetermined. Hence
habit with European scholars to pronounce
Sanskrit words according to the rules
of the Latin accent.
In this work, the accent of each word and form will
in general be marked, so far as there is
authority determining its
97.
place and character.
Where
specific
words and forms are quoted,
as they are found with
they will only be so far accentuated
accent in accentuated texts.
33
103]
CHAPTER
III.
RULES OF EUPHONIC COMBINATION.
Introductory.
THE
98.
elements composing a language as
words.
These are in part uninflected
vocables (indeclinables, particles)
in the main, they are inflected forms.
99. The inflected forms are analy sable into inflective endings, of declension or of conjugation, and inflected stems to
which those endings are added.
used
actually
individual
are
its
;
100.
The
again, are for the most part
part the uninflected words
analysable into
derivative endings or suffixes, and roots, to which, either directly
are
as
also
or through
inflected stems,
in
more primary stems, those endings
are added.
But, not a few stems and particles are irreducible to roots
;
and, on the
other hand, roots are often used directly as inflected
stems, in declension as
well as in conjugation.
The roots are, in the condition of the language as
before us, the ultimate attainable elements
to a great
extent not actually ultimate, but, where otherwise, the result of
processes of development too irregular and obscure to be made
the subject of treatment in a grammar.
101.
it
lies
;
102. The formative processes by which both inflectional
forms and derivative stems are made, by the addition of endings
and to roots, are more regular and transparent in Santhan in any other Indo-European language, and the grammatical analysis of words into their component elements is
to bases
skrit
Hence it became the method of the
correspondingly complete.
native grammarians, and has continued to be that of their European successors, to teach the language by presenting the endings
and stems and roots in their analysed forms, and laying down
the
ways in which these are to be combined together to make
And hence a statement of the euphonic rules which
words.
govern the combination of elements occupies in Sanskrit grammar
a more prominent and important place than in other grammars.
103. Moreover, the formation of compound words, by the
putting together of two or more stems, is a process of very
and this kind of combination
exceptional frequency in Sanskrit
also has its own euphonic rules.
And once more, in the form
;
Whitney, Grammar.
3
III-
34
in
EUPHONIC COMBINATION.
which the language
is
handed down
[103
us
to
by the
litera-
ture, the words composing a sentence or paragraph are adapted
to and combined with each other by nearly the same rules which
govern the making of compounds, so that it is impossible to
take apart and understand the simplest sentence in Sanskrit
Hence also a greatly added
without understanding those rules.
degree of practical importance
euphonic combination.
This euphonic interdependence
unknown
to
be
of
belonging
the
to
the
subject
words of a sentence,
which
of
is
any other language in anything like the same degree, is shown
least in considerable measure artificial, implying an erection into
to
at
necessary and invariable rules
of
what in
the living language
optional practices, by the evidence of the older dialect of the
were only
Vedas and the
younger Prakritic dialects, in both of which these rules (especially as regards
hiatus: 113) are very often violated.
104. We have, therefore, in the first place to consider the
euphonic principles and laws which govern the combination of
the elements of words
and
(and the elements of the sentence)
then afterward to take up the subject of inflection, under the
two heads of declension and conjugation to which will succeed
some account of the classes of uninnected words.
;
:
105. The formation of conjugatioixal stems (tense and
mode-stems, etc.) will be taught, as is usual, in connection
with the processes of conjugational inflection that of uninflected
;
in
connection with the
various classes of those words.
But the general subject of derivation, or the formation of declinable stems, will be taken
up by itself later for a brief presentation
and it will be followed by an account of the formation
of compound stems.
words,
;
Although, namely, the general plan of this series of grammars excludes
subject of derivation, yet, because of the comparative simplicity and
regularity of the principal processes of derivation in Sanskrit, and the
importance to the student of
to trace those
accustoming himself from the
the
beginning
processes, in connection with the analysis of derived forms, back to the root,
an exception will be made in
regard to the subject in the present work.
106.
chapter,
We
assume,
then, for the purposes of the present
the existence of the material of the
language in a
grammatically analysed condition, in the form of roots, stems,
and endings.
What is to be taken as the proper form of a root or
not in all cases clear.
Very many of both classes show
a part of their derivatives a
stronger and in a part a weaker
form (260).
This is, in most cases, the
only difficulty affecting
107.
stem
m
is
108
INTRODUCTORY.
]
stems
we
whether, for example,
35
speak of derivatives in
shall
mat or in mant, of comparatives in yas or in yam, of a perfect
The Hindu grammarians
participle in vat or in vaiis or in us.
usually give the weaker form as the normal one, and derive the
other from it by a strengthening change
some European authorities adopt the one form and some the other
the question is an
unessential one, giving rise to no practical difficulty.
;
:
108. As regards the roots, the difficulty is greater, partly
because complicated with other questions, arising from practices
of the Hindu grammarians, which have been more or less widely
followed by their European successors.
Thus
:
whole number of roots given by the Hindu
authorities (which are over 2000) have never been found actually used in
the literature; and although some of these may yet come to light, or may
More than half
a.
the
of
have existed without finding their way into any of the preserved literary
documents, it is certain that most are fictitious, made in part for the explanation of words claimed to be their derivatives, and in part for other and
perhaps unexplainable reasons. Of the roots unauthenticated by traceable
use no account will be
made
this
in
grammar
if at
or,
all
considered,
they will be carefully distinguished from the authenticated.
Those roots
b.
n and
after
*
of
certain
which the
prefixes
initial
n and
s
are
regularly converted to
by the Hindu grammarians given
are
as be-
ginning with n and s: no European authority follows this example.
c. A number of roots ending in a which is irregularly treated in the
inflection
of the
present-system
e or at or o;
thongs
and
so,
are written
after this
Here they will be regarded as a-roots
in
the
example, by
Hindu
lists
with diph-
many Western
scholars.
compare below, 251. The o of such
no forms made from the root justify it.
roots, especially, is purely arbitrary
d. The roots showing interchangeably r, ar, and ir and Ir or ur and ur
forms are written by the Hindus with r, or with f, or with both.
Here also
the f is arbitrary and indefensible.
As between r and ar, even the latest
:
;
European authorities are at variance, and it may be left to further research to
settle whether the one or the other is alone worthy to be accepted. Here (mainly
as a matter
of convenience
:
compare below, 237) the r-forms
will be used.
In the other cases of roots showing a stronger and a weaker form,
choice is in great measure a matter of minor consequence
unless further
research and the settlement of pending phonetic questions shall show that
e.
the
one or the other
point of view of the
is
decidedly the
Sanskrit
alone,
truer and
more
the question
is
original.
often
From
impossible
the
to
determine.
The Hindus
simple roots a number of derived stems
daridra ; present-stems, as urnu ; and
denominative stems, as avadhir, kumar, sabhaj, mantr, santv, arth, and the
f.
reduplicated ones,
like.
as
classify
didhi,
as
:
jagr,
These are in European works generally reduced to their true value.
But it is impossible to draw any definite line between these cases
g.
III.
36
EUPHONIC COMBINATION.
[108
and others in which root-forms evidently of secondary origin have attained a
or quite entitles
degree of independent value in the language which almost
them
to
rank as individual roots.
same root
vad and vand,
as
cit
Even the weak and strong forms of the
and cint, mah and mahh
may have
such a difference of use that they count as two
;
or a difference of inflection
as
combined with a difference of meaning in a root has the same effect
in vr vrnoti and vr vrnlte, in ha jahati and ha jihite; or an evident present-
stem becomes a separate root
in
more
as
Not a few roots occur
jinv and pinv.
or less clearly related groups,
the
members
of
which are of various
Thus, a considerable class of roots show an added a;
and dhma are reckoned only as side-forms of man and
degrees of independence.
mna
and such as
dham; while
manner,
pra,
Jra,
as
figure
pya, psa, and others, presumably
made
from their probable originals.
separate
same
in the
Many
con-
final
have the value of "root-determinatives", or elements of
A class of derivative
obscure or unknown origin added to simpler forms.
sonants
of roots
show signs
roots
of reduplication,
as caks,
development, as bhaks and bhiks, ?rus,
)o contain a preposition fused with a
dudh; or of a desiderative
Yet another class seem
jaks,
afes,
root,
naks.
as
vyac, ap
}
and the later ujh
and vyas.
With most
rather of
of such cases it is not the part of a Sanskrit
grammar, but
Indo-European comparative grammar, to deal according
character.
We must be content to accept as roots what
a general
to their historical
elements seem to have on the whole that value in the existing condition of
with due recognition of authorized differences of opinion on
the language;
points, as
many
things
now
well
the fact that
as of
further knowledge will set
many
doubtful in a clearer light.
Principles of Euphonic Combination.
109.
different,
a.
The
rules
of combination are in
some respects
according as they apply
to the internal
make-up of a word, by the addition
to roots and stems;
of derivative and inflectional endings
b.
to
the
more external putting together of stems to
stems, and the yet looser and more acci-
make compound
dental collocation of words in the sentence.
Hence they
combination
(or
are
usually divided into rules of internal
sandhi,
-putting
together'),
and rules
of
external combination.
110. In both classes of cases, however, the general princiand likewise, to a great
ples of combination are the same
The differences depend in part on
extent, the specific rules.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES.
113]
37
the occurrence or non-occurrence of certain combinations in the
one class or the other in part, on the difference of treatment of
the same sound as final of a root or of an ending, the former
;
in part, on the
being much more persistent than the latter
occurrence in external combination of certain changes which
are apparently phonetic but really historical
and, most frequent
and conspicuous of all, on the fact that (157) vowels and se;
;
mivowels and nasals exercise a sonantizing influence
Hence, to avoid
combination, but not in internal.
repetition as well as the separation of what really
gether, the rules for both kinds of combination will be
in connection with one another.
in external
unnecessary
belongs togiven below
Moreover, before case-endings beginning with bh and
(namely, bhis, bhyas, bhyam, su}, the treatment of the finals
of stems is in general the same as in the combinations of words
whence those endings are sometimes
(pada) with one another
called jt?ae?a-endings, and the cases they form are known as padaAnd with some of the suffixes of derivation the same is
cases.
111.
*
the case.
The importance
of this
ordinary statement of
it.
In
distinction
fact,
dh
is
somewhat exaggerated by the
is
the only sonant mute initial of an
and the difference of
ending occurring in conjugation, as bh in declension
treatment is in part owing to the one coming into collision usually
;
their
and the other of an ending, and in part to the fact
more assimilable to palatals and linguals than bh.
A more marked and problematic distinction is made between su and the
verbal endings si, sva, etc., especially after palatal sounds and s.
with the
final of a root
that dh, as a dental,
is
112. The leading rules of internal combination are those which are of
highest and most immediate importance to a beginner in the language, since
his first task is to master the principal paradigms of inflection; the rules of
external combination
may
with words in sentences,
better be left untouched until he comes to dealing
Then, however, they are indis-
or to translating.
pensable, since the proper form of the words
not to be determined without them.
that
compose the sentence
is
The general principles of combination underlying the
euphonic rules, and determining their classification, may be stated
as follows
113.
:
Hiatus.
A
hiatus
is
avoided.
There are but two or three words in the language which
in their accepted written form exhibit successive vowels forming
different
syllables
:
they are
titau,
'sieve'
(perhaps
for
titasu,
and, in RV.,
'wagon-pole' (for pray uga ?}
BE,.) and prdilga,
suuti.
For the not infrequent instances of composition and
sentence combination where the recent loss of s or y or v
leaves a permanent hiatus, see below, 132ff., 175 b, 177.
;
[113
has been already noticed that in the Veda, as the metrical form of
is no avoidance of hiatus, either as between
plainly shows, there
It
the
EUPHONIC COMBINATION.
III.
38
hymns
and endings of words, between the members of compounds,
the stem-finals
In cases innumerable, a y
between the words composing a sentence.
or
a
two
after
long vowel and consonant) are
and v (especially
consonants,
But also a long vowel is sometimes to be resolved into
to be read as i and u.
or
two syllables
oftenest,
a into a-a :
this resolution is
sometimes
historical,
For details, see below. It is with regard
but ordinarily purely metrical.
to the hiatus that the rules of the grammatically regulated classical Sanskrit
are most demonstrably and conspicuously different from the more living usages
of the sacred dialect.
114.
Deaspiration.
An
aspirate
lose its aspiration, being allowed to
mute
is liable
to
stand unchanged only
before a vowel or semivowel or nasal.
115.
Assimilation.
The
great
as elsewhere,
changes in Sanskrit,
falls
body of euphonic
under the general
which takes place both between
head of assimilation
sounds which are so nearly alike that the difference between
them
is
too insignificant to be worth preserving,
those which are
and between
diverse as to be practically incompat-
so
ible.
116. In part,
one sound
assimilation involves
to another of the
articulating position ; in part,
same
it
series,
the conversion
of
without change of
involves a change of position,
or transfer to another series.
117. Of changes within the series, the most frequent and
important occur in the adaptation of surd and sonant sounds to
one another
but the nasals and I have also in certain cases
;
their special assimilative influence.
Thus:
In the two classes of non-nasal mutes and spirants, surd and sonant
are wholly incompatible ; no surd of either class can either precede or follow
a.
a sonant of either.
A mute, surd or sonant, is assimilated by being changed to its correspondent of the other kind of the spirants, the surd s is the only one having
a sonant correspondent, namely
it is convertible in external
r, to which
;
combination.
b.
The nasals are more freely combinable: a nasal may either precede
mute of either kind, or the sonant spirant h; it may also follow
or follow a
a surd
spirant (sibilant);
no nasal, however, ever precedes a sibilant in the
GENERAL PRINCIPLES.
121]
interior of a
word
(it
39
changed instead to anusvara); and in external comis usually avoided by insertion of a surd mute.
is
bination their concurrence
A
c.
of
all
class,
*
semivowel has
influence
less sonantizing
still
and a vowel least
;
preceded and followed by sounds of every other
in the interior of a word.
both
:
are
freely
Before a sibilant, however, is found, of the semivowels, only r and very
I.
Moreover, in external combination, r is often changed to its surd
rarely
5.
corrspondent
But
d. In composition and sentence-collocation, initial vowels and semivowels
and nasals also require the preceding final to be sonant. And
e. Before a nasal and i, the assimilative process is sometimes carried
by the conversion of a
further,
mute
final
to a nasal or
I
respectively.
Of conversions involving
a change of articulate posithe most important are those of dental sounds to lingual,
118.
tion,
and, less often, to palatal.
a. The dental s and n are
influence
assimilating
of
A
lingual
when
The dental mutes and
But
d.
made
and n by the
the
neighboring lingual sounds
which have themselves
and w-vowels and k
non-nasal dental mute
combination)
c.
i
:
frequently converted to
or
contiguous
even by sounds
namely,
no lingual character.
b.
Thus
"very
it
is
:
,
a
(with
comes into
sibilant are
made
few exceptions in external
with a lingual sound.
collision
palatal
by a contiguous
palatal.
also:
A m
(not radical)
is
assimilated
to
a following consonant,
of
what-
ever kind.
119. The euphonic combinations of the palatal mutes, the
palatal sibilant, and the aspiration, as being sounds derived by
phonetic alteration from more original gutturals (42 ff.), are
made
sion
their reverpeculiar and complicated by two circumstances
a guttural form (or the appearance of the unaltered
:
to
and the different treatment of/ and h
guttural instead of them^
according as they represent one or another degree of alteration
the one tending, like c, more to the guttural reversion, the
;
other showing, like
The
c,
a
more
sibilant
and lingual character.
of derivative character
lingual
(from dental s} shows as radical final a peculiar and problematic
mode of combination.
120.
sibilant
s,
also
:
121.
Extension and abbreviation of conso-
nant-groups.
The native grammarians allow
or require
by duplication or insertion, of groups of
And, on the other hand, abbreviation of cer-
certain extensions,
consonants.
*
In conformity with general phonetic law: see Sievers, Lautphysiologie, p. 140.
III.
40
tain other groups
is
EUPHONIC COMBINATION.
allowed,
[121
and found often practised
in
the manuscripts.
122.
Permitted Finals. The
of consonants at the end of a word
In general,
stricted.
sibilant,
only one consonant
nor a semivowel
mute, nor a sonant mute
aspirate
123.
more
quite
is
narrowly reallowed after
vowel; and that must be neither the
the last
nor a
permitted occurrence
is
if
Besides these
accompanying the combination
make up words,
of the parts that
nor an
not nasal, nor a palatal.
Increment and Decrement.
or less regular changes
aspiration,
(save rarely 5J^,
there
is
another class of
a somewhat different character, not consisting in the mutual
adaptations of the parts, but in strengthening or weakening
changes of the parts themselves.
124. It is impossible to carry through a
perfectly systematic
arrangement of the detailed rules of euphonic combination, because the different varieties of euphonic change more or less
The order followed below
overlap and intersect one another.
will be as follows
:
Rules of vowel combination, for the avoidance of hiatus.
2. Rules as to permitted finals (since these underlie the
farther treatment of final consonants in external combination).
1.
Rules for loss of aspiration of an aspirate mute.
Rules of surd and sonant assimilation, including those
for final s and r.
3.
4.
5.
and
Rules for the
conversion
of
dental
sounds
to
lingual
palatal.
6. Rules for the changes of final nasals, including those in
which a former final following the nasal reappears in combi-
nation.
7.
sounds
Rules regarding the special changes of the derivative
the palatal mutes and sibilant, the aspiration, and
the lingual sibilant.
8. Rules as to
extension
and abbreviation of consonant
groups.
9.
Rules for strengthening and weakening processes.
Everywhere, rules for more sporadic and less classifiable cases
will be given in the most practically convenient connection
and
the Index will render what help is needed toward finding them.
;
VOWEL COMBINATION.
127]
41
Rules of Vowel Combination.
125.
The concurrence
of two vowels, or of vowel and
is
forbidden by
the euphony of the later or classical language.
It is avoided,
diphthong, without intervening consonant,
according to the circumstances of the case,
either
by fusion
of the two concurrent sounds into one. by the reduction of
one of them to a semivowel, or by development of a semi-
vowel between them.
The
of the
texts
euphonic rules of the
older
later,
or
Vedic dialect are written according to the
(as was pointed out above, 113)
although in them
Hence they are not to be
the hiatus is really of very frequent occurrence.
read as written, but with almost constant reversal of the processes of vowel
combination which they have
artificially
undergone.
The
rules of vowel combination, as regards both the resulting sound and its accent, are nearly the same in internal and
in external sandhi.
126.
Two
similar simple vowels, short or long, coalesce
and form the corresponding long vowel: thus, two a-yowels
two ^-vow(either or both of them short or long) form 5TT a
;
els,
els
two w-vowels. T37w; and, theoretically, two r-vow^ l\
form ^ f but it is questionable whether the case ever
,
practically occurs.
Examples
are:
sa ca 'prajah (ca -f- aprajah);
:
ail
\a
(ati -\-iva) ;
suktam (su-uktam);
cga "sit (raja -\-asit) ;
i
As
this
adhiqvarah (adhi-~i$varah).
the above examples indicate, it will be the practice everywhere in
in transliteration (but not in the devanagari text), to separate
work,
independent words and if an initial vowel of a following word has coalesced
with a final of the preceding, this will be indicated by an apostrophe
;
single if the initial vowel be the shorter, double
two different
127.
e/
initials
An
which in every case
if
it
be the longer, of the
of combination yield the
same
result.
*- vowel to
a-vowel combines with a following
to
R o ; with ^J r, to STT ar ; with
with an w-vowel,
*
^T
EUPHONIC COMBINATION.
III.
42
to
theoretically',
3^al;
or 5t au, to 3T #M.
5JT
with
e or
^
Examples
|127
^
to
ai,
^
a*/ with
are:
I?RT rajendra (raja-indra);
hitopadegah (hita-upadec,ah).;
\\
maharsih (maha - rsih);
(sa
va
cvaj;
}
-
rajaigvaryam (raja aigvaryam);
-
divaukasah (diva
okasah);
jvarausadham (jvara ausadham)
In some of the Vedic texts, the vowel
a- vowel, which,
if
long,
The two vowels, however,
When
from indra
is
thus,
maharsih
unchanged
after the
instead of maharsiti.
are usually pronounced as one syllable.
successive words
combination, to indra,
'hi,
shortened:
is
.
r is written
like
made
indra a
first,
ihi
are
and the result
be combined,
to
is
"
indre
'/u
the
first
(not indrai
"
e 'hi).
regards the accent of these vowel combinations, it is
be noticed that, a. as a matter of course, the union of acute
with acute yields acute, and that of grave with grave yields grave
b. a circumflex
that of circumflex with circumflex cannot occur
with following acute yields acute, the final grave element of the
former being raised to acute pitch a grave with following acute
does the same, as no upward slide of the voice on a syllable is
but, c. when the former of the
acknowledged in the language
128.
As
to
:
;
;
;
acute and the latter grave, we might expect
the resulting syllable to be in general circumflex, to represent
both the original tones.
Panini in fact allows this accent in
fused elements
is
every such case; and in a single accentuated Brahmana text (QB.),
the circumflex is regularly written. But the language shows, on
the whole, an indisposition to allow the circumflex to rest on
either long
vowel or diphthong as
element
suffered to raise the other to its
is
its
sole basis,
and the acute
own
level of pitch,
exception to this,
making the whole syllable acute. The only
in most of the texts, is the combination of i and t, which becomes I: thus, div\ 'va, from divi iva; in the Taittiriya texts
alone such a case follows the general rule, while u and u, instead, make ^: thus, shdgata from sii-udgata.
> 129.
The
e-vowels, the
dissimilar vowel or
each into
r.
!f
its
own
Examples
w-vowels,
a diphthong,
are
and
:
r,
regularly
corresponding semivowel,
are
ft
ET
before a
converted
y or
cf
v or
VOWEL COMBINATION.
132]
ity
aha
madhv
(iti -\-
iva
43
aha) ;
(madku -f- wa);
duhitrarthe (duhitr-arthe);
stry asya (strl-\-asya);
^tf vadhvdi (vadhu-ai).
and
and
two consonants, where
of pronunciation would
But in internal combination (never in external) the
w-vowels are not seldom changed instead to iy and uv
or after
this especially in monosyllables,
i
otherwise a group of consonants difficult
The cases will be noticed below, in explaining
be the result.
inflected forms.
radical a-vowel is converted into y even before i in per-
A
fect tense-inflection
so ninyima
(nirit -|- ima)
the
accent
here, as in the preceding
regards
case (128), the only combination requiring notice is that of an
acute i or w-vowel with a following grave
the result is circum-
130.
:
.
As
:
and such cases of circumflex are many times more frequent
than any and all others. Examples are
flex
;
:
vyusti (vt-usti); ER^ffcT abhyarcati ;
fr
nadyau (nadi-au);
H*W
svuta (su-istaj;
Of a similar combination of acute
case has been noted in accented texts
the accentuation is
131.
ed to
its
Of
following grave, only a single
namely, vijndtr etdt (B. xiv. 6. 8
in accordance with the rules for i and u.
a diphthong, the final
i
or w-element
corresponding semivowel. ^ y or
:
f
tanvas (tanti-as).
:
vowel or diphthong thus, ^ e
and EJT o (that is, au) becomes
and
r with
(really ai
5(Sf
av ;
:
^
28)
ai
of 0,
is
n
)
:
chang-
before any
becomes %m
becomes
ay,
SHIT ay,
au becomes 35R av.
^
No change of accent, of course, occurs here; each original
syllable retains its syllabic identity, and hence also its own tone.
Examples can be given only for internal combination, since in external
combination there are further changes: see the next paragraph.
^ naya
Thus,
(ne-a); ^TFT
naya (nai-a);
bhava
H^
(bko-a); >TR bhava (bhau-a).
132. In external combination, we have the important
^
additional rule that the semivowel resulting from the conversion of the final element
of a diphthong
is
in general
III.
44
dropped;
EUPHONIC COMBINATION.
and the resulting hiatus
is
[132
left
without further
change.
133.
That
is
a final
to say.
quent case) becomes simply
(except % a: see 135, below),
changed; and a
a.
where)
final
^
^
a
3f
e
an
initial
fre-
vowel
and both then remain un-
in like manner,
ai,
most
(by far the
before
becomes (every-
Thus,
ta
t
agatah
(te -\-
agatah);
nagara iha (nagare
-f-
7^/
adadat (tasmai -f- adadat);
uktam (striyai-{~uktam).
The
later
grammarians allow the
such combinations to be either
in
i/
retained or dropped; but the uniform practice of the MSS., of every age,
in accordance with the strict requirement of the Vedic grammars (Pratigakhyas),
is
to
omit the semivowel and leave the hiatus.
persistence of the hiatus caused by this omission is a plain indication of the comparatively recent loss of the intervening consonantal sound.
The
Instances of the combination of the remaining final and initial are not unknown,
but they are of sporadically rare occurrence.
/ 134.
final as:
The diphthong o (except as phonetic alteration of
175 a) is an unusual final, appearing only in the
see
stem go (356), in the voc. sing, of w-stems, in words of which
the final a is combined with the particle u, as atho, and in a
few interjections.
In the last two
classes
it
is
uncombinable
the vocatives sometimes retain the v and sometimes
(below, 138)
lose it (the practices of different texts are too different to be
briefly stated); go (in composition only) does not lose its final
;
A
final as becomes
element, but remains gav or go.
following hiatus, before any vowel save a (for which,
next paragraph).
The
of
fiic<ef
STR av from
v of
aft
au
is
usually retained
:
a,
see
with
the
thus,
tav eva (tau -\-eva) ;
3H"i(e(-*ii4l
ubhav indragm (ubhau -\- indragm)
.
In some texts, however, it is lost before an w-vowel, the a alone
remaining, with hiatus; in at least one text (Kathaka), it is dropped before
every vowel.
135.
The
later
grammarians allow
After final
^
e or
^
it to
o.
an
be either retained or dropped.
initial ?J
a disappears.
The resulting accent is as if the a were not dropped, but
rather absorbed into the preceding
diphthong, having its tone
VOWEL COMBINATION.
137J
45
duly represented in the combination.
If, namely, the e or o is
grave or circumflex and the a acute, the former becomes acute
if the e or o is acute and the a
grave, the former becomes circumflex, as usually in the fusion of an acute and a grave element.
If both are acute or both grave, no change, of course,
is seen in the result.
Examples are
;
:
'bruvan
te
abruvan);
(te
so 'bravit (sdh abravit);
t
hihsitavyd 'gnih (hinsitavydh agnih);
y aa>
indro 'bravit (ydd indrah dbramt);
yddrajanyo 'bramt (yddrajanydh dbravit).
As
16.
above,
will
avagraha sign in the case of such an elision, see
In transliteration, the reversed apostrophe, or rough breathing,
to the use of the
be used in this \vork to represent it.
This elision or absorption of initial a after
which in the
final e or o,
language is the invariable rule, is in the Veda only
occurrence; and there is no close accordance with regard to
an occasional
later
it
between the
In the Atharvan, for exwritten and the spoken form of the Vedic texts.
ample, the a is omitted in writing in about one third of the cases, but is
number
be omitted in reading in less than one fifth (including a
the written text preserves it).
See APr. iii. 54, note.
to
To
rules of vowel
the
be noticed where they come
in
up
the
processes of inflection
a few require mention here.
;
In internal combination
136.
:
The augment a makes with
a.
combinations
the
combination, as above stated, there
of the more isolated of these will
Some
are certain exceptions.
etc.
in which
at,
au,
as required
the initial vowel of a root
ar (vrddhi-vowels),
instead
of
e,
o,
ar
by 127.
(ywraz-vowels),
b. The final o of a strengthened stem (238 b) becomes
av before the
suffix
ya (originally za);
C. The final vowel of a stem
is
is
often dropped
when
a secondary suffix
added.
For the weakening and loss of radical vowels, and for certain insertions,
see below,
249 ff.,
The final a or o of a
makes ar instead of ar.
a.
root,
b.
2578.
In external combination
137.
The
final
:
preposition,
with
initial r
a of a preposition before roots beginning with
of a
e or o is
usually omitted.
C.
d.
A
final
The
a in composition may be cut off before otu and ostka.
uh from yvah sometimes makes the heavier (vrddhi)
form
III.
4(j
EUPHONIC COMBINATION.
a preceding a
diphthongal combination with
;
akmuhini
thus, prauha. praudhn,
(from pra-uha etc.).
Certain final vowels, moreover, are uncombinable
138.
(pragrhya) , or maintain
Thus,
following vowel.
a.
sional
giri
inal
themselves unchanged before any
The vowels /, u and e as dual endings, both of declenand of conjugational forms.
Thus, landliu asate imau ;
arohatam.
b. The pronoun ami, (nom.
forms asme, yitsme, tve.
c. A final o made by combination of
and the Vedic pronom-
a final o-vowel with the particle
u
:
mo, no.
thus, atho,
e.
A
A
f.
The
d.
pi.);
final I or
u
of a
Vedic locative
case.
protracted final vowel (78).
final,
or only,
vowel of an interjection, as aho,
he,
a,
i,
u.
Permitted Finals.
139.
The sounds allowed
to occur as finals in Sanskrit
words, standing by themselves (not in euphonic combination
with something following),
are
closely limited,
which would etymologically come
to
and those
occupy such a position
are often variously altered, in general accordance with their
treatment in other circumstances, or are sometimes omitted
altogether.
The
variety of consonants
that
would ever come at the end of either
an inflected form or a derivative stem in the language
in forms, only
t
(or dj,
in a few rare words,
and every root
is
n,
j).
liable to
is
very small
:
namely,
m, s; in derivative stems, only t, d, n, r, s (and,
But almost all consonants occur as finals of roots;
be found, alone or as
last
member
of a
compound,
in the character of a declined stem.
140. All the vowel sounds, both simple and diphthongal,
may be sounded
at the
end of a word.
But neither f nor I ever actually occurs; and r is very rare (only as
neuter sing, of a stem in r or or, or as final of such a stem in composition).
Thus, indra, civdya, dkari, nadk, d&tu, camu, janayitfj dyne,
civQyai,
vnyo,
141.
Of
agnau.
the non-nasal mutes,
series, the non-aspirate surd,
is
only the
first
allowed; the others
in each
surd
PERMITTED FINALS.
145
whenever they would etymo-
and both sonants
aspirate,
47
logically occur, are converted into this.
when
In a few roots,
loses
its
sonant aspirate) thus
their final
original sonant aspiration of the
the
aspiration,
initial reappears:
compare
below. 147.
k.
cj
Tims, dagh becomes dhak, budh becomes
The
roots exhibiting this
vlrut for vlnid/t.
su/ift for suhfd,
Thus, aynimdf for agnimdth,
and so on.
Wiut,
change are stated below, 155.
There was some question among the Hindu grammarians as to whether
mute is to be estimated as of surd or of sonant quality; but the
the final
of
great weight
authority,
and the invariable practice of the MSS.,
favor
the surd.
The
142.
palatal
efi
*X
allowed as
is
k: thus,
vak,
oTTfi
*S
form here
however,
palatals,
where) an exception
:
"SnTT
prat.
The
becomes
The
final.
Jbjc^j^e^
^s.
O
3T
c reverts to
The
anhomuk.
$5"
L
,
sf
/ either
is
its
Of the
the
nasals,
*T
t
quite rare ;
n
3"
lowing
never occurs.
But the
:
thus,
Of
144.
and
it
(IT
t.
is
allowed,
but
is
after the loss of a fol-
of
words;
31
n
m of a root is changed to n (compare 212.
dgan from gam, dnan from nam.
the semivowels, the FT
is
The
very rare.
H
s: 145)
v there is
of
n
HI
number
small
very
occur,
to
final
correspondent,
and
a
thus,
combi-
The sfi/^ does not
found (remaining
is
in
^1 k)
:
m and ^ n are extremely comm and H s are of all final
consonants the most frequent); the
final,
T,
in accordance with its treatment in other
mon, especially the former
below)
original
ch (extremely
by the native grammarians declared convertible
143.
No
reverts to its original guttural or
nations (219): thus, pTERI bhisdk, virat.
ET 17
y
x
often else-
perhaps only in the root 5f^ prach) becomes
rare
but
(as
the rules for the other mutes.
to
^
r
changed
I
is
as
alone
an admitted
is
(like its nearest
final to
visarga.
surd
Of
no occurrence.
-v.
145.
Of the
end of a word.
none may stand unaltered
sibilants,
The R
-x
s
(which
\
of
all
final
at the
consonants
EUPHONIC COMBINATION.
III.
48
is like
would otherwise be the commonest)
The
breathing, the visarga.
5R
some
in
or,
,
is
roots,
changes in inflection
with
its
The
*T s
is
Final radical
dhvat from
to
of
;
by the
said
is
s
J.
to
grammarians
example of the
but no
dhvas :
to a
changed
changed to ^ t (in accordance
and derivation see below, 218).
of very rare occurrence
is
t
r
^"
either reverts to its original
$T^?
likewise changed to
The change
[
:
226.
see below,
be changed
conversion
to t:
thus,
occur
to
appears
:
see 168.
The compound
146.
*T
simple
is
^{
ks
is
prescribed to be treated as
becoming sfj k by 150, below). But the case
and its actual treatment in the older language
(not
a rare one.
irregular.
In the only RV. cases where the ks has a quasi-radical character
the conversion is to
anafcs, and dmyak from ymyaks
of forms of the s-aorist
etc.
for
(adhdks-t
And AV.
(see this aorist below)
but
etc.);
has in two cases
also
srah
aprat,
e.
(i.
we have adhak,
namely
k.
Also
asrafc,
araife,
andk from
ayat (for apraks-t
apparently for asraks-s,
dbhrat,
sras),
etc.).
from
ysrj (wrongly referred by BR. to j/srcms).
The numeral
its
ks treated as
The
147.
itself,
s,
but
a,
is
'six',
perhaps better to be regarded as
aspiration
(like
j^
^
and
/
h
is
both in accordance with
$F g]
And,
its
or
is
changed
thus becomes unaspirated.
original
V^dh
The
148.
ical finals
final
some
H^5
149.
it
visarga
the former
;
or
later
(223),
^
r;
to Z
t
treatment in inflection; see be-
also as in inflection,
the
becomes
sonant
original
aspiration of a few roots (given at 155) reappears
final
maintain
not allowed to
either reverts to its original
guttural form, appearing as 3T k,
low, 222.
with
safes,
according to the accepted rule.
Where the
^
when
their
h
from
is
rT t.
and anusvara are nowhere etymologis
only the substitute for an original
the latter occurs as final only
grammarians allow
it
to
so far as
be substituted for
Apart from the vowels, then, the usual
nearly in the order of their frequency,
are
:
#,
*T
m-
finals,
q m, ^N n,
PERMITTED FINALS.
152]
^
rf t,
3" n,
^ p,
k,
^l,
those of only sporadic occurrence are
t ;
and,
n,-
tIT
49
by permitted
-
substitution,
m.
In general, only one consonant, of whatever kind,
150.
allowed to stand at the end of a word; if two or more
would etymologically occur there, the last is dropped, and
again the last, and so on, till only one remains.
is
Thus, tudants becomes tudant, and this tudan ; udanc-s becomes
udank, and this udan; and achdntst (s-aor., 3d sing., of V chand]
is in like manner reduced to achan.
But a non-nasal mute, if radical and not suffixal, is retained after r
thus, urk from urj, vdrk from )A>r/, dmart from
The case is not a common one.
ymrj, suhurt from suhdrd.
:
For
relics of
former double
finals,
preserved by the later language under
207 ff.
the disguise of apparent euphonic combinations, see below,
151. Anomalous conversions of a final mute to one of another class are
occasionally met with.
Examples are:
a. Of final t to fc, in a few words that have assumed a special value
as particles:
(beside tajdt], prthak, rdhak
thus, jytik, tdjdk
and then in a verbal form,
and in the feminines
but also
;
now
(AV. and VS. Kan.), avisyak (Parask.);
SV. has once
(as asiknl beside asita).
as savisak
km
in
prks'i for prtsu.
Of k
b.
or j to
f,
in
an isolated example or two,
as
samydt and
dsrt
(TS., K.).
In Taittiriya texts, of the
c.
as,
final of
anustubh and tristubh to a guttural
anustuk ca, tristiigbhis (Weber, Ind. St., xiii. 109 ff.).
d. Of a labial to a dental in kakud for and beside kaktibh
:
;
:
in saihsfdbhis
Excepting
(TS.) from ysrp, an d in adbMs, adbhyds, from ap or ap (chap. V).
the first, these look like cases of dissimilation
yet examples of the com;
bination
bbh
tristubbhis,
are
not
anustub
unknown
in
the
older
language:
thus,
kakubbhyam,
bhi.
For
that
all the processes of external combination
a stemcomposition and sentence-collocation
final or word-final is in general to be regarded as having, not
its etymological form, but that given it by the rules as to perFrom this, however, are to be excepted the s
mitted finals.
and r the various transformations of these sounds have nothing
to do with the visarga to which as finals before a pause they
have come
doubtless at a comparatively recent period of
to be reduced.
Words will everywhere in
phonetic history
this work be written with final s or r instead of h; and the
rules of combination will be stated as for the two more original
sounds, and not for the visarga.
152.
is to
say,
in
:
Whitney, Grammar.
4
EUPHONIC COMBINATION.
III.
50
[153
Deaspiration.
An
153.
aspirate
mute
is
changed
to its corresponding
non-nasal mute or before a sibnon-aspirate before another
a vowel or semiilant; it stands imaltered only before
vowel or nasal.
since the processes
the reduction of the aspirate to a non-
Such a case can only arise in internal combination,
of external combination presuppose
aspirate surd (152).
the rules as to changes of aspirates concern almost only
Practically, also,
the sonant aspirates, since the surd, being of later development and rarer
occurrence, are hardly ever found in situations that call for their application.
154.
Hence,
such a mute
if
doubled by prefixing
But in theMSS., both Vedic and
found written double
is
to
be doubled,
own corresponding
its
especially,
it is
non-aspirate.
an aspirate mute is not seldom
be one of rare occurrence
for
later,
if
it
:
example (BV.), akhkhali, jdjhjhatl.
In a few
155.
U
gh,
dh,
thus loses
or ^"
d or
That
when
is
*T
bh ; also
its
^
A,
a final sonant aspirate (f
as representing
aspiration, the initial
Sf V)
to
when
roots,
say,
becomes
the
an original
5J
sonant consonant
gh)
(JJ
g
aspirate.
original
initial
aspirate of
such roots
is
restored,
presence does not interfere with the euphonic law, of comparatively
recent origin, which (in Sanskrit as in Greek) forbids a root to both begin
and end with an aspirate.
its
The
roots which
in gh
in h
show
change are
:
dagh;
(for
original gh}
dah,
the later desiderative jighrksa)]
in dh
bandh, badh, budh
in bh
this peculiar
dih,
duh, druh, drhh, guh;
and grah
(in
;
dabh (but only in the later
older language has
dipsa).
desiderative
dhipsa, for which the
The same change appears when the law as to finals causes the loss of
the aspiration at the end of the root: see
above, 141.
But from dah, duh, and guh are found in the Veda also forms without
the restored initial aspirate: thus, daksnt;
aduksat, duduksa etc.; juguksa.
The same analogy is followed by dadh, the abbreviated substitute of the
present-stem dadha, from ydha, in some of the forms of conjugation; thus,
dhatthas from
dadh-+-thas, adhatta from adadh
ta, etc.
+
ASSIMILATION.
160]
51
Surd and Sonant Assimilation.
156.
Under
there
this head,
especially one very
is
mark-
and important difference between the internal combiof a root or stem with suffixes and endings, and
ed
nations
the external combinations of stem with stem in composition
and of word with word in sentence-making: namely,
157.
In internal combination,
the initial vowel or se-
mivowel or nasal of an ending of derivation or
exercises .no altering influence
root or stem to
To
this rule
there
it
upon
a final consonant of the
added.
is
are a few exceptions only
:
thus,
a reverted palatal
d before the participle-suffix na (161)
(216. 4,5)
consonant before may a (161).
sometimes before
a final
which
inflection
a nasal
;
In external combination, on the other hand,
sonant of whatever
an
5
initial
even a vowel or semivowel or
class,
nasal, requires the conversion of a final surd to sonant.
It
has been pointed out above (152) that in the rules of external coms and r, need be taken account of,
bination only admitted finals, along with
all
others being regarded as reduced to these before combining with initials.
158.
Final vowels,
and
nasals,
^T /
are
nowhere
lia-
of surd and sonant assimi-
ble to change in the processes
lation.
is
The r, however, has a corresponding surd in s, to which it
changed in external combination under circumstances that favor
a surd utterance.
159.
With
exceptions above
the
stated,
of surd and sonant sounds
is
and, regularly and
by assimilating the
following
usually,
avoided in combinations
final to the
initial.
Thus, in internal combination
-\- si
the collision
combination,
:
dtsi,
dtti,
atthds,
cagdhvdm (}/cak -\-dhi etc.);
dbhud ay dm, jyog jiva, sad aqitdyah,
qagdhi,
etc.);
attd
(yad
in external
tristub
dpi;
diggaja, sadahd, brhddbhdnu, abjd.
160.
If,
followed by
however, the
rT t
or
5T
final
th of
sonant aspirate of a root
an ending, the assimilation
4*
is
is
in
EUPHONIC COMBINATION.
III.
52
combination
the
the other direction:
the aspiration of the final
is
[160
made
and
sonant,
(lost according to 153,
is
above)
transferred to the initial of the ending.
Thus, gh with t or th becomes gdh; dh with the same becomes ddh, as baddhd (ybadh -f- ta), runddhds (^rundh -f- thus or
bh with the same becomes bdh, as laMhd (yiabh-\-ta),
tas);
labdhvh,
(Vldbh -\-foa).
Moreover, h, as representing original gh, is treated in the
and compare
same manner thus, dugdhd, dogdhum from duh
rudhd and lldhd from ruh and Uh etc., 222.
:
In this combination, as the sonant aspiration is not lost but transferred,
the restoration of the initial aspiration (155) does not take place.
In dadh from ydha (155, end), the more normal method is followed the
;
dh
made
is
surd,
and the
initial aspirated
:
thus, dhatthas, dhattas.
dagdham from ydagh.
has dhaktam instead of
Before a nasal in external combination,
161.
And RV.
mute may be simply made sonant, or
ther assimilated, being changed to the
a final
may be still furnasal of its own class.
it
Thus, either Idd ndmas or t&n ndmas, vag me or vhn me,
bdd mahan or ban mahan, tristub nundm or tristum nundm.
In practice,
the MSB.,
merely.
as,
conversion
the
it
indeed,
into a
nasal
Even by the general grammarians
position):
Even
thus,
in
162.
na
:
Before
fully assimilated,
163.
made
in
it is
required in the compound
(really a noun in com-
vanmdya, mrnmdya.
internal
participle-suffix
almost invariably
and the suffix maya
and before matra,
sdnnavati,
is
by the Praticakhyas required and not permitted
is
Before
d of a root becomes n before the
final
combination,
thus, bhinnd, sannd, tunnd.
I,
a final
becoming
^h
t
I:
is
not merely
thus,
(the case occurs
bination), a final mute
is
made
made
tdl labhate,
sonant,
but
uttuptam.
only in external com-
sonant; and then the h
may
remain unchanged or be converted into the sonant
aspirate corresponding with the former: thus, either rrf^
either
tad hi or rrf% tad dhi.
In practice,
the latter method
is
almost invariably
followed;
and the
grammarians of the Prati$akhya period are nearly unanimous in requiring
The phonetic difference between the two is very slight.
Examples are: vag ghutdh, sdddhota
dhita (tat -\-hita), anustub bhi.
(sat -\-hota),
it.
tod-
FINAL s AND
169]
Combinations
164.
53
r.
of final
s and r.
The euphonic changes of H
and
s
^"
r
best
may
be considered together, because of the practical relation of
the two sounds, in composition and sentence-collocation,
as corresponding surd
becomes
and sonant
:
in
a host of cases
r in situations requiring or favoring
^T
rence of a sonant ;
and,
less often,
H
s
the occur-
r becomes
^~
H
s
where
a surd
is required.
In internal combination, the two are far less exchangeable
with one another and this class of cases may best be taken up
:
first.
165. Final r radical or quasi-radical (that is, not belonging
an ending of derivation) remains unchanged before both surd
and sonant sounds, and even before su in declension thus, pi-
to
:
parsi,
caturthd,
cattirsu,
pursu.
166. Final radical s remains before a surd in general, and
usually before s, as in cassi, cassva, aclssu (but the last is also
written ackhsu: 172): it is however dropped in dsi (for assi :
Before a sonant (that is, bh) in declension, it is
yas-\-si).
treated as in external combination
thus, acirbhis. Before a so:
nant
(that is,
adhvdm
for
(but
in
dh)
conjugation,
cases like the latter
addhvam): in edhi
(as -\-dhi),
it
is
dropped
may be by
:
thus,
cadhi,
abbreviation [232]
the preceding vowel
is
anoma-
lously altered.
167. In a very few cases, final radical s before s is changed to t (perthey are, from yvas, the future vatsydmi and aorist
haps by dissimilation)
dvatsam; from yghas, the desiderative stem jighatsa.
:
the grammarians, the final s of certain other roots,
becomes t at the end of the word, and before bh and
su: thus, dhvat, dhvadbhis, sradbhyas, sratsu. But genuine examples of such
change do not appear to have been met with in use.
namely,
Sporadic cases of a like conversion are found in the Veda
168. According
used
as
to
noun-stems,
:
madbhts and madbhyds from ma's ; usddbhis from usds ; svdtavadbhyas from
But the reality
svdtavas ; svdvadbhis etc. (not found in use), from svdvas.
of the conversion
tution
of
here
a f-stem
for
is
open
to
a s-stem.
grave
doubt;
The same
to vat in the declension of perfect participles
is
it
rather seems the substi-
true of the change of vans
(chap. V.).
In the compounds ducchuna (dus-funa) and pdrucchepa (parus-cepa), the
final s of the first member is treated as if a t (203).
For t as apparent ending of the 3d sing, in s-verbs, see chap. VIII.
169.
As
flected forms,
the final consonant of derivative stems and of inboth of declension and of conjugation, s is extreme-
III.
54
[169
changes form a subject of first-rate imThe r, on the other hand, is
euphony.
certain forms of r-stems and
in
found
only
being
and
frequent;
ly
EUPHONIC COMBINATION.
its
in Sanskrit
portance
quite rare,
in a few particles.
The euphonic treatment
of
a and
a,
after all vowels except
it
end in
uncertain whether they
is
them.
Such are us
of the
3d
or
s
and opinions
r,
of the gen.-abl.
differ
of r-stems,
sing,
respecting
and us
(or ur}
of verbs.
plur.
170.
(or ur}
s and r yielding precisely the same result
there are certain forms with regard to which
The H
a.
already noticed
as
s,
becomes
(145),
visarga before a pause.
b.
rT t
It
%
or
the surd mutes of
thj
its
It and
~& th
it is
d.
Ir
ated,
class.
^
c
and
assimilated, becoming the sibilant
of either class respectively, namely
and
own
Before the palatal and lingual surd mutes
c.
^ ch,
only -when followed by
retained unchanged
is
ST Q
or
Ef s
.
3\ k
Before the guttural and labial surd mutes
it is also theoretically assimilM, Q p and Cfi ph
becoming respectively the jihvamuliya and upadhma-
niya spirants
(60);
but
in
practice
unknown, and the conversion
these breathings
are
to visarga.
is
Examples are: to b. tatas te, caksus te ; to c. tataq ca, tasyag chaya; to d. nalah kamam, purusah khanati ; yacah prapa,
vrksah phalavan.
171. The first three of these rules are almost universal to
the last there are numerous exceptions, the sibilant being retained (or, by 180, converted into s), especially in compounds
;
;
but
also,
in the Veda,
In the Veda,
even in sentence combination.
the retention of the
rule, the exceptions to
sibilant in
which are detailed
In the later language, the retention is
and frequency of the combination.
or the antiquity
of a preposition or a
word
compounds
the general
is
the Vedic grammars.
mainly determined by the intimacy
in
Thus, the
final
sibilant
the office of a preposition before a verbal
root is wont to be preserved; and that of a stem before a derivative of
ykr,
before pati, before kalpa and kama, and so on.
Examples are namaskara,
vacaspati,
ayuskama, payaskalpa.
The Vedic
full
retention of the sibilant in sentence-collocation
in the Praticakhyas.
preposition or
ing noun:
filling
as
its like
The
chief classes of cases are:
before a verbal form
divas putrdh, idds pade
;
;
is
detailed in
a. the final of a
b. of a genitive before a governan ablative before part: as
c. of
COMBINATIONS OF FINAL
175]
himdvatas part; d. of other less
yds pdtih, paridhfs pdtati,
classifiable cases:
as
STc,
^JT>
becoming the same
assimilated,
tris
dyaus pitd,
putvd,
etc.
172. Before an initial sibilant
either
55
s.
^^.7
s, H s
^
H^ s is
or
sibilant,
it
is
changed into visarga.
The native grammarians are in some measure at variance (see APr. ii. 40,
as to which of these changes should be made, and in part they allow
The usage of the MSS. is also discordant; the conversion
either at pleasure.
note)
prevalent practice, though the sibilant is also not infrefound
written.
European editors generally write visarga ; but the
quently
later dictionaries and glossaries make the alphabetic place of a word the
to visarga is the
same
were read instead.
as if the sibilant
are
Examples
manuh svayam
:
or
manus svayam ; indrah curah
or indrac qurah.
There are one or two exceptions to these rules:
sibilant has a surd mute after it, the final s may
173.
If the initial
a.
be
and by some authorities is required to be so dropped.
Thus, vayava stha or v&yavah stha,' catustanam or catuhstanam.
With regard to this point the usage of the different MSS. and editions
dropped altogether
is
greatly at variance.
Before
b.
(s,
the
s
allowed
is
to
become visarga, instead of being
retained.
Before a sonant,
174.
^
cept
r
:
see
unless, indeed,
vowel or consonant (ex-
H s is changed to the sonant ^ r
be preceded by [ a or TT a.
devapatir iva, crir iva ; manur gacchati, tanur
179),
it
are
Examples
either
:
apsu ; fay or adrstakamah
sarvair gunaih
;
agner manve.
For a few cases like duda$a, duna$a, see below, 199.
The endings
3^q as
tremely common)
175.
before short
it
Final 5R7
a.
and ^TH as (both of which are ex-
follow rules of their own, as follows
^ a,
is
as,
before any sonant consonant and
changed
to
m
o
and the
5f
a after
is lost.
The
resulting
accentuation, and the fact that the loss of a
casional in the older language of the Veda,
Examples
b.
its
:
H
s,
are
:
nalo nama,
is
only oc-
have been pointed out above,
brahmanyo vedavit; hantavyo
135.
'smi.
Final 3^f as before any other vowel than ^ a loses
becoming simple ^ a ; and the hiatus thus occa-
sioned remains.
EUPHONIC COMBINATION.
III.
5(>
That
is
to say,
as
treated as an original
is
same situation: see 132
in the
Examples are
176.
or an
o,
ndmaiikti.
iva,
the rules as to final as are:
to
Exceptions
would be treated
e,
4.
vrhadacva uvaca, aditya
:
[175
sas and eshas (also syas in the Veda) lose
any consonant thus, sa dadarca, esha purusah ; but
The exclamation Ihos loses its s before
sada tu sah, so 'bravit.
all vowels and all sonant consonants.
The pronouns
a.
their s before
:
b. In the Veda, and more rarely in the later language, the rule for the
maintenance of the hiatus is sometimes violated, and the remaining confor example, se 'd ague, se 'morn,
tiguous vowels are combined into one
J
saw sadhih (for sa id ague, sa imam, sa osadhih).
c. A few instances are found (almost all Vedic) of s apparently changed
:
but in nearly every case there is to be
as after other vowels
assumed, rather, a stem in ar beside that in as, evidences of the former
thus, in forms of udhas
being sometimes found in the kindred languages
and dhas (see chap. V.); in amnas (no occurrence); in bhiivas (second of the
to r after a,
:
:
trio
bhus,
bhuvas, svar), except in its oldest occurrences;
in avds (once, in
vddhar and vadhary (RV.); in
vanargu, dnarvi$, vasarhdn, sabardugha, and one or two other more doubtful
words; and in a series of words in a single passage of TS. and K., viz.
in
RV.);
usds
(voc.,
and in usarbudh};
in
ugrdr, bhimdr, tvesdr, frutdr, bhutdr, and (K. only) putdr.
jinvdr,
In
we
and vanarsdd and vanarsdd (RV.),
aharpdti (VS.),
see the
same
change even before a surd consonant.
d. Final as is once changed to o in RV. before a surd consonant: thus,
ado pito.
177. Final
loses
consonant,
as before any sonant, whether vowel or
5TTCT
its
*T s,
becoming simple
5TT
a ; and the
hiatus thus occasioned remains.
The maintenance
and
ai
(above,
the
of
hiatus in
seems
1334),
these
cases,
as
in that of o and e
to indicate a recent loss of
the intermediate
Opinions are divided as to what this should have been.
sound.
the native grammarians assimilate the case of as to that of
Final ^"
r,
in general, shows the
H-\ s would show under
a.
Original final r,
ed before a sonant
:
Some
of
assuming the
but probably only as a matter of formal
conversion to ay in both alike
convenience in rule-making.
178.
ai,
same form which
the same conditions.
But
maintains itself unchangpratar-jitj dhar dkmna, dkar
after a or a,
thus,
punar
eti,
jyotih.
b.
Also before a surd,
suarcanas, svarcaksas,
r is
preserved in a few Vedic compounds
yvarpati, svarsd,
svbrsati;
dhursdd, dhurs&h;
:
thus,
purpati.
CONVERSION OF
181]
On
the
other hand,
57
s.
In some of these, the r
vdrkaryd, dfirpada, punartta.
even in the later language.
c.
TO
s
r
is
like
lost,
s,
in
is
optionally retained
one or two Vedic cases:
aksd fnduh, aha evd.
A
double r is nowhere admitted: if such would occur,
179.
either by retention of an original r or by conversion of * to r,
one r is omitted, and the preceding vowel, if short, is made
long by compensation.
some Vedic
In
tial
however (Yajur-Veda), ar becomes
texts,
before ini-
o
r; thus, svb rohdva.
3U
Conversion of
The dental
1 80.
H
to
changed to the lingual
if immediately preceded by any vowel save Ef a and
ET 5,
unless the H s be final, or fola, or by fi k or ^" r
lowed by ^~ r.
v
sibilant
s is
m
The
vowel
to a
assimilating
influence
obvious enough;
is
somewhat retracted position
utterance, causing
its
tip
to
the
of
that of
fc
of
preceding lingual vowels and semito be due
and the other vowels appears
mouth during
mouth more easily
the
the tongue in
reach the roof of the
their
at a
point further back than the dental one.
The general Hindu grammar prescribes the same change after a I also;
but the Pratic.akhyas give no such rule, and phonetic considerations, the I
Actual cases of the combeing a dental sound, are decidedly against it.
bination,
if
they occur at
The vowels
all,
are excessively rare.
that cause the alteration of
s to s
may be
called
for brevity's sake "alterant" vowels.
As a consequence of this rule,
181. In the interior of a Sanskrit word,
not usually found after any vowel save a and
of
the lingual
it,
a.
tamisra.
of
the
a,
dental
but,
s
is
instead
But
s.
A
thus, usra, tisras,
following r prevents the conversion
And it is but seldom made in the forms and derivatives
a root
:
containing
an r- element
(whether r or
r),
whatever
the position of that element thus, sisarti, sisrtam, sarisrpd, tistire,
To this rule there are a few exceptions, as visfard,
parisrut.
In ajusran the final s of a
etc.
nistrta, vispardhas, gdvisthira,
:
root is preserved even immediately before
This dissimilating influence
of a following
variable assimilating influence of a preceding
b.
The recurrence
of s in successive
r,
r,
is
r.
as
compared with the inand problematical.
peculiar
syllables is
sometimes avoided by
EUPHONIC COMBINATION.
III.
58
leading the former
Other cases are
C.
sporadic
and the stems
sisicatus),
thus,
sisakti
RV. has the forms
:
kistd,
rbisa,
derivative pesuka, is found
its
but
sisaksi,
On
182.
once in (JR.
hand
other
the
in Sanskrit
s
sisice
bfsaya;
busd,
and
sisicus
(but
a single root pis,
puns and the
for
;
184c.
roots-
183.
nins and hins, see below,
the occurrence of
bfsa,
but
ydsislsthds,
see bel'-w,
Similarly, in certain desiderative formations:
ydsislmahi.
with
unchanged:
s
[181
(as was pointed out above, 62),
words is nearly limited to cases
under this rule others are rather sporadic anomalies
except where s is the product of c or ks before a dental, as in
Thus, we find:
drastum, caste, tvastar : see 218, 221).
:
falling
a.
is
Four
kas,
roots,
Zas,
bhas,
bha--,
of
which the
last is
common and
found as early as the Brahmanas.
b.
vdsat
Further, in RV.
of original
dsa, kavdsa, casala,
,
kdsthd
(for vaksat?),
(for kaksta,
-sdh (turdsdh,
s,
etc.),
Fick);
casa,
and,
dsadha, upasttit,
jdldsa, pdsyh,
baskdya,
by anomalous alteration
and probably apdsthd and
Such cases grow more common later.
The numeral sas, as already noted, is more probably
asthivdnt.
183.
words,
its
The
safes.
nasalization of the alterant vowel
or,
in other
does not prevent
being followed by anusvara
its
And
thus, havihsi, paruhsi.
altering effect upon the sibilant
the alteration takes place in the initial s of an ending after the
final s of a base, whether the latter be regarded as also changed
:
to
s
or as converted into visarga
thus,
:
havissu or havihsu,
pa-
russu or paruhsu.
But the
s of
(chap. V.) remains
puns
the retained sense of
its
value as
pums
,
unchanged, apparently on account of
also that of yhihs, because of its
value as hins (hinasti etc.); ynins (RV. only)
is
more questionable (perhaps
nims, from nam).
184.
The
bination are
In endings,
a.
su;
principal cases of alteration of
si,
s
in internal
com-
:
se,
sva
;
s
inflectional or derivative,
of sibilant-aorist, future,
suffixes sna, snu, sya, etc.
after a final
consonant of root or stem, or a union-vowel
beginning with
s
and desiderative
alterant vowel or
;
thus, juhosi, $ese,
anaisam, bhavisyami, cucruse, desna, jisnu, viksu, akarsam.
b. The final s of a stem before an
ending or suffix thus,
:
:
havisa,
manusya
Jwvisas,
etc.,
from
havis
;
caksusmant,
coctska,
manusa,
.
Roots having a final sibilant (except p) after an alterant vowel are
with the exception of fictitious ones and
pis, nins, hins
regarded as ending in s, not s; and concerning the treatment of this s in combination, see
below, 225 ff.
CONVERSION OF
188]
The
c.
is
Excepted
of a root after a reduplication
initial s
susvapa,
syade,
59
s TO s.
sisasati,
coskuyate,
in general an initial radical
the desiderative-sign "becomes s:
thus,
:
si-
sanisvanat.
s
when
in a desiderative stem,
from ysan, sisanksati from
thus, sisanisati
ysanj.
But the same change occurs
185.
on a considerable
also,
in external combination, especially in composition
thus,
Both in verbal forms and in derivatives, the final i or
:
scale,
M of a preposition or other like prefix ordinarily lingualizes the
which it is prefixed since such combinations are both of great frequency and of peculiar intimacy,
thus, abhisttc,
analogous with those of root or stem and affix
initial s of the root to
;
:
laid
anusvadhdm, suseka.
visita;
pratisthh, ntsikta,
The principal exceptions
down namely, when the
are
:
accordance
in
But there are
rence of the sibilant would take place.
and when
a recur-
of a
also others,
more
complete account of the treatment of initial
after a prefix would be a matter of great detail, and not worth
and
character;
irregular
radical
with the principles already
root contains an r-element,
s
tlie
giving here.
In a few cases, the
initial
altered
usually
,
after
retains the altered sibilant even after an interposed a of
ation
certain
prefix,
or reduplic-
ny asadama, abhy
abhy astham, pary asasvajat, vy asahanta,
thus,
:
a
augment
asincan, vy astabhnat; vi tasthe, vi tasthire.
Much more anomalous
the
is
occasional
of initial
alteration
radical
s
Such cases are ava stambh (against ni stambh
(according to the grammarians) ava svan.
a-element of a prefix.
after an
and prati stambh)
arid
In other compounds, the final alterant vowel of the
first member not infrequently (especially in the Veda) lingualizes
for example, yudhisthira, pitrsvasr,
the initial s of the second
gosthd, agnistomd, annstubh, trisandhi, divisdd, paramesthin, abhi-
186.
:
send, pitrsdd, purustutd.
A very few cases occur of the same alteration after an a-element: thus,
savyasthd,
s
when
}/sa/i,
an alterant vowel
a
s
by 146, becomes t:
:
thus,
of a
the
s
compound
often
of a prepositional
dustdra ffor dusstdra), aviskrta; and, reguretained instead of being converted to visarga before
a labial or guttural
mute
(171)
,
as havispa, jyotiskft
188. Once more, in the Veda, the same
and of a
sentence.
alteration,
;
tapuspa,
both of an
initial
even between the words composing a
The cases are detailed in the Prati^akhya belonging to each text,
final s,
is
not
infrequent
and are of very various character.
a.
final,
member
final s of the first
after
its
.
as nissidhvan,
prefix,
larly,
(but satrasdham)
The
187.
becomes
upastut; also
apasthd,
thus, satrdsdt
The
initial
s,
Thus,
especially of particles
:
as
u
su,
M
ma, kdm u
svft;
EUPHONIC COMBINATION.
III.
$0
also of
pronouns
as hi sdh
:
and in other scattering cases: as u
hf sthd, divf stha;
tri sadhdsthd.
A
b.
final
nis
(ignis tva,
lyus
and wherever
nu
:
as
sthirdm,
pronouns (especially toneless ones): as
but also in other cases,
tvdm, sddhis tdva;
preserved, instead of being turned into visarga,
cucis
te,
a final s is
labial
before a guttural or
stuhi,
before
oftenest
s,
te,
verb-forms, especially from yas
of
;
[188
as iris
(171):
dyus krnotu, vdstos pdtih,
putvd,
dyaus pits.
Conversion of n to n.
The
189.
dental nasal
by a vowel or by ^ n or
to the lingual HI
lingual sibilant
by
*T s,
when immediately followed
n,
m
y or cf v, is turned insame word by the
preceded
or semivowel or vowels
that is to say,
n
JT
or
Tf
in the
if
OY ft r or ty f
r.
~$
^
and
:
not only
this,
if
the
altering letter stands immediately before the nasal, but at
whatever distance from the latter it may be found: unless,
indeed, there intervene (a consonant moving the front of
the tongue
:
namely) a palatal (except
T
y)
a lingual,
,
or a
dental.
We may
thus figure to ourselves the rationale
marked proclivity
the tip
nasal,
of
the
process:
in the
language toward lingual utterance, especially of the
of the tongue, when once reverted into the loose lingual position
of the
by the utterance of a non-contact lingual element, tends
make its next nasal contact in that position: and does
to
hang there and
so,
unless the pro-
by the utterance of a lingual mute, or the organ is thrown
out of adjustment by the utterance of an element which causes it to assume
clivity is satisfied
a different posture.
This
is
do not move the front part
s
following
and the y
relative,
not the case with the gutturals or labials, which
of the tongue (and, as the influence of k on
shows, the guttural position
is
too
weakly palatal
favors the succession of a
to interfere
the i-vowel, itself lingualises a
with the alteration
lingual):
(as its
next
s).
This is a rule of constant application
and (as was pointed
out above) the great majority of occurrences of n in the language
;
are the result of
it.
The rule has force especially
When suffixes, of inflection or derivation,
190.
a.
stems containing one of the altering sounds
v&rinl, vdrini, datfni,
hdrani,
dveshani,
:
krindmi,
kdrna, vrknd, rugnd, drdvina, isdni, purand,
krpamana.
are
thus, rudrena,
prntiti,
reknas,
added
to
roots
or
rudrdndm, vdrine,
ksubhand,
ghrnd,
cdksana, cfkirsamana,
CONVERSION OF n TO n,
194]
When
61
n of a root or stem comes to be followed, in inflecby such sounds as allow it to feel the effect of a preceding
altering cause: thus, from }/ran, rdnanti, rdnyati, rdrana, ardnisus; from
brahman, brdhmand, brdhmani, brdhmand, brahmanya, brdhmanvant.
b.
the final
tion or derivation,
This rule (like that for the change of s to si applies
and especially when the nasal and the cause of its alteration both lie within the limits of the same integral word
191.
strictly
;
but
like the other)
(also
extended, within certain limits,
and even, in the Veda, to contiguous
is
it
to compound words
words in the sentence.
Especially, a preposition or similar prefix to a root,
contain r or end in euphonic r for s (174), very often
lingualizes the n of a root or of its derived stems and forms.
192.
if
it
Thus:
The
a.
n of
initial
forms and derivatives,
dus)
nirnfj,
root
is
usually
pari,
and regularly
pra, nir
(for
so altered, in all
nis),
antar,
dur
(for
para naya, pan myate, prd nudasva ; pardnutti, parindma, pranava,
thus,
:
a
after para,
durndfa.
Roots suffering this change are written with initial n in the native root-
The only exceptions
lists.
and nay when
The
b.
its
final
han: thus, prd
n
importance are
of
*
of a root
nrt,
nabh, nand (very
lingualized in some of the forms of
is
rare),
in prdnasta],
(as
prdnd, prd hanyate, prahdnana.
class-signs nu and na are altered after the roots
The
c.
becomes
p
an
arid
'nitz,
thus, pari hinomi, prd minanti (but the latter not in the Veda).
d. The 1st sing. impv. ending ani is sometimes altered
hi
:
and mi:
thus,
prd
bhavdni.
e.
Derivatives
of a preposition:
f.
The n
by suffixes containing n sometimes have n by influence
thus, prayana.
preposition ni
of the
a root, after another preposition
:
is
sometimes altered,
like the initial of
thus, pranipdta, pranidhi.
193. In compound words, an altering cause in one member sometimes
n
lingualizes a
n
or
in its
ot
the next following
member
derivative
ending.
inflectional
or
influence can be seen to depend in
the
compound,
Examples
tc.
:
195),
are
:
either its initial or final n,
The exercise
of
the altering
part upon the closeness or frequency of
or its integration by being made the base of a derivative.
grdmani, trindman, urunasd vrtrahdnam etc. (but vrtraghnd
,-
drughand;
nrmdnas,
pravdhana,
nrpdna,
purydna, pitrydna;
svargena, durgdni, usrdydmne, tryangdnam.
194. Finally, in the Veda, a n (usually initial) is lingualized even by
The toneless pronouns nas and ena- are
an altering sound in another word.
oftenest thus affected
thus, pdri nas. prai 'nan, {ndra enam ; but also the
vdr ndma, punar
particle nd, 'like': thus, vdr nd; and a few other cases, as
:
nayamasi, agner dvena.
HI. EUPHONIC COMBINATION.
62
The immediate combination
195.
seems in some cases
labial
etc.
ksubhnati,
Veda
(but in
trpnoti
of
hinder the
to
[195
n with a preceding guttural or
conversion to n: thus, vrtraghnS
a
trpnu).
Conversion of dental mutes to linguals and palatals.
When
196.
or palatal
lingual
mute
mute comes
or
the
sibilant,
contact with, a
in
dental
is
usually
lingual or palatal respectively.
becoming
assimilated,
The
dental
a
cases are the following:
A
197.
dental
surd mute or nasal, or the dental sibilant,
a s, is everywhere converted into
when immediately preceded by
the corresponding lingual.
Under
the combinations
this rule,
so written,
is rarely
at,
and sn are very common
sth,
the visarga being put instead
;
aa
former sibilant:
of the
thus, jydtihsu instead of jy6tissu.
Those cases in which
final a
becomes
t
su (226 b)
before
do not,
of
course, fall under this rule.
198. In the other (comparatively infrequent) cases where
a dental is preceded by a lingual in internal combination, the
dental
(except of su loc. pi.)
A
a.
dh after d from
b.
Only
saddhd
(also
pi. of aaa)
a very few
a of
(226 b)
occur:
:
as
and
itte
:
ddviddhvam
etc.
from }/id;
anomalous gen.
ditto,
saddhd and sodha], and sanndm (aaa -(- nam
trnna (ytrd-\-na). A small number of words follow the same
;
:
rule in external combination:
But
instances
other
Thus
becomes lingual.
a root or stem
tadhi (Vedic:
ytad
see below,
-\-dhi]
shows
199.
loss of the final lingual after assi-
milation of the dental, and compensatory lengthening.
Some
lar way,
of the cases of
abnormal occurrence of d are explained in a simiand afterward omitted sibilant before d
as results of a lingualized
:
thus nlda from nisda, ypld from pisd, j/mrd from mrsd (Zend marezhdd).
For words exhibiting a like change in composition, see below, 199 b.
In external combination,
199.
A
a.
thus,
final
tat-tlka,
t
is
directed
tad dayate,
occurs in the older language,
fore a lingual, see 205.
b.
An
unchanged
satsu
y
;
to
assimilated
to
an
tad dhaukate
and very rarely in the
initial dental
and
be
tat-thalirii,
after
initial
:
but
later.
lingual
mute
:
the
case
never
For
final
n be-
a final lingual usually remains
same rule thus,
su of the loc. pi. follows the
:
ratsu.
Exceptions are: a few compounds with aaa, 'six':
sannabhi (and one or two others not quotable from the
namely, sdnnavati,
literature).
DENTAL MUTES TO LINGUALS AND PALATALS.
204]
63
In a few compounds, moreover, there appears a lingualized dental, with
compensatory lengthening, after a lost lingual sibilant or its representative
namely, in certain Vedic compounds with dus : duddbha, duddf, dudhi, du~
:
ndfa, dundfa; and, in the language of every period, certain compounds of
sas, with change of its vowel to an alterant quality (as in vodhum and
224 b:
sodhum:
Between
C.
or,
sddafa, sodhd (also saddhd and saddhd], sodant.
t
and initial s, the insertion of a t is permitted
final
according to some authorities, required: thus, sdt sahdsrah or salt sahdsrah.
200. The cases of assimilation of a dental to a contiguous
palatal occur almost only in external combination, and before
There is but one case of internal combinaan initial palatal.
namely
tion,
201.
:
A.
^ n coming
nal combination
mute
in inter-
palatal:
c)
,
yajna, jajne, ajnata,
rhjni.
An
202.
similated to
before
A
final rT
it,
t
before an initial palatal
becoming ^
c before
c or
rf
/
does not occur).
sr (^f\
^yjh
final ^T n is assimilated before
^
mute
ch,
as-
is
and
/
sT
sf
All the
but
to follow a palatal
made
(the only instance after
Thus, yacnh,
rkjna,
itself
is
grammarians,
of every
period,
5f
j,
becoming
require this
3T n.
assimilation
of
n;
more often neglected, or only sporadically made, in the MSS.
For n before a surd palatal, see below, 208.
it is
Before the palatal sibilant
203.
are
assimilated,
5T p,
both
rT t
and ^ n
becoming respectively rj c and oT n; and
and in practice almost
ST $ may be,
then the following
always
is,
Some
atory,
f
converted to
^
authorities regard the conversion
others
as
only
followed by a mute.
t
and
of
p
to ch as
everywhere oblig-
some except, peremptorily or optionally, a
And some require the same conversion after every
optional
;
mute save m, reading also vtpat
The MSS. generally write
chuci.
bination of
ch.
chutudrl, dnat chuci, anustup charadi, puk
c/,
instead of ccA,
as
result
of the
com-
p.
Combinations
of final n.
204. Final radical n is assimilated in internal combination
lo a following sibilant, becoming anusvara.
Thus, vdnsi, vdhsva, vdhsat, mahsydte, tfghahsati.
According to the grammarians, it is treated before bh and su in declen-
HI. EUPHONIC COMBINATION.
4
[204
But the cases are extremely
sion as in external combination.
and RV.
rare,
has rdnsu and vdhsu (the only Vedic examples).
Final n of a derivative suffix
regularly and
is
consonant in inflection and composition
in
usually dropped before a
even before a
composition,
vowel; and a radical n occasionally follows the same rule.
For assimilation of n
to a
The remaining cases
205.
following
The assimilation of n in external combination to a
sonant palatal and the palatal sibilant c have been
already treated
The n
2O3).
(2O2,
also declared to
is
sonant
a
fore
preceding palatal, see 201.
are those of external combination.
lingual
dh,
(d,
be assimilated (becoming n) bebut the case hardly ever
n),
occurs.
A
n
(like
m
206.
coming
The MSS.
in
also assimilated to a following
is
:
21 3
c)
a nasal
attempt
general
to
initial
be-
I,
I.
write the
combination in
accordance
with this rule.
207. Before the lingual and dental sibilants, s and s, final
n remains unchanged
but a t may also be inserted between
the nasal and the sibilant
thus, thn sdt or thnt sdt ; mahhn sdn
or mahhnt sdn.
;
:
to
According
most of the grammarians of the Praticakhyas (not RPr.),
t in such cases
In the MSS. it is
is a necessary one.
the insertion of the
It is probably a purely phonetic
very frequently made, but not uniformly.
phenomenon, a transition-sound to ease the double change of sonant to surd
and nasal to non-nasal utterance
although the not infrequent cases in
which
final
n
stands for original nt (as bharan, abharan, agnimari)
aided to establish
nch (203)
208.
there
is
is
it
as a rule.
Its
analogy with
may have
the conversion of
n
p
into
palpable.
Before the surd palatal, lingual, and dental mutes,
inserted after final n a sibilant of each of those class-
thus,
respectively, before which the n becomes anusvara :
nc ch; ns t; ns th; hs t; ns th.
c;
hq
This rule, which in the classical language has established itself in the
es
form here given,
as a phonetic rule of
a historic survival.
The
unvarying application, really involves
large majority of cases of final
n in the language
26, note) are for original ns ; and
the retention of the sibilant in such, cases, when once its historical ground
(not far from three quarters:
see APr.
ii.
had been forgotten, was extended by analogy to
Practically,
the
rule
applies
only to
n
volving the other initials occur either not at
Veda does not present an example
all
others.
before c and
all,
t,
or only with
since cases in-
extreme rarity
any of them). In the Veda, the
insertion is not always made, and the different texts have with regard to it
different usages, which are fully
explained in their Praticakhyas; in general,
(the
of
COMBINATIONS OF FINAL n AND m.
213]
it
is less
n and
c,
When
frequent in the older texts.
n
the
is
becoming n
assimilated,
The same retention
209.
the
(as
p
65
does not appear between
before j
:
202).
original final s after a nasal,
(apparent) final an, in, un, fn as
of
and consequent treatment of
they were ans, Ins, uns, fns (long nasalized vowel with final s},
shows itself also in other Vedic forms of combination, which,
for the sake of unity, may be briefly stated here together
if
:
a.
to say,
Final an becomes an (nasalized a)
mon
:
that is
with nasal vowel,
is treated like as,
with pure vowel (177):
upabaddhdn ihd, mahdn asi. This is an extremely comOnce or twice, the s appears as h before p:
especially in RV.
ans,
devdn
thus,
before a following vowel
case,
e
'hd,
thus, svdtavdnh pdyuh.
b. In like manner,
those vowels
more
s
is
treated after nasal
when pure, becoming
h before a surd (170j
rarely)
:
r before a
z,
would be
u, f as it
after
sonant sound (174), and (much
thus, rafminr iva, sununr
yuvanyuhr
ut,
nfnr abhi; nfnh patram.
210. The nasals n, n, n, occurring as finals after a short
vowel, are doubled before any initial vowel
thus, pratydnn ud
"
:
udydnn aditydh.
esi,
This
also
is
an
being
to
be regarded as a historical survival, the second nasal
of an original consonant following the first.
It is
assimilation
always written in the MSS., although the Vedic metre seems to show* that
the duplication was sometimes omitted.
The nasal n and n before a sibilant
and t
as n (207) inserts
211.
insert respectively k
are allowed to
t:
thus, praty-
dnk somah.
Combinations of
212.
Final radical
similated to a following
JT
final
m.
m, in internal combination,
mute
or spirant
is
as-
in the latter case,
becoming anusvara ; in the former, becoming the nasal of
same
the
class
m
with the mute.
(as when final: 143), it is changed to n; thus, from
dganma, aganmahi, ganvahi, jaganvans (which appear to be the only
quotable cases). According to the grammarians, the same change is made in
Before
or v
|/gram,
the inflection of root-stems,
(from
pra$am: pra-f- j/fam).
bh and su : thus, prafdnbhis,
derived noun-stem ends in m.
before
No
prafdnsu
QB. has once the anomalous kdmvant, from the particle kdm.
213.
Final
f
m
in external
combination
is
a servile
sound, being assimilated to any following consonant
*
Kuhn, in his Beitrage
Whitney,
Grammar.
etc., iii. 125.
.
Thus :
EUPHONIC COMBINATION.
III-
(J5
a.
remains unchanged
It
[213
before a vowel or a labial
only
mute.
But
and
also,
by an anomalous exception, before
and samrajya.
r of the root raj in samrtij
derivatives samrdjnl
its
b. Before a mute of any other class than labial, it becomes
the nasal of that class.
c. Before the semivowels y, I, v it becomes, according to
the Hindu grammarians, a nasal semivowel, the nasal counter-
part of each respectively (see 71).
d. Before r, a sibilant, or h,
The MSS. and
the editions
it
in general
becomes anusvara
make no attempt
the nasal tones arising from the assimilation of
m
(see
71).
to distinguish
before a following semivowel
from that before a spirant.
e. But if h be immediately followed by another consonant (which can only
is allowed to be assimilated to that following
be a nasal or semivowel), the
m
consonant.
This
is
but
itself,
because the h has no position of the mouth-organs peculiar to
The Praticakhyas
uttered in the position of the next sound.
is
do not take any notice of the case.
has been pointed out above
It
m
is
that
that
(73)
the
assimilated
generally represented in texts by the anusvara-sign, and
in this work it is transliterated by
(instead of a nasal
m
mute or
m
Also, that the general grammarians allow
pronounced before any and every consonant as anusvara.
w).
The palatal mutes and
sibilant,
to be
and h.
These sounds show in some situations a reversion to
the original gutturals from which they are derived.
The treatment of j and /j, also, is different, according as they represent
the one or the other of two different degrees of alteration from
214.
their originals.
215. The palatals and h are the least stable of alphabetic
sounds, undergoing, in virtue of their derivative character, alteration in many cases where other similar sounds are retained.
216.
and
Thus, in derivation, even before vowels, semivowels,
nasals,
reversion to guttural form
cases are the following
1.
Before a of suffix
is
by no means
rare.
The
pakd,
vakd,
:
a,
final
o becomes k in ankd,
arkd,
parka, markd, vfka, prdtika etc., rc/ca, seka, moka, rokd, fo'fca, tokd, mrokd,
vraskd:
final j becomes g in tyagd, bhdga, bhagd, yaga, bhangd, sanga,
final h becomes
varga, marga, mrgd, sarga, vega, bhoga, yugd, yoga, roga :
gh in aghd, maghd, arghd, dlrghd (and drdghiyas, drdghistha)
drtigha,
mdgha; and
In another
examples are
,
meghd, dogha.
in dughana.
series
of
derivatives
with
ajd, yaja, pucd, foca, vrajd,
a,
the
altered
sound
appears
vevijd, yuja, urjd, doha.
:
COMBINATIONS OF FINAL PALATALS.
217]
67
Before the suffixes as and ana, the guttural only rarely appears
ptf/cas, bhdrgas; and in rogana.
:
namely,
in dnkas, okas, rofcas,
2.
abhogi):
3.
Before an i-vowel, the altered sound appears (except in the doubtful
e.
g.
tuji,
o/f,
fdci,
rtici,
vivid, rocisnu.
Before w, the guttural reappears, as a rule (the cases are few): thus,
anku, vanku, reku, bhrgu.
4.
Before n, the examples of reversion are few, except of j (becoming g)
na : thus, reknas, vagnu (with the final also
before the participial ending
made
sonant)
and participles bhagnd, rugnd,
;
and apparently prgna from
etc.;
Yprc.
5. Before m (of wa, man, min), the guttural generally appears: thus,
rukmd, tigmd, fagmd (with sonant change) vdkman, sdkman, rukmdn; rgmtn
but djman, ojman, bhujmdn.
and vagmm (with sonant change)
;
:
6.
Before
r/,
the altered sound
is
used
thus, pacya, yajya, yajyu, yujya,
:
Such cases as bhogya and yogya are doubtless secondary derivatives
from bhoga and yoga.
bhujyu.
7.
Before
fukrd, ugrd,
8.
r,
the cases are few, and the usage apparently divided
:
thus,
mrgra; but vdjra and pajrd(?).
Before v
(of
the suffixes
the guttural is regularly preserved
va,
:
van,
vin,
and
etc.,
thus, rkvd, pakvd
;
participial vans]
fkvan, rikvan, fukvan,
mrgvan, yugvan; vagvfa (with further sonant change); ririkvahs, rurukvdhs,
CUfukvdns; fupukvand, pupukvani: also before the union-vowel i in okivdns
(RV., once).
An
exception
The reversion
of h in
is
ydjvan.
derivation
is
f (219) shows much
with c.
9.
A
shows
like reversion
itself
ci, cit,
ji,
hi,
also
to
Thus, the
after the reduplication in the present
stems of the roots
final
less proclivity to reversion
stem-formation and inflection.
a.
exhibited
The
(and in the participle dughana, RV.).
j
only before the
which
is
suffix
a
analogous with
than that which corresponds
some extent in conjugational
initial
or perfect
radical
becomes guttural
or desiderative or intensive
han; and han becomes ghn on the elision of
And before ran etc. of 3d pi. mid. we
The RV. has vivakmi from yvac.
have g
for radical j in asrgran,
217.
Final
rf c
asrgram, asasrgram
of a root or stem,
(all
if
in RV.).
followed in in-
combination by any other sound than a vowel or
semivowel or nasal, reverts to its original guttural value,
ternal
and shows everywhere the same form which a
show in the same situation.
Thus,
ulita,
vakti,
5fi
k would
uvdktha, vaksi, vaksykmi, vagdhi; vagbhis, vaksu
ukthd, vaktdr.
And, as final c
becomes k (above,
also to c in external
combination
:
;
142), the same rule applies
thus, vak ca, vhg api, van me.
EUPHONIC COMBINATION.
III.
6
Examples of c remaining unchanged in
vaci, mumucmdhe.
[217
inflection are
ucydte,
:
riricre,
Final
218.
combination, only before
(whence, by 180,
becomes
H
Ef s
and
bh,
H
Thus,
trie
"Q^s
before
^f ks]-,
(whence, by
^
the lingual
mute
veksykmi ;
dviksata,
sz
as
pi.,
internal
of a verbal stem or ending
rT t
197,
sw of the loc.
gularly becomes
in
reverts to its original 3\ &,
5T ?
and
5T
ih,
and
"$"
s%
when
t
(
vdsti,
it
final
or
3
everywhere
before
(145),
dh,
re-
d).
dididdhi,
didestu;
vista,
VI
it
vidbhis.
final c to k before
But a few roots exhibit the reversion of
bh and su, and also when final (145): they
and optionally nac (always, in V.); and vif
loc.
viksu,
drgbhis,
but
pl. ;
vivicyas,
\
$
etc.
die,
has
in
Examples are
drc,
V.
diksamcita,
remaining unchanged before vowels
c
etc.
remains irregularly unchanged before p in the compound
/
sf
vifpdti.
in one set of words treated like
is
sT
and
are:
acnomi, vacmi, ucmdsi.
avicran,
219. Final
sprc,
always
ndk.
hrdisprk,
Examples of
vici,
vidbhis,
vit,
are
rf c,7
-v
in another set like ST f.
Thus,
from yvj':
dyukthas,
yunkte,
dyukta,
yoktra,
yukli,
yungdhi, dyugdhvam, yugbhis.
Again, from mrj etc.: dmrksat, sraksy&mi; mtirsti, mrstd,
yoksyami, yuksu
rastrd
;
mrddhi, mrddhvdm, radbhis, ratsu,
;
srsti,
rat.
To the former or yuj-cl&ss belong (as shown by their quotable forms)
about twenty roots and radical stems: namely, bhaj, saj, tyaj (riot V.), raj
'color', svaj,
urj,
sraj,
;383.
5),
majj,
as trsndj,
To the
vanij
considerable
class
:
and
on
bhraj,
and Ibhuj, yuj, ruj, vrj, anj, bhanj, fify ;
stems formed with the suffixes aj and y
rtvij, though containing the root yaj.
belong only about one third as many namely,
:
mrj,
srj.
number
hibit the distinction;
other
also,
;
latter or mrj-class
yaj, bhrajj, vraj, raj,
A.
i
nij, tij, vij,
dsrj
bhisdj,
the
of j-roots are not placed in circumstances to exbut such roots are in part assignable to one or the
The distinction
evidence of the related languages*.
appears, namely, only when the j occurs as final, or is followed, either in
inflection or in derivation, by a dental mute (t, th, dh), or, in noun-inflection,
by bh or
au.
the mrj-class: thus,
3d
In derivation (above, 216)
mdrga
(in
we
find a g sometimes from
apamarga) and sarga; and before
mid. endings, asrgran, asrgram, asasrgram (beside saarjrire)
from the ywj-class occur only yuyujre, ayujran, bubhujrire, with j.
pi.
*
See H&bschmann, in KZ.
xxiii.
384 ff.
r of
Vedic
while
COMBINATIONS OF FINAL ch,
222]
220.
Final ch
(and prac
in
perhaps its more original
also the derivative pracnd.
is
and
inflection
(before bh and
lingual mute.
Murtd is called the
same
root.
form of the
root.
to the
is
be treated like
221.
su],
As
thus,
:
praksy&mi,
and
final
noun-
in
directed to be changed to the
is
it
form)
and a gerund murtva is given
must doubtless come from a simpler
participle of murcfc,
They
Of jh there
to
under the rules of combination almost
which it is treated as if it were c
falls
only in the root prac/i,
prstd;
69
h.
Jcs,
(with mUrti]
no occurrence
:
the
grammarians declare
it
c.
The compound
not infrequent as final of a root
ks is
(generally of demonstrably secondary origin), or of a tense-stem
(s-aorist see below, chap. XI.) and, in the not very frequent cases
:
;
of its internal combination, it is treated as if a single sound,
following the rules for c: thus, cdkse (caks -j- se ) cdksva ; caste,
,
dcasta,
dsrastam,
tvdstar.
dsrsta,
We
As
when
to its treatment
final,
grammarians to make such
forms as gordt, gorddbhis, gordtsu (from gordks] and we actually
have sdt, sadbhts, satsu from saks or sas (146, end).
see 146.
are
taught by the
;
In the single anomalous root vrapc, the compound fc
the rule for
reverts to
fe
222.
two
simple
f
in vraska.
The
:
thus,
vraksydti,
Its participle is
roots in final
^
to
follow
dvraksam; vrdstum, vrasta.
vrknd ; it has a Vedic gerund
vrktin.
A,
like those in
is
said
^j,
c.
fall into
exhibiting a similar diversity of treatment, ap-
classes,
pearing in the same kinds of combination.
In the one class, as duh, we have a reversion of h
to a guttural form, and its treatment as if it were
(as of c]
still
dhugbhis,
its
ddhok.
original gh: thus, ddhuksam, dhoksy&mi; dugdham, dugdhd;
d/iuk,
Its
dhuksu.
and sah, we have a guttural reverin verb-formation and derivation thus,
As final, in external combidruksat, roksyftmi, saksiyd, saksdni.
nation, and in noun-inflection before bh and su, the h (like c]
becomes a lingual mute
turasnt,
thus,
prtanasad ayodhydh,
In the other
sion (as of
c)
class,
as ruh
only before
5
:
:
But before a dental mute (t th, dh) in
turasndbhis, turashtsu.
verb-inflection and in derivation, its euphonic effect is peculiarly
complicated : it turns the dental into a lingual (as would c] but
t
;
and aspirate (as would dh: see 160);
and further, it disappears itself, and the preceding vowel, if
thus, from ruh
short, is lengthened by way of compensation
with ta comes rudhd, from leh with ti comes Udhi, from guh
with tar comes gudhdr, from meh with turn comes medhum, from
it
also
makes
it
sonant
:
HI. EUPHONIC COMBINATION.
70
with
lih
tas
comes
or thas
from
lid/ids,
[222
with d/warn comes
lih
etc.
lidhvum,
This
is
as if
we had
to
assume as transition sound a sonant aspirate
with the euphonic effects of a lingual and of a sonant
itself disappearing under the law of the existing language
(160),
aspirate
which admits no sonant sibilant.
lingual sibilant
zh,
223. The roots of the two
found in use, are
classes,
as
shown by
their
forms
:
of the first or dw/j-class
dah, dih, duh, druh, muh, snih
(and the final of umih is similarly treated)
of the second or rttA-claSB
yah, sah, mih, rih or li/i, guh,
:
;
:
ruh,
trnh,
drh/i,
bank,
brJi,
But muh forms
sprh(?).
RV.) the participle mudha and agent-noun
mudhdr, as well as mugdhd and mugdhdr ; and druh and snih are allowed by
the grammarians to do likewise: such forms as drudha and sriidha, however,
also
(not in
do not appear to have been met with in use.
From
roots of the rwft-class
we
find also in the
Veda the forms gartaruk,
and pranadhrk and dadhfk; and hence puruspfk
rence) does not prove ysprh to be of the dwft-class.
nom.
sing.,
(the only occur-
A
number of other ft-roots are not proved by their occurring forms to
belong to either class ; they, too, are with more or less confidence assigned
to the one or the other by comparison with the related languages*.
In derivation, before the suffix a, we have (216.1) meghd and dlrghd
from roots of the rwft-class.
Before the r verb-endings, we have examples
only from dw/t, with h
The
root
accordingly to
:
thus, duduhre etc.
nah comes from original dh instead of gh, and its reversion is
a dental instead of a guttural mute: thus,
natsydmi, naddhd,
upanddbhis, upanad-yuga.
224.
fe-element
first
Irregularities of combination are
The vowel
a.
:
r
is
:
not lengthened to
compensate for the loss of the
and in the Veda their
thus, drdhd, trdhd, brdhd (the only cases
syllable has metrical value as
heavy or
;
long).
b. The roots vah and sah change their vowel to- o instead of lengthening
But from sah in the older
vodhdm, vodhdm, vodhdr, sddhum.
language forms with a are more frequent: thus, sadhd, dsadha (also later),
it:
thus,
The root trhh changes the vowel of its class-sign na into e instead
of lengthening it: thus,
trnedhi, trnedhu, atrnet (the grammarians teach also
trnehmi and trneksi: if such forms are actually in use, they must have been
sadhar.
made by
false analogy
with the others).
These anomalous vowel-changes seem
fact
that
*
the
cases
to stand in
connection with the
showing them are the only ones where other than an
See Hubschmann, as above.
226
COMBINATIONS OF FINAL
alterant vowel (180) comes
the
before
the
lingualised
sibilant representative of
etc.
Compare sodafa
h.
71
s.
Apparently by dissimilation, the final of vah in the anomalous compound
is changed to d instead of d: see 404.
anadvah
The lingual sibilant
s.
its usual and normal
lingual sibilant,
the product of lingualization of s after
certain alterant sounds, we might expect final radical s, when
225.
Since
is
occurrences,
(in rare
to
self,
the
in
(182)
comes
it
cases)
revert to
its
where a s cannot maintain itand be treated as a s would be
to stand
original,
same circumstances.
treated under the
That,
is
however,
only
true in a very few instances.
dus (evidently identical with ydus); in sajus
from yjus); in (RV.) vives and dvives, from yvis;
in aiyes (RV.), from yis; and in atfs, from ci as secondary form of y$as.
in
Namely,
the
prefix
(adverbially used case-form
All these, except the
two, are more or less open to question.
first
226. In general, final lingual
manner
a.
as palatal 5T $.
Before t and th
are assimilated
This
dvistas,
common and
same
:
and the
latter
dvestum.
dvisthas,
perfectly natural combination.
as also in external combination
su,
and dh is made lingual after
thus, pinddhi, viddhi, vivid dhi, dvidflkvam, dvidbhis, dvitsu.
The same holds good of the altered s of a tense-sign thus, dstoddhvam
(145),
:
a
treated in the
remains unchanged,
it
Before dh, bh, and
b.
it
is
e.g.
:
Thus
s is
T
it
becomes a lingual mute
;
:
(from astos-dhvam}.
The conversion
of * to
*
with the like conversion of
p,
(or d)
as final
and before
&/t
and su
and of j and h in the mrj and ruh
is
parallel
classes of
roots, and perhaps with the occasional change of s to t (167
8). It is a very
infrequent case, occurring (save as it may be assumed in the case of acts) only
once in RV. and once in AV. (-dvit and -prut), although those texts have
more than 40 roots with final s; in the Brahmanas, moreover, has been noticed
further
3d
only
sing.,
From
-flit.
for pinas-s
and
pins,
RV. has the
c. Before s in internal
it
becomes k:
This change
planation.
It
is
thus,
is
of
also
irregular form pinak
(2d
and
pinas-t}.
combination
(except su of loc. pi.)
adviksam.
dveksi,
dveksy&mi,
anomalous phonetic character, and
practically
of
very
rare
occurrence.
difficult
of ex-
The only RV.
examples (apart from pinak, above) are viveksi, from yvis, and the desid.
stem ririksa from yris ; AV. has only dviksat and dviksata, and the desid. stem
from y^lis.
Other examples are quotable from yykra (B. etc.), fis
and pis (Khand. Up.); and they are by the Hindu grammarians prescribed to be formed from about half-a-dozen other roots.
fifliksa
(QB.),
EUPHONIC COMBINATION.
III.
72
[227
Extension and Abbreviation.
227. As a general rule, ch is not allowed by the grammarians to stand in that form after a vowel, but is to be doubled,
becoming cch (which the MSS. sometimes write chcfy.
The various
authorities
disagree
According to Panini, ch
duplication.
with one another in detail as to this
doubled within a word after either
is
necessarily after a
and, as Initial,
a long or a short vowel;
and
short
after
In RV.,
the particles d and md, and optionally everywhere after a long.
initial ch is doubled after a long vowel of <J only, and certain special cases
For the required usage in the other Vedic
after a short vowel are excepted.
The Kathaka writes for original ch
their several Pratoakhyas.
from combination of t and n with c: 203) after a vowel every-
see
texts,
ch
(not
where
cch.
Opinions are
still
at
variance as to
how
how
this
far
has
duplication
an
an acknowledgment of the fact
that ch makes a heavy syllable even after a short vowel (makes "position": 79).
etymological ground, and
far it is only
228. After r, any consonant (save a spirant before a vowel)
by the grammarians either allowed or required to be doubled
154).
(an aspirate, by prefixing the corresponding non-aspirate
is
:
Some
of the authorities include,
than one of them, in this rule.
A doubled consonant after r
is
along with
r,
common
very
also h or
in
I
or
MSS. and
-u,
or
more
inscriptions,
as also in native text-editions and in the earlier editions prepared by Euroin later ones, the duplication is universally omitted.
pean scholars
The
a vowel
of
a
whether
consonant of a group
first
preceding word
is
interior,
or initial after
by the grammarians either allowed or
required to be doubled.
This duplication
is
allowed by Panini
in both, with mention of authorities
and required by the Praticakhyas
who deny
230.
see
:
matter
is too
Other cases of extension of consonant-groups, required
by some of the grammatical
a.
For certain
it altogether.
the Praticakhyas
the meaning of the whole
obscure to justify the giving of details here.
exceptions,
Between
a non-nasal
authorities,
and a nasal mute,
are the following
the insertion
:
of so-called
yamas ('twins'), or nasal counterparts, is taught by the Prati^akhyas (and
assumed in Panini's commentary): see APr. i. 99, note.
b.
Between h and a following nasal mute the Praticaktiyas teach the
:
see APr. i. 100, note.
insertion of a nasal sound called nasikya
c.
Between
r
and
a
following
consonant the Praticakhyas teach the
see APr. i. 101
2, note.
insertion of a svardbhakti or 'vowel-fragment':
Some
regard
it
authorities
as twice
as
assume
long
this insertion only before a spirant;
before
a spirant
as
before
the others
any other consonant
ABBREVIATION OF CONSONANT-GROUPS.
234]
73
namely, a half or a quarter mora before the former, a quarter or an
One (VPr.) admits it after I as well as r. It is
eighth before the latter.
variously described as a fragment of the vowel a or of r (or I).
The RPr. puts a svarabhakti also between a sonant consonant and a
mute or spirant; and APr. introduces an element called sphotana
following
'distinguished) between a guttural and a preceding
(
mute
of another class.
For one or two other cases of yet more doubtful value, see the Prati^akhyas.
231.
After a nasal, the former of two non-nasal mutes
dropped, whether homogeneous only with the nasal, or with
both thus, yundhi for yungdhi, yundhvdm for yungdhvdm, antdm for
anktdm, chintkm for chintt&m, bhinthd for bhintthd, indhe for inddhe.
may be
:
This abbreviation,
allowed by Panini,
Praticakhyas take no
notice
though the
is
full
group
of
It
it).
required by APr.
is
the
is
usual
(the
practice of the
other
MSS.,
also often written.
In general, a double mute (including an aspirate
which is doubled by the prefixion of a non-aspirate) in combination with any other consonant is by the manuscripts written
232.
as simple.
That is
to say, the ordinary usage of the MSS. makes no difference
between those groups in which a phonetic duplication is allowed by the rules
given above (228, 229) and those in which the duplication is etymological.
As every
kartana
So in
is also
may
be properly written ttv, so dattvff and
As
are, written as datvd and tatvd.
also
properly kdrttana, so karttika (from krtt i]
Even
made:
are
vowel
and almost invariably
be,
inflection,
majjdn.
it
tv after a
may
tattvd
we have
is
written as kartika.
always, for example, majfid etc., not majjnd, from.
in composition
and sentence-collocation the same abbreviations
Hence
we
ddviddhvam
thus, hrdyotd foxhrddyotd; chindty asya for chindtty asya.
impossible to determine by the evidence of written usage whether
is
regard adhvam or addhvam (from yas), ddvidhvam or
(from ydvis) as the true form of a second person plural.
should
233. Among
occasional omissions of an etymologically justified
of a consonant- group,
of importance
is
A s is sometimes
two surd mutes thus,
lost
enough
to
member
be here noticed* that
(perhaps after assimilation) between
:
a.
The
initial
of the
s
roots
and
stha
stabh after the preposition ut:
thus, utthdtum for utsthdtum, uttabhnoti for utstabhnoti.
b.
The tense-sign
8
of
the s-aorist (chap. XI.) after a final consonant
an ending:
of a root before the initial consonant of
this,
thus,
achantta (and for
by 231, achanta] for achantsta, fapta for fapsta, taptam for tapstam.
c. Other instances are only sporadic
thus, the compound rkthd (re -{-stha:
:
PB.); the collocations tasmat tute
(for stute)
and puroruk tuta-
(for
stuta-: K.).
Strengthening and Weakening Processes.
234.
Under
affect vowels,
this head,
we
take up
and then those that
affect
the changes that
consonants
adding,
first
HI. EUPHONIC COMBINATION.
74
in each case,
for convenience's sake,
[234
a brief notice of the vowel
to bear the apparent
come
and consonant elements that have
office of connectives.
Guna and Vrddhi.
^
most
The
so-called guna and vrddhi-changes are the
and
frequent of vowel-changes, being of conregular
occurrence both in inflection and in derivation.
235.
stant
A
from the corresponding simple
vowel by a prefixed ^-element, which is combined with the
differs
guna-vowel
other according to the usual rules;
further prefixion of a to
the corresponding guna
|
ing vrddhi
is
(a -f- e ==)
a remains unchanged
51
a
for
is
its
as
it
^
i
or
e; the correspond-
all
gunating processes
sometimes expressed,
is
remains unchanged
of course,
a,
of 5
Thus,
both guna and vrddhi.
The
236.
{
follows
series
of corresponding
then as
is
simple vowel
a a
it
u u
r
I
Guna
a a
e
o
al
a
ai
ar
ar
Vrddhi
or
guna
degrees
:
There
retically,
be
(a-\-i=)
But in
or,
m
own guna;
is
^7 at.
5f
a vrddhi-vowel, by the
the ffwia-vowel.
is
nowhere any occurrence of
vrddTu-change
f
;
nor does
I
au
f in a
situation
to
undergo either
Theo-
(26) ever suffer change to vrddhi.
would have the same changes
as r;
The
members
and the vrddhi of
I
would
al.
237.
historical
relations
of
the
of each vowel-series are
matters of some difference of opinion.
From the special point of view
of the Sanskrit, the simple vowels wear the
aspect of being in general the
original or fundamental ones, and the others of being products of their
still
increment or strengthening, in two several degrees
so that
formation direct a, i, u, r, I to be raised to guna or vrddhi
under specified conditions. But r is so clearly seen to come by
or weakening from an earlier ar
(or ra) that many European
prefer to treat the
puna-form
as the original
the rules of
respectively,
abbreviation
grammarians
and the other as the derivative.
instead of assuming certain roots to be bhr and vrdh,
example
and making from them bharati and vardhati, and bhrta and
vrddha, by the
same rules which from bhu and nl and from budh and cit form bhavati and
nayati, bodhati and cetati, bhuta and mta, buddha and citta
they assume
Thus,
for
:
GUNA AND VRDDHI.
241
75
1
bhar and vardh to be the roots, and give the rules of formation for them in
Both methods have their advantages, and the question between
one of minor consequence, which may fairly be settled by considerations of convenience.
Mainly from such considerations, the r-form is genreverse.
them
is
assumed
erally
in
this
work,
though'
not without constant recognition
of
the other.
238. The ^ma-increment is an Indo-European phenomenon,
and is in many cases seen to occur in connection with an accent
on the increased syllable. It is found
a. In root-syllables
either in inflection,
as dvfati from
or in derivation, as dvesa, dohas,
ydvis, dohmi from yduh;
:
:
dvestum, dogdhum.
either conjugational class-signs,
b. In formative elements
from tanu; or suffixes of derivation, in further deri:
as tanomi
vation or in inflection, as agnaye from agni, bhandvas from bhcinu,
pitdram from
pitf,
hantavyd from hdntit.
239. The WfflUttt-increment is specifically Indian (being
unshared, save in a few doubtful cases, even by the Zend), and
It is found
its occurrence is more infrequent and irregular.
a. In root and suffix-syllables, instead of guna : thus, stauti
from ystu, sdkhayam from sdkhi, dnaisam from )/m, dkarsam and
Mrdyati and karya from ykr (or kar), dataram from datr.
b. Especially often, in initial syllables in secondary derivation
thus, manasd from mdnas, vaidyutd from vidyut, bhaumd
:
:
from bhumiy parthiva from
But
240.
prthivl.
The ^ma-increment does not usually take place
in a
that is to say, the
ending with a consonant
rules prescribing guna in processes of derivation and inflection
do not apply to a short vowel which is "long by position", nor
to a long vowel unless it be final
thus, cetati from j/ceV, but
nindati from ynind; ndyati from )/m, but jivati from yjlv.
The vrddhi-increment is not liable to this restriction.
heavy syllable
:
:
Exceptions to
-the
rule
are
occasionally
met with
ydw; hedas from yhid; ohate from }/uh.
And a few cases occur of prolongation instead
:
thus,
dideva from
of increment: thus, dusdyati
from ydus, guhati from yguh.
The changes of r (more original ar or ra)
as to call for further description.
are
so various
241. The increments of r are sometimes ra and ra, instead
and ar : namely, especially, where by such reversal a difficult combination of consonants is avoided
thus, from ydrc,
and
and
also
ddraksam
but
;
pratk, prch and
prthu
draksydmi
prach, krpa and dkrapista.
of ar
:
I
EUPHONIC COMBINATION.
ill.
7(5
In a
242.
ending in r
(for
|242
number of roots (about a dozen quotable ones)
more original ar), the r exchanges both with ar,
or also
with ir
and, more irregularly, in a part of the forms,
in
m
v
a
after
with ur (especially
labial,
T>
?> sporadically in
pr>
others'!
ir
which
:
and
and
ir
ur,
again,
to prolongation into
are liable
Thus, for example, from
ur.
tr
(or
we have
tar}.,
tarafi,
but also tt'rati,
by regular processes
and even (V.) turyama, tuturyat, tarfiryati, tirtva, -tirya, firna,
The treatment of such roots has to be described in
turana.
atarisam,
tatara,
titarti,
;
speaking of each formation.
For the purpose of artificially indicating this peculiarity of treatment,
such roots are by the Hindu grammarians written with long f or with both r
and f : no f actually appears anywhere among their forms.
,
The
'wear
(quotable) f-roots are
out',
The
2w
str,
and
r
(quotable)
'choose',
3kr
'strew',
igr
'praise',
Igr
'swallow',
ijr
Iff 'crush'*.
*r,
f-roots
are
r,
idr
Ipr
'burst',
2mr
'fill',
'die',
hvr.
243. In a few
cases, r
comes from the contraction of other syllables
than ar and ra: thus, in trta and trtlya from ri; in prnu from ru; in trca,
even from
rir
(or ryr).
Vowel - lengthening.
Vowel-lengthening has regard especially to
244.
since the lengthening
analogy with that of
ment, and r
is
a
of
i
and
is
i
and
u,
(except where in evident
indistinguishable from its incre-
in part
u)
made long only
in certain plural cases of stems
Lengthening is a much more irregular and
sporadic change than increment, and its cases will in general
be left to be pointed out in connection with the processes of
inflection and derivation
a few only will be mentioned here.
in r (or ar
:
chap. V.).
:
245. a.
before y
b.
before
:
Final
as in passive
Final radical
all
radical
ir
i
and u
are
:
and in declension before bh and
to
prolongation
liable to prolongation
namely, before y and
Radical is and us
(392).
consonants except those of personal endings
tva and na:
liable
especially
and gerund and so on.
and ur (from r-roots 242) are
:
have the same prolongation in declension.
246. Compensatory lengthening, or absorption by a vowel of the time
of a lost following consonant, is by no means common.
Certain instances of
it
have been pointed out above (179, 198 b, 199b, 222). Perhaps such cases
and dhanl for dhanins (chap. V.) are to be classed here.
as pita for pitars
247. The
final
vowel of a former
long, especially in the Veda.
member
of a
compound
is
Prolongations of final a, and before
often
v.
made
are most
*
Numbers prefixed to roots denote the order in which, there being more than
one of the same form, the root intended is given in the Petersburg lexicon.
VOWEL-LENGTHENING AND LIGHTENING.
250]
but
frequent;
ekdda$a;
cases
found
are
praWt,
vayundvfd,
parlndh,
aplju,
of
every
are
Examples
variety.
sadandsdd,
mdrdvant,
rtdvasu,
11
fatamagha,
devavi,
vifvanara,
tuvlmaghd, tvfsimant, fdktlvant; vasuju,
virudh,
anurudh, sumdya, puruvdsu.
248. In the Veda, the final vowel of a word
generally a, much less
and u
is in a large number of cases prolonged.
i
Usually the
prolongation takes place where it is favored by the metre, but sometimes
often
even where the metre opposes the change (for details, see APr. iii. 16 note,
xxi. [1874
Benfey, Abh. Gott. Ges. xix.
6], and tlie various Prati^akhyas).
Words of which the finals are thus treated are:
Particles: namely, dthd,
a.
angd,
prd ;
dtrd,
ktld,
yddi, nahi,
ydtrd, tdtrd,
abhi
b. Case-forms
others;
so
stmd
tanvi
in the order
of
their
2d
gamayd;
57/a,
frn'ufa,
in
act.
as vidmd,
2d
sing.
and 3d
sing.
mrjmd;
2d
vetthd;
act.,
and
tend,
tha,
2d
as
variety
sthd,
attd,
thus
:
impv.
sing.
ruhemd,
rdhydmd,
risdmd,
t/ena, svend,
aud
puru.
number and
anadatd, nayathd, jlvayathd (and one in tana:
ma,
1st
in ta
act.
adyd, dchd, dpd,
Cases besides these are few:
(not rarely)
in great
a,
comparative frequency),
pi.
smd,
ivd, cd,
ihd,
fca,
ubhaydtrd,
as end,
sing. ,
harindsyd.
and uru and
(loc.),
Verb-forms ending in
c.
instr.
as asya,
sing.,
utd, ghd,
evd~,
anydtrd,
mi, sG, maksti.
tti,
especially
:
rarely gen.
(voc.);
u,
;
ddhd,
ktitrd,
act.,
bibhrtd,
(nearly
as
pibd,
jayatd,
1st pi.
avistand);
vanuydmd, cakrmd, mar-
impv. mid. in sua, as yuksvd, idisvd, dadhisvd, vahasvd;
perf.
pi.
as
act.,
perf.
vedd,
vive^d,
ancya, cwfera.
act.,
jagrabhd; 2d sing. perf.
Of verb-forms ending in i,
only the 2d sing. impv. act., as $rudhi, prnuhi, dldihi, jahi.
To these may be added the gerund in ya, as abhigUryd, dcyd.
Vowel-lightening.
249. The alteration of short a to an i or w-vowel in the
formative processes of the language, except in r or ar roots (as
explained above), is a sporadic phenomenon only.
250.
(as
But the lightening of a long a especially to an /-vowel
no other vowel is so
is a frequent process
also its loss),
:
unstable.
a.
Of the
class-sign
nd
(of
the fcn-class of verbs
:
chap. IX.), the d is in
"weak" forms changed to i, and before vowel-endings dropped altogether.
The final d of one or two roots is treated in the same manner thus ma, hd.
:
And from some
them
to classify
b.
roots,
etc.
C.
;
I
or i-forms
so interchange that it is difficult
or to determine the true character of the root.
Radical a
is
certain verbal forms
ydhd
a and
:
to
dadima from ydd
present jahimas from
Radical a
is
semblance of the union-vowel
weakened
as perfect
shortened
the
j/fta
to
etc.
;
aorist adhithds
i
in
from
etc.
the semblance of stem-a in a
number
of
EUPHONIC COMBINATION.
III.
7$
[250
see chap. IX.
etc.
reduplicated forms, as tistha, piba, dada,
see chap. XI.
as dhvam, dkhyam, etc.
:
;
also in a
few
:
aorists,
d. Radical a sometimes becomes
e,
especially before y
:
as,
stheyasam,
dey<i.
because of their peculiar exchanges with * and
the present stem, are given by the Hindu
i-forms, especially in forming
e or ai or o.
in
roots
as
Thus, from Qdha 'suck' (dhe)
ending
grammarians
251. Certain
a-roots,
come the present dhdyati and participle and gerund dhltd, dhitva ; the other
forms are made from dha, as dadhus, adhat, dhasyati, dhdtave, dhdpayati.
From 2$ra 'sing' (gai) come the present g&yati, the participle and gerund
and passive glyate, and the other forms from ga. From 3 da
come the present dydti and participle ditd or dma, and the other
forms from da. The iiregularities of these roots will be treated below, under
gltd
and
gltvti,
'cut' (do)
the various formations.
252. By
ra to
r,
much
of a
of
a process
the va (usually
smaller
abbreviation
of a
initial)
number becomes
i,
To
istd,
this change is generally
with that of ar or
becomes w, and the ya
in certain verbal forms and derivatives.
Thus, from vac come uvdca, ucydsam,
yaj come iydja, ijydsam, istvd,
formations.
akin
essentially
number
uktva, ukta, uktf, ukthd, etc.
from
;
See below, under the various
etc.
tsti,
given
of roots
name
the
by European grammarians
of samprasarana, by adaptation of a term used in the native grammar.
253.
A
short a,
consonants in
of root
weakened
a
jagmus, jajnus, djnata
;
or
syllable
the
cases
aspect
thus,
in noun-forms,
254. Union-vowels.
tain
ending,
:
of
is
s
of aorist
dpaptam,
rajni.
rajne,
All the simple vowels come to assume in cer-
union-vowels,
or
insertions
and ending of inflection or of derivation.
That character belongs oi'tenest to i, which
the
not infrequently lost between
in verb-forms, ghndnti,
between root or stem
very widely used
is
and future and desiderative stems,
:
a. before
as in djlvisam, jlvisydmi,
jijlvisami; b. in tense-inflection, especially perfect, as jijivima; occasionally
also
as dniti,
present,
rocisnu,
etc.
Long
bravlti,
I
roditi
c. in derivation,
;
as jivitd, khdnitum,
janitf,
etc.
is
used sometimes instead of short: thus, agrahlsam, grahlsydmi;
vavadlti; tarltr, savitr
;
it
is
also often introduced before s
and
t
of
the 2d and 3d sing, of verbs: thus, cms, dslt.
For details respecting these, and the more irregular and sporadic occurrences of u and a-vowels in the same character, see below.
Nasal Increment.
er
255. Both in roots and in endings, a distinction of strongand \yeaker forms is very often made by the presence or
absence of a nasal element, mute or anusvara, before a followIn general, the stronger form is doubtless the
ing consonant.
more original; but in the present condition of the language,
NASAL INCREMENT.
260]
come
in great measure to seem, and to some
used, as an actually strengthening element,
under certain conditions in formative and inflective
has
the nasal
79
extent also to be
introduced
processes.
Examples
are,
of roots:
ac
and dan? sras and mms,
bhdrata, mdnasi and mdnahsi.
dac,
,
256.
A
and anc, grath and yranth, vid and vind,
drh and drhh : of endings, bhdrantam and
whether of stem
than any
from rajan we
have raja and rajabhis, and in composition raja; from dhanin, dharii and
dhanibhis and dhani ; from yhan we have hathd and hatd etc. A final radflrial
n,
where a weaker form
other consonant,
or
of root,
called for
is
is
:
less
stable
thus,
t
m
(m does not occur as final of a stem) is sometimes treated in the
same way: thus, from ygam, yaht, yatdm, yata, ydti.
ical
257.
Inserted
used with great
n.
On
the other hand,
the nasal
n has come
ing
frequency as a union-consonant, inserted between
from ayni, aynina and ayninam ; from mddhu, mddhunas,
dhuni; from fivd. fivena, $ivani, fivanam.
258.
Inserted
as apparently a
y.
After long
to
be
with increas-
and, in the later history of the language,
vowels
:
mddhurii,
thus,
md-
a y is not very infrequently found
,
mere union-consonant before another vowel:
yaym, svadhayin, dhayas. sthayuka; in
and perhaps vivtiyas and gayati.
vation,
inflection,
thus, in deri-
ddhayi, faydyati,
Reduplication.
Reduplication of a root (originating doubtless in its
complete repetition) has come to be a method of radical increment or strengthening in various formative processes namely,
as dddamt, bibhdrmi ;
a. in present-stem formation
b. in aorist-stem formation: as adidharam, dcucyavam ;
as tathna,
c. in perfect-stem formation, almost universally
dadhau, cakara ;
d. in intensive and desiderative-stem formation, throughout
as janghanti, johaviti, marmrjyate, pipasati, jighahsati ;
as papri,
e. in the formation of derivative noun-stems
cdrcara, sasa/ii, cikitu, malimlucd.
259.
:
:
:
:
:
Rules
for the
treatment of the reduplication in these several cases will
be given in the proper connection below.
260. As, by reason
changes indicated above,
of
the
the strengthening and weakening
same root or stem not seldom
exhibits, in the processes of inflection and derivation, varieties
of stronger and weaker form, the distinction and description of
these varieties forms an important part of the subjects hereafter
to
be treated.
80
[261
CHAPTER
IV.
DECLENSION.
261. THE general subject of declension includes nouns, adand pronouns, all of which are inflected in essentially
But while the correspondence of nouns and
the same manner.
adjectives is so close that they cannot well be separated in treatment, the pronouns, which exhibit many peculiarities, will be
and the words designatbest dealt with in a separate chapter
jectives,
;
ing number, or numerals, also form a class peculiar enough to
require to be presented by themselves.
262.
Declensional forms show primarily case and
ber; but they also indicate gender
num-
though the
distinctions of gender are made partly in the stem itself,
they also appear, to no inconsiderable extent, in the changsince,
es of inflection.
263.
Gender. The
genders are three, namely mascu-
feminine, and neuter, as in the other older Indo-Euro-
line,
pean languages; and they follow in general the same laws
of distribution
as,
for example, in
The only words which show no sign
Greek and Latin.
of gender-distinction are the per-
sonal pronouns of the first and second person (along with the numerals above
'four':
chap. VI.).
264.
dual,
A
and
few
Number. The numbers
are
three
singular,
plural.
words
are
used only in the plural: as daras, 'wife', Spas,
'two', is dual only; and, as in other languages,
'water'; the
numeral dva,
many words
are,
hy the nature
of their
use,
found
to
occur
only in the
singular.
265. As to the uses of the numbers, it needs only to be
remarked that the dual is found without the addition of the
numeral dva, 'two', wherever the duality of the objects spoken
of is a thing well understood
thus, agvinau, 'the two (horsemen) Acvins'; indrasya hdri, 'Indra's (two) bays'; devadattasya
fastau, 'Devadatta's two hands'; but devadattasya dvav acvau stah,
'Devadatta has two horses'.
:
U SES
270]
266.
Case. The
nominative,
81
cases are (including the vocative) eight
instrumental, dative,
accusative,
locative,
itive,
OF THE NOMINATIVE AND ACCUSATIVE.
:
gen-
ablative,
and vocative.
The order in which they are here mentioned is that established for
them by the Hindu grammarians, and accepted from these by Western scholThe Hindu names of the cases are founded on this order the nomiars.
:
native
is
called prathama,
itive sasthi,
'sixth'
'first',
the accusative dvitlya,
vibhakti, 'division',
(sc.
e.
i.
'second', the
The
'case'), etc.
gen-
object sought
in the arrangement is simply to set next to one another those cases which are
greater or less extent, in one or another number, identical in form
to a
putting the nominative first, as leading case, there
which that object could be attained. The vocative
named by
is
;
and,
no other order by
is
considered and
not
the native grammarians as a case like the rest;
in this work, it
will be given in the singular (where alone it is ever distinguished from the
nominative otherwise than by accent) at the end of the series of cases.
A
is
brief compendious statement
given in the following paragraphs
267.
Uses
of the
of
the
uses
of the cases
:
Nominative. The
nominative
is
the
case of the subject of the sentence, and of any word qualifying
the subject, whether attributively, in apposition, or as predicate.
268. As somewhat peculiar constructions may be mentioned
nominative with manye
one's self: thus,
etc.,
a predicate
'think one's self to be', and with bruve etc., 'call
somam manyate papivdn
(RV.),
'he thinks
he has been drink-
ing sorna'; sd manyeta puranavit (AV.), 'he may regard himself as wise in
ancient things'; fndro brahmano bruvdnah (TS.), 'Indra calling himself (pre-
tending
to be)
and with rupdrh
a Brahman';
'taking on a black form'
(TS.),
kr: thus, krsno rupdrh krtvd
for
(making shape
himself as one
that is
black).
Uses of the Accusative. The accusative is espethe case of the direct object of a transitive verb, and of
any word qualifying that object, as attribute or appositive or
The construction of the verb is shared, of
objective predicate.
but also, in Sanskrit,
course, by its participles and infinitives
269.
cially
;
by a number of other derivatives, having a more or less participial or infinitival character, and even sometimes by nouns and
A few prepositions are accompanied by the accusative.
adjectives.
As more
indirect object, the accusative is construed especially
with verbs of approach and address. It is found used yet more
and a host
adverbially as adjunct of place or time or manner
of adverbs are accusative cases in form.
Two accusatives are
;
often found as objects of the
270.
The use
of
Whitney, Grammar.
the
same verb.
accusative
as direct object of a transitive verb
6
IV. DECLENSION.
g2
and of
or
and participles hardly needs illustration
its infinitives
two are: agnim
[270
Ide,
'I
ndmo
praise Agni';
an example
:
bhdrantah, 'bringing homage';
Of predicate words qualimore'.
bh&yo d&tum arhasi, 'thou shouldst give
is tdm ugrdrh krnomi tarn brdhmdnam (RV.j,
an
the
example
object,
fying
'him
I
make
271.
him
formidable,
a priest'.
Of verbal derivatives having
a participial character that
far
so
is considerable: thus,
they share the construction of the verb, the variety
a. Derivatives in u from desiderative stems have wholly the character
of present participles
:
'desiring to
damayantim abhipsavah (MBh.),
thus,
win
to see the
king.
Damayanti': rajdnam didrksuh (MBh.), 'desiring
b. So-called primary derivatives in in have the same character
mam
kaminl (AV.), 'loving me';
enam
Derivatives in oka, in the later language
C.
:
as,
thus,
:
'addressing him'.
abhibhdsinl (MBh.),
bhavantam abhivddakah
'intending to salute you'.
(MBh.),
in the older language, and as peritar, very frequently
in the later: thus, hdntd y6 vrtrdm sdnito
forms
future
XII.)
(chap.
phrastic
*ta vajam data maghdni (RV.), 'who slayeth the dragon, winneth booty, bestow-
d. Nouns in
eth largesses'.
The
e.
root
in
itself,
the
older language,
used with the value of a
end of a compound: thus, yam yajndm paribhur
at the
present participle
dsi (RV.), 'what offering thou surroundest (protectest)'.
The derivative in i from the (especially the reduplicated) root, in the
f.
older language: thus, babhrir
vdjram papih somam dadir gdh
'bearing
(RV.),
the thunderbolt, drinking the soma, bestowing kine'.
g. Derivatives in uka, very frequently in the Brahmana language
vatsahc ca ghdtuko wrkah (AV.), 'and the wolf destroys his
calves';
:
thus,
veduko
vdso bhavati (TS.), 'he wins a garment'.
h. Other cases are more sporadic thus, derivatives in a, as fndro drdhd
cid drujdh (RV.), 'Indra breaks up even what is fast'; in atnu, as vldu cid
:
drujatnubhih (RV.), 'with the breakers of whatever
tarn nivarane (MBh.), 'in restraining him'.
272. Examples
only
of an accu ative with an ordinary
anuvrata
occasional:
is
'devoted to Damayanti':
is
strong';
noun
in
ana,
as
or adjective are
thus, damayantim anuvratah (MBh.),
as mdm kdmena (AV.), 'through lov-
so used:
and kama,
ing me'.
273. The
direct construction of cases with prepositions is comparatively
restricted in Sanskrit
accusative
'after,
is
(see the subject of Prepositions,
oftenest found prati,
'opposite
in the course of; antar or
antara,
'against, to';
and
others.
to,
chap. XVI.).
in reference
to',
'between'; rarely ati,
Case-forms which
value are also often used with the accusative
:
have
etc.;
With the
also anu,
'across';
abhi,
assumed a prepositional
as antarena, uttarena,
daksin-
ena, avarena, urdhvam, rte.
274. The
accusative is
very often found also as object of verbs which
in the related languages are not transitive.
a.
It stands especially as
the goal of motion, with verbs of going, bring-
USES OF THE ACCUSATIVE.
278]
and the
sending,
ing,
like
divam yayuh
Vidarbha';
thus, vidarbhdn
:
(MBh.),
agaman
went
'they
83
to
'they went to
vanagulmdn dhd-
(MBh.),
heaven';
vantah (MBh.), 'running to woods and bushes'; apo dwam lid vahanti (AV.),
'they carry up waters to the sky'; devd~n yaje (AV.), 'I make offering to the
gods'.
With verbs meaning
of 'becoming': thus,
sa gached
me'; sa
this
'go',
of such a verb with
and the use
samatdm
mama
badhyatdm
pancatvam dgatah
abstract
'he shall
(i.
become
derwent dissolution, died).
b. Verbs of speaking follow the same rule
'becomes equal');
e.
liable to
was resolved into the
'he
construction;
noun makes peculiar phrases
'he goes to equality'
eti,
(MBh.),
(H.),
common
an extremely
is
an
five
be
slain
elements'
thus, tarn abravit,
:
prdkrocad uccdir ndisadham (MBh.), 'she cried out loudly
J
dhan'; yds tvo vd~ca (AV.), 'who spoke to thee
to him';
by
(un-
'he said
Nisha-
to the
:
.
275. The cognate
found
course,
276. As
to
a yet
accusative, or accusative of the implied object,
Sanskrit
also in
much more
:
as
duration
often,
'let
him be consecrated
(AV.),
'he
stood
upright
of time:
gatvd
is,
of
'he swore an oath'.
?epe,
to a verb,
three nights';
for a year';
the accusative
as
tisro
'to
is
used
go a hundred
ratrir dlksitdh sydt
sd samvatsardm urdhvb
trin ahordtrdn
But the point of place
travelled three complete days'.
(MBh.),
l
tisthat
'having
or time also is occasio-
found represented by the accusative (instead of the locative).
The same case is used adverbially to express manner or accompanying
circumstance;
chap. XVI.):
and many adverbs have
this
is
the
accusative
form (see Adverbs,
compound words, even to such an
adverbial compounds (below: chap. XVIII.).
especially
extent as to forma class of
the
?apatham
yojana$atam gantum (MBh.),
(TS.),
nally
as,
more adverbial adjunct
denote space traversed
leagues';
:
true
of
277. The accusative is freely used along with other
same verb, wherever the sense admits. And when
cases as objects of
it
is
usable with a
verb in two different constructions, the verb may take two accusatives, one
in each construction.
Thus, especially, verbs of having recourse, appealing,
asking
:
as,
for succor';
tvdm vayarh $aranam gatdh (MBh.),
and verbs of sending,
bringing,
nayanti (H.), 'conduct
;
she said this to her';
a
evd
man
'we have resorted to tbee
ask the waters for medicine';
as,
gurutvarh nararh
imparting, saying
ap6 ydcdmi bhesajdm (RV.),
'I
:
to respectability';
tarn
idam abravit (MBh.),
other less usual cases are, for example,
tdm visdm
J
dhok (AV.), 'he milked from her poison'; jitvd rdjyarh nalam
'having won the kingdom from (i. e. by beating) Nala'.
A
causative verb,
prave?ayati,
278.
'he
naturally,
takes a double accusative
makes her enter the
:
thus,
(MBh.),
tdm grham
house'.
Uses of the Instrumental. The
instrumental is
denotes adjacency, accompaniment,
passing over into the expression of means and
(by the same transfer of meaning which appears in
originally the
association
Svith'-case
instrument
our prepositions with and
:
it
by}.
6*
IV. DECLENSION.
4
[218
Nearly all the uses of the case are readily deducible from this fundamental meaning, and show nothing anomalous or difficult.
279. The instrumental
often
is
used
to signify
accompaniment
:
thus,
'may Agni come hither along with the gods';
dvdparena sahdyena kva ydsyasi (MBh.), 'whither wilt thou go, with Dvapara
for companion?' kathayan ndisadhena, (MBh.),
'talking with the Nishadhan'.
d gamat
agnir devebhir
But the
(RV.),
relation of simple
accompaniment
more often helped
is
to
plainer
expression by prepositions.
of means or instrument or agent is yet more
bhadrdm kdrnebhih prnuyama (RV.), 'may we hear with our
what is propitious'; fastrena nidhanam (MBh.), 'death by the sword';
padbhydrh hatd gajdih (MBh.), 'some were slain by the elephants with
280. The instrumental
frequent
ears
kecit
thus,
:
And
their feet'.
reason
(for
281. Of
'a
(MBh.),
'to
b.
more frequent)
is
:
thus, krpayd,
of occasion or
'through pity';
the following may be noticed:
and the like
thus, samdrn jyotih
equal with the sun'; yeshdrh na pddarajasd
special applications,
Accordance,
suryena (AV.),
tulyah
easily over into the expression
passes
'by reason of that truth'.
tena satyena,
a.
this
which the ablative
likeness,
equality,
brightness
:
the dust of whose feet I
am
not equal'.
Price (by which obtained): thus, dafdbhir krindti dhentibhih
buys with ten kine';
gavdm sahasrena
vikrinite,
'he
sells
for
(RV.),
'he
a thousand
cattle'.
c.
Medium,
also space or distance or road,
traversed; and hence also time
udnd na ndvam anayanta (RV.), 'they led [him] as it
were a ship through the water'; e 'hd ydtam pathfbhir devaydnaih (RV.), 'come
hither by god-travelled paths'; jagmur vihdyasd (MBh.), 'they went off through
the air':
vidarbhdn ydtum ichdmy ekdhnd (MBh.), 'I wish to go to Vidarbha
in the course of one day'; kiyatd kdlena pradhdnatdm labhante
(H.), 'in how
But the expression of 'within the
long time do they obtain chief rank?'
space of, for time, is also sometimes made by the accusative or locative.
d. The part of the body on (or by) which anything is borne is usually
passed through
:
thus,
expressed by the instrumental
carried on the shoulder';
tulayd krtam (H.),
The
282.
instrumental
'put on
(i.
construction
of the agent is
decidedly more so later,
:
kukkurah skandheno 'hyate (H.), 'a dog is
is extended to such cases as
as,
and this construction
so as to
e.
of
a
be carried by) a balance'.
passive verb (or participle) with an
the earliest period, and becomes
participle with instrumental taking to
common from
the passive
no small extent the place of an active verb with
dattdh
vyddhena
J
its subject.
Thus, yamena
'given by Tama'; ffibhir idyah (RV.), 'to be praised by sages';
jdlarh vistlrnam (H.), 'by the hunter a net [was] spread'; teno
(RV.),
=
'by him [it was] said'; mayd gantavyam (H.),
'I shall go'.
The second object of a causative verb is sometimes
put in the instrumental instead of the accusative as, paksibhih
pinddn khddayati, 'he causes
ktam,
:
the cakes to be eaten by the birds'.
283. Many instrumental constructions
are such as call in translation for
USES OF THE INSTRUMENTAL AND DATIVE.
287]
85
other prepositions than 'with' or 'by'; yet the true instrumental relation is
to be traced, especially if the etymological sense of the words be
usually
carefully considered.
More anomalously, however, the instrumental
with the ablative with words signifying separation
'separated from
(RV.),
me
was parted from
vi radhisi
vfyutah
(AV.),
'let
sa taya vyayujyata (MBh.j,
'he
(compare English parted with}.
The prepositions taking the instrumental
284.
and the
'with'
her'
life';
vatsafr
thus,
'ham atmdna
their calves'; md~
not be severed from the breath of
used interchangeably
is
:
like
are those signifying
thus, saha, with the adverbial words containing sa as an
:
and, in general, a word compounded
element, as sakam, sardham, saratham;
with sa, sam, saha takes an instrumental as its regular and natural com-
plement.
But
vi
also
the
'without'
uma,
preposition
(along with the
of
compounds
takes sometimes the instrumental.
spoken of in the preceding paragraph),
285. Uses of the Dative. The dative is the case of
of that toward or in the direction of or
the indirect object
in order to or for which anything is or is done (either intransitively or to a direct object).
In more physical connections, the uses of the dative approach those of
the accusative (the more proper 'to'-case), and the two are sometimes interbut the general value of the dative as the 'for'-case is almost
changeable
;
everywhere distinctly
to
be traced.
286. Thus, the dative is used with
Words signifying give, share out,
a.
dddati sdkhye (RV.),
'who gives not
assign,
and the
him protection'.
Words signifying show, announce,
like
:
nd
thus, yo
ydcha 'smai fdrma (RV.),
to a friend';
'bestow upon
b.
ebhyo abhavat suryah (RV.),
'the
declare,
arid the like
sun was manifested
to
them';
bhlmaya pratyavedayan (MBh.), 'they announced Rituparna
c.
Words
thus, avtr
rtuparnam
Bhima'; tebhyah
'having promised to them'.
pratijnaya (MBh.),
like;
to
:
signifying
give
camping'; mate *va
have a regard or feeling,
attention,
memo dadhuh (MBh.),
putrebhyo mrda (AV.),
thus, nive$aya
'they
'be
set
gracious
and the
minds upon en-
their
as a
mother
to
her
kim asmdbhyam hrnlse (RV.), 'why art thou angry at us?'
d. Words signifying inclination, obeisance, and the like
thus, mdhyam
sons';
:
namantam
pradfyac cdtasrah (RV.),
me'; devebhyo namaskrtya (MBh.),
e.
'with
Words
signifying hurling
which thou hurlest
the four quarters
'let
bow themselves
to
'having paid homage to the gods'.
or
casting:
as
ycna dudSfe dsyasi (AV.),
at the impious'.
In some of these constructions the genitive and locative are also used
:
see below.
287. In
with reference
its
to,
more
distinctive sense,
and the
variety of constructions.
like,
And
the
as signifying for,
for the benefit of,
dative is used freely,
and in a great
this use passes over into that of the dative of
IV. DECLENSION.
gg
[287
Thus, isurh krnvana dsanaya
saubhagatvdya hdstam (RV.),
end or purpose, which is extremely common.
'making an arrow for hurling'; grhndmi
te
(AV.),
rdstrdya mdhyam badhyatdm sain order to royalty for me, in
bound
on
pdtnebhyah pardbhuve (AV.),
Such a dative is much used predicatorder to destruction for my enemies'.
'I
take thy hand in
order to
happiness';
'be it
with the copula omitted), in the sense of 'makes for',
and so
'is intended for, and so 'must'; or 'is liable to',
(and oftenest
tends toward'; also
ively
l
'can'.
Thus, upadeco murkhdndm prakopdya na cdntaye
[tends]
to the exasperation,
na
tosdya
'bhavat (H.),
thou
ddbhdya (RV.),
not the conciliation, of
'and
he was not
to
sa ca tasydh sarh-
her satisfaction';
herdsman, not one
art a good
'good counsel
(H.),
fools';
asi
sugopd
for cheating'
(i.
e.
na
not to
be cheated).
These uses of the dative are in the older language especially illustrated
the dative infinitives, for which see chap. XIII.
by
dative is not used with prepositions.
288. The
Uses
289.
case,
of the Ablative.
in the various
The
ablative is the
of that preposition
senses
:
is
it
'from'-
used
to
and the like.
express removal, separation, distinction, issue,
where
is
used
ablative
expulsion, removal, distinction, release,
290. The
and other kindred relations are expressed thus, te sedhanti pathd
'they drive away the wolf from the path'; md prd gdma pathdh
:
protection,
vrkam
(AV.),
from the path': are asmdd astu hetih (AV.), 'far
(RV.), 'may we not go away
from us be your missile'; pdtdm no vfkdt (RV.), 'save us from the wolf.
291. The
ablative
is
used where procedure or issue from something as
is signified
thus, cukrd krsndd ajanista
from a source or starting-point
(RV.), 'the bright one has been
:
born from the
black
lobhdt
one';
krodhah
prabhavati (MBh.), 'passion arises from greed'; vatdt te prdndm avidam (AV.),
from the wind'; ye prdcyd died abhiddsanty
'I have won thy life-breath
'who attack us from the eastern quarter'; tac chrutvd sakhlganthat from the troop of friends'; vdyur antariksdd
abhdsata (MBh.), 'the wind spoke from the sky'.
asmdn
dt
(AV.),
'having heard
(MBh.),
Hence
ablative
:
phraseology
tions.
procedure as from a cause or occasion
also,
this
is
is
a standing construction;
Thus,
is
especially frequent in the later language,
vdjrasya
ciisndd
it
signified by the
and in technical
borders on instrumental construc-
daddra (RV.), 'from (by reason
of)
the fury
he burst asunder; yasya dandabhaydt sarve dharmam
anurudhyanti (MBh.), 'from fear of whose rod all are constant to duty'; afcaramicritatvdd ekarasya (Tribh.), 'because e contains an element of a'.
the
of
thunderbolt
Perhaps by a further modification of this construction (the effect following
the
cause),
sakarat,
the ablative
292. One
to
also
in
technical
language signifies
'after':
thus,
'after s\
or
two special applications of the ablative construction are
be noticed:
a.
The
ablative with
words implying fear
(terrified recoil from):
thus,
USES OF THE ABLATIVE.
294=]
ydsmdd
birth';
rejanta krstdyah (RV.),
afraid
of her
her
at
1
whom
'at
mortals tremble
;
yusmdd
'through fear of you'.
bhiyd (RV.),
The
b.
'everything was
sdrvam abibhet (AV.),
tdsyd jdtdyah
87
ablative of
comparison (distinction from):
thus,
prd
ririce
divd
mdrah prthivydh (RV.), 'Indra is greater than the heaven and the earth'.
With a comparative (or other word used in a kindred way), the ablative is
the regular and almost constant construction
thus, svaddh svddiyah (RV.),
'sweeter than the sweet'; kirh tasmdd duhkhataram (MBh.), 'what is more painful
:
mitrdd anyah
than that?"
'any other
(H.),
'another than the Nishadhan'
(MBh.),
;
ndisadhad any am
than a friend';
sa matto ma/tan,
'he is greater than
1'
;
tad anydtra tvdn nf dadhmasi (AV.), 'we set this down elsewhere (away)
from thee'; purva vfyvasmad bhtivanat (RV.), 'earlier than all beings'.
Occasionally, a partitive genitive is used with the comparative (as with
the superlative); or an instrumental (of holding together the things compared).
293. The ablative is used with a variety of prepositions and words
sharing a prepositional character; but all these have rather an adverbial value,
as strengthening or denning the 'from'-relation, than any proper governing
Thus
force.
:
In the Veda, ddhi and pdri are much used as directing and strengthening adjuncts with the ablative as, jato himdvatas pdri (AV.), 'born from
the Himalaya (forth)'; samudrdd ddhi jajnise (AV.), 'thou art bom from
a.
:
the
cdrantam pdri tastMsah
ocean';
stands
'moving forth from that which
(RV.),
fast'.
b.
Also purd (and purds],
'before':
purd jdrasah
of protection and the like,
as,
in
(RV.),
the sense
'before old age'
'from':
as
'forward from
of
and hence
:
fafamdndh purd niddh
1
,
also,
and hence
with words
(RV.),
'setting
in security from ill-will'.
Also
c.
dnu fusyatu
ndma
siha
d,
in the sense of 'hither from,
(AV.),
(AV.),
all
the
way
from': as,
d m&lad
tdsmdd d nadyb
dry completely up from the root'
'since that time ye are called rivers'.
But usually, and
it
'let
;
language, the measurement of interval implied in d,
reversed in direction, and the construction means 'all the way to. until'
especially in the later
is
as,
:
a 'syd yajndsyo
'drca/i
(VS.;,
'until the
end of
this sacrifice';
d sodayat
the sixteenth year'; a pradandt ((,.), 'until her marriage'.
Other prepositional constructions offer little subject for remark: vina
takes the ablative as well as instrumental (284); rte in the older language
(M.),
'till
d.
usually has the ablative, in the later the accusative.
294.
genitive
is
Uses of the Genitive. The
adjectival
;
it
proper value of the
belongs to and qualifies a noun, de-
signating something relating to the latter
the nature of the case, or the connection,
in
a
manner which
more nearly.
defines
Other genitive constructions, with adjective or verb or prepoappear to arise out of this by a more or less distinctly
traceable connection
The use of the genitive has become much extended, espesition,
.
IV. DECLENSION.
88
[294
attribution of a noun-character
cially in the later language, by
to the adjective, and by pregnant verbal construction, so that it
often bears the aspect of being a substitute for other cases
as
instrumental, locative.
dative,
295. The genitive
into the usual varieties,
in
as
normal adjective construction
its
classifiable
is
genitive of possession or appurtenance, including
:
commonest
as elsewhere, the
this is,
the complement of implied relation
of all; the so-called partitive genitive; the subjective and objective genitives;
Genitives of appellation ('city of Rome'), material, and characof honor'), do not occur.
Examples are: indrasya vajrah,
'India's thunderbolt'; pita putranam, 'father of sons'; putrdh pituh, 'son of
and so on.
teristic
('man
the father'
kamah putrasya, 'the father's
dasmam, 'a hundred female
pituh
;
'which of us'; fatarh
love
of the son'
;
ke nah,
slaves'.
The expression of possession etc. on the part of pronouns is made
almost entirely by the genitive case, and not by a derived possessive adjective
(516).
296. The
is dependent on an adjective:
by a construction similar to that of verbs
genitive
In part,
a.
thus,
genitive object:
abhijna rajadharmanam.
which take a
'understanding the duties of
a king'.
b.
In great part, by a transfer of the possessive genitive from noun to
the adjective being treated as if it had noun-value: thus, tasya
adjective,
samah
or
anurupah or sadrfah, 'resembling him'
'dear to him'
thing);
(his
dear one); tasya 'viditam,
havya? carsariindm (RV.),
of sacrifice);
'to
be
naranarinam (MBh.),
Ipsito
object of desire); yasya kasya prasutah
c.
The
d.
e.
his like); tasya priya,
to him'
is
a matter
(H.),
of course
:
(his
unknown
by mortals' (their object
'desired of men and women' (their
sacrificed to
whomsoever born'
'of
so-called partitive genitive with a superlative,
of similar value,
heroes';
(i.
'unknown
thus,
(his
son).
or another
word
frestham viranam,
"best
of
the mighty (mightiest) one'.
Adjectives meaning 'capable', 'worthy', 'full', and a few others, take
vlriidhaih vlryavatl
(AV.),
'of plants
the genitive by a more original and proper right.
297. The
a.
A
genitive as object of a verb is:
possessive genitive of the recipient, by pregnant construction, with
verbs signifying give, impart, communicate, and the like
daya 'sya
'having
(MBh.),
bestowal); rajfto niveditam (H.),
'it
:
thus,
varan pra-
upon him' (made them his by
was made known to the king' (made his
bestowed
gifts
by knowledge).
or
This construction, by which the genitive becomes substitute for a dative
abounds in the later language, and is extended sometimes to
locative,
problematic and difficult cases.
b.
A
(in
most cases, probably) partitive genitive, as a less complete or
than an accusative
thus, with verbs meaning partake
less absolute object
(eat,
drink,
payaya (RV.),
:
piba sutdsya (AV.), 'drink (of) the Soma'; mddhvah
'cause to drink the sweet draught';
with verbs meaning
etc.),
as
USES OF THE GENITIVE.
301]
impart
(of
the thing imparted)
upon us
immortality';
with:
mdtsy dndhasah
as
to perceive,
meaning
as,
as
etc.,
with
verbs
(RV.),
'do
note, care for,
89
no amftasya (RV.),
d'idata
meaning enjoy, be
mama
praising him'; ydtha
'he
:
smdrat (AV.),
was angry
filled
thou enjoy the juice'; -- with verbs
regard with feelings of various kinds
who was
vdsisthasya stuvatd indro a$rot (RV.), Indra listened to Vasishtha
cukopa (MBh.),
'bestow
or
satisfied
at him';
'that
he may think of me';
tasya
'we are afraid
bibhlmas tava (MBh.),
of thee'.
A
c.
more doubtful character, with verbs meaning
of
genitive
have authority, as tvdm i$ise vdsunam (RV.),
things'; ydtha 'ham esam virdjani (AV.), 'that I
or
'thou
art
good
over them';
rule
may
to rule
of
lord
with verbs meaning throw at, injure, as yds ta dsyat (AV.), 'whoever hurled at thee';
and with some others.
298.
and
cate,
lah
(AV.),
A genitive in its usual possessive sense is often found as predinot seldom with the copula omitted thus, ydthd 'so mama keva:
thou
'that
mayest be
samtustam yasya manasam
(H.),
wholly
'all
sarvah
mine';
good fortunes are
sampattayas tasya
who has a con-
his
tented mind'.
299. The prepositional constructions of the genitive are for the most
part with such prepositions as are really noun-cases, and have the government of such thus, agre, arthe, tote, and the like also with other prepo:
;
words which, in the general looseness of use of the genitive, have
become assimilated to these.
A few more real prepositions take the gensitional
itive
either usually, like updri, 'above',
:
A
thus,
genitive
or occasionally,
like adhds, antdr, dtL
used in the older language with certain adverbs of time
is
sakfd dhnah (RV.),
idanim dhnah (RV.),
'once a
'at this
300. The genitive
is
:
1
day
;
trih
'thrice a year';
samvatsarasya,
time of the day'.
used adverbially hardly
at all;
a
few genitives of
time occur in the older language: as aktos, 'by night', vastos, 'by day'.
A genitive of accompanying circumstance, with a qualifying word,
is
sometimes used absolutely, instead of a locative (303 b); but this construction
is unknown in the earlier
language, and rare in the later. It is said by
the grammarians
to
convey an implication
of contempt:
preksamanayah panakalam amanyata (MBh.), 'he thought
ing at play, while the Vidarbhan was looking on' (or, in
is
found without
pavyatas
te
301.
any such
(MBh.),
Uses
'I
implication:
thus,
vaidarbhyaJi
time for stak-
it a
spite of
it)
will count its fruits
;
samkhyasyami phalany
while you look on
thus,
of the Locative.
but
it
asya
1
.
The
locative
is
properly
but its
sphere of use has been somewhat extended, so as to touch and
overlap the boundaries of other cases, for which it seems to be
a substitute.
the
''irT-case,
the case expressing situation
or location
Unimportant variations of the sense of
and 'at\ Of course,
'among', 'on
'amid' or
time as well as place
,
is
indicated by the case
;
'in'
also,
and
;
are
those of
situation in
it
is
applied
IV. DECLENSION.
90
to
of action and feeling
physical relations, to sphere
to state of things, to accompanying circumstance
last grows the frequent use of the locative as
less
yet
[301
and knowledge,
and out of this
;
the case absolute.
Moreover, by a pregnant construction,
the locative
used
is
place of rest or cessation of action or motion
'on to' instead of 'in' or 'on'; German in with accuor
('into'
sative instead of dative
compare English there for thither],
the
to denote
:
locative of situation in space hardly
The
302.
needs
An
illustration.
example or two are ye, devd divt sthd (AV.), 'which of you gods are in heavtddrk (MBh.), 'not among gods or Yakshas is such
en'; na devesu na yaksesu
:
a one'; pdrvatasya pfsthe (RV.), 'on the ridge of the mountain'; viddthe
santu devdh (RV.), 'may the gods be at the assembly'; dacame pade (MBh.),
'at
the tenth step'.
The
takes
locative
place
asyd usdso
(RV.),
vyitstdu
etasminn eva kale (MBh.),
dawn';
just that time'; dvddace varshe (MBh.),
'at
But the accusative
'in the tenth year'.
point of time at which anything
'at the shining forth of this
the
time indicates
of
thus,
:
is
occasionally
used in this sense,
instead of the locative.
303. The locative of sphere or condition or circumstance is of very
frequent use: thus, made dhim ind.ro jaghdna (RV.), 'in fury Indra slew
the dragon'; mitrdsya sumatdu sydma (RV.), 'may we be in the favor of
Mitra'; te vacane ratam (MBh.), 'delighted in thy words'.
This construction
a.
on the one hand,
is,
sion for 'in the matter or case of,
or
'with
generalized into an expres-
reference to,
respecting',
and
wide range, touching upon genitive and
J
dative constructions
thus, e mdm bhaja grame devesu gosu (AV.), 'be generous to him in retainers, in horses, in cattle'; tdm it sakhitvd Imahe (RV.),
in the later language a very
takes
:
'him we beg
l
for friendship'; nydyo
yam mayd drsta dnayane tava (MBh.),
means was devised by me for (with reference to) bringing thee hither';
satltve kdranam striydh (H.), 'the cause of (in the case of) a woman's chastity'; na cakto 'bhavan nivdrane (MBh.), 'he was not capable of preventing'.
'this
On
b.
the other hand,
the expression by the locative of a condition of
or of a conditioning or accompanying
circumstance, passes over into a well-marked absolute construction, which is
known even in the earliest stage of the language, but becomes more frethings in which anything takes place,
quent
later.
Transitional examples are
(RV.),
'I
midtime
call to
thee
at the
:
have tvd sura udite have madhydndine divdh
(when the sun has risen), I call at
arisen sun
na me kopah (MBh.), 'and even
no anger on my part'.
The normal condition of the absolute construction is with a participle
of
the day'; aparddhe krte
in case of an
offense committed,
'pi
there
ca
is
accompanying the noun
thus, stlrne barhisi samidhdne agndu (RV.),
the barhis is strewn and the fire kindled'; kale fubhe prdpte (MBh.),
:
pitious time having
arrived';
'when
'a
pro-
avasanndydrh rdtrdv astdcalacuddvalambini can-
USES OF THE LOCATIVE.
306]
dramasi
the
having drawn
'the night
(H.),
summit
91
and the moon resting on
to a close,
of the western mountain'.
But the noun may be wanting, or may be replaced by an adverbial sub(as euam, tathd, iti): thus, asmdbhih samanujndte (MBh.),
'[it] being
stitute
fully assented to
by
participle
sometimes redundantly added
tatha krte sati,
thus,
:
The
C.
locative
arthe or krte,
copula sati or the like being to be supplied):
(a
'the cause of fear being remote'; while, on the other hand,
participle sati etc. is
ciple
'it being thus spoken by
So likewise the
being thus accomplished'.
'it
(H.),
may be wanting
thus, dure bhaye,
the
evam ukte kalind (MBh.),
us';
tatha 'nusthite
Kali';
is
frequently
the matter
'in
the
to
other
of,
used adverbially or prepositionally
304. The pregnant construction by which the
the
earliest time.
ordinary
It is
construction
territory between.
;
It occurs
:
thus,
for the sake of.
locative
comes
the goal or object of motion or action or feeling exercised is not
from the
parti-
being thus done'.
'it
by no means
the two
to
pass into
to
express
uncommon
be sharply distinguished from
one another, with a doubtful
:
Especially with verbs, as of arriving, sending, placing, communicating,
bestowing, and many others, in situations where an accusative or a dative
a.
(or
a genitive,
sd
thus,
gods'
297a) might be looked
id devesu
gachati (RV.),
imam no yajndm amftesu
;
the immortals';
into the plants'
'that,
for,
and exchangeable with them:
truly,
dhehi (RV.),
goes to
yd dsincdnti rdsam osadhisu (AV),
(or,
(to
be among)
'set this offering of
ours
the
among
'who pour in the juice
ma
prayache "$vare dhanam
papdta medinydm (MBh.), 'he fell to (so
skandhe krtva (H.), 'putting on the shoulder';
the juice that
is
in the plants);
'do not offer wealth to a lord';
(H.),
as to be upon) the earth';
samfrutya purvam asmdsu (MBh.), 'having before promised us
1
.
b. Often also with nouns and adjectives in similar constructions (the
easy to separate from those of the locative meaning
instances not always
reference
'with
toward
an'
;
all
to':
303 a):
above,
creatures'
;
dayd
thus,
anurdgam ndisadhe
(MBh.),
'compassion
sarvabhutesu,
'affection for the
Nishadh-
rdjd samyagvrttah sadd tvayi (MBh.), 'the king always behaved properly
toward
thee'.
305. The prepositions construed with the
locative stand to it only in
the relation of adverbial elements strengthening and directing
its
meaning.
In the Veda, such locative constructions are most frequent with d and
ddhi: thus,
mdrtyesv d, 'among mortals'; prthivydm ddhy osadhih, 'the
'establish glory in
tejo mdyi dhdrayd 'dhi (AV.),
plants upon the earth'
;
me':
upa and dpi
less often,
the language, antdr,
306.
endings
'within,
are used in the
among',
is
Declensional forms are
to the stem,
The stem
itself,
same way.
In
all
ages of
construed with the locative.
made by
the addition of
or base of inflection.
however,
in
many words and
classes
IV. DECLENSION.
92
of words,
especially as
liable to variation,
is
[306
assuming a
cases and a weaker in others.
stronger form in some
And between stem and ending
are sometimes inserted
connecting elements (or what, in the recorded condition of
the language, have the aspect of being such).
Respecting all these points, the details of treatment, as exhibited by
each class of words or by single words, will be given in the following chapters.
Here, however,
it
is
desirable also to give a brief general view of them.
In the nominative, the
which, however, is wantending is *
it is
also euphonically lost
ing in derivative a and -stems
in general have no ending,
(150) by consonant-stems. Neuters
a-stems alone add m (as
but show in this case the bare stem
in the accus. masc. I
Among the pronouns, am is a frequent
masc. and 1'em. nom. ending (and is found even in du. and pi.);
and neuters show a form in d.
307.
Endings: Singular.
usual masc.
and
fern,
;
;
accusative, m
am being added after
or
In the
ing
and
M in the radical division,
neuter accusative
am
is
the masc. and fern, end-
a consonant and r and after
i
m
elsewhere after vowels.
like the nominative.
is
and
The
The instrumental ending for all genders alike is
With final i and u- vowels, the a is variously combined, and
sometimes lost by
case end in ena
and those in a make it end in aya; but
early language, of immediate addition of
the older language
Stems in a make
the
it is
contraction with them.
the
The dative ending
modes of combination
is
i
appearance by contraction not
The a-stems
(sometimes
and u
eria
and with
(apparently]
bhyam
A
with
e
to smai.
likewise
it
final are various
unknown
(and disin the oldest language).
end in
combines
In the personal pronouns is found
are quite irregular in this case, making
excepted is the pronominal element snia, which
ay a
in V.),
instances occur, in the
a to both a and a.
in general e;
of
a.
in
it
(or hyam}.
fuller ending ai (like gen.-abl.
as and loc. am: see
below) belongs to feminine stems only. It is taken (with interposed y] by the great class of those in derivative a: also by
those in derivative i, and (as reckoned in the later
language)
in derivative u.
And later it is allowed to be taken by feminine stems in radical i and M, and even
by those in i and u :
such have it in the earliest language in only rare and excep-
tional instances.
The ablative
has
a
special
ending,
d
(or
#),
only
in
CASE-ENDINGS.
308]
93
masc. and neut., the a being lengthened before it
(except in the personal pronouns of 1st and 2d person; and
these have the same ending in the pi., and even, in the old
language, in the dual).
Everywhere else, the ablative is identa-stems,
ical
with the genitive.
The genitive of -stems (and of one pronominal w-stem,
Elsewhere, the usual abl.-gen. ending is as:
amu] adds sya.
but its irregularities of treatment in combination "with a stemfinal are
With
considerable.
i and w,
it is either
directly added
added with interposed n, or fused to es
(only in the old language),
and
os respectively.
The
js
With
r
(or ar)
it
as
169, end'.
(or ur
stems precisely as ai
yields us
taken by feminine
taken in the dative
see above.
fuller
is
:
:
The locative ending
and r and a-stems
and w-stems (unless the
final vowel is saved by an interposed
make the case end in
n]
au; but the Veda has some relics or traces of the older forms
(ay-i [?] and av-i] out of which this appears to have sprung.
Vedic locatives from /-stems end also in a and i.
The pronominal element sma makes the locative smin.
Stems in an in the
older language often lose the *, and use the bare stem as locative.
The ending am is the locative correspondent to dat. ai and
abl.-gen. as, and is taken under the same circumstances see above.
(fusing with a to
e
is
in consonant
i
The
in the latter).
i
:
The vocative
(unless by accent: 314) is distinguished
from the nominative only in the singular, and not quite always
In a-stems, it is the unaltered stem
there.
and so also in
;
most
consonant-stems
but
neuters in an and in may drop
the n; and the oldest language has sometimes a vocative in s
from stems in nt and ns.
Stems in r change this to ar. In
masc. and fern, i and w-stems, the case ends respectively in e and
:
in neuters, in the same or in i and u.
Stems in a change
a to e; derivative 1 and u are shortened
radical stems in long
vowels use the nominative form.
o;
;
308. Dual. The dual has
except so far as the vocasometimes distinguished from nom. and accus. by a difference of accent: 314
one for nom.,
only three case-forms
accus., and voc.; one for instr., dat., and abl.; and one for
gen. and loc. (occasional confusion of the uses of the second and
third is seen earlier).
But the pronouns of 1st and 2d person in the older language distinguish five dual cases see 492.
The masc. and fern, ending for nom. -accu s. - voc. is in
the later language usually au; but instead of this the Veda
has prevailingly a. Stems in a make the case end in e. Stems in i
and u, masc. and fern., lengthen those vowels; and derivative i in
tive is
:
:
IV. DECLENSION.
94
[308
Veda remains regularly unchanged, though later it adds au,
The neuter ending is only *, with final a this combines to e.
The universal ending for the instr. -dat. -abl. is bhyam,
before which final a is made long. In the Veda, it is often to
the
be read as two
bhiam.
syllables,
The universal ending of gen.-loc.
and a alike become e (ai).
Plural.
309.
and
fern,
os
nominative,
:
before this,
a
the general masc.
The old language, however, often makes
instead of as from a-stems, and in a few examples
ending
the case in asas
the
In
is
is as.
From derivative ?-stems, is instead of yas
from a-stems.
the regular and usual Vedic form. Pronominal a-stems make
the masc. nom. in e.
The neuter ending (which is accusative also) is in general i ;
also
is
and before this the final of a stem is apt to be strengthened, by
prolongation of a vowel, or by insertion of a nasal, or by both.
But in the Veda the hence resulting forms in ani, mi, uni are
frequently abbreviated by loss of the m, and sometimes by
further shortening of the preceding vowel.
The accusative ending is also as in consonant-stems and
radical division of i and w-stems (and in the old lan-
in the
Stems in short vowels lengthen those
guage even elsewhere).
vowels and add in the masculine n (for ns, of which abundant
traces remain), and in the feminine s.
In the neuter, this case
the nominative.
is like
In the
instrumental, the case-ending is everywhere bhis
except in a-stems, where in the later language the case always
ends in ais, but in the earlier either in ais or the more regular ebhis (abhis in the two personal pronouns
minal stem a [501] makes ebhis only).
;
and the prono-
The dative and ablative have in the plural the same
form, with the ending bhyas (in Veda often bhias], before which
But the two personal pronouns
only a is altered, becoming e.
distinguish the two cases, having for the ablative the singular ending
(as above pointed out), and for the dative the peculiar bhyam (almost
never in V. bhiam), which they extend also into the singular.
Of
which
is am;
and in a few scattering Vedic instances) takes after final vowels an inserted consobefore ri, a
nant, s in the pronominal declension, n elsewhere
short vowel is lengthened
before s, a becomes e. In the Veda,
it is
very frequently to be pronounced in two syllables, as a-am.
The locative ending is su, without any exceptions, and
the
the
genitive,
(except optionally
after
universal
radical
I
and
ending
M,
;
;
the only change before
it
is
that of a to
e.
CASE-ENDINGS; STRONG AND
311]
The vocative,
tive only
310.
by
its
as in the dual,
WEAK
differs
STEM.
95
from the nomina-
accent.
The normal scheme
of endings, as recognized
by
the native grammarians (and conveniently to be assumed as
the basis of special descriptions),
is
this
:
IV. DECLENSION.
95
[311
with a vowel (instr. to loc.
having endings beginning
the
du., gen. pi.);
latter, with a consonant
gen.-loc.
dat.-abl. du., instr.,
The
dat.-abl.,
of strong
class
and
as above denned,
cases,
(inst.-
loc. pi.).
and feminine stems. In neuter
only to masculine
sing.,
belongs
inflection,
the only strong cases are the nom.-acc. pi.; while, in those
make
stems that
the nom.-acc. du. belong to
cases sing, to the middle
nom.-acc.
pratyafte-i,
nom.
pi.
SfcfNrTCT
for example,
pi. neut.,
compare SJHlRl
and 3rU ^i pralyanc-as>
H^
nom.-acc. du.
;
HC^I
and H rU N ^^pratyag- bhis,
the
neut.,
and
nom.-acc.
pratyak,
instr.
pi.
words which exhibit no variation of stem,
venient to distinguish
weak and
thus,
gen.-loc. du.
pratw-os,
in
:
masc.; yrfWl prafic-1,
sing, neut.,
Even
and middle form,
the weakest class, and the same
a distinction of weakest
it
is
often
con-
same groups of cases by the names strong and
so on.
312. Other variations concern chiefly the final vowel of a stem, and may
be mainly left to be pointed out in detail below.
Of consequence enough
to mention here is only the puna-strengthening of a final i or u, which in
the later language
in rnasc. and
is
always
made before
as of nom. pi.
and
e of dat.
the Veda, it does not always take place;
forbidden in dat. sing. neut. also; and it is seen sometimes in
Final r has ywraa-strengthening in loc. sing.
fern.;
in
313. Insertions
between Stem and E nding.
an added n often makes
nor
loc.
sing.
is it
sing.
After vowel-stems,
This appendage
appearance before an ending.
is of least questionable origin in nom.-acc. pi. neut., where the interchange
in the old language of the forms of a and i-stems with those of an and inits
is pretty complete
and the w-stems follow their analogy. Elsewhere,
most widely and firmly established in the gen. pi., where in the great
mass of cases, and from the earliest period, the ending is virtually nam after
a vowel.
In the i and M-stems of the later language, the instr. sing, of
stems
it
;
is
masc. and neut.
other
is separated by its
presence from the fern., and it is in the
weakest cases made a usual distinction of neuter forms from mas-
culine; but the aspect of the matter in the Veda is very different; there
the appearance of the n is everywhere
sporadic ; the neuter shows no special
inclination to take it, and it is not excluded even from the feminine. In the.
ending ena from u-stems (later invariable, earlier predominating), its presence
appears to have worked the most considerable transformation of original shape.
The place of n before gen. pi. am is taken by s in pronominal a and a-stems.
The y after a before the endings di, as, and dm is most probably an
insertion, such as is made elsewhere (258).
316]
314.
at all,
is
And
in
ACCENT
IN DECLENSION.
Accent
in
97
Declension.
As
a rule without exception, the vocative, if accented
accented on the first syllable.
the
Veda
(the
case is
a rare one),
whenever a
syllable written
be pronounced as two by restoration of a semivowel to vowel
the first element only has the vocative accent, and the syllable as
as one is to
form,
written
circumflex (by
is
84 a):
but dyatis when monosyllabic
But the vocative
is
thus, dyaiis
(i.
e.
dfihis]
when
dissyllabic,
jykke when for jfake.
;
when
accented only
it
stands
at
the
or, in verse, at the beginning also
beginning of a sentence
of a metrical division or pada; elsewhere it is accentless or
enclitic
thus, dgne yam yajn&m paribhur dsi (RV.), 'O Agni
but upa tva 'gna e 'masi (RV.),
whatever offering thou protectest
!
:
1
;
we
'unto thee, Agni,
A
noun
come'.
usually an adjective, but not seldom also a
word qualifying a vocative
any other
in the genitive (very rarely in
case)
constitutes, so far as
concerned, a unity with it thus, sdkhe vaso or vdso sakhe, 'excellent
friend'; sUno sahasah or sdhasdh suno, 'oh son of might'; and suditi suno
sahaso didihi (RV.), 'with excellent brightness, son of might, shine forth'.
accent
is
Two
accent
;
:
coordinate vocatives, whether noun or adjective, have usually the same
but the Vedic texts furnish not a few irregular exceptions to
this rule.
For brevity, the vocative dual and plural will be given in the paradigms
below along with the nominative, without taking the trouble to specify in
each instance that, if the latter be accented elsewhere than on the first
syllable,
the accent of the vocative
315.
is
different.
As
regards the other cases, rules for change of accent
in declension have to do only with monosyllables and with stems
more than one syllable which are accented on the final for if a
stem be accented on the penult, or any other syllable further
back
as in sdrpant, vari, bhagavant, sumdnas, sa/idsravaja
the accent remains upon that syllable through the whole inflection
of
;
(except in the vocative, as explained in the preceding paragraph).
The only exceptions are a few numeral stems see below, chap. VI.
:
316.
Stems accented on the
final
(including monosyllables)
are subject to variation of accent in declension chiefly in virtue
of the fact that some of the endings have, while others have
not,
or have in less degree, a tendency to
ward upon themselves.
a.
The endings
Thus
draw the accent
for-
:
of the nominative
and accusative singular and dual and
away from the
of the nominative plural have no tendency to take the accent
stem, and are therefore only accented when a final vowel of the stem and
the vowel of the ending are blended together into a single vowel or diphthong.
Thus, from dattd come dattm't (= dattd -f- au) and dnttas (= datta -\- as);
but from nadt come nadydu (=nadi-\-au) and nadytt* (==nadt-}-aa).
Whitney, Grammar.
7
IV. DECLENSION.
98
[316
All the other endings sometimes take the accent; but those beginning
vowel do so more readily than those beginning with a consonant.
b.
with a
Thus, from nans come navti and naubhis; from mahant, however, come mahaid
but mahddbhis.
The general
In
317.
rules of accent,
may be
thus stated
:
the declension of monosyllabic stems, the accent
all the weak cases (without distinction
upon the ending in
of middle and weakest)
falls
then,
:
thus,
nava,
nausu
navam,
naubhyhm,
;
vagbhis, vactim, vaksu.
But some monosyllabic stems retain the accent throughout thus, ptfbhis,
gdvam, g6su. For such cases, see below, 350, 361 c, d, 375, 390, 427.
vaci,
:
Of
318.
polysyllables ending in consonants, only a few
the ending, and that in the weakest (not the
shift the accent to
cases.
middle)
Such are
:
Present participles in ant or ill : thus, from tuddnt, tudatd and tudattis
and tudatam; but tudddbhydm and tudatsu.
a.
A
b.
few adjectives having the form of such participles,
as mahatd,
brhatds.
c.
Bases of which the accented
copation of the vowel
:
final loses its syllabic character
thus, majjnd, murdhne,
ddmnd*
(from
majydn
by syn-
etc.
:
423
.
Other sporadic cases will be noticed under the different declensions.
Case forms used adverbially sometimes show a changed accent: see
chap. XVI. (lllOff.).
319. Of polysyllabic stems ending in accented short vowels,
the final of the stem retains the accent if it retains its syllabic
thus, dattena and datthya from dattd ; agnina and agndye
from agni; and also dattebhyas, agnibhis, and so on. Otherwise,
the accent is on the ending
and that, whether the final and
the ending are combined into one, as in dattais, dhenau,
agnln,
or whether the final is changed into a semidhenus, and so on
vowel before the ending thus, dhenvu, pitrh.
identity
:
:
;
:
But
am
of the gen.
pi.
from stems in / and
ti
and
r
may, and in the
n from the
older language always does, take the accent, though
separated by
stem: thus, agnlnnm, dheniindm, pitfndm.
In RV., even derivative i-stems
show usually the same shift thus, bahvindm. Of stems in a, only numerals
:
(chap. VI.)
follow this rule:
320. Root-words
in
I
thus,
saptandm, dafdndm.
and u as
final
members
of
compounds
retain the
accent throughout, not shifting it to any of the endings.
And in the older
language there are polysyllabic words in long final vowels which follow in
this
respect as in others the analogy of the root-declension (below,
355 ff.).
Apart from these, the treatment of stems in derivative long vowels is, as
regards accent, the same as of those in short vowels
save that the tone
is not thrown forward
upon the ending in gen. plural.
99
323]
CHAPTER
V.
NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.
THE
321.
adjective stems
accordance in inflection of substantive and
is
so complete that the two cannot
They may be
be sep-
from one another.
arated in treatment
classified,
for convenience of description,
as follows:
Stems in
I.
Stems in
II.
III.
a;
f
Stems in
and
i
^
ETT a,
3
u;
and
*>
"37
u
:
namely, A. radicalB. derivative
stems (and a few others inflected like them);
stems
;
Stems in
IV.
ft r
(or
q[
V. Stems in consonants.
or);
There is nothing absolute in this classification and arrangement it is
No general
merely believed to be open to as few objections as any other.
;
agreement has been reached among scholars as to the number and order
The stems in a are here treated first because of
declensions.
of Sanskrit
the great predominance of the class.
322. The division-line between substantive and adjective,
always an uncertain one in early Indo-European language, is
There are,
even more wavering in Sanskrit than elsewhere.
unless we
however, in all the declensions as divided above
words which are distinctly adexcept the stems in r or ar
-
and, in general, they are inflected precisely like nounjectives
stems of the same final
only, among consonant-stems, there are
certain sub-classes of adjective bases with peculiarities of in;
:
flection to which there is among nouns nothing corresponding.
But there are also two considerable classes of adjective-com-
pounds, requiring special notice
namely
;
:
member a bare
323. Compound adjectives
verbal root, with the value of a present participle
thus, su-dfc,
'well-looking'; pra-budh, 'foreknowing a-druh, 'not hating'; vedahaving as final
:
;
vid,
'Veda-knowing';
vrtm-han,
the
Every root
'sitting
in
lap'.
'Vritra-slaying';
liable to be
is
upastha-sdd,
used in
this
'
V.
^00
NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.
[323
in all ages of the
way, and such compounds are not infrequent
see chapter on Compounds, below (XVIII.).
language
This class is originally and essentially only a special class of compound
the simple as well as the compounded
adjectives, since in the earliest Veda
root was sometimes used adjectively. But the compounded root was from the
beginning much more often so used, and the later the more exclusively,
:
so that practically the class is a separate
and important one.
Compound adjectives having a noun as final member,
but obtaining an adjective sense secondarily, by having the idea
of 'possession' added, and being inflected as adjectives in the
three genders.
Thus, prajakama, 'desire of progeny', becomes
an adjective meaning 'desirous (i. e. having desire) of progeny';
sabharya (sa-\-b/iarya), 'having one's wife along'; and so on.
324.
In a few cases,
ceding
member:
also,
the
final
thus, atimatra,
noun
is
'immoderate'
syntactically
(at i
object of the pre-
matram, 'beyond measure');
yavayaddvesas, 'driving away enemies'.
325. Hence, under each declension,
a root or a noun-stem of that declension
we have
is
to notice
when
inflected
how
final
member
As
of an adjective compound.
to accent, it needs only to be remarked that a monosyllabic word ending a compound loses the peculiarity of monosyllabic accentuation, and does not throw the tone foward upon
the ending.
Declension
Sterns (masculine
I.
and neuter)
in a.
This declension contains the majority of
declined stems of the language.
326.
Its
endings deviate more widely than
all
the
any others from
the normal.
327.
ing
Endings: Singular.
The nom. masc. has the normal end-
.<t.
The
ace.
office also of
The
and neut.) adds
(masc.
m
(not am);
and
this
form has the
nom, neuter.
changes a to ena uniformly in the later language; and even
Vedic this is the predominant ending (in RV., eight ninths of
Its final is in Vedic verse not
infrequently made long (ena), where
instr.
in the oldest
all
cases).
favored
by the metre.
mahitvd
The
(for
yajnena
dat.
has aya
abl.
has
But the normal ending a
etc.)
(as if
is also
by
thus,
yajnd,
suhdva,
not rare in the Veda.
adding aya
to a),
alike
in
all
ages of the
language.
The
t
(or
more probably d:
it
is
impossible from the evidence
DECLENSION
329]
of the Sanskrit to tell which
a
made
is
long:
in the personal
this
ending
is
is
101
the original form of the ending), before which
found in no other noun declension, but only
(of all
pronouns
The gen. has sya added
^-STEMS. ENDINGS.
I.,
numbers).
a; and this ending is also limited
a-stems (with the single exception of the pronoun amusya chap. VII.). Its
final a is in only three cases made long in the Veda; and its y is vocalized
to the final
to
:
(asia) almost as rarely.
The
ends in
loc.
e
(as
by combining the normal ending
if
i
with the
the stem), without exception.
The voc. is the bare stem.
final of
328. Dual. The dual endings in general are the normal ones.
The nom., ace., arid voc. masc. end in the later language always in au.
In the Veda,
eighths
the
however,
the
of
occurrences).
usual
simple a
is
ending
The same
RV.,
(in
cases in the neut. end in
in
seven
e,
which
appears to be the result of fusion of the stem-final with the normal ending i.
The instr., dat., and abl. have bhyam (in only one or two Vedic inwith the stem-final lengthened to a before it.
have a y inserted after the stem-final before os (or
In one or two (doubtful) Vedic inthe a had been changed to e}.
stances resolved into 6/u'am),
The gen. and
as if
loc.
mos and
stances (as also in the pronominal forms
os is substituted for
yos),
the final a.
329. Plural.
The nom. masc. has
asas instead
in the later language the
normal
But in the Veda the ending
frequent (one third of the occurrences in RV., but only one
ending as combined with the
is
a
final
to
as.
twenty-fifth in the peculiar parts of AV.).
The
are
ace.
in
left
masc.
ends in an
the Veda,
arid,
(for
earlier
ans, of which
208 ff.).
bination, even in the later language: see above,
The nom. and
ani
the an-stems:
(like
normal
RV.
But
i).
is
neut. have
ace.
to
in the
see
Veda
ani as three
to
abundant traces
under the disguise of apparent euphonic com-
two,
n
or else with
421;
this
in the later language" always the ending
as in the gen. pi.
before
ending alternates with simple a (which in
in
point
of
frequency;
in
AV.,
as three
to four).
The
antly
the
instr.
ends later always in ais
more normal form
ebhis
(in
;
but in
the
Veda
is
found abund-
RV., nearly as frequent
as aj's;
in
AV., only one fifth as frequent).
The dat. and abl. have bhyas as ending, with e instead of the final a
before it (as in the Vedic instr. ebhis, the loc. pi., the gen. loc. du. [?], and
The resolution into ebhias is not infrequent in the Veda.
The gen. ends in anora, the final a being lengthened and having n
inserted before the normal ending.
The a of the ending is not seldom (in
less than half the instances) to be read as two syllables, aam: opinions are
the instr. sing.).
divided as to whether the
small
number
anam
occur in
resolution
is
historical
or
(half-a-dozen) of examples of simple
RV.
metrical only.
am
as
A
very
ending instead of
V.
102
The
loc.
ends in
which the stem-final
NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.
em
is
that
changed
with the normal ending, before
to say,
is
[329
(with consequent change of
to e
Of accent in this declension, nothing
the syllable accented in the stem retains its
s
requires to
own
to s:
180).
be said
;
accent through-
out.
330.
Examples
the inflection of a-stems
~%3 devd, m.
7
As examples of
be taken 37R kama, m., 'love';
of declension.
may
'god'; EfTHT asya, n.,
'mouth'.
Singular: s"
N.
kamas
A.
devds
asydm
\SF^
devdm
asydm
devena
asyena
kamena
D.
cftlHm
kamaya
^TTT
devaya
asyhya
devat
asynt
Ab.
khmat
*^
<^e|Hl
*%(
kamasya
devdsya
asydsya
x
L.
H4 t-tj
oJllHUJ
-^
dtijj^^j
of-) |J-|
kame
deve
asye
^
V.
deva
hsya
Dual
N.A.
V.
kamau
I.
D. Ab.
^iT^^UH
devau
asye
1?
kamabhyam
^TPTTT
devabhyam
khmayos
devdyos
asynbhyam
G.L.
^nHraiH^
Plural
:
N.V.
kamas
devas
asydyos
334
DECLENSION
I.,
103
a-STEMs.
A.
kaman
devfin
SCTHT
~|t^
sRTifc^
asyani
kamais
devais
asyms
kamebhyas
devebhyas
asyebhyus
D. Ab.
G.
,
r
kamanam
_
,
devanam
asanam
devesu
asyesu
37m
L.
kamesu
Examples
Sing.
of the peculiar
instr. ravdthena,
:
Vedic forms are:
yajnd (such genitive forms as dfvasia are purely
sporadic).
Du.
:
nom.
etc.
masc. devd; gen.-loc. pastybs (stem pastyh}.
PI.: nom.-voc. masc^
devdsas;
gen. cara-
neut. yugd; instr. devebhis;
devanaam.
(/tam,
nouns, there are no irregularities in this deFor irregular numeral bases in a (or an], see the
next chapter.
For the irregularities of pronominal stems in a,
which are more or less fully shared also by a few adjectives of
pronominal kindred, see the chapter on Pronouns.
331.
Among
clension.
Adjectives.
Original adjectives in a are an exceedingly large
probably the majority of all adjectives. There is, however,
no such thing as a feminine stem in a; for the feminine, the a
and its
is changed to a - - or often, though far less often, to i
An example
declension is then like that of sena or devi (365).
of the complete declension of an adjective a-stem in the three
genders will be given below (371).
332.
class,
;
333.
times
for final
a. But a is somea of a root (and, more rarely,
then inflected like an ordinary
There are no verbal roots ending in
substituted
an or
for
am),
the
and
adjective in a (see below,
final
it
is
354).
A
noun ending in a, when occurring as final mem334.
ber of an adjective compound, is inflected like an original adjective in a, making its feminine likewise in a or
On the other hand, a feminine noun ending in derivative
a shortens its final to a to form a masculine and neuter base.
.
NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.
V.
104
Declension
Stems
The
335.
steins in
and
i
^
II.
genders) in
(of all
[335
3
*
and
u are
u.
inflected in so close
accordance with one another that they cannot be divided
two separate declensions.
They are of
those in ^
genders, and tolerably numerous
3
rous than those in
more neuters
in
3
The endings
widely
the three
all
into
t
more nume-
u, especially in the feminine (there are
u than in
i)
^
.
also differ frequently and
and the Vedic irregularities are nu-
declension
of this
from the normal,
merous.
336. Endings: Singular. The nom. masc. and fern, adds to the
s.
The nom. and ace. neut. is the bare stem,
In the Veda, the final u of a few neuters is lengthened
without ending.
stem the normal ending
(248 b):
The
thus, iwfi, puri.
inam and wnam,
warn, and, with n,
The
m
masc. and fern, adds
ace.
and neut. insert n before
while the masc.
and va
the Veda, forms in ya
and neut.
and doubtful.
normal ending a simply,
making ina and una. But in
in the later language takes the
fern,
instr.
Vedic forms in iam and
to the stem.
are excessively rare,
it,
and ua] are not infrequent in masc.
(or ia
also
while ina is found, very rarely, as a fern, ending. Moreover,
ya is often (in two thirds of the occurrences) contracted to I; and this
even sometimes shortened to i.
An adverbial instr. in uyd from half-a;
fern,
is
dozen stems in u occurs.
The
ing
e,
masc. and fern, gunates the
dat.
and
likewise;
this case,
.aye
in
as
the
language, the neuter
to insert
the stem before the end-
flnal of
These are the prevailing endings in the Veda
but the more normal ye and ve also occur; and the fern, has in
making
ave.
sometimes the contracted form
instr.,
is
required in this, as in
n before the normal ending
all
I.
In the later
the other "weakest" cases,
but in the Veda such forms are only
like the other
:
sporadic; and the neut. dat. has also the forms we, ave, aye,
genders.
The
abl.
the ending
and gen. masc. and
fern,
have regularly, both earlier and
later,
with gunated vowel before it: thus, a, os; and in the Veda,
the neut. forms the cases in the same way; although wnas, required later,
is also not infrequent (mas does not
But the normal forms yas (or
occur).
ias)
s
and vas
(or
uas) are
The
5ti,
loc.
replacing
masc.
both
frequent ending;
RV.) their
loc.
and
i
has
for
it,
regular ending in the later language
And
and u.
beside
in a: thus,
As masc.
RV.
fern,
finals,
but,
frequent in both masc. and neut.
also
ending, unas occurs twice in
the
agna; and
this is in
i-stems
this is
the
Veda
also the
most
form (about half as often in
found once even in the neut.
DECLENSION
338]
AND M-STEMS.
i-
II.,
105
a number of examples of iriasc. and neut. locatives in avi
normal ending and the u gunated before it) from w-stems; and certain
doubtful traces of a corresponding ayi from i-steins.
Half-a-dozen locatives
The RV. has
(the
in
(regarded by the Vedic grammarians as prayrhya or uncombinable
i
:
138 d)
made from /-stems. The later language requires the neuter locatives to
be made mi and uni ; but the former never occurs in the oldest texts, and
are
the latter only very rarely.
The
later
grammar
allows thedat., abl.-gen., and loc. fern, to be formed
at will with the fuller fern,
terminations of long-vowel stems, namely ai, as,
Such forms are quite rare in the older language even from i-stems
than 40 occurrences altogether in RV.
three times as many in AV.);
am.
(less
;
and from w-stems they are almost unknown (live in RV. and AV.).
The-voc. gunates the final of the stem, in masc. and fern., alike in
and in the
the earlier
later
language.
In the neut.,
be of the same form or the unaltered stern
in the older time also
and
:
this
it
is
later allowed to
was probably the usage
not instances enough are quotable to determine the
;
(AV. has u once, and VS. o once).
question
337. Dual. The later and earlier language agree
masc. and fern, by lengthening the final of
acc.-voc.
in
making the nom.The same
the stem.
cases in the neuter (according to the rule given above) end later in ini and
uni; but these endings are nearly unknown in the Veda (as, indeed, the
cases
are
of
rare
only
occurrence):
AV. has
inl twice
VS. has uni once; RV. has ul from one M-stem, and
(RV. perhaps once);
once shortened to i,
I,
from one or two i-stems.
The unvarying ending
to the
of instr.-dat.-abl., in all genders,
is
bhyam added
unchanged stem.
The gen. -loc.
of all
ages
adds
neut., the later language interposes,
os
to
the
stem in masc. and
as elsewhere in the
fern.
;
in
weakest cases, a n;
probably in the earlier Vedic the form would be like that of the other genders; but the only occurrence noted is one unos in AV.
338. Plural.
The nom.-voc. masc. and
the gunated
fern,
adds the normal end-
making ayas and avas. The exceptions
in the Veda are very few: one word (ari) has ias in both
genders, and a
few feminines have Is (like i-stems); a very few w-stems have uas.
The
ing
as
to
stem-final,
neut. nom.-acc. ends later
Veda has
I
and
i
and (more usually)
The
accus.
(about
w,
masc.
in Ini and uni (like ani from
equally
frequent)
more than half
Veda
in
a: 329); but the
mi; and u
oftener than
as often as uni.
ends in In and
plain traces remain in the
much
tin,
nearly
for older Ins
and uns,
of
which
half the instances of occurrence,
and even not infrequently
in the later language, in the guise of phonetic
combination (208 ff.).
The accus. fem. ends in is and us. But both masc.
and fem. forms in ias and uas are found sparingly in the Veda.
The in st. of all genders adds bhis to the stem.
The dat.-abl. of all genders adds bhyas (in V., almost never bhias] to the stem.
The gen. of all genders is made alike in inam and unam (of which the
V.
106
a
is
NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES
338
not seldom, in the Veda, to be resolved into aam}. Stems with accented
language may, and in the earlier always do, throw forward
final in the later
the accent upon the ending.
The
laid
loc.
of all genders
adds su
(as
su:
to the stem-final.
180)
The accent is in accordance with the general rules already
down, and there are no irregularities calling for special
notice.
339.
may be taken
/-stems
'gait';
Examples
snff vdri, n.,
Singular:
N.
of declension.
5|ftl
m.,
agni,
As models of
'fire';
irf^ gdti,
'water'.
/
jyiUH
agnis
agnim
gdtim
agnina
gdtya
wanna
agn&ye
gdtaye,gdtyai
varine
Ab. G.
varinas
agnes
5^
agnau
V.
gdtau,
qn
m
agne
g&te
gdtyam
van',
Dual:
N.A.V.
agn
gdfi
gfn
Jiin
agnibhyam
gdtibhyam
varinl
vtiribhyam
G.L.
^IrJlH^
agnyos
Plural
gdtyos
:
agndyas
gdtayas
varmi
.,
DECLENSION
341]
107
AND W-STEMS.
II., i-
A.
varm
TTWHH"^
snfrPm"^
agnibhis
gdtibhis
varibhis
tlfijHJ^
rrfrRiq^
onf^HJ^
agnibhyas
gdtibhyas
varibhyas
tiiJl-nH^
JIrffaF[
agninhm
gdtlnam
^{ImiH^
varmam
srftig
JlfcFJ
^T3
agnisu
gdtisu
varisu
rfiiftH
i.
s
,
D.Ab.
f
G.
L.
340. In order
to
mark more
the absence in Vedic language of
plainly
some of the forms which are common later, all the forms
are added below, and in the order of their frequency.
Singular. Norn, agnts etc., as above.
Ace.: masc. agnfin, yayiam, tmn/nam(?);
Instr.
masc. agnma, rayyd and urmid;
fern,
:
dhasfna; neut. wanting.
Dat.
masc. agndye
:
fern,
and neut.
fern,
tujaye, uti, prutyai
;
Vedic occurrence
of
as above.
utid,
dcitti,
anuvrktf,
neut. f ucaye.
masc. agues; fern, ddites, hetyds and 6/mmias; neut. bhures.
masc. agnau, agnd, ajdyiC?)-, fern, dgatau, udita, dhdnasatayiC?),
Gen.-abl.
Loc.
;
.
.
:
:
neut. apratd, saptdra$mau.
above (neut. wanting).
Nom.-acc.-voc.: masc. harl; fem.yuvatt; neut.
bhumyam;
vedl,
Voc.
as
:
Dual:
Instr.-dat.-abl.
Gen.-loc.
bhuri,
tici,
md/,/tdrmt(?).
as above.
yuvatyos and jamios; neut. wanting.
neut.
fern, matdyas, bhumis;
masc. hdrios;
fern,
Nom.: masc.
agndyas;
:
Plural.
:
{;wct,
bhurlni.
Accus.
:
masc. agriin;
and
fern,
ksitis,
dat.-abl.,
Gen.
masc. kavinam, rslnaam
:
341.
As models
m., 'enemy';
R
loc.,
ftica7/a(?).
as above.
Instr.,
etc.
may be taken
of w-stems
dhenu,
f.,
'cow'; JTJ
mddhu,
ST5T
n.,
'honey'.
Singular:/
N.
ST^H
O
N.
fdtrus
A.
^H
O
*x
dhenus
TOO
mddhu
5T^J7
^T^T
O
TOO
cdtrum
dhenum
mddhu
O
"s
*S
TO^TT
f
truna
dhenva
?dtru,
o
mddhuna
V.
108
NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.
catrave
dhendve dhenvai
cdtros
dhenos dhenvas
[341
mddhune
,
JT^RTT
Ab. G.
mddhunas
,
mddhuni
qdtrau
^
V.
Dual
N.A. V.
dheno
mddhu,mddho
dhenu
mddhuni
cdtrubhyam
dhenubhyam
mddhubhyam
cdtrvos
dhenvos
mddhunos
dhendvas
mddhuni
:
STST
I.D.Ab.
o
G.L.
Plural
:
N.V.
ex
vas
A.
ex
cdtrubhis
D. Ab.
cdtrubhyas
ex.
*>
dhenus
mddhuni
dhenubhis
madhubhis
tpPTTH
^T^T^JH
dhenubhyas
o
%
mddhubhyas
dhenunkm
mddhunam
sr^nnTR
ex
cdtrunam
L
-
00
oo
mddh
dhenusu
342. The forms
the same
manner
Singular.
Accus.
Instr.
neut.
:
:
of
*x
Vedic occurrence are given here
for the
w-stems in
as for the i-stems above.
Norn.: masc. and fern, as above; neut. wrw,
ww.
masc. ketum, dbhiruam, sucetunam^} ; fern, dhenum.
masc. ketiina, papva and krdtud; fern, ddhenua and panua, aput/a;
mddhuna, mddhva.
Dat.
:
masc.
fecfave,
pipve; fern, pdrave, isvai; neut. urduc,
masc. manyos,
saramas;
mddhvas and rnddhuas, inddhos, mddhunas.
Abl.-gen.
:
pit-was,
fern,
sfndhos,
mddhune.
isvds;
ueut.
DECLENSION
344]
Loo.: masc. purau, sunavi
i-
II.,
AND M-STEMS.
fern, sfndhiiu,
109
rdjjvarn; neut. sanita,
.si/mir/.
adno, sflnuni.
Voc.
as above.
:
Dual.
Nom.-acc.-voc.
Instr.-dat.-abl.
Gen.-loc.
:
Plural.
futfikratvas
fern,
neut. wrvf, jdnunl.
as above;
as above (but -vos or -uos).
Nom.
masc. rbhtivas, mddhuas and nu'idhvas;
:
fern,
dhendvas,
neut. puruni, pnrn, puru.
;
Accus.
masc. and
:
as above.
:
masc. rfwn, pafvds ; fern, fsus, mddhvas.
and loc., as above; also gen. (but with the resolution
:
Instr., dat.-abl.,
-unanm
in part).
Irregular declension.
343.
There are no irregular
and only a very few /-stems.
?/-stems,
S&khij m., 'friend', has for the five strong cases a pecustrengthened base (vriddhied), namely sakhay, which in the
nom. sing, is reduced to sdkha (without ending), and in the
other cases takes the normal endings. The instr. and dat. sing,
have the normal endings simply, without inserted n or guna;
the abl.-gen. sing, adds us; and the loc. sing, adds au : the
a.
liarly
Thus
rest is like agni.
Sing,
sdkhayam,
safcfta,
:
sdkhye,
stikhya,
sdkhyus,
adkhayau, sakhibhyam, sdkhyos ; PI. sakhayas, stiktnn,
The Veda has usually sdkhaya du., and often
The compounds
etc.
sakhius,
sfikhia,
are
usually
sdkhyau,
etc.
sdkhe.;
Du.
etc.
resolves
declined
the y to
like the
?,
in
simple
word, unless sakha be substituted.
declined regularly in composition, and when it
when uncompounded and mean'lord, master'
b. Pad, m.,
has the meaning
;
it
ing 'husband',
and
is
inflected like sdkhi in the instr.,
is
abl.-gen.,
forming patya, petty e, patyus, pdtyau. There are
occasional instances of confusion of the two classes of forms.
loc.
sing.,
f.,
'wife', has the gen. sing, j&nyus in the Veda.
d. Ari, 'eager, greedy, hostile', has in the Veda aryds in pi. nom. and
accus., masc. and fern.
c. Jam',
W,
e.
f.
are
defective,
pdnthan
dksi,
The stem
:
'eye',
dsthi,
'bone',
dddhi,
vfa).
'curds',
and
sdkthi,
'thigh',
their forms
an (aksdn
bases in
g.
has in RV. the nom. ves (beside
'bird',
The stems
exchanging with and complementing forms from
see the bases in an, below (431).
etc.):
pathf,
see below,
'road',
is
used
to
make up
part of the inflection of
433.
h. Kr6stu, m., 'jackal', lacks the strong cases, for which the corresponding
forms of krostr are substituted.
Adjectives.
344.
Original adjective stems in i are few; those in u are
derivative verb-stems forming a
much more numerous (many
NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.
V.
110
in
participial adjective
Their inflection
u}.
[344
like that of nouns,
is
and has been included in the rules given above the stem is in
In those weak cases,
general the same in all the three genders.
however
namely, the dat., abl.-gen., and loc. sing., and
in which neuter nouns differ from masthe gen. -loc. dual
culines in the later language by an inserted n (we have seen
;
above that this difference does not exist in the Veda), the neuter
adjective is allowed to take either form.
But adjectives in u preceded by one consonant sometimes
form a derivative feminine stem by adding i: thus, bahvi, urvi,
More rarely, the u is prolonged to u
prthvl,, vibhvi, and so on.
to make a feminine-stem, which is then inflected like vadhu
Some adjectives form their feminine in two of
(below, 365).
these ways, or even in all the three
thus, blbhatsu and blbhatsu ;
:
tank,
tanu,
and
tanvi.
Roots ending in t or u (or. r : 380) regularly add a
as root-words or as root-finals of compounds
and
hence there are no adjectives of the root-class in this declension.
345.
t
when used
;
Yet, in the Veda, a few words ending in a short radical
as if this were sufflxal:
(once).
Roots in
u sometimes
also shorten
u
to
u
u
are declined
and the AV. has prtanajf
thus, dsmrtadhru, sustu;
:
thus, prdbhu, vibhu, etc.
(354); go (361) becomes gu in composition; and re perhaps becomes ri
(362); while roots in a sometimes apparently weaken a to i (in -dhi from ydha).
Compound adjectives having nouns of this declension
member are inflected like original adjectives of the same
346.
as final
endings.
Declension
III.
Stems in long vowels:
a,
1,
u.
347. The stems ending in long vowels fall into two
well-marked classes or divisions: A. monosyllabic stems -
and
mostly bare roots
atively
small
number
their
compounds, with a compar-
of others inflected like them;
rivative feminine stems in
Eft
a and
^
,
B. de-
with a small
num-
ber in 3T u which in the later language have come to be
inflected like them.
and more important,
The
latter division is
since
most feminine
by
far the larger
adjectives,
considerable classes of feminine nouns, ending in
^
,
belong
to
it.
5TF
and
a or
DECLENSION
350]
AND W-STEMS.
III, a-, 7-,
111
A. Root-words, and those inflected like them.
348.
The
inflection
or
endings throughout,
^f am,
(with
not
^
stems is by the normal
manner of consonant-stems
of these
in
the
m,' in
the
accus.
sing.);
peculiarities
like those of the other vowel-declensions are wanting.
The
simple words are, as nouns, with few exceptions feminine;
as adjectives
(rarely),
and in adjective compounds, they are
and feminine forms.
alike in masculine
They may,
for
con-
venience of description, be divided into the following subclasses
:
Root-words, or monosyllables having the aspect of such.
1.
Those in a are so rare that it is hardly possible to make up a
whole scheme of forms in actual use those in i and u are more
;
numerous, but
still
very few.
Compounds having such words,
2.
or other roots with long
member.
as last
final vowels,
3. Polysyllabic words, of various origin and character, including in the Veda many which later are transferred to other
declensions.
As an appendix
4.
describe
to this class
half-dozen
the
we may most conveniently
mostly
bases,
of
irregular
inflection,
ending in diphthongs.
Before the endings begin349. Monosyllabic stems.
ning with vowels, final i is changed to iy and u to uv ; while
final a is dropped altogether, except in the strong cases and in
the ace. pi., which is like the nominative (according to the
grammarians, a is lost here also no instances of the occurrence
of such a form appear to be quotable).
Stems in i and u are
in the later language allowed to take optionally the fuller endings at, as, am in the singular (dat., abl.-gen., loc.); but no
such forms are ever met with in the Veda (except Wiiyai [?],
RV., once). Before am of gen. pi., n may or may not be inserted
in the Veda it is regularly inserted, with a single exThe vocative is like the nominative in
ception (dhiyhm, once).
the singular as well as the other numbers
but instances of its
occurrence in uncompounded stems are not found in the Veda,
and must be extremely rare everywhere. The earlier Vedic dual
:
;
;
ending
is
in all
To
and w-stems, the rules for monosyllabic
is thrown forward upon the endings
the weak cases except the accus. pi., which is like the
350.
accent
a instead of au.
apply
:
the
the
i
accent
V.
112
NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.
[350
nom.
to
But the a-stems appear (the instances are extremely few)
keep the accent upon the stem throughout.
351.
nosyllabic
dM,
f..
The
of declension. As models of mowe may take sfT/#, f., 'progeny'; sft
Examples
inflection
'thought';
first
and
these
of
is
which actually occur: of the
?\
bhfy
'earth'.
f.,
rather arbitrarily
loc. sing,
extended from the
and gen.
etc.
four
cases
du., no Vedic examples
of a-stems are found.
Singular
:
N.
>TH
/
jas
A.
am
-
"^^T^
dhls
bhus
irrgrf
o
dhiyam
bhuvam
-\
f^HTT
bhuvh
dhiya
I>.
it
Rnr,
j*
c?Azy<?,
Ab.o.
L.
H^,
dhiyai
bhuve, bhuvai
^
sra^
j&s
^
fim
,**.
dhiyas, dhiyas
o
-\
o
|%
dhiyi,
dhiyam
bhuvi,
bhuvam
V.
.,
jas
Dual;
N. A. V.
au
I.
dhiyau
D. Ab.
sffcEpw
f
f
bhuvau
c\
*\
f
jabhyam
dhibhyhm,
bhubhyam
JOS
dhiyos
bhuvos
dhiyas
bhuvas
dhiyas
bhuvas
G.L.
-X
Plural
:
N.
Jas
A.
-s
bhuvas, bhuvas
sfTC
fas,
Jas
DECLENSION
352)
A, RADICAL
III,
sTTTR
I.
dhibhis
bhubhis
tfr-TTR
1
jabhyas
dhibhyds
bhubhi/ds
STHT^ isTFT?)
-s
I _-\ >I
janam, Jam
dhiyam,
arm
o
uta
o
jabhis
sfFTO
D.Ab.
"\
"**
FC(TT
C\
f
G.
L.
113
x
~x
,
AND W-STEMS.
e-,
-,
_,
_
,
.
"^
dhmam
bhmam, bhunam
w
c\o
bhum
Monosyllabic stems
352.
When
in composition.
the nouns above described occur as final member of a compound,
or when any root in a or i or u is found in a like position,
-stem is as above.
the inflection of an
But 1 and w-stems
the final vowel before a vowel-ending
follow a divided usage
is either converted into a short vowel and semivowel (iy or uv,
The accent is
as above) or into a semivowel simply y or v).
:
nowhere thrown forward upon the endings and therefore, when
i and u become
y and v, the resulting syllable is circumflex.
Thus
;
:
Singular
:
-dhs
N. V.
-bhus
A.
-dhfyarn
-dhyctm
-bhuvam
-bhvam
I.
-dhiya
-dhya
-Ihuva
-bhvh
D.
-dhiye
-dhye
-bhtive
-bhvl
Ab. G.
-dhfyas
-dliyhs
-bhuvas
-bhvtis
L.
-dhfyi
-dhyi
-bhtivi
-bhv*
-dhyaii
-bhuvau
Dual:
N. A. V.
I.
-dhtyau
D. Ab.
G. L.
-dhibhyam
-bhvab,
-bhubhyam
-bhuvos
-dhfyo
-bhvbs
Plural:
N. A. V.
-dhlbhyas
\-dhiyam
to
-bhubhyas
-bhiivam
,
(-dhmam
-dhim
L.
As
-bhabhis
-dhibhis
D. Ab.
the admissibility
-bhvhs
-bhtivas
-dhyhs
-dhfyas
I.
-dhyam
. ,
,
^
,
-bhvam
_
-bhunam
-bhusu
of the
fuller
endings
ai,
as,
and
am
in the
grammatical authorities are somewhat at variance; but
they are never found in the Veda, and have been omitted from the above
singular (feminine),
scheme
If
iy
and
as probably unreal.
two consomants precede the
itu,
are regularly written
The grammarians prescribe
Whitney, Grammar.
iy
;
final I or u,
after
the dissyllabic forms, with
one consonant, the usage
is
varying.
and uv when the monosyllabic stem has more
8
V-
NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.
[352
the character of a noun, and y and v when it is more purely a verbal root
No such distinction, however, is to be seen in the
with participial value.
Veda
where, moreover, the difference of the two forms is only graphic,
since the ya arid va forms and the rest are always to be read as dissyllabic
and ua or ua, and so on.
:
ia or la
353.
A
few further Vedic irregularities or peculiarities may be
briefly
noticed.
Of the a-stems, the forms in as, am, a (du.) are sometimes to be read
aam, aa. The dative of the stem used as infinitive is
as dissyllables, aas,
in at (as if <!-}-): thus, prakhyaf, pratimaf, paradat.
Irregular transfer of the accent
to
the ending in compounds
is
seen in
a case or two: thus, avadyabhiyd (RV.), ddhid (AV.).
354.
But compounds of the
transferred
other
to
class
above described are not
modes
of
inflection
the a
declined like a stem
of the derivative a-class (below, 365) as feminine
the i and u
shortened to * and u, and inflected as of the second declension.
infrequently
shortened to a
a masculine
for
stem,
:
or
;
Thus, compound stems in -ga, -ja, -da, -stha, -bhu, and others, are
found even in the Veda, and become frequent later; and sporadic cases from
yet others occur for example, yrtapdn, vayodhafs and ratnadhebhis, dhanasais
:
(all
RV.);
and,
ganafrfbhis (RV.),
from
I
and u
compounds, vesa^rfs (TS.), dhrayas (RV.),
and senanfbhyas (VS.) and gramanibhis
rtanfbhyas (RV.)
supuna (AV.), citibhrdve (TS.). Still more numerous are the feminines
have lost their root-declension
examples are prajd (of which
the further compounds in part have root-forms), svadhd, fraddhd,
pratimd,
and others.
(TB.),
in a which
:
355. Polysyllabic Stems.
Stems of this division of
more than one syllable are very rare indeed in the later langThe Rig-Veda,
uage, and by no means common in the earlier.
and as
however, presents a not inconsiderable body of them
the class nearly dies out later,
by the disuse of its stems or
their transfer to other modes of
declension, it may be best
;
described on a Vedic basis.
a. Of stems in a, masculines, half-a-dozen occur in the Veda:
pdntha,
mdntha, and rbhuksa are otherwise viewed by the later grammar: see below,
433 4; ufdna (nom. pr.) has the anomalous nom. sing, wpana (and loc. as
1
well as dat. ufdne); mahd,
is found only in accus.
'great
sing, and abundantly in composition: dta, 'frame', has only dtasu not derivable from dta.
,
b.
Of stems in
i,
over seventy are found in the Veda, nearly
nines, and all accented on the final.
all
femi-
Half of the feminines are formed from
masculines with
jn/rusa);
change of accent: thus, kalyani (m. kalydna), purusi (m.
others show no change of accent:
thus, yarn! (m. 7/ama); others still
have no corresponding masculines
The masculines
thus, nadi, laksmi, surmi.
are about ten in number: for
example, rathi, pravi, stari, a AT, apathi.
:
DECLENSION
356]
c.
Of stems
and
feminines.
the
in u.
all
A, RADICAL a-.
III.
accented
feminine adjectives in U
on
the
A
smaller:
is
final.
masculines in
to
madhu.
carisnu, jighatsu,
number
<i
AND
1-.
115
e^-STEMS.
these,
too,
are
all
nearly
The majority of them are the
or u (above, 344): thus. caranyU,
few are nouns in w,
with change of accent:
or without change, as
corresponding masculines: thus, tanft, radftd,
only two or three; namely, prafU, krkadapTi,
thus, agru (dgru), prdaku (prdaku), pva^rU (fvtifura);
And
nrtu.
a
few have no
The masculines
cam'U.
are
and their forms are of the utmost
ma/csw(?);
The mode
356.
rarity.
declension of these words
of
may be
il-
lustrated by the following examples
ratM, m., 'charioteer'; nadi,
'stream'; tann, f., 'body'.
f.,
No one of the selected examples occurs in all the forms forms for which
no example at all is quotable are put in brackets.
No loc. sing, from any
:
:
I-stem occurs, to determine what the form would be.
The stem nadi
is
se-
example partly in order to emphasize the difference between the
nadi
language and the later in regard to the words of this division
lected as
earlier
is
:
model of derivative
later the
Singular
inflection.
:
N.
rathis
nadis
tanUs
A.
rathiam
nadiam
tanuam
I.
rathfa
nadia
tanua
D.
raihie
nadte
tanue
Ab. G.
rath fas
nadfas
tani'ias
rdthi
nadi
L
tanui
.
V.
(?)
tanu
Dual:
rathm
N. A. V.
I.
D. Ab.
G. L.
Plural
nadia
tantia
[rathibhyam]
nadibhyam
[rath-Cos]
nadios
tantios
rathias
[tanubhyam]
:
nadfas
tantias
I.
[rathibhis]
nadibhis
tanubhis
D.Ab.
[rathibhyas]
nadibhyas
tanUbhyas
nadlnam
tanunam
N. A.
rathinam
G.
L.
The
nadisu
[rathisu]
cases
nadiam, fant/am,
their true phonetic form,
almost
etc.
written above
invariably belonging to
in the written text, of course, the stem-final
circumflexed
tanusu.
are
is
made
them
according
in the
to
Veda:
a semivowel, and the
nadyhm, tanvam, etc.
only, as
usual, after two consonants the resolved forms iy and uv are written instead;
and also where the combination yv would otherwise result: thus, cakrfya,
resulting
syllable
is
[agruvai,] and mitrayuvas.
tanvhs etc. four times
and
;
AV.
cm.
:
thus,
;
The RV.
really reads starybm etc. twice, and
such contractions are more often made in the
The ending a of the nom.-acc.-voc. du. is the equivalent of the later
The nom. sing, in s from z-stems is found in the older language about
sixty times, from over thirty stems.
8*
V.
jj(3
357.
there
as
or
Irregularities
eamtZ
division:
as
loc.
NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.
of
properly so called, are very few in this
of camv"i} occurs a few times; and
form,
sing,
(instead
another doubtful case or two of the same kind
is
[357
;
the final
pragrhya or uncombinable (138j; tanui is lengthened
twice abbreviated to -yUs.
two; -yuvas is once or
358. The process
of transfer
the
to
other
U
is
regarded
to tanv\ in a
form of
passage
and u-declension
I
which has nearly extinguished this category of words in the
(below,
but in RV. they are excessivelater language, has its beginnings in the Veda
loc.
and puaprucfm, do., once, and
once,
sing.,
dutidm,
ly scanty: namely,
363
ff.),
;
dravitnud, instr. sing., with two or three other
Atharvan, wo find the ace. sing, kuh&m, tanUm,
one
palalid and
the
the dat. sing, vadhvdf,
punarbhuvas,
anomalous accent).
sing,
abl.-gen.
tanuam
two others;
or
(with
doubtful
prdakuds,
The
cases.
vadhUm; the
fuaf ruds
,
In the
instr.
sing.
fvafruai, ayrtivai;
and the
accusatives plural
in
Is
loc.
sing.
and us are
nowhere met with.
359. Adjective compounds from these words are very few; those which
occur are declined like the simple stems: thus, hiranyavcifis and sahdsrastarii,
dtaptatanus and sdrvatanus,
all
nom.
masculine.
sing,
Stems ending in diphthongs.
360.
There are certain monosyllabic stems ending in diph-
thongs, which are too few and too diverse in inflection to make
a declension of, and which may be most appropriately disposed
of here, in connection with the stems in i and u, with which
they have
stems
stems
stems
most
affinity.
in an
:
They
are
:
nau and glau ;
in ai: rat;
in o: go and dyo
(or dyu,
div}.
361. a. The stem nau, f., 'ship', is entirely regular, taking
the normal endings throughout,
and following the rules for
monosyllabic accentuation (317)
except that the accus. pi.
is said (it does not appear to
occur in accented texts) to be
like the nom.
Thus: naus, navam, nava, nave, navds, navi;
navau, naubhyam, navos ; novas, navas, naubhis, naub/iyds, navam,
nausu.
The stem
few of
its
b.
glati, m., 'ball', is apparently inflected in the same way; but
forms have been met with in use.
The stem
might be better described
interposed before vowel
endings, and is regularly inflected as such, with normal endings
and monosyllabic accent.
Thus ras, rayam, ray a, raye, ray as,
rayi ; rayau, rabhyhm, rayos; rayas, ray as, rabhis, rabhyds, rayam,
rasu.
But in the Veda the accus. pi. is either ray as or ray as;
for accus. sing, and pi. are also used the briefer forms ram
as
rai, f. (or m.),
ra with a union-consonant
'wealth',
y (258)
:
DECLENSION
362]
III.
:
DIPHTHONGAL STEMS.
117
is of Vedic occurrence) and ras; and the gen. sing,
sometimes anomalously accented rayas.
(which alone
is
c.
The stem
go,
m. or
'bull'
f.,
or 'cow',
is
much more
irreg-
In the strong cases, except accus. sing., it is strengthened
In accus. sing,
to gau, forming (like nau) gaus, gavau, gavas.
and pi. it has (like rat) the brief forms ghm and gas. The
ular.
abl.-gen.
sing,
made from
go,
is
gos (as
if
from
gu).
The
rest
is
regularly
with the normal endings, but with accent always
thus, gdva, gave, gdvi ;
remaining irregularly upon the stem
In the Veda,
gdvos ; gdvam; gobhyam, gobhis, gobhyas, gom.
another form of the gen. pi. is gonam; the nom. etc. du. is
such cases) also gava; and gam, gos, and ghs
(as in all other
are not infrequently to be pronounced as dissyllables.
:
d. The stem dyo, f. (but in V. usually m.), 'sky, day', is yet
more anomalous, having beside it a simpler stem dyu, which
The native grammarians
becomes div before a vowel-ending.
treat the two as independent words, but it is more convenient
The stem dyo is inflected precisely like
to put them together.
The complete declension is as follows
go, as above described.
met
with in use bracketed)
not
forms
actually
(with
:
Dual.
Singular.
[dwau]
dyavau
[dyubhyam dyobhyam]
NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.
V.
118
which have not been
specified
above as belonging to the
other or root-word division ; and
most of the
more predominant mode
to a
transfer
by
Thus
division,
of inflection.
:
The great mass of derivative feminine a-stems,
and adjective.
a.
stantive
The
b.
The
great
This
class
is
sub-
stems has maintained
of these
inflection
itself with little change
being almost precisely the same
through the whole history of the language,
in the Vedas as later.
it
in the later language,
also,
and w-stems of the other
I
[352
mass of derivative feminine e-stems.
In the earlier,
without exception in the later language.
above (355 b] that feminines made with
suffers the exception pointed out
:
change of accent follow this mode of declension only when the accent
on the T: thus, tdvisi, pdrumi, pdliknl, rtfhini.
The i-stems
division
of this
in
traction of an earlier ending in ya.
is
not
general are regarded as made by conTheir inflection has become in the later
language somewhat mixed with that of the other division, and so far different
from the Vedic inflection see below, 364, end.
:
Very few derivative stems in
I
are
by the grammarians as
recognized
declined like the root-division; the Vedic words of that class are,
in use, transferred to this
A
mode
very small number of masculine z-stems
Veda declined
as
names, mdtali
etc.
;
(half-a-dozen)
are
in
the
they are a few rare proper
and r&stri and sin (only one case each).
of the
The w-stems
c.
retained
if
of inflection.
derivative
division:
are few in number,
and are transfers from
the other division, assimilated in inflection to the great class of
derivative i-stems (except that they retain the ending s of the
nom.
sing.).
The
363. Endings.
division are as follows
nom.
In
sing,
points of distinction between this and the other
:
the usual s-ending
and a very few t-stems
namely,
is
wanting:
laksmi,
tarl,
except in the u-stems
which have pre-
tantrl
served the ending of the other division.
The
The
as,
and
accus. sing,
dat.,
am; and
abl.-gen.,
add simply
pi.
and
loc.
sing,
m
and
take
s
respectively.
always the fuller endings
ai,
these are separated from the final of the a-stems by an inter-
posed y.
Before the endings a of instr. sing, and os of gen. -loc. du., the final
of a-stems is treated as if changed to e; but in the Veda, the instr. ending
a very often (in nearly half the occurrences) blends with the final to a.
The ya
to
i.
A
of
i-stems
loc.
sing,
in a
is
in
I
few Vedic examples contracted
occurs a few times.
to
i,
and even
DECLENSION
364]
In
DERIVATIVE
III. B,
-, i-,
AND W-STEMS.
the weakest cases above mentioned, the accent of an
all
having acute
final
is
thrown forward upon the ending.
I
119
u-stem
or
In the remaining
case of the same class, the gen. pi., a n is always interposed between stem
and ending, and the accent remains upon the former (in RV., however, it
is usually thrown forward upon the
ending, as in i and w-stems).
In voc. sing.,
final
a becomes e;
In nom.-acc.-voc. du. and nom.
between the
difference
forms of the
very rare in
other
AV.
earlier
division.
the Vedic
;
and
The
final
and u are shortened.
t
I (and u) -stems a marked
language, the latter borrowing the
du. ending du is unknown in RV., and
pi.
appears in
later
ending
is i
does not occur).
The regular later pi.
ample or two in RV., and a very small
(a
corresponding dual of ii-stems
ending as has only a doubtful ex-
number
in
AV.
;
the case there (and
one of very frequent occurrence) adds s simply; and though yas-forms
occur in the Brahmanas, along with zs-forms, both are used indifferently as
it
is
nom. and accus.
Of a-stems, the du. nom.
later; in pi., of course,
RV. has
s-forms
few examples of dsas
a
The remaining
are
ends in
etc.
indistinguishable
e,
both earlier and
from ow-forms.
The
for as.
cases call for no remark.
/
364.
inflection
may
Examples
of declension.
As models
of derivative
stems ending in
long vowels,
take ?RT sena,
devi,
f.,
'goddess';
Singular
f.
;
ofSJ
'army';
vadhu,
^TT
f.,
kanya,
f.,
of the
'girl';
'woman'.
:
N.
sena
kanyh
devi
seriam
kanyhm
devim
A.
cT^nr
SR^^I
^cETT
senaya
kanyaya
devya
H^iltT
=fI*^JT7T
5^?J
senayai
kanyhyai
devyai
I.
D.
vadhus
Ab.G.
vadhum
vadhvU
vadhvai
oh^lMIH
rfctllH
senayas
kanyhyas
devytis
vadhvUs
senayam
kanyayam
devyam
vadhvftm
devi
vadhu
L.
V.
sene
we
364
NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.
V.
120
Dual:
N.A. V.
sene
vadhvau
kanye
devyau
kanyhbhyam
dev^bhyam
kanyayos
devyos
vadhvos
kanyhs
devyas
vadhvas
kanytts
devis
cfl^tlhHH
^cjlMH
}
sr^RJFT
c\
I.D.Ab.
-x
am
_
vadhubhyam
G.L.
5f5n^
Plural
:
N.v.
senas
S^m
sx4v
A.
senas
vadhus
ex
,
senabhis
kanyhbhis
devibhis
vadhubhis
senabhyas
kanyabhyas
devibhyas
vadhubhyas o
^l^l^m
eft^tl
rfcjHlH
eJM'SIH
senanam
kanyhnam
devinam
vadlmnam
kanyhsu
devisu
vadhusu
D. Ab.
G.
MIH
L.
senasu
In the Yeda, vadhu
is
a stern belonging to the other division (like tanu,
above, 356).
365. Examples
1.
a-stems:
of
instr.
Vedic forms are
sing,
from stems in td and
ia);
aam; and
am
mamsd
nom.
:
(this
simpler form
is
especially
common
vafdsas (about twenty examples Lanman,
Half the 6fa/as-cases are
p. 362); accus. pi. aramgamdsas (a case or two).
to be read as bhias; the am of gen. pi. is a few times to be resolved into
the a and
treated in the
2.
nom.
devis;
a vowel (not
y)
devias, deviam,
The
:
nom. and
accus.
sing,
are,
very rarely, to be
same manner.
t-stems:
pi.
of
pi.
instr.
sing,
pdrm,
gen. pi. bahvlndm.
pdmi;
The
loc.
gauri ; nom.
final of
the stem
etc.
is to
frequently, but not in the majority of instances
:
du. devi;
be read as
thus,
devid,
rddasios.
sporadic instances
of transfer
between
this
division
and the pre-
ceding have been already sufficiently noticed.
3.
In the language of the Brahmanas, the abl.-gen. sing, ending as
is
almost unknown, and instead of it is used the dat.
The assumpending di.
tion of the same substitution is
suggested, but not required, in a few RV.
DECLENSION
368]
III.
B, DERIVATIVE
-,
i- 3
AND W-STEMS.
121
passages; and it is necessary once in AY. (iv. 5.6): svdpantv asydi jndtdyah,
Brahmana examples are: tdsydi di$dh (TS.), 'from
'let her relatives sleep'.
that direction';
is
dhenvaf vd etdd
'woman's milk';
payah (AB.),
striydi
(TB.), 'that, forsooth,
retail
the seed of the cow'; jydyasl ydjydydi (AB.), 'superior
to the ydjyd'.
366. The noun strf, f., 'woman' (probably contracted from sutrl, 'genefollows a mixed declension
thus, stri
striyam or sfrfm, striyd,
ratress'),
:
,
striyds,
striyai,
striydm,
strf;
strfydu,
stribhydm,
striyos
;
strfyas,
strfyas or
stnbhyds, strindm, strlsu (but the accusatives strim and stris
are not found in the older language, and the voc. stri is not quotable).
The
accentuation is that of a root-word; the forms (conspicuously the nom. sing.)
stribhfs,
stris,
are those of the other division.
Adjectives.
367. a. The occurrence of original adjectives in long final
vowels, and of compounds having as final member a stem of
the first division, has been sufficiently treated above, so far as
masculine and feminine forms are concerned.
To form a neuter
stem in composition, the rule of the later language is that the
final long vowel be shortened
and the stem so made is to be
inflected like an adjective in i or u (339, 341).
;
Such neuter forms are very rare, and in the older language almost
Of neuters from z-stems have been noted in the Veda only
unknown.
(a masc.
form), and suadhfas, gen. sing, (same as
from ii-stems, only a few examples, and from stem-forms
which might be masc. and fern, also
thus, vibhti, subhti, etc. (nom. -ace.
sing.: compare 354); supud and mayobhtivd, instr. sing.; and mayobhu, ace.
hariprfyam,
ace.
masc. and
fern.);
sing,
:
pi.
(compare purti: 342);
of a
nom.
sing,
from
a-stems occur only
in as, like the masc.
and
Compounds having nouns
member are common only from
b.
fern.
half-a-dozen
examples
form.
second division as
of the
and these
;
shorten the final to a in both masculine and neuter thus, from
come the masc. and neut. stem
a, 'not', and praja, 'progeny',
final
derivatives in a
:
Such compounds with nouns
'childless'.
apraja, fern, aprcy'a,
in i and u are said to be inflected in masc. and fern, like the
simple words (only with in and un in ace. pi. masc.); but the
The stem
examples given by the grammarians are fictitious.
stri is directed to be shortened to -stri for all genders.
368.
It
is
convenient to give a complete
for all genders,
of an adjective-stem in
the purpose
papa,
ally
made
older.
in
efF7
m
'evil',
[
a.
paradigm,
We
take for
of which the feminine
a in the later language,
but in
^
is
1
usu-
in the
V.
122
Singular
NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.
[368
:
f.
m.
TOt
N.
papam
papas
papa
A.
papam
papim
papena
papaya
papya
papaya
papayai
papyai
papat
papayas
papyas
papasya
papayas
papyas
papam
TO^T
D.
Ab.
TOTH^
G.
TO
L.
H(L(>J
pap ay am
|i-|
papyam
V.
papi
Dual:
N.A.V.
papau
I.
pape
pape
papyau
papabhyam
papibhyam
D.Ab.
G.L
os
papayos
Plural
papyos
:
N.
papas
A.
papni
HNM
papan
papas
MNIH
paphni
papas
papabhis
D. Ab.
HNH4H s
papebhyas
papibhis
MNl^^UTT
_
papabhyas
f
-x
paplbhyas
DECLENSION
371]
123
IV., /--STEMS.
MM HIM
papanam
papanam
paplnam
papesu
papasu
papisu
Declension
Stems in r
IV.
(or ar).
This declension is a comparatively limited one,
almost
being
entirely composed of derivative nouns formed
with the suffix rT tr (or
tar\ which makes masculine
369.
cT|"
nomina agentis (used also
relationship
and a few nouns of
participially),
.
But it includes also a few nouns of relationship not made
with that suffix: namely devf, m., svdsr and ndnandr, f
and,
besides these, nf, m., sir (in V.), m., nsf (in V.), f., savyasthr,
m., and the feminine numerals tisr and catasr (for which, see
The feminines in tr are only matr, duhitr, and yhtr.
chap. VI.).
.
The
;
inflection of these stems is quite closely analogous with
i and u
(second declension) its peculiarity, as
that of stems in
;
compared with them, consists mainly in the treatment of the
stem itself, which has a double form, fuller in the strong cases,
briefer in the
370.
weak
Forms
ones.
of the Stem.
the loc. sing.) the stem-final
or before a vowel-ending,
But
as
regards the
strong
is r,
is
In the weak cases (excepting
which in the weakest
changed regularly
cases,
to
r
cases,
(129).
the stems of this declension
fall into two classes
in one of them
which is very much
the larger, containing all the nomina agentis, and also the nouns
of relationship naptr and svdsr, and the irregular words sir and
the r is vriddhied, or becomes ar; in the other,
savyasthr
containing most of the nouns of relationship, with nf and usf,
the r is gunated, or changed to ar.
In both classes, the loc.
:
sing,
has ar as stem-final.
371. Endings.
These are in general the normal, but
with the following exceptions
The nom. sing. (masc. and fern.) ends always in a (for original ars).
The voc. sing, ends in ar.
The accus. sing, adds am to the (strengthened) stem; the accus. pi.
:
(like i and w-stems) n as masc. ending and
lengthened before them.
has
r
s
as
fern,
ending, with the
v NOUNS AND
124
-
The abl.-gen.
The gen. pi.
in
i
wr (or us: 169, end).
and w-stems) inserts n before am, and lengthens
But the r of nr may also remain short.
it.
are the rules of the later language.
Thus
from them.
tain deviations
[371
sing, changes r to
(as
the stem-final before
The above
ADJECTIVES.
The
older presents cer-
:
The ending in nom. etc. du. is (as universally in the Veda) regularly a
du (only ten cm-forms in RV.).
The i of loc. sing, is lengthened to I in a few words thus, kartdri.
In the gen. pi., the RV. has once svdsram, without inserted n; and
instead of
:
nardm instead
nrndm
of
is
frequent.
Other irregularities of nr are the sing. dat. narc,
The Veda writes always nrndm in gen. pi., but
ndri.
gen. ndras,
its r is
and
loc.
in a majority
of cases metrically long.
The stem
wsr,
and the accus.
but
in loc. sing.,
stf
s
usrds,
if in
is
it
the exchange of
From
'dawn', has the voc. sing, usar, the gen. sing, usrds
also
usram), as
trisyllabic:
(for
f.,
pi.
to
and
and
loc.
analogy with I
be read as if the regular
see
,
181
;
usrdm (which is metrically
and w-stems. Once occurs usri
sing,
trisyllabic form,
usdri
a).
come only tdras (apparently) and
stfbhis.
the gen. -loc. du., the r is almost always to be read as a separate
syllable, r, before the ending os : thus, pitrtis, etc. On the contrary, ndnandari
In
is
once to be read ndnandri.
For neuter forms, see below, 378.
372.
Accent.
The accentuation follows
closely the rules
and ?<-stems if on the final of the stem, it continues, as
acute, on the corresponding syllable throughout, except in the
gen. pi., where it may be (and in the Veda always is) thrown
forward upon the ending where, in the weakest cases, f becomes
The two monosyllabic stems, nr
r, the ending has the accent.
and stf, do not show the monosyllabic accent thus (besides the
for
i
:
;
:
forms already given above), nfbhis,
373.
mode
5TTJ"
of declension. As models of this
we may take from the first class (with
Examples
of inflection,
ar in the strong forms) the stems ^JrT datr, m.,
and ^RT
'giver,
svdsr, f., 'sister'; from the second class (with
ar in the strong forms) the stem farT^r, m., 'father'.
Singular
:
^THT
^oFfT
focTT
dath
svdsa
pith
dataram
svdsaram
pitdram
A.
ET^f
DECLENSION
373]
125
IV., /--STEMS.
fwr
1.
datrk
svdsra
pitrh
D.
datre
pitre
datur
pitur
datdri
pitdri
dntar
pitar
datarau
pitdrau
Ab. G.
^3T
L.
V.
Dual
N.A. V.
I.D.Ab.
datrbhyam
svdsrbhyam
pitrbhyam
G.L.
datros
Plural
pitros
:
N.V.
,
"s
dataras
pitdras
A.
datrn
svdsrs
pitfn
datrbhis
svdsrbhis
pitfbhis
datrbhyas
svdsrbhyas
3JNPl
D.Ab.
t
"N,
pitrbhyas
G.
dafr'ntim
piffnhm
datrsu
pitfsu
L.
The feminine stem
cisely like
matfs.
RT
^r,
atr,
'mother',
excepting that
its
is
inflected pre-
accusative plural
is
NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.
V.
126
[374
The peculiar Vedic forms have been sufficiently instanced above; the
the nom. etc. du. datdra,
only ones of other than sporadic occurrence being
of nr, nardm.
the
and
pi.
gen.
avdsara, pitdra,
The stem
374.
m.,
krostf,
'jackal'
Neuter forms.
375.
'howler'), substikrostu.
(lit'ly
tutes in the middle cases the corresponding
forms of
The grammarians
prescribe a
com-
also for bases in tr, precisely accordant
plete neuter declension
with that of vhri or mddhu (above, 339, 341).
Thus, for ex-
ample
:
Du.
Plur.
dhatf
dhatfni
dhatfni
I.
dhatfna
dhdtfbhyam
dhdtfbhis
G.
dhatfnas
dhdtr, dhdtar
dhatf nos
dhdtfndm
Sing.
N. A.
V.
dhdtrnl
cases, however (as of
are allowed also to be
The weakest
jectively
:
344),
sponding masculine cases thus, dhatrh
No such neuter forms chance to occur in
:
dhdtfni.
and w-stems used adformed like the corre-
*
etc.
the Veda, but they begin to
appear in the Brahmanas, under influence of the
Germ.
Better,
common tendency
Fr. menteur, menteuse) to give the
Retterin;
nomen
(compare
agentis
a
more adjective character, making it correspond in gender with the noun
which it (appositively) qualifies.
Thus, we have in TB. bhartf and janayitf,
qualifying antdriksam;
in M., grahitfni,
When
and bhartfni and janayitfni, qualifying ndksatrdni
;
as,
qualifying indriydni.
noun
is to be qualified in like manner, the usual
employed: thus, in TB., bhartryas and bhartrydii,
janayitryas and janayitrydu, qualifying dpah and ahoratre ; and such in-
a feminine
feminine derivative in
I
is
uncommon.
The RV. shows the same tendency very curiously once
stances are not
in the accus.
matfn, instead of matfs, in apposition with masculine nouns (RV. x. 35.2).
Other neuter forms in RV. are sthattir, gen. sing., dhmatdri, loc. sing.
and for the nom. sing., instead of -tr, a few more or less doubtful cases,
pi.
;
sthatur,
sthatar,
dhartdri (Lanman, p. 422).
Adjectives.
There are no original adjectives of this declension
for the quasi-adjectival character of the nouns composing it, see
above (378).
The feminine stem is made by the suffix i: thus,
376. a.
:
dhatri.
datrk,
b.
Roots ending in
r
(like
those in
i
and u:
345)
add
make a declinable stem, when occurring as final member
of a compound
thus, 'karmakrt (]/ 'kr\ vajrabhft (ybfy), balihft
From some r-roots, also, are made stems in ir and ur
(yfo).
a
t
to
:
:
see below,
383 a, b.
DECLENSION
379
Nouns
c.
flected
in
r
as
of adjective
finals
same manner
the
in
CONSONANT-STEMS.
V.,
127
compounds
are in-
when
simple, in the masculine
would doubtless have the
as
in the neuter, they
and feminine
peculiar neuter endings in nom.-acc.-voc. of all numbers.
;
Declension V.
Stems ending in Consonants.
ending in consonants may properly be
All stems
377.
classed together, as forming a single comprehensive declension; since,
though some of them exhibit
peculiarities of
inflection, these have to do almost exclusively with the stem
itself,
and not with the declensional endings.
masculines and feminiiies of
In this declension,
378.
the same final are inflected precisely alike
peculiar
nom.-acc.-voc. of
all
The majority
stem in
^
of consonantal
*
weak form of
the
only in the
numbers.
inflected in the feminine, but
ative
and neuters are
;
other declensions)
(as usually in the
(never in
stems, however, are not
form a special feminine deriv-
5TT a),
by adding that ending
the masculine.
Exceptions are in general the stems of divisions
and those in as and
namely, the radical stems etc
.
For
special cases,
to
,
A
is
and B
and us
.
see below.
Variations, as between stronger and weaker forms,
379.
are very general
among consonantal stems
:
either
of two
degrees (strong and weak), or of three (strong, middle, and
weakest): see above, 311.
The
(311),
peculiar neuter forms, according to the usual rule
are
made
in the plural from the strong stem, in sin-
gular and dual from the
is
threefold,
in
weak
singular
or,
when
the gradation
from the middle stem, in dual
from the weakest.
As
)&rmi,
in the case of
mddhuni, datfni,
stems
etc.),
ending in short vowels (asyatu,
nasal sometimes appears in the
a
1
V.
28
NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.
cases which
the stems in
from
Thus,
special neuter plural
flection.
[379
found nowhere
is
as,
is,
us,
the
in in-
else
nom.
etc.
pi.
Accordin -ansi, -insi, -unsi are very common at every period.
ing to the grammarians, the radical stems etc. (division A) are
treated in the same way; but examples of such neuters are of
no Vedic text offers one,
excessive rarity in the older language
and in the Brahmanas have been noted only -hunti (AB. vii. 2),
it may
-vrnti (PB. xvi. 2.7 et al.), and -bhanji (KB. xxvii. 7)
be questioned whether they are not late analogical formations.
380. The endings are throughout those given above
;
:
as the "normal".
(310)
By
the general law as to finals (150), the
s
of the
nom.
sing,
always lost; and irregularities of treatment
of the final of the stem in this case are not infrequent.
The gen. and abl. sing, are never distinguished in form
nor are, by ending, the nom. and accus. pi.
from one another
but these sometimes differ in stem-form, or in accent, or in both.
masc. and
fern,
is
:
381.
Change in the place of the accent is limited to
and the participles in dnt (accented on the
stems
osyllabic
For details, see below, under divisions
and E.
A
A
monfinal).
few of the compounds of the root anc or ac show an irregular
of accent in the oldest
shift
language: see below, 410.
For convenience and clearness of presentation, it
be well to separate from the general mass of conson-
382.
will
antal steins certain
special classes
culiarities of inflection,
which show kindred pe-
and may be best described together.
Thus:
B. Derivative stems in
as,
is,
us;
C. Derivative stems in an (an,
D. Derivative stems in in
(in,
man, van);
min, vin);
E. Derivative stems in ant (ant, mant, vant);
Perfect active participles in vans;
G. Comparatives in yas.
There remain, then, to constitute division A, especially
radical stems, or those identical in form with roots, to1?.
number
of others
up in the order thus
indicated.
gether with a comparatively small
are inflected like these.
They
will be taken
which
DECLENSION V. A, CONSONANTAL ROOT-STEMS
383]
129
etc.
A. Root-stems, and those inflected like them.
The stems of
383.
follows
may be
having in them no
Root-stems,
root
a
to
thus,
:
mdh
'direction';
die,
division
classified
as
:
a.
added
this
'verse'
re,
element
demonstrable
'song'
gir,
;
'foot'
pad,
;
;
'great'.
(V.),
Such stems, however, are not always precisely identical in form with
thus, vac from yvac, srdj from ysrj, mus from ymus, vrif from
and from roots in final r come stems
yvrafc (?), t/5 from yvas 'shine';
the root
in
:
and ur
ir
:
thus,
gfr,
stir;
a-ffr,
jur,
ttir,
pur, mur, 3tur;
dhtir,
and
psur from ypsar.
With these may be ranked the stems with reduplicated
root,
as ciktt,
yaviytidh, vdnivan, sasydd.
Words
of this division
the older language
all
periods,
common
uncompounded use are tolerably frequent in
RV. are found more than a hundred of them
;
but in the
in AV., about sixty;
root at will in this
In
in
thus, in
:
classical Sanskrit the
is lost,
and the examples are comparatively few.
the adjective use as final of a compound is very
way
however,
401).
(see below,
Stems made by the addition of
b.
power of using any
to a final short
t
vowel
of a root.
No proper root-stem ends
354) examples
adds a
to
t
of transfer
make
in a short vowel, although there are (above,
such
of
a declinable
to
form:
vowel-declensions
thus,
-jft,
-crtit,
but
;
-Urt.
i
or
u
or r
Roots in r >
however, as has just been seen, also make stems in ir or ur.
As regards the frequency and use of these words, the same is true as
was stated above respecting root-stems. The Veda offers examples of nearly
thirty such formations,
a few of
them
(mtt,
rtt,
stut,
hrtit,
vrt,
and
dytit if
Of roots in r, kr, dhr, dhvr,
from dyu) in independent use.
The roots ga (or gam) and han also
&Ar, vr, sr
spr ) hr, hvr add the t.
make -gdt and -hdt by addition of the t to an abbreviated form in a (thus r
adhvagdt, dyugdt, navagdt, and samhdt}.
this is taken
}
As
to the infinitive
use of various cases of the root-noun in these two-
forms, see chap. XIII.
Monosyllabic (also apparently reduplicated) stems not cerwith any verbal root in the language, but
having the aspect of root-stems, as containing no traceable suffix
C.
connectible
tainly
:
thus,
tvdc,
'mouth'
;
'skin'
;
path,
'road'
;
hfd,
kakubh and kakud, 'summit'
'heart'
;
'water'
dp,
;
as,
.
Thirty or forty such words are found in the older language, and some
of them continue in later use, while others have been transferred to other
modes
of declension or have
become
extinct.
clearly derivative, but
Thus
suffixes of rare or even isolated occurrence.
d.
Stems
more or
less
made with
:
Whitney, Grammar.
9
v NOUNS AND
130
-
ADJECTIVES.
[333
derivatives (V.) from prepositions with the suffix vat: arvavdt, avdt,
1.
udvdt, nivdt, paravdt, pravdt, samvdt;
2. derivatives (V.) in tat (perhaps abbreviated from
lated forms
other derivatives in
3.
in
tati],
thus, upardtat, devdtat, vrkdtat, satydtat, sarvdtat
:
t,
preceded by various vowels
sravdt, safcdt, vdghat; ndpat;
tadft,
and the numerals
ydkrt, fdkrt;
divtt,
rohtt,
yosit,
for '30, 40, 50',
:
a few iso-
;
thus, vehdt, vahdt,
sartt,
trihfdt etc.
martit;
hartt;
(475);
stems in ad: thus, drsdd, dhrsdd, bhasdd, vandd, cardd;
stems in j, preceded by various vowels: thus, trsndj, dhrsdj, sandj
4.
5.
a few
6.
stems ending in a sibilant apparently formative
-das, bhdsj mds, bhis ;
1. a remnant of unclassifiable cases,
isfdh, prkstidh,
,
;
bhurfj, nintj(?); dsrj;
utfj, vanfj,
such
as
vistdp,
:
thus, jnds,
kdprth,
vtpaf,
raghdtf?).
The root-stems are regularly feminine as
384. Gender.
nomen actionis, and masculine as nomen agentis (which is probably
only a
substantive
use of their adjective value
below, 400).
without changing its gender, is often
:
But the feminine noun,
e
e. g., druhi.
(ydruh, be inimical') means
thus
'harming, enmity', and also 'harmer, hater, enemy'
And some of the feminines
bordering on the masculine value.
have a completely concrete meaning.
Through the whole division, the masculines are much less numerous than the feminines,
and the neuters rarest of all.
also used concretely
:
The independent neuter stems
mds
'flesh',
ds 'mouth',
bhds, dos,
are hrd (also -hard), ddm, vdr, svbr,
and the indeclinables fdm and y<5& : also
the derivatives ydkrt, fdkrt, dsrj.
Strong and weak stem-forms. The
385.
tion of these
by
two classes of forms
is
usually
the presence or absence of a nasal, or
in the
quantity of the stem-vowel,
made
either
by a difference
as long or short;
less
by other methods.
often,
386.
ing words
a.
407 ff
distinc-
A
nasal
appears in the strong
cases of the follow-
:
Compounds having
b. The stem
as final
member
sometimes
the root ac or anc:
see below,
nom. sing, ydn (for
yunk), accus. yCinjam, du. ytinja (but also ytijam and yuja);
c. The
stem -drf, as final of a compound
(V.); but only in the nom. sing, masc.,
and not always thus, anyadrn, Urn,
kidfn, sadrn and pratisadrn : but also
Idrk, tadfk, svardfk, etc.,d. For path and pums, which substitute more
.
;
J/MJ,
(V.):
thus,
:
extended stems, and
387.
for dant,
The vowel a
is
see below,
3946.
lengthened in strong cases as follows
:
DECLENSION V. A, CONSONANTAL ROOT-STEMS
390]
etc.
131
a. Of the roots vac, sac, sap, nabh, pas, in a few instances (V.), at the
b. Of the roots vah and sah, but irregularly
see
end of compounds
403
below,
5
:
;
d. Of pad,
in
the
(?),
is
is
;
393)
also in its
;
made
in the middle cases also
Of nas,
f.
'nose';
pathds and -rapas, accus.
pi.
;
Other modes
of
differentiation,
contraction of the syllable containing
a. In -han:
ation
of
see below,
a: thus,
ksmds
sing.,
ksdmd
abl. sing.
b.
402;
du.,
ksdmas
c. In dvar,
;
some confusion of the two
later it is
(RY.) sur in weak cases
(but with
:
The endings
389.
rltyap
and
;
in
;
RV. and AV.
Sporadic cases (V.)
vdnivanas, nom. pi.
strengthened forms bhdj and raj are constant, through
388.
compound
both -pat and -pat, while -pddbhis and -patsu occur
e.
Brahmanas;
voc. sing.
(see
in the compounds of this word, in the later language,
'foot':
the same lengthening
the nom. sing. neut.
yaj
Of ap 'water'
c.
;
all
by
pi.;
The
classes of cases.
of a
elision
or
appear in a few stems
ksam (V.), along with prolongksamd instr. sing., ksdmi loc.
it,
In
are:
:
contracted (V.) to dur in
classes);
weak cases
d. In svar, which becomes
indeclinable.
are as stated above (380).
Respecting their combination with the final of the stem, as
well as the treatment of the latter when it occurs at the end of
the word, the rules of euphonic combination (chap. III.) are to
be consulted
they require much more constant and various
application here than anywhere else in declension.
;
Attention
may be
called to a
few exceptional cases of combination
(V.):
madbhis and mddbhyds from mas 'month' the wholly anomalous padbMs (RV.
and VS.: AV. has always padbhis} from pad; and sardt and sarddbhyas cor;
responding to a nom.
ently for ddm, by
to the
According
Ddn is apparsardghas (instead of sardhas : 222).
Agnfdh is abbreviated from ayni-fdh.
pi.
143, end.
grammarians, neuter stems, unless they end in a nasal
in nom. -ace. -voc. pi. a strengthening nasal before the
But no such cases from neuter noun-stems appear ever to
have been met with in use; and as regards adjective stems ending in a root,
take
or a semivowel,
final
consonant.
see above,
379.
390. Monosyllabic stems have the regular accent of such,
throwing the tone forward upon the endings in the weak cases.
But the accusative plural has its normal accentuation as a
weak
case,
than
a
upon
the
of the
ending
stems
;
in
only a minority (hardly more
namely in
datds, pathds, padds,
third)
nidds, apds, usds, jnasds, puthsds, masds, mahds ; and sometimes
in vacds, srucds, hrutds, sridhds, ksapds, vipds, durds, isds, dvisds,
druhds (beside v&cas
:
etc.).
Exceptional instances, in which a weak case has the tone on the stem,
occur as follows sddd, nddbhyas, tana (also tana) and tdne, rant and ransw,
vdnsu, svdni, vfpas, ksdmi, surd and suras (but sure), dhhas, and vdnas and
:
bfhas
(in
vdnaspdti, brhaspdti}.
On
the other hand, a strong case
is
9*
accented
NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.
V.
132
and kasdm (AV. perhaps a false reading).
if pres were a simple stem, instead of
doubtful character.
For the sometimes anomalous
on the ending in mahds, uom.
And
presd, instr. sing.,
Vimrdhdh is of
pra-fs.
is
pi.,
:
accented as
accentuation of stems in ac or anc, see
ation);
m.,
410.
Examples of inflection. As
391.
normal monosyllabic
cHrT vac,
i390
'voice'
f.,
inflection,
we may
stem, q^~ pad,
^^marut, m.,
'wind'
of a monosyllabic root-stem in composition,
or 'wind-god';
'three-fold',
Singular
weak
strong and
of polysyllabic inflection, H
f^eJH trivrt,
stem
the
(from y^ff vac, with constant prolong-
of inflection with
'foot';
an example of
take
in the neuter.
Thus
:
:
N.V.
vak
pad
marut
trwrt
vacam
padam
marutam
trivrt
pada
maruta
trivfta
pade
marute
trivfte
A.
D.
vace
Ab. G.
f^^rlTT
'HIS
padds
trivftas
L.
vact
padi
maruti
trivrti
marutau
trivrti
Dual:
N.A.V.
i_
_
vacau
I.
"
padau
H^(H
D. Ab.
vagbhytim
padbhyam
marudbhyam
trivfdbhyam
vacos
pados
marutos
trivftos
G.L.
Plural
:
N.V.
r
"^
vacas
padas
vacds, vacas
padds
trivnti
A.
marutas
trivfnti
DECLENSION V. A, CONSONANTAL HOOT-STEMS
395
133
etc.
vagbhis
padbhis
marudbhis
trivfdbhis
vagbhyds
padbhyds
mariidbhyas
trivrdbhyas
vacam
padam
marutam
trivrtam
patsu
marutsu
trivftsu
D.Ab.
G.
L.
C
392. The stems in ir and wr, and u and ws, lengthen their
vowel (245 b) when their final is followed by another consonant,
and also in the nom. sing, (where the following s is lost) thus,
from yzV, f., f song', ^Ir (^ijj, giram, girh etc. girau, g'irbhyUm,
and so pur,
giros
giras, girbhis, glrbhyds, giram, girsu (165)
puram, purbhis, pursu; and afis, acisam, acisa, aclrbhis, aclhsuj
and so on.
:
;
;
;
393. The stem dp, f., ( water', is inflected only in the
plural, and with dissimilation of its final before bh to d (151 d)
:
thus, Upas, apds, adbhis, adbhyds, aphvn,
But RV. has the
sing, instr.
two in RV.,
in an instance or
in use, dpas being employed
apsu.
apd and gen. apds. In AV. often, and
nom. and accus. pi. forms are confused
the
as accus.,
and
(in
an instance or two) apds as
nominative.
394. The stem pums, m., 'man', is very irregular, substituting pumcihs in the strong cases, and losing its s (necessarily)
before initial bh of a case-ending, and likewise (by analogy with
this, or by an abbreviation akin with that noticed at 231) in
The vocative
the loc. plural.
is
(in
accordance with that of the
below, 462 a)
participles
but pumas in the earlier.
Thus
puman, pumansam, pumsa, pumse, pumsds, pumsi, puman; pumansau, pumbhytim, pumsos ; pumansas, pumsds, pumbhis, pumbhyds,
somewhat
similarly
pitman in the
inflected
perfect
:
later language,
:
pumshm, pumsu.
The accentuation
of the weak forms, it will be noticed, is that of a true
The forms with &/i-endings nowhere occur in the older
As to the
language, nor do they appear to have been cited from the later.
monosyllabic stem.
retention of
s
unlingualized in the weakest cases (whence necessarily follows
that in the loc. pi.), see
395.
183.
The stem path, m.,
'road',
is
defective in declension,
forming only the weakest cases, while the strong are made from
pdntha or pdnthan, and the middle from pathl : see under anstems, below, 433.
v NOUNS AND
134
-
ADJECTIVES.
[396
396. The stem ddnt, m., Hooth', is perhaps of participial
and has, like a participle, the forms ddnt and ddt, strong
datds ace. pi.
thus (V.), ddn, ddntam, data, etc.
and weak
But in the middle cases it has the monosyllabic and not
etc.
origin,
:
;
In nom. pi.
thus, dadbhis, dadbhyds.
participial accent
occurs also -datas instead of -dantas.
By the grammarians, the
strong cases of this word are required to be made from ddnta.
the
:
A number of other words of this division are demaking part of their inflection from stems of a differ-
397.
fective,
ent form.
Thus,
nds,
'army',
hfd,
'nose',
f.,
are
said
the accus. sing,
them
n.,
nip,
mdhs
'heart',
f.,
'night'
respectively from hfdaya,
:
thus,
and ndsa,
once) the
we
mds, n., 'meat', mds, m., 'month',
found in the older language), pft, f.,
by the grammarians to lack the nom. of
and du. (the neuters, of course, the ace.
usage in the older language
ment
or
(not
find mds,
'nostrils',
du.
all
pi.
numbers and
also),
mdnsd, mdsa, ndsikd, nifd, pftand.
is
not entirely in accordance with this require-
'flesh',
From
making
But the
accus. sing.;
mds,
'month',
nom. sing.;
and (RV.,
pft occurs only the loc. pi. prtsti
same case with double ending,
prtstisu.
398. On the other hand, certain stems of this division,
allowed by the grammarians a full inflection, are used to fill up
the deficiencies of tho'pe of another form.
Thus,
dsrj f
n.,
'blood',
fdkrt,
n.,
'ordure',
ydkrt,
n.,
'liver',
do's,
n.
have beside them defective stems in an: see below,
Of none of them, however, is anything but the nom. -ace. sing, found
'fore-arm',
m.),
(also
432.
and other cases later are but very scantily represented.
'mouth', and tid, 'water', only a case or two are found, in
the older language, beside asdn and dsya, and uddn and tidaka (432).
in the older language,
Of
ds,
n.,
399. Some
transition
A
of the
alternative
stems mentioned above are instances of
from the consonant to a vowel declension
number
of other
similar cases
occur,
:
thus,
ddnta,
masa.
sporadically in the older language,
more commonly in the later. Such are pdda, -mdda, -ddfa, bhrdjd, vistdpa,
dvdra and dura, pura, dhura, -drya, ndsa, nidd, ksipd, ksapd, dfd, and
perhaps a few others.
A few irregular stems will find a more proper place under the head of
Adjectives.
Adjectives.
400.
Original adjectives having the root-form are comparatively rare even in the oldest language.
About a dozen are quotable from the RV., for the most part only in a
few scattering cases.
But mah, 'great', is common in RV., though it dies
out rapidly later.
It makes a derivative feminine stem, mahi, which continues in use, as meaning 'earth' etc.
DECLENSION V. A, CONSONANTAL ROOT-STEMS
403]
135
etc.
401. But compound adjectives, having a root as final
member, with the value of a present participle, are abundant
in every period of the language.
Possessive adjective compounds, also, of the same form,
are not very rare
examples are yatdsruc, 'with offered bowl'
:
;
s&ryatvac,
'sun-skinned'
;
'four-footed
suhurd, 'kindriti-ap], 'having streaming waters'
cdtuspad,
;
hearted, friendly'; rityap (i. e.
sahdsradvar, 'furnished with a thousand doors'.
;
The inflection of such compounds is like that of the simple root-stems,
masculine and feminine being throughout the same, and the neuter varying
only in the nom.-acc.-voc. of all numbers.
Only rarely
is
a
derivative feminine
stem in
formed
I
language, only from the compounds with ac or one (407
(402), and those with pad, as ekapadi, dvipddl.
ff.),
:
in
the
older
those with han
Irregularities of inflection appear in the following
:
The root han, 'slay', as final of a compound, is insomewhat like a derivative noun in an (below, 420 ff.),
becoming ha in the nom. sing., and losing its n in the middle
cases and its a in the weakest cases (but only optionally in the
402.
flected
Further, when the vowel
sing.).
following n reverts to its original gh.
loc.
Singular.
A.
vrtrahdnam
Dual.
is
h in contract with
lost,
Thus
:
NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.
VI.
136
said
is
able)
be further irregular in making the nom. sing,
to
and the vocative in vas or
in vas
[403
vas.
In the earlier language, only strong forms of compounds with vah have
been found
to occur: namely, -vdt, -vdham,
TS. has the irregular nom. sing, pasthavdt.
-vdhdu
or -vdha,
and -vdhas.
irregular formation and inflection is one
of vah, namely anadvdh (anas -\-vah, 'burdeni.
e.
Its stem-form in the
bearing' or 'cart-drawing'
'ox').
strong cases is anadvah, in the weakest anadu/i, and in the
Of very
404.
common compound
:
middle anadud (perhaps by dissimilation from anadud}.
its nom. and voc.
sing, are made in van and van
Thus
a v ant-stem}.
:
Dual.
Singular.
N.
anadvdn
A.
I.
anadvaham
anaduha
D.
anaduhe
Moreover,
from
(as if
)
,
\
Plural.
anadvdhas
~-i-
3
anadvahau
anaduhas
)
anadudbhis
|
{.anadudbhyam
\
\anadudbhyas
'
I
_,
G.
anaduhas
}
anaduham
t
L.
anaduhi
V.
dnadvan
anaduhos
}
anadutsu
|
dnadvahas
anadvahau
Anadudbhyas (AV., once)
the
is
only
middle case-form quotable from
the older language.
The corresponding feminine stem
anaduhi (QB.) or anadvahl
405. The
root sah,
(of
very infrequent occurrence)
s
is
remains unchanged, in both strong and weak cases.
-sdham
-sdt,
or -sdhas;
or
-sdham or -sdham,
'a
and
-sdha,
-sdhe or
also in its single oc-
while
is
it
sometimes
either prolonged or
The quotable forms
-sdhe,
are
:
-sdhas or -sdhas
-sdha (du.); -sahas or -sdhas.
406. The compound avaydj
(BR.)
either
has in the Veda a double irregularity-
'overcome',
as
changeable to * even after an a-vowel
currence as an independent adjective (RV., tvdrh sdt)
remains unchanged after an i or w-vowel; and its a
its
is
(K.).
certain
make
sacrifice',
is
(j/yaj,
said
to
'make
offering'),
form the nom. and
'a
certain priest' or
voc.
sing, avayas,
middle cases from avayds.
If the
Its only quotable form is avayds, f. (RV. and AV., each once).
stein is a derivative from ava-{-yyaj, 'conciliate', avayas is probably from
ava -j- yyd, which has the same meaning.
to
its
The root ac or
407. Compounds with anc or ac.
anc makes, in combination with prepositions and other words,
a considerable class of familiarly used adjectives, of quite irregular formation and inflection, in some of which it almost loses
and becomes an ending of derivation.
a
adjectives have only two stem-forms
strong in anc (yielding an, from anks, in nom. sing, masc.),
its
character of root,
part of these
A
:
DECLENSION V. A, CONSONANTAL ROOT-STEMS
410]
137
etc.
and a weak in ac ; others distinguish from the middle in ac a
weakest stem in c, before which the a is contracted with a preceding
i
or u into
The feminine
i
is
in the weakest cases,
or u.
made by adding
and
408. As examples of
is
I
to the
stem-form used
accented like them.
inflection
we may
take prhnc, 'forward,
1
east'
;
pratydnc,
Singular
N. V.
'backward, west'
;
visvanc,
'going apart
.
:
pratydn
pratyak
pratydncam pratyak
vfsvan
vfsvak
vfsvancam vfsvak
pratlcd
vfsucd
pratice
vfsuce
pratlcds
visucas
pratlci
vCsuci
v NOUNS AND
138
-
the tone and
shifted in
sometimes the other, without any apparent reason for the difcompound is accented on the final syllable, the accent is
RV.
to
i
But AV.
thus, praticl,
ending in the weakest cases provided their stem shows
thus, prdca, arvdca, adhardcas, but pratlcd, anucds,
and later texts usually keep the accent upon the stem:
to the
the contraction to
samici.
[410
the
If
ference.
ADJECTIVES.
or
samici,
it :
anUcl (RV. has praticlm once).
the endings, and even in polysyllabic stems,
is
B. Derivative stems in as,
The stems
411.
The change
of accent
against all usual analogy.
is,
us.
of this division are prevailingly neuter;
but there are also a few masculines, and a single feminine.
The
412.
mostly made with
with
are few,
the
nas,
and almost
all
and
as
are
suffix 5fH as
^
tas
clTT
^f
stems in
quite
(a
numerous,
and
number
also
small
and some are obscure); the others
and
made with the suffixes
^js
3H
V
413.
Their inflection
almost entirely regular.
is
masculine and feminine stems in
of the ending in
make
the
nom.
sing.;
^H
as lengthen the vowel
and the nom.-acc.-voc.
same prolongation
(of 5f
But
a or ^
i
or
pi.
3
u)
neut.
before
the inserted nasal (anusvara).
Examples
414.
may
take
giras';
JHT*X mdnas,
^TJ^T havis, n.,
Singular
of declension.
n.,
'mind';
As examples we
" v *S dngiras,
^H^H
m.,
'libation'.
:
N.
Ab.G.
mdnas
dngiras
havis
mdnas
dngirasam
havis
mdnasa
dngirasa
havisa
mdnase
dngirase
havise
H^HH
JbH^-^HH
^fc^^^
mdnasas
dngirasas
havisas
'An-
DECLENSION V. B, DERIVATIVE STEMS IN as,
416]
is,
us.
139
L.
mdnasi
dngirasi
mdnas
ngras
havisi
V.
hdvis
Dual:
N.A.V.
mdnasi
dngirasau
havisi
manobhyam
angirobhyam
havirbhyam
mdnasos
dngirasos
havisos
mdnahsi
dngirasas
manobhis
dngirobhis
havirbhis
mdnobhyas
dngirobhyas
havlrbhyas
D.Ab.
I.
G. L.
Plural
:
N.A.V.
I.
D.Ab.
G.
mdnasam
L.
rasam
havisam
o
mdnahsu
In like
manner,
havihsu
dngirahsu
tftHH
r
O
"X
cdksus,
n.,
'
cdksusa, TJ^I^IH
cdksurbhyam,
O
"X
ri^fq
415. Vedic irregularities,
instead of du is as usual elsewhere;
a.
6\
'eye',
forms
v3
cdksunsi, and so on.
The masc. and
b. The fern,
fern.
du. ending d
usds,
'dawn', often
prolongs its a in the other strong cases (besides nom. sing.): thus, usdsam,
In instr. pi. occurs (RV., once) usddbhis instead of usdbhis
usdsd, usasas.
(only quotable
in like
example of a middle
manner the
du. to$tisd;
c.
case).
From
tofds is once found (RV.)
JanHs has the nom.
sing. masc. janUs,
From svdvas and svdtavas occur in RV. nom. sing,
masc. in van;
e. One or two apparently contracted forms
thus, vedhdm
for vedhdsam, and surddhds for surddhasas, nom. pi.
are met with.
like an as-stern;
416. The grammarians regard ufdnas, m., as regular stem-form of the
name noticed above (355 a), but give it the irregular nom. u^dnd and
voc. ucanas or ufana or uyanan.
Forms from the as-stem, even nom.,
sometimes met with in the later literature.
proper
the
are
d.
NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.
V.
140
As
forms from as-stems
to
dhan
to
or altar
[41 e
and udhan
or udhar,
see
430.
below,
Adjectives.
A
417.
few neuter nouns in
as with accent
on the radical
or appellatives in as, with
syllable have corresponding adjectives
accent on the ending: thus, for example, apas, 'work', apds,
tdras,
'active';
A
'beauteous'.
vedhds,
'pious'
'quickness', tar&s, 'quick'; ydcas, 'beauty', yacds,
as tavds, 'mighty',
few other similar adjectives
are without corresponding nouns.
Original adjectives in
But
do not occur.
is
in us are found
adjectives as nouns (about ten of each class); and in
several instances adjective and noun stand side by side, without
difference of accent such as appears in the stems in as: e. g.
as
many
tdpus,
418.
V"
as
'heat'
'hot'
Adjective
member
final
minded'
and
'wonder' and 'wonderful'
vdpus,
;
compounds having nouns
are
very
common
of
this
sumdnas,
thus,
:
.
division
'favorably
'having brilliant
genders, and
each gender is inflected in the usual manner, the stems in as
making their nom. sing. masc. and fern, in as (like dngiras,
Thus, from sumdna$, the nom. and accus. are as follows
above).
'long-lived'
dirghayus,
;
The stem-form
brightness'.
;
the
is
cukrdgocis,
same for
all
:
dual.
singular.
m. f.
m.
n.
N.
sumdnas
-nas
)
A.
sumanasam
-nas
)
plural,
n.
f.
isumanasau
ra.
sumanasas
-nasi
and the other cases (save the vocative) are alike in
From
N.
n.
f.
all
-nansi
genders.
dirghdyus, in like manner:
dirghdyus
>.
A.
dlrghdyusam
I.
dirghdyusau
dlrghdyurbhyam
dlrghdyusa
419. The stem
'unrivalled'
one/ids,
etc.
(defined
forms the nom. sing. masc. and
C.
420.
-yunsi
dlrghdyurbhis
etc.
etc.
later language),
dlrghdyusas
-yusl
-yus
as
fern,
meaning
'time' in the
aneha.
Derivative stems in an.
The stems
three suffixes EFT an,
of this division are those
R
made by
man. and ^T van. together with a
few of more questionable etymology which are inflected
them. They are masculine and neuter only.
\
421.
The stem has
the
a triple form.
of the masculine, the vowel
of the
like
In the strong cases
ending
is
prolonged to
424
ETT
DECLENSION V.
C,
DERIVATIVE STEMS IN an.
in the weakest cases
<i;
it
in general struck
is
141
out al-
together; in the middle cases,
or before a case-ending bewith
a
the
final ^ n is dropped.
The
consonant,
ginning
^ n is also lost in the nom. sing, of both genders (leaving
as final in the masculine,
5TT
The
logy
the nom.-acc.-voc.
(311):
a in the neuter).
pi.
have the lengthening
as weakest
as strong cases; the nom.-acc.-voc. du.,
to 5fT a,
cases,
f
peculiar cases of the neuter follow the usual ana-
have the loss of
5f
but this only optionally, not
a
necessarily.
In the loc. sing, also, the a may be either rejected or re(compare the corresponding usage with r-stems
373).
And after the m or v of man or van, when these are preceded
by another consonant^ the a is always retained, to avoid a too
great accumulation of consonants.
tained
:
422.
The
vocative sing,
is
in masculines the pure stem
in neuters, either this or like the nominative.
The
;
rest of
the inflection requires no description.
423. As to accent, it needs only to be remarked that when,
weakest cases, an acute d of the suffix is lost, the tone
thrown forward upon the ending.
in the
is
424.
Examples
taken ^TsR rajan, m.
naman,
"^
S(H*S
n.,
Singular
N.
?
of declension.
'king';
'name'.
As such may be
ttirH^ atmdn, m.,
'soul,
Thus:
'
/'
:
^TsTT
tjirHi
raja
atma
*rm
nama
rajanam
atmanam
nama
rajna
atmdna
namna
rajne
atmdne
namne
raj'nas
atmdnas
namnas
self;
V.
142
NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.
[424
L.
rajni, rajani
namni, namani
atmdni
V.
naman, nama
tman
Dual:
N. A. V.
I.D.Ab.
G. L.
rajanau
atmhnau
namnl, namani
{(sc-UM^
rajabhyam
atmdbhyam
namabhyam
MrH*TlH^
fiifr^
a^wiawos
rajnos
Plural:
N.
^isiMH^
rajanas
atmhnas
rajnas
atmdnas
rajabhis
atmdbhis
namani
SIHIM
D. Ab.
{
|sl^6|
namabhis
HIH^UH^
H^
rajabhyas
G.
namabhyas
atmdbhyas
JbllrHHIH
atmdnam
MlrMH
L.
ro/a?^
SIHH
atmdsu
would be acpi.), murdhnam,
murdhni or murdhdni].
The weakest cases of murdhdn, m., ^head',
cented murdhna, murdhne, murd/mos, murdhnds (ace.
etc.
and so in
;
all
similar cases (loc. sing.,
425. Vedic Irregularities,
a.
Here,
as elsewhere, the ending of
the nom.-acc.-voc. du. masc. is usually a instead of aw.
b.
nom.
The
etc.
briefer
du.,
$atadavni, but
AV.
is
form (with ejected
a)
of the loc. sing., and of the neut.
almost unknown to the older language.
RV.
writes once
be read fataddvani; and a few similar cases occur in
In the Brahmanas also, such forms as dhamani and samani are much
it is to
more common than such as ahni and lomni.
c. But throughout both Veda and Brahmana, an abbreviated form of the
loc.
(in
sing., with the ending i omitted, or identical with the stem, is common
RV., of considerably more frequent occurrence than the regular form):
'
thus, murdhdn, kdrman, ddhvan, beside
murdhdni
etc.
DECLENSION V.
429]
In the
d.
nom.-acc.
DERIVATIVE STEMS IN an.
C,
neut.,
pi.
also,
143
an abbreviated form
common,
is
ending in a or (twice as often) a, instead of ani : thus, brdhma and brdhma,
beside brdhmani : compare the similar series of endings from a-stems, 329.
From
e.
m
loss of
a few
mahimnd
for
man
stems in
as well as of a
:
And draghmd
etc.
is
made an
abbreviated inst. sing., with
thus, mahina, prathina, varina, dana, prena, &/mna,
(RV.,
is
once)
perhaps
(Grassmann)
for
drdghmdnd.
Other of the weakest cases than the
f.
with the a of the suffix retained
ydmanas, uksdnas
vidmdne,
in
pi.),
etc.
which the
a,
the
In
loc.
for
thus,
the a always
etc.
ddvdne,
instances
the
(accus.
:
are sometimes found
sing,
example,
remains.
Still
omitted in the written
ddmane,
bhtimana,
datives
infinitive
trdmane,
more numerous are
form of the
text,
is,
metre shows, to be restored in reading.
g. The voc. sing, in vas, which is the usual Vedic form from stems
in vant (below, 453 b), is found also from a few in van, perhaps by a
as the
transfer to the uarU-declension: thus, rtauas, evayavas, khidvas
prataritvas,
(?),
mdtarifvas, vibhavas.
For words of which the a
not
is
made
long in the strong cases, see the
next paragraph, b.
A
few steins do not make the regular lengthening of
426.
Thus
a in the strong cases (except the nom. sing.).
a. The names of divinities, pusdn and aryamdn: thus, pusa, pusdnam,
:
puma,
etc.
'bull' (but RV. uksdnam once); yosan, 'maiden':
and vfsanas are also met with); fmdn,
vfsanam
vfsan,
abbreviation of dtmdn ; and two or three other scattering forms
anarvdnam,
jemana. And in a number of additional instances, the Vedic metre seems
b. In the Veda, uksdn,
bull'
'virile,
(but
:
to
demand a where a
is
written.
427. The stems qvdn, m., 'dog', and yuvan, 'young', have
weakest cases the contracted form cun and yhn (with
in the strong and middle cases they
retention of the accent)
in
the
;
are
regular.
cvabhis,
Thus,
cvti,
cvftnam,
cune,
cuna,
etc.,
cvdbhyam,
etc.
In dual, RV. has once yUna for yuvana.
a
428. The stem maghdvan, 'generous' (later, almost exclusively
of Indra), is contracted in the weakest cases to maghon:
name
maghdvanam, maghona, maghone, etc.
The RV. has once the weak form maghdnas in nom. pi.
Parallel with this is found the stem maghdvant (division E); and from
the latter alone in the older language are made the middle cases: thus,
thus, maghdva,
rnaghdvadbhis, maghdvatsu, etc.
429.
making
A
number
(not
maghdvabhis
of an-stems
are
etc.).
more
or
a part of their forms from other stems.
less defective,
Thus
:
NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.
V.
144
[430
430. a. The stem dhan, n., 'day', is in the later language
used only in the strong and weakest cases, the middle (with
the nom. sing., which usually follows their analogy) coming
from dhar or ahas : namely, dhar nom. -ace. sing., dhobhyam,
dhobhis, etc. (PB. has aharbhis}; but dhna etc., dhni or dhani,
In composition, only
dhni or dhani, dhani (and, in V., aha).
as final member,
ahar or ahas is used as preceding member
;
ahan, or the derivatives aha, alma.
ahas,
ahar,
In
the
oldest
middle
the
language,
cases
dhasu
dhabhyas,
dhabhis,
also occur.
b. The stem Udhan, n.,
'udder',
exchanges in like manner, in the old
language, with udhar and udhas, but has become later an as-stern only
(except in the fern, udhnl of adjective compounds): thus, udhar or udhas
(so
RV.
AV.
:
431.
'curd',
only the
latter),
udhnas, udhan or udhani, udhabhis, udhahsu.
The neuter stems
sakthdn,
'thigh',
aksdn, 'eye',
form in the
asthdn,
later
dadhdn,
the
'bone',
language
only
weakest cases, aksna, asthne, dadhnds, sakthni or sakthdni, and
the rest of the inflection is made from stems in i, dksi
so on
;
etc.
343 f.
see above,
:
In the older
language,
aksdni and aksdbhis
.
432.
'ordure',
'broth',
other
cases
asthdni, asthdbhis,
;
The neuter stems
asdn,
from the
an-stems
and asthdbhyas
,
occur
thus,
:
sakthdni.
'blood', yakdn,
'liver',
cakdn r
asdn, 'mouth', uddn, 'water', dosdn, 'fore-arm', yusdn,
are required to make their nom.-acc.-voc. in all numbers
from the parallel stems
dsrj, ydkrt, qdkrt, asya, udaka
dos, yusa, which are fully inflected.
Earlier occurs also the dual dosdnl.
(in
older
language udakd],
The stem pdnthan, m., 'road', is reckoned in the
language as making the complete set of strong cases, with
the irregularity that the nom.-voc. sing, adds a s.
The corresponding middle cases are made from pathi, and the weakest
from path.
Thus
433.
later
:
from pdnthan
from pathi
from path
(accus.),
pdnthas, pdnthanam; pdnthanau; pdnthanas;
pathibhyam; pathibhis, pathlbhyas, pathlsu ;
patha, pathe, pathds, pathi; pathos; pathds
patham.
In the oldest language (RV.), however, the strong stem
is only pdnthd:
and
pdnthas, nom. pi.
pdntham, ace. sing.
even in AV., pdnthanam and pdnthanas are rare compared with the others.
From patht occur also the nom. pi. pathdyas and gen. pi. pathmdm. RV.
thus,
pdnthas,
nom.
has once pathds, ace.
sing.
pi.,
;
with long
434. The stems mdnthan, m.,
;
a.
'stirring-stick', and rbhuksdn, m., an
given by the grammarians the same inflection with
but only a few cases have been found in use. In V. occur from
epithet of Indra,
pdnthan;
;
are
DECLENSION V.
439]
former the
the
ace.
sing,
DERIVATIVE STEMS IN an.
C,
and gen.
mdntham,
responding cases from pdnthan)
from the
;
latter,
pi.
mathlndm
145
(like
the cor-
the nom. sing, rbhuksds and
voc. pi. rbhuksas, like the corresponding Vedic forms of pdnthan; but also
the ace. sing, rbhuksdnam and nom. pi. rbhuksdnas, which are after quite
another model.
Adjectives.
435.
Original adjective stems in an are almost exclusively
those in van, as ydjvan, 'sacrificing', sutvan, 'pressing the soma',
The stem is masc. and neut. only (two
jitvan, 'conquering'.
or three sporadic cases of its use as fern, occur in
RV.); the
corresponding
436.
member
fern,
stem
made
in vari:
thus, yajvari, jitvari.
noun in an as final
compounds having
after the model of noun-stems
and the
a
Adjective
are
is
inflected
;
masculine forms are said to be allowed in use also as feminine
but usually a special feminine is made by adding I to the weakest
form of the masculine stem thus, durnamnl, somarajm.
;
:
lose
437. But nouns in an occuring
the n, or substitute a stem in a
as
for
final
members
an:
that in
of
compounds often
thus, -raja,
-adhva,
-aha; the corresponding feminine is in a. And feminines in a, replacing
an. are allowed to be widely formed in the compounds of this division.
The remaining divisions of the consonantal declension
made up of adjective stems only.
D. Derivative stems (adjective) in
438.
The stems of
this
are
in.
division are those
formed with
the suffixes ^f in, jrpr min, and f^R vin.
They are mascuand neuter only; the corresponding feminine being
line
made by adding
i.
^
in in are numerous, since almost any noun in a
in the language may form a possessive derivative adjective with
The stems
thus, bdla, 'strength', balin, m. n., balirii, f., 'possessing strength, strong'. Stems in vin, however, are very few,
and those in
still fewer.
this suffix:
mm
439.
Their inflection
lose their final
^ n
is
quite regular, except that they
in the middle
cases
(before
an
initial
consonant of the ending), and also in the nom. sing., where
i by way of compensation.
the masculine lengthens the
<
The
voc. sing,
is
in the masculine the bare
stem;
neuter, either this or the nominative.
Whitney, Grammar.
10
in the
V.
146
In
these
all
439
NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.
it
respects,
be noticed, the w-declension
will
it differs from the
agrees with the aw-declension
of
the
vowel
the
ending.
never losing
latter
;
Example
440.
taken srf^FT balm,
x
Thus:
Dual.
Singular,
m.
As such may be
of inflection.
'strong'.
only in
Plural,
m.
n.
n.
N.
bali
srf^RT
(khlH
GJM
balinau
balinam
bait
balk
A.
bafini
balinas
balini
I.
balibhis
balina
D.
baline
balibhy
balibhyas
Ab.
balinas
G.
balinam
balinos
SIMM
L.
sJM^j
balisu
balini
V.
b&lin
bali
b&lin,
sjidHi
<MHH!
^M^H^
balinau
balini
balinas
The derived feminine stem
like
in
ini
any other feminine in derivative
i
is
balini
of course,
inflected,
(365).
441. There are no irregularities in the inflection of
E. Derivative stems (adjective) in ant (or
442.
made by
few
2.
These stems
the suffix
exceptions,
those
Sffi^vant
ding
I.
the
T^rnat and
neuter only;
?
IH ant (or
active
made by
(or
fall into
the
at\
participles,
possessive
cfrT
at}.
two sub-divisions:
?IrT
vat}.
being,
present
suffixes
They
1.
those
with a very
and
future
J7H niant
are masculine
corresponding feminine
is
in-
except the
stems, in either the earlier language or the later
usual* Vedic dual ending in a instead of ait.
;
and
and
made by ad-
DECLENSION V. E, DERIVATIVE STEMS IN ant.
447]
1.
Participles in ant or at.
The stem has
443.
and a weaker, ending
The former
in general a double form, a stronger
respectively in
ant and EFT
5JfT
^-
taken in the strong cases of the masculine,
is
with, as usual, the nom.-acc.-voc. pi. neuter;
taken by
147
the latter
is
the remaining cases.
all
But, in accordance with the rule for the formation of the feminine stem
(below, 449), the future participles, and the present participles of verbs of
the tod-class or accented a-class (752), and of verbs of the ad-class or root-
ending in
class
a,
are
by the grammarians allowed to make the nom.-acc.weaker stem
and the present par-
voc. du. from either the stronger or the
ticiples
from
all
same from the
;
present-stems ending in a are required to make the
other
strong stem.
Those verbs, however, which in the 3d pi. pres.
active lose ^ n of the usual ending f^f nti (550) lose it
also in the present participle, and have no distinction of
444.
weak
strong and
stein.
Such are the verbs forming their present-stem by reduplication without
added a : namely, those of the reduplicating or /m-class (655) and the intensives (1012): thus, from yhu, present-stem juhu, participle-stem jtihvat
;
inten-
sive-stem johu, intensive participle-stem jtihvat.
Further, the participles of
roots apparently containing a contracted reduplication
namely, cdksat, ddfat,
:
dasat,
fffsat,
sdfcat]
and the
aorist participle dhdksat.
Vavrdhdnt (RV., once),
which has the n notwithstanding its reduplication, comes, like the desiderative
participles (1032), from a stem in a: compare vavrdhdnta, vavrdhdsva.
Even these verbs
are allowed
by the grammarians
to
make
the
nom.-
acc.-voc. pi. neut. in anti.
The
445.
The nom.
lar
sing. masc.
(150) loss of the
logical
of these stems
inflection
comes
two
form
Qff^ants.
the nominative.
quite
regular.
end in ER an by the reguconsonants from the etymo-
to
final
The
is
vocative of each gender
is
like
446. Steins accented on the final syllable throw the accent
forward upon the case-ending in the weakest cases (not in the
middle also).
In the dual neut.
accent is dntl
447.
if
the
n
(as
is
in
the feminine stem) from such participles, the
retained,
Examples
ati if it is lost.
of declension. As such may serve
10*
V.
148
J^ bhdvant, Thus
NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.
'being';
'sacrificing'.
Singular
N.
:
5^
addnt,
1447
'eating';
sT^r^ juhvat,
:
/
^opT
^cfrT
51^*T
Ef^rT
bhdvan
bhdvat
addn
addt
juhvat
juhvat
A.
bhdvantam bhdvat
addntamaddt
juhvatamjujivat
I.
bhdvata
adata
juhvata
bhdvate
adate
juhvate
bhdvatas
adatds
juhvatas
Hc(fri
t^lci
adati
juhvati
D.
Ab.G.
L.
bhdvati
V.
bhdvan bhdvat
juhvat
Dual:
N.
A.V.
bhdvantau bhdvanti
I.
addntau adati
juhvatau juhvati
D.Ab.
bhdvadbhyam
adddbhyam
juhvadbhyam
G.L.
bhdvatos
Plural
juhvatos
:
N.V.
bhdvantas bhdvanti
addntas addnti
juhvatas juhvati
bhdvatas
adatds
juhvatas juhvati
A.
bhdvanti
addnti
I.
bhdvadbhis
adddbhis
juhvadbhis
bhdvadbhyas
adadbhyas
juhvadbhyas
D.Ab.
DECLENSION V. E, DERIVATIVE STEMS IN ant.
449]
149
G.
adathm
bhdvatam
L.
juhvatam
H^Tfg
^f
f^rH
bhdvatsu
addtsu
juhvatsu
The future
participle bhavisydnt may form in nom. etc. dual
bhavisydnti or bhavisyatl; tuddnt, either tuddntl or
And juhvat, in nom.
tudati; yhnt (}/ya), either yantl or yatk.
etc. plural neuter, may make also juhvanti (beside juhvati, as
neuter either
given in the paradigm above).
But these strong forms
present-stems in unaccented
somewhat doubtful character.
they been noticed
well
(as
a)
as
du.,
bhdvantl,
and
like
its
are quite contrary to general analogy,
No Vedic example
anywhere in the older
from
and
of
them is found; nor have
The cases concerned,
language.
of
indeed, would be everywhere of rare occurrence.
448. The Vedic deviations from the model
The dual ending du is only one sixth as common
is
seen in a case or two
V. of nom. etc.
pi.
:
is
is
449.
The feminine
made by adding
i
^
participle-stem,
either the
to
The
stem-form of the masc.-neut.
two forms
shall
:
only
instance in
compare the forms
as already
stated,
strong or the
rules as to
weak
which of the
be taken are the same with those given
above respecting the nom.
from
etc.
dual neuter; namely:
ending in unaccented a
Participles
to the strong stem-form, or make their feminine in anfi.
Such are the bhu or unaccented a-class and the dlv or j/a-class of prea.
add
The
lengthened a
given are few.
Anomalous accent
454 c.
in -manti and -vanti, below,
x
with
sdnti,
above
as a.
and rathiraydtam.
acoddte
neut.
as
tense-stems
i
and the desideratives and causatives (chap. XIV.):
from ybhu (stem bhdva), bhdvantl; from ydlv (stem divyd), divyantl;
bubhusa and bhdvdya (desid. and caus. of |/&/m), bubhusanti and
sent-stems (chap. IX.),
thus,
from
bhdvdyantl.
Exceptions
to
this
rule
are
rare.
RV. has
tdksati
and jaratl;
Bopp
The AV. jlvanti, with irregular
(Gr., 530) quotes a few cases from the Nala.
accent, is doubtless to be regarded as a proper name.
Participles from tense-stems in accented d may add the
feminine-sign either to the strong or to the weak stem-form,
b.
or
may make
their
feminines
in dnti or in atl (with accent as
nere noted).
Such are the present-stems
of
the tud or accented d-class (chap. IX.),
the s-futures (chap. XII.), and the denominatives (chap. XIV.): thus, from
ytud (stem tudd], tuddntl or tudati ; from bhavisyd (fut. of ybhu}, bhavisydnti
or bhavisyati; from devayd
(denom. of dcvd), devaydntl or devayati.
V.
150
The forms
NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.
[449
from this class are the prevailing ones.
in anil
No future
from the older language. From pres. -stems
participle in ati is quotable
d are found there rnjati and sincati (RV.), tudati and pinvati (AV.).
fern,
in
devayati (RV.), durasyad and fatruyad (AV.).
Verbs of the ad or root-class (chap. IX.) ending in a are given by the
the present partigrammarians the same option as regards the feminine of
The older language affords no example
thus, from >/j/a, ydnti or ydd.
ciple
From denominatives,
:
of the former,
so far as noted.
From
other tense-stems than those already specified
that is to say, from the remaining classes of present-stems and
the feminine is formed in ad (or, if the
from the intensives
c.
stem be otherwise accented than on the final, in afi) only.
Thus, adad from yad; jfihvatl from yhu; yunjad from yyuj; wnvad
from ysu; kurvad from ykr ; krmad from ykri; dedifati from dedif (intens.
of ydif).
(BL),
Exceptions are occasionally met with in the later language, as dvisantl
rudantl and kurvanti (N.). And AV. has ydntl once.
450. A few words are participial in form and
though not in meaning. Thus
inflection,
:
brhdnt (often written vrhdnt in the later language), 'great'
like a participle (with brhati and brhdnti in du.
a.
it
and
:
inflected
is
pi.
neut.).
inflected like a participle, but with the
mah&nt, 'great'
irregularity that the a of the ending is lengthened in the strong
b.
forms:
Untas,
c.
;
thus, mahun,
mah&ntam; mahantau
mahanti: instr. mahata
pfsant,
'speckled',
and
(in
mahad); mah-
(neut.
etc.
Veda
only) rfifani,
'shining'.
d. jdgat, 'movable, lively' (in the later language, as neuter noun, 'world'),
a reduplicated formation from ygam, 'go'; its nom. etc. neut. pi. is allowed
by the grammarians
e.
to
be only jdganti.
(only once, in
'small'
rhdnt,
All these form
RV.,
rhate).
feminine in
their
ati
only
:
thus,
mahad, prsafi and rucatl (contrary to the rule for
jdgafi.
For ddnt,
which
'tooth',
is
brhati,
participles),
perhaps of participial origin, see above, 396.
451. The pronominal adjectives iyant and Myant are inflected like adjectives in mant and vant, having
(452) iyan and
kiyan as nom. masc. sing., iyafi and Myati as nom. etc. du.
neut. and as feminine stems, and iyanti and kiyanti as nom.
etc.
plur. neut.
But the neut.
pi.
2.
452.
The
fyanti
and the
Possess!ves in
adjectives
loc.
sing.(?)
mant and
Mydti are found in
RV
vant.
formed by these two suffixes are
DECLENSION V. E, DERIVATIVE STEMS IN ant.
453]
inflected precisely alike,
in
fffl^ant.
the
From
like the participles
the latter they differ only by lengthening
a in the nom. sing. masc.
51
The
voc. sing,
is
later
language, namely
The
neut.
nom.
the plural anti
vatl
:
etc.
in an, like that of the participle (in the
for that of the oldest, see below, 454 b).
are in the dual only aft (or dfi], and in
(or dnti).
The feminine
mati,
and very nearly
151
always made from the weak stem
is
(or mdti,
:
thus,
vdti}.
The accent, however, is never (as in the participle) thrown
forward upon the case-ending or the feminine ending.
453.
To
illustrate the inflection of
such stems
it
will
be sufficient to give a part of the forms of H^MHTI paqumdnt,
'possessing cattle', and ^PToftT Ihdgavant, 'fortunate, blessed'.
Thus:
Singular
:
m.
N.
n.
O
n.
O
pacuman
pacumdt
bhdgavan
bhdgavat
pacumdntam
pacumdt
bhagavantam
bhdgavat
A.
pacumdta
bhdgavata
etc.
etc.
V.
pacuman
pdcumat
bhdgavan
bhdgavat
bhdgavantau
bhdgavati
Dual:
N.A.V.
o
o
pacumdntau
pacumdfi
etc.
Plural
etc.
:
N.V.
pacumdntas
pacumdnti
bJidgavantas
bhdgavanti
pacumdtas
pacumdnti
bhdgavatas
bhdgavanti
A.
pacumddbhis
etc.
bhdqavadbhis
etc.
V.
152
NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.
454. Vedic Irregularities,
au)
a.
In
dual
in
the
the greatly prevailing ending.
b. In voc. sing, masc., the ending
[454
masc.
nom.
etc.,
a
(for
is
almost always in as instead of an
oldest
language
(RV.)
is
the perfect participle below, 462 a)
havismas.
Such vocatives in RV. occur
(as in
:
:
bhanumas,
more than a hundred times, while not a single unquestionable instance of
one in an is to be found. In the other Vedic texts, vocatives in as are
harivas,
adrivas,
thus,
extremely rare (but bhagavas and its contraction bhagos are met with, even
in the later language); and in their reproduction of RV. passages the as is
usually changed to an.
It
was pointed out above (425 g) that the RV. makes the voc. in as
from a few an-stems.
In RV., the nom. etc. pi. neut., in the only two instances that
also apparently
c.
No
ends in dnti instead of anti: thus, ghrtdvanti, papumdnti.
occur,
forms have been noted elsewhere in the older language:
in its version of the corresponding passages,
ending
quotable from the Brahmanas
are
such
the SV. reads anti
and a few examples of the same
:
thus, tavanti,
Compare 448, 451.
ten) more or less doubtful
etdvanti,
ydvanti,
pravanti, rtumanti, yugmanti.
d.
strong
In a few (eight or
and weak forms of stem
require reporting.
The same
is
made
is
:
true of a
they
are
case or
cases, a confusion of
too purely
sporadic to
two where a masculine
form appears to be used with a feminine noun (see Lanman).
drva,
455. The stem dryant, 'running, steed', has the nom. sing.
from drvan; and in the older language also the voc. arvan
and accus. drvanam.
Besides the participle bhdvant, there is another stem
frequently used in respectful address as substitute for
the pronoun of the second person (but construed, of course,
with a verb in the third person), which is formed with the suffix
456.
bhavant,
and so declined, having in the nom. sing, bhdvan; and
contracted form bhos of its old-style vocative bhavas is a
common exclamation of address 'you, sir !' Its origin is variously
vant,
the
:
explained
it
;
is
most probably a contraction of bhdgavant.
457. The pronominal
ivant, mdvant,
adjectives tdvant,
etdvant, ydvant,
and the Vedic
tvdvant, etc., are inflected like ordinary derivatives from nouns.
F. Perfect Participles in vans.
458.
The
active participles of the perfect tense-system
are quite peculiar as regards the modifications of their stem.
In the strong cases, including the nom. -ace. -voc.
pi. neut.,
the form of their suffix
lar process
(150),
which becomes, by reguvan in the nom. sing., and which is
is SfftT
v ans,
461
DECLENSION V. E, PARTICIPLES IN vans.
153
shortened to 3FT van in the voc. sing. In the weakest cases, the suffix is contracted into 3^T us. In the middle casx
*
including the nom.-acc.-voc. neut. sing.,
es,
it
is
changed
to ofrT vat.
A
union-vowel i, if present in the strong and middle cases,
disappears in the weakest, before MS.
The forms
459.
thus
as
described are masculine and
neuter only; the corresponding feminine
|
to the
I
460.
its
weakest form of stem,
The accent
is
is
made by adding
ending thus in 3^ft
always upon
the
suffix,
usl.
whatever be
form.
r 461.
Examples
of inflection.
flection of these participles,
vidvahs,
'knowing'
we may
To show
the in-
take the stems fi^TH
(which has irregular loss of the usual
reduplication and of the perfect
and
meaning) from }/T^" vid;
tasthivans, 'having stood', from j/FSTT stha.
crfTSJoTfa
r^
Singular:
m
m.
n.
m.
n.
N.
A.
vidvan
vidvdt
RteiHH^
fen^
vidv&hsam
vidvdt
vidusa
tasthivan
tasthivdt
tasthivUiisam tasthivdt
tasthusa
D.
rlTOT
v
tasthuse
Ab. G.
L.
tasthusi
V.
isn^
vidvan
vidvat
tdsthivan
tdsthivat
tasthivansau
tasthusi
Dual:
vidvahsau vidusl
NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.
154
I.
[461
D. Ab.
vidvddbhyam
tasthivddbhyam
vidusos
tasthusos
G. L.
Plnral
:
N.v.
^
tasthivansas
tasthivaiisi
Mdift
fl^H^
crfr^lftr
vidvfrhsi
tasthusas
tasthivnhsi
vidvtinsas vidvfthsi
A.
f^fJTO^
vidusas
I.
vidvadbhis
tasthivddbhis
vidvddbhyas
tasthivddbhyas
D. Ab.
G.
fa^MI^
rT^IH^
vidusam
tasthusam
vidvdtsu
tasthivdtsu
L.
m
The feminine stems of these two
vidusl
and
ri
w$
o
participles
are
tasthusl.
Other examples of the different stems are
from yAr
cakrvtihs, cakrvdt, cakrus, cakrusz ;
from |/n
niriivfins, niriivdt, ninyus, ninyusi ;
from |/MM
babhuvUhs, babhuvdt, babhuvus, babhuvusl ;
from |/ tan
tenivahs, tenivdt, tenus, tenusi.
:
462. a. In the
that of vant and
oldest language
mant-stems
:
above,
thus, cikitvas (changed to -van
van.'
(RV.),
454 b)
the vocative sing. masc.
(like
has the ending vas instead of
in a parallel passage of AV.), titirvas,
didivas, nudhvas.
b.
Forms from the middle stem,
three (tatanvdt
only
and
vavrtvo'J,
in vat,
neut.
sing.,
extremely rare earlier:
and jagrvddbhis, instr. pi.),
the Veda the weakest stem
are
RV., and not one in AV. And in
and not the middle one, as later, is made the basis
are found in
vidtistara,
An example
c.
regularly
sing.,
rather
made from
or two of the use
of
the strong are found in
thus,
the
RV.
weak stem-form
:
they
for
cases
are cakrtisam, ace.
and dbibhyums, nom. pi.
emuam, by its accent (unless an error), is
from a derivative stem emusd : and QB. has prostisam. Similar in;
stances, especially from vidvdhs, are
under
of comparison:
mldhtistama.
vidvcihs).
now and then met with
later
(see
BR.,
DECLENSION V. E, COMPARATIVES IN yas.
464]
d.
The AV. has once bhaktivdhsas
,
as
if
155
a participial form from a
noun
;
but K. and TB. give in the corresponding passage bhaktivdnas ; cakhvdhsam
(RV., once) is of doubtful character; okivdhsa (RV., once) shows a reversion
form of the
to guttural
final of
YUC, elsewhere unknown.
G. Comparatives in yas.
The comparative
463.
of primary formation
adjectives
(below, 467) have a double form of stem for masculine
and
neuter a stronger, ending in
TXfaj/ahs (usually
in the strong cases, and a weaker, in EJTT yets (or
:
in the
cases (there being no distinction of middle and
weak
The
weakest).
voc.
masc.
sing.
ends in
for
VF(^yan (but
the older language see below, 465 a).
The feminine
is
made by adding
^
i
to the
weak masc.-
be
sufficient to
neut. stem.
464.
As models
of inflection,
it
will
give a part of the forms of 3TOT $reyas,
gdriyas,
Singular
Thus
'heavier'.
'better',
and of
:
:
N.
creyan
creyas
creyansam
creyas
gdriyan
gariyas
A.
TlfklTT
gariyas
gariyasa
creyasa
etc.
etc.
V.
creyas
creyan
gdriyan
gariyas
gdriyahsau
gdrlyasi
Dual:
N.A.Y.
Sj^nl
greyansau
Plural
creyasi
etc.
etc.
etc.
etc.
:
N.V.
creyahsas
creyansi
gdriyansas
gdriyahsi
NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.
V.
[464
ftrfm
creyasas
gdriyansi
gariyasas
creyansi
s
gdriyobhis
creyobhis
etc.
etc.
The feminine stems
of these adjectives are
greya sl
44 tin)
and J|(ldHl gdriyasl.
465.
The Vedic
a.
454 b, 462 a)
masc.
voc.
in yas instead of
is
(as
in
the
yan: thus,
two
divisions
preceding
ojiyas, jyayas
(RV.
:
no ex-
:
amples elsewhere have been noted).
b. No example of a middle case occurs in RV. or AV.
In the later language are found a few apparent examples of strong
the weaker stem-form: thus, kaniyasam, ace. masc., kariiyasau
c.
cases
made from
du.
They
are
perhaps rather to be viewed as transition-forms to
an a-
declension.
Comparison.
466.
Derivative adjective
and superlative meaning
or often also (and
a merely intensive value
ally)
from roots (by primary
or
stems having a comparative
compound stems
The subject
are
made
more
origin-
either directly
or from other derivative
derivation),
(by secondary derivation).
comparison belongs properly to the chapter of derivation;
stands in such near relation to inflection that it is, in accordance with
but
it
the
usual
of
custom in grammars,
conveniently
and properly enough treated
briefly here.
467.
The
suffixes
for the comparative
them
of primary
and ^?
derivation are
isfha for the
^JH
superlative.
lyas
The
accented, and usually strengthened by
or, in some cases, by nasaligunating, if capable of it
zation or prolongation. They are much more frequently and
root before
freely
is
used in the oldest language than later; in the classonly a limited number of such comparatives
ical Sanskrit,
and superlatives are accepted in use
and these attach
themselves in meaning for the most part to other adjectives
;
from the same
root,
which seem
to
be their corresponding
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.
468]
157
but in part also they are artificially connected
with other words, unrelated with them in derivation.
positives
;
Thus, from, yksip,
belong in meaning to
'hurl',
ksiprd,
come
and ksepistha, which
from yvr, 'encompass',
ksepiyas
'quick'
;
come vdriyas and vdristha, which belong to uru, 'broad' while,
for example, kdniyas and kdnistha are attached by the grammarians
or dlpa, 'small'
and vdrslyas and vdrsistha
to yuvan, 'young',
;
;
to vrddtid
'old'.
468. From Veda and Brahmana together, rather more than
a hundred instances of this primary formation in Iyas and istha
one of the pair actually occurring) are to
(in many cases only
About half of these (in RV., the decided majority)
be quoted.
belong, in meaning as in form, to the bare root in its adjective
value, as used especially at the end of compounds, but sometimes also independently
thus, from y'tap, 'burn', comes tdpist/ia,
from 1/yaj, 'offer', come ydjiyas and
'excessively burning'
from yyudh,
ydjistha, 'better and best (or very well) sacrificing'
better'
in
a
few
comes
instances,
'fighting
'fight',
yodhtyas,
the simple root is also found used as corresponding positive
In a little
thus, ju, 'hasty, rapid', with jdviyas and jdvistha.
class of instances (eight), the root has a preposition prefixed,
which then takes the accent thus, agamistha, 'especially coming
:
;
;
;
:
:
hither'
;
vicayistha,
'best clearing away'
in a couple of cases
;
(dcramistha, dparavapistha, dstheyas), the negative particle is pre- - in a
fixed
single word (cdmbhavistha), an element of another
The words of this formation often take an accusative
kind.
;
object: thus, ndbhas tdriyan (RV.), 'traversing rapidly the cloud';
vrtrdm hdnisthah (RV.), 'best slayer of Vritra'.
the
(as
But even in the oldest language appears not infrequently
same attachment in meaning to a derivative adjective which
pointed out above)
is
examples that occur also
'choicest'
(vdra,
usual in the later speech. Besides the
others are met with like vdristha,
later,
bdrhistha,
'choice'),
'greatest'
(brhdnt,
'great'),
and so on.
Probably by
are in a few cases made
with
analogy
from the apparently radical syllables of words which have no
otherwise traceable root in the language
thus, kradhiyas and
kradhistha (K.) from krdhu, sthdviyas and sthdvistha from sthurd,
from
cdciyas (RV.) from cdcvant, dmyas (AV.) and dnistha (TS.)
And yet again, in a few exceptional cases,
anil; and so on.
the suffixes iyas and istha are applied to stems which are themselves palpably derivative
only
thus, acistha from acu (RV.
and brdhmistha (TS.)
case), tiksniyas (AV.) from tiksnd, brdhmiyas
from brahman, dhdrmistha (TA.) from dhdrman, drddhistha (TB.
osistha,
'quickest'
(6sam, 'quickly'),
these, like formations
:
:
:
:
NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.
V.
158
of
instead
These
drdhd, rdghiyas (TS.) from raghu.
followed up later, of the extension
from
ddrhistha]
are
not
beginnings,
[468
of the formation to unlimited use.
or navyas and navistha, from ndva, 'new', and
from sana, 'old (all EV.), we have also formations
unconnected with verbal roots.
In ndviyas
1
in
sdnyas
469.
in
ives
a,
The stems in istha are inflected like ordinary adjectmaking their feminines in a; those in lyas have a
described above
peculiar declension, which has been
(463 ff.).
470. Of peculiarities and irregularities of formation, the
following may be noticed.
The suffix lyas has in a few instances the briefer form yas, generally
as alternative with the other: thus, tdvlyas and tdvyas, ndviyas and n&vyas,
vdsiyas and vdsyas, pdnlyas and pdnyas; and so from rabh and sah; sdnyas
From bhu come bhuyas and
occurs alone.
bhuyistha,
beside which
RV. has
also bhdviyas.
Of
roots in a, the final blends with the initial of the suffix to e: thus,
stheyas,
dhestha,
but such forms are in the Veda generally to be
The root jya forms jytetha, but jydyas (like
yestha;
resolved, as dhd'istha, ydutha.
bhUyas).
The two
roots
in
z,
prl and pn,
form preyas and prestha and
pret/as
and frestha.
From the
root of rjti
but in the older language
The
471.
and
rFT tama.
being added
come,
also,
without strengthening, rjlyas and r/i^fca
regularly, rdjiyas and rdjistha.
suffixes of secondary derivation
They
;
more
are rlj tara
are of almost unrestricted application,
to adjectives of every
form,
pound, ending in vowels or in consonants
simple and com-
and
this
from
the earliest period of the language until the latest.
The
accent of the primitive remains
un-
changed
;
and that form of stem
appears before an
initial
(with rare exceptions)
is
generally taken which
consonant of a case-ending (weak
or middle form).
from
Examples (of older as well as later occurrence) are
vowel-stems, priydtara, vdhnitama, rathitara and rathitama (RV.),
from consonant-stems, cdmtama, cdcvattama,
carutara, potrtama;
:
tavdstara
and tavdstama,
tuvisfama, vdpustara, tapasvitara, bhdgafrom compounds, ratnadh&tama
hiranyavafimattama ;
abhibhutam, sukfttara, purbhittami, bhuridavattara, cucivratatama,
strlkamatama.
vattara,
,
COMPARISON.
474]
159
But in the Veda the final n of a stem is regularly retained: thus,
madfntara and madfntama, vrsdntama ; and of a perfect participle the weakest
stem is taken thus, vidtistara, midhustama. A feminine final I is shortened
:
:
thus, devitama (RV.), tejasvinitama (K.).
In the older language, the words of this formation are not
much more
frequent than those of the other: thus, in RV. the stems in tara and tama
are to those in lyas and istha as three to two; in AV., only as six to five:
but later the former win a great preponderance.
472. These comparatives and superlatives are inflected like
ordinary adjectives in a, forming their feminine in a.
473. That (especially in the Veda) some stems which are
nouns rather than adjectives form derivatives of comparison is
natural enough, considering the uncertain nature of the divisionbetween substantive and adjective value. Thus, we have
line
matftama, nrtama, maruttama, and others.
The suffixes tara and tama also make forms of comparison
from some of the pronominal roots, as ka, ya, i (see below,
and from certain of the prepositions, as ut; and the ad520)
;
verbial accusative
feminine) of a comparused to make a corresponding
comparative to the preposition itself (below, 11 lie).
ative in tara
(older,
neuter;
from a preposition
later,
is
The Hindu grammarians even allow the suffixes of comparison in the
accusative feminine, taram and tamam, to be appended to con-
adverbial
jugational forms:
thus, pacati,
'he cooks',
'he
pacatitaram,
cooks
better':
but such are barbarous combinations, having no warrant in the earlier uses
of the language.
The
primary,
secondary comparison are occasionally added to those of
thus, gariyastara,
forming double comparatives and superlatives
suffixes of
:
fresthatama.
The use of tama as ordinal suffix is noted below (487);
with this value, it is accented on the final, and makes its feminine in i: thus,
catatamd,
m. and
n.,
catatamk,
f.,
'hundredth'.
474. From a few words, mostly prepositions, degrees of
comparison are made by the briefer suffixes ra and ma: thus,
ddhara and adhamd, dpara and apamd, dvara and avamd, upara
and upamd, dntara, dntama, paramd, madhyamd, caramd. And
ma is also used to make ordinals (below, 487).
160
[475
CHAPTER
VI.
NUMERALS.
numbers
cardinal numerals
The simple
475.
(which
are
the
foundation
for the
first
of the whole
ten
class),
with their derivatives, the tens, and with some of the higher
members of the decimal
series,
are as follows:
100
'
ddca
eka
catd
H^f
1000
20
sahdsra
vincati
dvd
30
^TrT
o
10,000
trinc&t
tri
40
ayuta
100,000
catvarincdt
catur
50
pdnca
1,000,000
pancacdt
60
pr&yuta
10,000,000
sas^'
70
Httfri
10
arbudd
saptati
r
so
10
maharbuda
astd
^
*f
10
90
ndva
10
^1
Jcharvd
10'
100
ddca
The accent
nikha
and a*fd
words in all
sajrta
belonging
accentuated texts; according to the grammarians, they are sdpta and dsta in
the later language.
See below, 483.
is
that
to
these
The series of decimal numbers may be carried still further
but there are great differences among the different authorities
;
ODD NUMBERS.
476]
161
with regard to their names and there is more or less of discordance even from ayuta on.
Thus, in the TS., we find ayuta, niyuta, prayuta, drbuda, nyhrbuda,
;
samudrd,
prayuta,
mddhya, dnta, parardhd; K. reverses the order of niyuta and
and inserts badva after nyarbuda (reading nyarbudha): these are
probably the oldest recorded series.
In modern time, the only numbers in practical nse above 'thousand' are
and koti ('crore'); and an Indian sum is wont to be
laksa ('lac' or lakh
1
)
pointed thus: 123,45,67,890, to signify '123 crores, 45 lakhs, 67 thousands,
hundred and
eight
As
to the
saks instead
ninety'.
stem-forms pancan
of sas,
see
see
etc.,
146
above,
end.
below, 484. As to the form
The stem dva appears in com-
position and derivation also as dva and dvi; catiir in composition
The
cdtur.
older form of asta
is
asta
:
see below,
Forms
483.
is
accented
in -fat
and
-fati for the tens are occasionally interchanged.
The other numbers are expressed by the various composition
and syntactical combination of those given above. Thus
:
476. The odd numbers between the even tens are made
to the ten to which its value
Thus:
irregularities.
by prefixing the (accented) unit
is to be added: but with various
eka in
'11'
becomes
eka, but is elsewhere
dva becomes everywhere dva; but in
changeable with dvi, and in '82' dvi alone
for
tri
allowed in
is
'43'
substituted
'73'
its
and in
and in
its
'96'
final
the
n
succeeding combinations.
ekada^a
'92'
it
is
inter-
used;
masc.
trdyas;
but
'83' tri alone is
tri itself is
also
used;
and makes the
of navati is assimilated to it
asta becomes [asta
n
'93',
pi.
and in
is
unchanged;
'72' and in
initial d of dafa lingual (199 b);
undergoes the regular conversion (226 b) to * or d or n;
sas becomes so in '16',
elsewhere
nom.
'42'
(483)
Thus
in
:
'18'
'38',
(199b);
and has either form in the
VI. NUMERALS.
162
The forms made with dvd and trayas
dvi and
tri,
more usual than those with
are
be quoted from the older literature (V. and
asta (instead of asta) are alone found in the
which are hardly
to
The forms made with
Br.).
[476
older literature (483), and are usual in the later.
477. The above are the normal expressions for the odd
numbers. But equivalent substitutes for them are also variously
made. Thus
:
By use
a.
the adjectives
of
in composition with lesser
una,
be subtracted or added, and
(more usually) in composition with larger
either independently qualifying or
numbers which
and adhika, 'redundant',
'deficient',
numbers which are
to
are to be increased or diminished
by the others
thus, tryuna-
:
by three' (i. e. '57'); astadhikanavati, 'ninety increased
by eight' (i. e. '98'); ekddhikam patam, 'a hundred increased by one' (i. e.
For the nines, especially,
'101'); panconam catam, '100 less 5' (i. e. '95').
'sixty deficient
sasti,
such substitutes
and
as
A
b.
is
PB. KB.), 'not thirty by one'
(TS.); ekasyai
ekan
(i.
e.
This
*99'.
e.
form
is
etc.
thus,
admitted also
not
are
nd
uncommon;
have the same value.
with a larger
'not',
ekayd nd trincdt (QB.
ekasmdn nd pancacdt
'29');
366.3) nd pancacdt,
ekdt, irregular abl. for ekasmdt)
last
or '19',
connected by na,
be deducted:
(i.
fern.:
(abl.
is
'one',
to
is
1',
and unavihcati
left off,
case-form of eka,
number from which one
'49'
'20 less
ekonavihcati,
T,
later the eka,
'49'
(TS.);
most
often,
ekdn nd catdm,
vincatf, '19';
in the later language
(in ordinal),
:
the others are
found in the Brahmanas.
Instances of multiplication by a prefixed
c.
with:
number
are occasionally
met
thus, trisaptd, 'thrice seven'; trinavd, 'thrice nine'; tridacd, 'thrice ten'.
d. Of course, the numbers to be added together may be expressed by
independent words, with connecting 'and' thus, ndva ca navatfy ca, or n&va
navatfm ca, 'ninety and nine'; dvau ca vihcatfc ca, 'two and twenty'. But
:
the connective is also
thus, navatfr ndva,
in the older language) not seldom omitted:
trincdtam trin, '33'; acltir astdti, '88'.
(at least,
'99';
478. The same methods are also variously used for forming
the odd numbers above 100.
The added number
a.
is
Thus:
to the other,
prefixed
and takes the accent:
for
example, ekacatam, '101'; astdcatam, '108'; trincdchatam, '130'; astaJ
cdtuhsahasram (RV. unless the accent is wrong), '1004'.
vihcaticatam, <148
b. Or, the number to be added is compounded with adhika, 'redundant',
:
;
and the compound
is
compounded with it:
Of course, una,
adhika},
C.
catdm
may be used
either
made
to qualify the
thus, pancddhikarh
'deficient'
(as
in the same
479.
'110';
catam ekam
ca,
number
way: thus, panconam catam,
Syntactical combinations are
ca,
also
other
made
or
is
further
catam or pancddhikacatam, '105'.
other words equivalent to una
at convenience
:
for
or
'95'.
example, ddca
401'.
Another usual method (beginning in the Brahmanas)
odd numbers above 100 is to qualify the larger
of forming the
COMPOUND NUMBERS.
482]
163
number by an
adjective derived from the smaller, and identical
briefer ordinal (below, 487)
thus, dvadacdm catdm,
'a hundred of a 12-sort, or characterised
(lit'ly,
by 12
with the
'112'
:
;
catuccatvarihcdm catdm,
satsastdm catdm,
'124';
'166'.
480. To multiply one number by another, among the higher
denominations, the simplest and least ambiguous
method is to make of the multiplied number a dual or plural,
and this
qualified by the other as any ordinary noun would be
method is a common one in all ages of the language. For example pdnca pancacdtas, five fifties ('250'); ndva navatdyas, 'nine
or the lower
;
:
nineties'
pdnca
acitibhis
('810');
gatani,
'five
tisrbhis,
'with three
eighties' ('240');
sahdsrani, 'three thousands';
ca sahasrany astau ca catani,
trlni
hundreds';
sahdsrani,
'60,000'; daca
'10,800': and, combined with addition, trim cathni trdyastrincatam
ca, '333'; sahasre dve panconam catam eva ca, '2095'.
sastini
and wholly
a peculiar
By
illogical construction,
which ought to signify '480'
used in the Brahmanas to mean '360' (3x100
trini sastifatani,
'234'
fate,
(not '268');
and other
such a combination as
(3x100 + 60),
+ 60);
is
frequently
so also due catustrinfe
like cases.
481. But the two factors, multiplier and multiplied, are
and in later usage more generally, combined into a compound (accented on the final); and this is then treated as an
also,
(in
i]
singular
satcataih
'1000';
numbered noun;
the
qualifying
adjective,
feminine
padatibhih
'with
(MBh.),
trdyastrihqat tricatah satsahasrtih (AV.), '6333';
astadacacatl,
'200';
its
neuter or
thus,
dacacatas,
or else
used substantively
is
:
600
foot-soldiers';
dvicatdm or dmcatk,
'1800'.
In the usual absence of accentuation, there arises sometimes a question
how a compound number shall be understood: whether asta?atam, for
as to
example,
is
astdfatam,
or astacatdm,
Inflection.
482.
merals
'108',
in
is
many
ed only by the
The
'800',
and the
like.
inflection of the cardinal
respects irregular.
Gender
is
nu-
distinguish-
first four.
a. Eka, T, is declined after the manner of a pronominal
adjective (like sdrva, below, 524); its plural is used in the
sense of 'some, certain ones'.
Its dual does not occur.
Occasional forms of the ordinary declension are met with
.
:
thus,
eke
(loc.
sing.),
ekat.
In the late literature, eka is used in the sense of 'a certain',
or even sometimes almost of 'a', as an indefinite article.
Thus,
eko vyaghrah (H.), 'a certain tiger'; ekasmin dine, 'on a certain
day';
haste
dandam ekamadaya
(H.),
'taking a stick in his hand'.
11*
VL NUMERALS.
16 4
b.
N.A.V.
dual only, and
m., dve, f.
is
Dva, '2',
dvau (V.
dva),
[482
is
n.
entirely
;
I.
thus,
regular^:
D.Ab. dvubhyam;
G. L. dvdyos.
c. Tri, '3', is in masc. and neut. nearly regular, like an
their genitive is as if from tray a (only
ordinary stem in *; but
the regular trmhm occurs once in RV.).
in the later language
For the feminine it has the peculiar stem tisr, which is inflected
but the nom. and accus. are alike,
in general like an r-stem
and show no strengthening of the r and the r is not prolonged
Thus
in the gen. (excepting in the Veda).
:
;
;.
:
m.
f.
N.
trdyas
trini
tisrds
A.
trin
trini
tisrds
1.
tribhfs
tisrbhis
D. Ab.
tribhyds
tisfbhyas
G.
trayandm
tisrndm
L.
tristi
tisfsu.
The Veda has the abbreviated
uation tisrbhfs,
n.
tisrnam,
tisrbhyds,
neut.
and
nom. and accus.
tisrsti
is
said
to
tri.
The accent-
be also allowed in
the later language.
The stem
occurs
tisr
in
composition in tisrdhanvd
(Br.),
bow along
'a
with three arrows'.
d. Catur, '4', has catv&r (the more original form) in the
in the fern, it substitutes the stem catasr, apparently
strong cases
akin with tisf, and inflected like it (but with anomalous change
see below, 483).
of accent, like that in the higher numbers
;
:
Thus:
m.
+,
f.
catvdras
catvdri
A.
cattiras
catvdri
cdtasras
cdtasras
catasrbhis
cattirbhis
I.
D. Ab.
cattirbhyas
catasfbhyas
G.
caturndm
catasrndm
L.
The use
n.
N.
of
catasr su.
cattirsu
n
before
sonant of the stem
is
more regular gen.
fern,
am
of the gen.
masc. and neut. after a
final
below, 483) a striking irregularity.
In the
catasfnam also sometimes occurs.
language, the accentuation of the
ed in inst., dat.-abl., and loc.
final syllable instead of
the penult
is
con-
The
(as in sas:
later
allow-
483. The numbers from '5' to '19' have no distinction of
gender, nor any generic character. They are inflected, somewhat
irregularly, as plurals, save in the nom. -ace., where they have
no proper plural form, but show the bare stem instead. Of sds
(as of catur\ nam is the gen. ending, with mutual assimilation
(198b) of stem-final and
initial
of
the
termination.
Asta
(as
INFLECTION.
485]
165
older language) has an
which is almost exclusively used
(V. and Br.), both in inflection and in
compounds with asta are found as early
found in RV.
acc. is astd (usual later
accented in the
alternative fuller form,
the older literature
in
asta,
composition (but some
as the
once,
:
asta
astau
or
(RV.),
and
usual
(most
in
AV.); its nom.and in AV.), or
in
also
RV.;
AV.,
Br.,
later).
The accent
of
stress
from the
in
is
many
respects peculiar.
In
all
the accented texts, the
on the penult before the endings this, bhyas, and su,
stems in a, whatever be the accent of the stem
thus, pancdbhis
voice
lies
:
navdbhyas from ndva, dafdsu from ddfa, navadafdbhis from
ndvadafa, ekddafdbhyas from ekddafa, dvddafdsu from dvadaya; according to
the grammarians, either the penult or the final is accented in these forms
In the gen. pi., the accent is on the ending (as in
in the later language.
from pdnca,
that of
i,
u,
The
and r-stems).
cases of sas,
and those made from the stem-
form asta, have the accent throughout upon the ending.
inflection of these
Examples of the
N. A.
I.
words are as follows
pdnca
sat
astati
astd
pancdbhis
sadbhis
astabhfs
astdbhis
D.Ab.
pancdbhyas
sadbhyds
astdbhyds
G.
pancdndm
sanndm
L.
pancdsu
satsu
:
astabhyas
astdndm
astdsu
astdsu.
Sapid (in the later language sdpta, as dsta for astd) and ndva and ddfa,
are declined like panca, and with
with the compounds of ddfa ('11'
'19'),
the same shift of accent
(or
with alternative shift
to the endings,
as pointed
out above).
484. The Hindu grammarians
give to the stems for
'5'
and
'7'
'19' a
n: thus, pancan, saptan, astan, navan, dacan, and ekddafan etc. This,
however, has nothing to do with the demonstrably original final nasal of '7',
final
and
nouem, decem; seven, nine, ten)', it is only
from such a stem-form, their inflection is
made to assume a more regular aspect, the nom.-acc. having the form of a
'9',
to
owing
'10'
the
(compare septem,
fact
that,
starting
neut. sing, in an, and the instr., dat.-abl., and loc. that of a neut. or masc.
the gen. alone
in an: compare ndma, ndmabhis, ndmabhyas, ndmasu
pi.
being like that, rather, of a a-stem
compare dafdndm with {ndranam and
ndmnam or atmdnam. No trace whatever of a final n is found anywhere in
:
the language,
in
inflection
or derivation
or composition, from
any of these
words.
485. The
tens, vihqati and trihc&t etc., with their compounds,
as feminine stems of the same endings,
are declined regularly,
and in all numbers.
Catd and sahdsra are declined regularly, as neuter (or, rarely,
as masculine) stems of the same final, in
in the later language,
all
numbers.
NUMERALS.
VI.
[485
which have, inThe like is true of the higher numbers
deed, no proper numeral character, but are ordinary nouns.
a.
As
Construction.
486.
the nouns enumerated by
The words
for
them
to
'!'
regards their construction with
:
'19'
are used adjectively, agreeing
distinguish gender, in gender also, with
the nouns
thus, dacdbhir viraih, 'with ten heroes' ye deva divy
ekadaca sthd (AV.), 'what eleven gods of you are in heaven';
pancdsu jdnesu, 'among the five tribes'; catasfbhir girbhth, 'with,
in case,
and,
if
they
:
;
four songs'.
The numerals above '19' are construed usually as nouns,
taking the numbered noun as a dependent genitive, or
thus, catam dasih
standing in the singular in apposition with it
or catam dasmam, 'a hundred slaves' or 'a hundred of slaves';
b.
either
:
miwatyn Mrib/iis, 'with twenty bays'; sastyam cardtsu, 'in 60 autumns'; Catena, pacaih, 'with a hundred fetters'; catam sahdsram
ayutam nydrbudam jaghhna cakrb ddsyunam (AV.), 'the mighty
[Indra] slew a hundred, a thousand, a myriad, a hundred million, of demons'.
Occasionally they are put in the plural, as if used more
adjectively: thus, pancacadbhir vanaih,
'with fifty arrows'.
In the older language, the numerals for '5' and upward
are sometimes used in the nom.-acc. form (or as if
indeclinably)
with other cases also
thus, pdnca krstisu, 'among the five races'
saptd rsmam, 'of seven bards'; sahdsram rsibhih, 'with a thousand
bards'; catam purbhih, 'with a hundred strongholds'.
c.
:
;
487.
Ordinals. Of
coming from the
original
the
classes
of derivative words
or cardinal numerals, the
ordin-
most important; and the mode of their
by
formation may best be explained here.
Some of the first ordinals are irregularly made thus,
als are
far the
:
eka,
'!',
forms no ordinal; instead
pra-tama, 'foremost');
even in the Sutras;
from dvd,
through
adi
is
used prathamd (i. e.
rare in the Brahmanas, and adya
is
and tri, '3', come dvitiya and trtiya (secondand abbreviated trita}',
catur, '4', sds, '6', and saptd, '?', take the ending tha :
thus, caturthd, sastM, saptdtha; but for 'fourth' are used also
turiya and turya, and saptdtha belongs to the older language
arily,
'2',
dvita
only: pancatha, for 'fifth', is excessively rare;
the numerals for '5' and '7'
usually, and for
'8',
'9',
'10',
add ma, forming pamama, saptamd,
astamd, navamd, daqamd;
NUMERAL DERIVATIVES.
489]
167
41th' to '19th', the forms are ekadacd, dvadacd, and
same with the cardinals, except change of accent)
for the tens and intervening odd numbers from '20' onward,
one made by adding the full
the ordinal has a double form
to the cardinal
tamd
thus, vihcatitamd,
ending
(superlative)
the other, shorter, in a, with abbretrincattamd, acititamd, etc.
for
on
so
(the
;
:
;
viation of the cardinal:
tvarincd,
'40th';
'80th';
acitd,
ekasastd,
navatd,
'61st';
vihqd,
'50th';
trincd,
'20th';
sastd,
and ekannavihfd
'30th';
ca-
saptatd,
'70th';
ekavihcd,
'21st',
'60th';
and so likewise
'90th';
astacatvarihcd,
'34th';
catustrihcd,
thus,
pancacd,
'52d';
dvapancacd,
unavincd and ekonavtncd,
'48th';
and
and so on. Of these two forms, the latter and briefer
'19th';
is by far the more common, the other being not quotable from
the Veda, and extremely rarely from the Brahmanas.
From '50th'
on, the briefer form is allowed by the grammarians only to the
but it is sometimes
odd numbers, made up of tens and units
;
met with, even in the later language, from the simple ten.
Of the higher numbers, gatd and sahdsra form catatamd and
sahasratamd ; but their compounds have also the simpler form
:
thus,
ekagata,
Of the
'101st'.
prathamd (and adya\ dvitlya, trtiya, and
form their feminine in a; all the rest make
ordinals,
turiya (with turya]
it in i.
ordinals, as in other languages, have other than ordinal offices
488. The
to
fill
;
and in Sanskrit especially they are general adjectives
to the cardinals,
with a considerable variety of meanings, as fractionals, as signifying 'composed
of so many parts' or 'so-many-fold', or 'containing so many', or (as was seen
479) 'having
above,
In
a
fractional
so
many
sense,
shifted to the first syllable
'quarter',
'quarter',
and so on.
:
added'.
the
489.
;
for
'half
accent
their
that
trtlya, 'third part'
But in accented texts only
are found so treated;
pancamd, and
direct
grammarians
thus, dvtiiya, 'half
trtlya,
'third',
;
be
cdturtha,
and
ttiriya,
occurs only ardhd; and caturthd,
so on, are accented as in their ordinal use.
Other numeral derivatives
multiplicative
adverbs,
as
dvis,
thus,
catus,
tris,
'twice',
thrice'.,
'four times';
adverbs with the suffixes dha and cas
'in
oneway',
catadhu,
'in a
:
hundred ways';
for example,
ekacas,
ekadhh,
'one by one',
'by hundreds';
as dvitaya, or dvayd, 'a pair', ddcataya or dacdt,
'a decade'
of derivation.
belong rather to the dictionary, or to the chapter
catacds,
collectives,
168
[490
CHAPTER
VII
PRONOUNS.
490.
THE pronouns
from the great mass of nouns
in that they come by derivation from
differ
and adjectives chiefly
another and a very limited
the so-called 'pro-
set of roots,
nominal' or 'demonstrative' roots. But they have also
and marked
many
some of which,
in a few adjectives; and such
of inflection
peculiarities
however, find analogies also
adjectives will accordingly
be described at the end of this
chapter.
Personal Pronouns.
491.
The pronouns of the
first
and second persons are
and peculiar of all, being made up of
fragments coming from various roots and combinations of
roots.
They have no distinction of gender.
the most irregular
Their inflection in the later language
Singular
A.
^^
ahdm
TF[^
Jqj
Ab.
^T^ ^7
tvam, tva
(TOT
TITT
*-|c^|4-|,
pers.
tvdm
mdya
D.
2d
OT^
mam, ma
I-
as follows
:
1st pers.
N.
is
tvdya
If
^jV^JTf, (^
mdhyam, me
tubJiyam,
3^
^7^
mat
tvdt
te
:
PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
492]
G.
rR,
T
169
^
mama, me
L.
mdyi
Dual:
N.A.V.
I.
avam
yuvam
avabhyam
yuvabhyam
avdyos
yuvdyos
D. Ab.
ETSTFTT
G.L.
andA.D.G.
nan
Plural
:
N.
vaydm
yuydm
asman, nas
yusman, vas
asmabhis
ytismabhis
A.
o
^
^T^TTPTTT
o
-\
I.
,
1
D.
^JCrjT^JTI
,
^{
asmdbhyam, nas
yiismdbhyam, vas
asmdt
yusmdt
asmakam, nas
yusmakam, vas
Ab.
tfa^j^
G.
L.
o
,0
asmasu
The
numbers,
briefer second forms for accus., dat.,
are accentless
and hence they are
;
stand at the
emphasis
The
yusmasu
is
beginning
of a sentence,
or
and gen., in
all
not allowed to
elsewhere where any
laid.
ablative
mat
is
accentless in
one or two AV. passages
(xi.
4.26;
xii. 3. 46).
492.
Forms
of the older language.
All the forms
VI1
170
-
PRONOUNS.
[492
which, howgiven above are found also in the older language
ever, has also others that afterward disappear from use.
Thus, the Veda (RV.) has a few times the instr. sing, tva (like manisd
;
for
manlsdya); further, the Ioc4 sing, tve, the dat. pi. (less often loc,) asme,
the final e of these forms is uncombinable (or
loc. pi. yusme :
and the
The datives in bhyam are in RV. not seldom to be read
pragrhya: 138 b).
as if in bhya, with loss of the final nasal; asmdkam and yusmdkam suffer
same
the
only in a rare instance
loss
semivowel
to
the second person
for tvdm,
(tuam
two.
or
The usual
resolutions
of
and are especially frequent in the forms of
vowel are made,
etc.).
wear a very different aspect earlier.
In Veda
and Brahmana, the nominatives are avdm and yuvdm, and only the accusatives avdm and yuvdm (but in RV. the dual forms of 1st pers. chance not
But the
duals, above
all,
vam[?J, once, for a-uam); the instr. in RV. is either
elsewhere found) or yuvabhyam; an abl. yuvdt appears once
in RV., and avdt twice in TS.; the gen. -loc. is in RV. (only) yuv6s instead
of yuvdyos.
Thus we have here a distinction (elsewhere unknown) of five
to
unless in
occur,
yuvdbhyam
(not
dual
different
cases
by
endings,
in
part accordant with those of the other
two numbers.
493. Peculiar endings.
The ending am, appearing
in the
nom.
(and Vedic du.) of these pronouns, will be found often, though
The bhyam (or hyam) of dat. sing.
only in sing., among the other pronouns.
sing,
and
and
is
pi.
pi.
met with only here;
its
relationship
of the ordinary declension is palpable.
The
t
with the bhyam, bhyas, bhis
of the abl., though here
(or d)
is doubtless the same with that of the a-declension
nouns and adjectives. That the nom., dat., and abl. endings should be
the same in sing, and pi. (and in part in the earlier du.
also), only the stem
to which they are added being different, is
unparalleled elsewhere in the
preceded by a short vowel,
of
The element sma appearing in the plural forms will be found
language.
frequent in the inflection of the singular in other pronominal words in fact,
the compound stem asma which underlies the
plural of aham seems to be
the same that furnishes part of the singular forms of at/am
and its
:
(501),
value
of
'we'
to
be a specialisation of the meaning
'these persons'.
genitives singular, mama and tdva, have no analogies
vation from them of the adjectives mamaka and tavaka
the possibility
of
their
elsewhere;
(below,
being themselves stereotyped stems.
asmakam and yusmdkam,
are certainly of this character
case-forms of the adjective stems
are found in the Veda.
asmdka and yusmaka
:
1
The
the deri-
516) suggests
The gen.
pi.,
namely, neuter sing,
other cases of which
494. Stem-forms.
To the Hindu grammarians, the
stems of the personal pronouns are mad and
asmad, and tvad
and yusmad, because these are forms used to a certain
extent,
and allowed to be
indefinitely used, in derivation and
sition
compo-
under the other
Words are thus formed from them even in the olderpronouns).
language
(like
tad,
kad,
etc.:
see below,
PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
4951
171
namely, mdtkrta, mdtsakhi, asmdtsakhi, tvddyoni, mattds (AV.),
(TS.), yuvdddevatya (QB.); but much more numerous are
those that show the proper stem in a, or with the a lengthened
mavant ; asmatra, asmadruh, etc.; tvadatta, tvanid,
to^a: thus,^
tvdtpitr
tvnvasu,
tvtihata,
etc.;
yusmftdatta,
yusmesita, etc.;
yuvddhita,
And the later language also has a few
yuvndatta, yuvUriita, etc.
words made in the same way, as madrc.
The Vedas have
forms
:
thus,
uttard, aharhyu,
From
certain
more irregular combinations,
tvamkama, mampapyd, mamasatyd,
asmehiti,
with complete
ahampurvd, aham-
ahamsana.
of the grammarians come also the derivmadiya, tvadkya, asmadiya, yusmadlya, having a
see below, 516.
possessive value
ative
the stems
adjectives
:
For sva and svaydm, see below, 513.
Demonstrative Pronouns.
495.
The simplest demonstrative,
also the purpose of a personal
rT ta,
which answers
pronoun of the third person,
be taken as model of a mode of declension usual in
may
so many pronouns and pronominal
adjectives that
it is
fairly
be called the general pronominal declension.
But this root has also the special irregularity that in the
nom. sing. masc. and fern, it has sds (for whose peculiar euphonic
treatment see 176 a) and sa, instead of ids and ta (compare Gr.
Thus:
o, 7], TO, and Goth, sa, so, thata}.
to
Singular
:
m.
n.
N.
sds
tat
sa
tdm
tdt
tarn
A.
tena
tdya
rT^"
tdsmai
Ab.
tdsyai
rTHTI
tdsmat
tdsyas
VII. PRONOUNS.
172
[495
*\
tdsya
tdsyas
tdsmin
tdsyam
L.
Dual:
N.A.V.
I.
ftt
ft
ft
tau
te
te
D. Ab.
thbhyam
thbhyam
HU^
G. L.
tdyos
Plural:
N.
A.
ft
ftlH
te
thni
ftT^
ftTH
thn
thni
D. Ab.
thbhyai
tebhyas
tasam
L.
ftj
thsu
tesu
The Vedas show no other
belong to
du.
;
all
stems in a and a
irregularities
:
often id for tdni, pi. neut.
ordinary resolutions.
namely, tend sometimes
;
usually td for
usually tebhis for tats, instr. pi.
;
;
The RV. has one more case-form from the
namely sdsmin (occurring nearly half
it
than those which
of inflection
tali,
and the
root
sa,
as often as tdsmin).
496. The peculiarities of the general pronominal declension,
be noticed, are these
will
:
In the singular, the use of t (properly d) as ending of nom.-acc. neut.
the combination with the root of another element sma in masc. and neut.
;
dat.,
abl.,
and
masc. and neut.
loc.,
loc.
and of
ending
sy
in,
in
fern,
which
dat.,
abl.-gen.,
is restricted to this
in the anomalous yddffmin, RV., once).
The dual
is
precisely that of noun-stems in a
and
d.
and
loc.;
and the
declension (except
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.
500]
J73
U
In the plural, the irregularities are limited to
for ids in nom. masc.,
s instead of n before am of the
gen., the stem-final
and the insertion of
being treated before
same manner
in the
it
as before su of the loc.
497. The stem of this pronoun is by the grammarians given
and from that form come, in fact, the derivative adjective tadiya, with tattvd, tadvat, tanmaya; and numerous compounds, such as tacchila, tajjna, tatkara, tadanantara, tanmatra,
These compounds are not rare even in the Veda so tddanna,
etc.
But derivatives from the true root ta are
tadvid, tadvacd, etc.
as
tad;
:
many: especially adverbs, as
adjectives tavant and tdti; and the
also
the
498.
Though
third
person,
tdtra,
demonstrative root
the
it
tatas,
compound
also
is
used,
freely
tatha,
tada;
the
tadfc etc.
ta
is
prevailingly of
both in the
earlier
language and in the later, as qualifying the pronouns of the
first and second person, giving emphasis to them
thus, so 'Mm,
'this I', or 'I here'; sd tvdm, 'thou there'; te vayam, 'we here';
and so on.
:
Two
499.
as an element;
demonstrative stems appear to contain ta
like the simple ta, substitute sa in
other
and both,
masc. and
nom. sing.
a. The one,
the
fern.
tolerably common
tya,
third of its possible forms occur) in RV., but
almost unknown later: its nom. sing., in the
syds, sya, tydt, and it makes the accusatives
is
has in
It
RV.
the instr. fern, tya
It prefixes
language.
atives esds,
esa,
etdt
e
a
three genders,
is
(for tydya].
The other is the usual demonstrative
here', and is in frequent use through
b.
'this
only
AV., and
tydm, tyam, tydt,
cases in the same manner
and goes on through the remaining
as ta.
(although
rare in
of nearer position,
all periods of the
to the simple root, forming the nominand so on through the whole inflection.
But
tya has neither compounds nor derivatives.
formed both, in the same manner as from the
thus, etadda (QB.), etadsimple ta, only much less numerous
artha, etc., from the so-called stem etat; and etadfc and etavant
from eta.
The stem
from
eta
are
:
\
There is a defective pronominal stem, ena, which is
and hence used only in situations where no emphasis
upon it. It does not occur elsewhere than in the accusaof all numbers, the instr. sing., and the gen. -loc. dual:
500.
accentless,
falls
tive
thus,
Sing. A.
I.
m.
n.
enam
enat
enena
f.
enam
enaya
PRONOUNS.
VII.
174
Du.
A.
enau
G. L.
enayos
enani
enan
A.
PI.
[500
ene
The RV. has enos instead
ene
of enayos,
enayos
enas
and in one or two instances accents
a form: thus, endm, endsC?).
This stem forms neither derivatives nor compounds.
Two
501.
ularly
other demonstrative declensions are so irreg-
made up
aydm
one, %|t|H
strative,
'this'
that they
etc.,
have
Singular
The
full.
used as a more indefinite demon-
is
are as follows
m.
be given in
or 'that'; the other, ERTT asau
especially the remoter relation,
They
to
etc.,
signifies
'yon' or 'yonder'.
:
:
n.
f.
m.
N.
aydm iddm
iydm
imam iddm
imam
A.
amum
amum
adds
*HUI
o
anena
andya
amuna
amuya
D.
amusyai
asyai
Ab.
^HJIH
asmat
G.
asyas
O
'O
JS
amusyas
amusya
amusyas
amusmin
amusyam
EiHrra
asyd
L.
asyas
o
_-s
SJUJIH
asrrnn
asyam
Dual:
N.A.
*^
amusmat
^TT
<JR
imau ime
ime
I.D.Ab.
s
abhyUm
amubhyam
anyos
amuyos
G.L.
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.
5021
Plural
175
:
N.
EPTR
ime
imani
imas
amuni
m
imani
mas
^^5FTFT
amun amuni
A.
ebkis
abhis
amlbhis
ebhyds
abhyds
amibhyas
amubhyas
esam
asam
amisam
amusam
esu
asu
amubhis
D. Ab.
f
^
t
G.
L.
that
is
adverbially
the
amusu
The same forms are used in the older language, without variation, except
ima occurs for imau and imdni. and amu for amuni; amuya when used
first,
accented on the
is
dsau)
used
amuya; asau
final,
(with accent, of course, on
also as vocative.
502. The former of these two pronouns, aydm etc., plainly shows itself
be pieced together from a number of defective stems.
The majority of
forms come from the root a, with which, as in the ordinary pronominal deto
All these forms from a
clension, sma (f. sy) is combined in the singular.
have the peculiarity that in their substantive use they are either accented,
as in the paradigm, or accentless (like ena and the second forms from dhdm
The remaining forms
and tvdm}.
are always accented.
entire regularity, anena, andya, andyos.
and in part in singular, come not
aydm, iydm, iddm are evidently
less
The strong
regularly
From and come, with
cases in dual and plural,
from
And
a stem imd.
to be referred to a simple root
i
(iddm being
apparently a double form: id, like tad etc., with ending am).
The Veda has from the root a also the instrumental end and ayd (used
in general adverbially), and the gen. loc. du. ay6s; from zma, imdsya occurs
once in RV.
The RV. has in
a
small
number
of
the
instances
irregular
accentuation dsmai, dsya, dbhis.
In analogy with the other pronouns, iddm is by the grammarians regarded as representative stem of this pronominal deand it is actually found so treated in a very small
clension
number of compounds (idammdya and icldmrupa are of Brahmana
A.S regards the actual stems, ana furnishes nothing further
age).
from ima comes only the adverb imdtha (RV., once); but a and
;
;
*
furnish
example,
a
number
dtas,
tm (Vedic
of
dtra, dtha
particle),
idfc,
derivatives, mostly adverbial
itds, id (Vedic particle), ida,
;
:
thus,
ihd,
for
itara,
perhaps evd and evdm, and others.
VII. PRONOUNS.
176
asati etc., has
[503
amft for
its leading stem, which
o-stems, the element sma
and which shifts to ami in part of the masc. and neut. plural. In
(f.
at/),
it lengthens its final in the feminine.
part, too, like an adjective w-stem,
503. The other pronoun,
in
the
singular
The gen.
sya
sing,
added
to
in
takes
combination,
like
the
amtisya is the only example in the language of the ending
any other than an a-stem. The nom. pi. ami is unique in
(like that of a dual) pragrhya, or exempt from combination
form; its I is
with a following vowel (138 b).
Asati and adds are also without analogies as
regards their endings.
The grammarians, as usual, treat adds as representative
stem of the declension, and it is found in this character in an
extremely small number of words, as adomula; adomdya is of
The QB. has also asaunaman.
Brahmana age.
But most of
the derivatives, as of the cases, come from amu: thus, amutas,
amutra, amutha, amurhi, amuvdt, amuka.
In the
many
a one'
occurs
older language
;
it is
the
root
tva (accentless),
oftenest found repeated, as 'one'
and
meaning
'another'.
'one,
follows
It
the ordinary pronominal declension.
Fragments of another demonstrative root or two are met with
thus,
av6s as
'he', occurs in a formula in AV. and in Brahmanas etc.
:
dmas,
;
gen.-loc. dual is found in
RV.
;
the particle
u
points to a root u.
Interrogative Pronoun.
504.
The
characteristic
part of the interrogative pro-
k; it has the three forms ^ ka, fa ki,
3\ ku; but the whole declensional inflection is from 3\ ka.
O
excepting the nom. -ace. sing, neut., which is from fa ki,
and has the anomalous form faq kim (not elsewhere known
nominal root
R
is
i
in
the language
from
a
neuter /-stem).
The nom.
and
accus. sing., then, are as follows:
N
and the
ta
m.
n.
f.
^H
faft
SfiT
Ms
kim
ka
Mm
kim
rest of the declension is
precisely like that of rT
(above, 495).
The Veda has
also
-
has,
its
usual variations, Tea and kebhis for kdni and kais.
It
the pronominally regular neuter kdd; and kdm
along with kfm,
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN.
509]
177
The masc. form kis, corresponding to kim,
(or kam) is a frequent particle.
occurs as a stereotyped case in the combinations ndkis and mdkis.
505. The grammarians treat kirn as representative stem of
and it is in fact so used in a not
interrogative pronoun
large number of words, of which a few
kimmdya, kimkard,
kimkamya, kimdevata, and the peculiar kimyti
go back even
to the Veda and Brahmana.
In closer analogy with the other
pronouns, the form kad, a couple of times in the Veda (katpayd.
the
;
and not infrequently later, is found as first member of
Then, from the real roots ka, ki, ku are made
many derivatives and from ki and ku, especially the latter, many
compounds thus, kdti, katha, kathdm, kada, katard, katamd, kdrhi;
kddartha),
compounds.
;
:
kulfc;
kiyant,
mantrin,
kutas,
kutra,
kuha,
kvd,
kucard,
ku-
kukarman,
etc.
Various forms of this pronoun, as kad, kim, and ku
at the beginning of compounds, have
ko),
passed
from an interrogative meaning, through an exclamatory, to the
value of prefixes signifying an unusual quality
either someThis use
thing admirable, or, oftener, something contemptible.
begins in the Veda, but becomes much more common in later time.
506.
rarely,
(and,
The
507.
pronoun, as in other languages,
independent use also to an exclamatory
meaning. Moreover, it is by various added particles converted
to an indefinite meaning
thus, by ca, cand, cit, dpi, va, either
alone or with the relative ya (below, 511) prefixed: thus, kdc
cand, 'any one'; nd ko 'pi, 'not any one'; yani ktini cit, 'whatsoever'.
Occasionally, the interrogative by itself acquires a simiturns
readily
interrogative
in
its
:
lar value.
Relative Pronoun.
The
508.
from the
root of the relative
earliest period of the
pronoun
is ET 2/#,
language has
lost
which
all trace
of the demonstrative
to
it,
and
is
509. It
meaning originally (doubtless) belonging
used as relative only.
is inflected with entire regularity according to
the usual pronominal declension: thus,
Dual.
Singular.
m.
yds
n.
yat
f.
m.
ydt
Whitney, Grammar.
Plural,
f.
ya
yau
yam
n.
yam
ye
m.
n.
f.
5
ETTR
ye
yani
yas
yan
yam
yas,
ye
12
VH- PRONOUNS.
178
ydya
yena
D.
[509
ETFl
UHT
ydsmai
ydsyai
ynbhyam
^
-
etc.
etc.
etc.
yabhyas
yebhyas
etc.
etc.
The Veda shows its usual variations of these forms: yd for ydti and for
yena, with proyos for I/CM/OS also occurs once
ydni, and yebhis for j/afs
Resolutions occur '.in
longed final, is in RV. twice as common as yena.
;
,-
ydbhias,
and yesaam and ydsaam.
510.
early
in the
:
The use
of yat as representative stem begins very
in the Veda, and yatkarin, yaddevatyd
we have ydtkama
Brahmana later it grows more general. From the proper
come also a considerable series of derivatives ydtas, ydti,
and the comydtra, ydtha, ydda, yddi, yavant, yatard, yatamd ;
;
root
:
pound
yadrc.
The combination of ya with ka to make an indefinite
has
been noticed above (507). Its own repetition
pronoun
as ydd-yat
gives it sometimes a like meaning, won through
511.
the distributive.
512.
One
of the relative
or
two marked peculiarities in the Sanskrit use
may be
here briefly noticed
:
A
a.
very decided preference for putting the relative clause before that
to which it relates: thus, yah sunvatdh sdkhd tdsma fndraya gayata (RV.),
'who is the friend of the soma-presser, to that Indra sing ye' ; yam yajnam
paribhur dsi sd {d devesu gachati (RV.), 'what offering thou protectest, that
in truth goes to the gods'; ye trisaptdh pariydnti bald tesdm dadhdtu me
(A.V.),
'what thrice
seven go about, .their strength
may he
assign to me';
asdu y6 adhardd grhas tdtra santv ardyyah (AV.), 'what house
the depth,
there
with that which
let
is
the witches be';
mine'
;
sahd
ydn me
hansdndm vacanam yat
dsti
tu tan
is
yonder in
tena (TB.),
mam
'along
dahati (MBh.),
'but what the words of the swans were, that burns me' ; sarvasya locanam
castram yasya nd 'sty andha eva sah (H.), 'who does not possess learning,
the eye of everything, blind indeed is he'.
The other arrangement is com-
paratively unusual.
b.
A
frequent conversion of the subject or object of a verb by an added
thus, me 'mdm prd "pat pdtiruseyo vadhti
yah (AV.), 'may there not reach him a human deadly weapon' (lit'ly, 'what
is such a
weapon'); part no pdhi ydd dhdnam (AV.), 'protect of us what
wealth [there is]'; apamdrgd 'pa mdrstu
ksetriydm capdthaf ca ydh (AV.),
'may the cleansing plant cleanse away the disease and the curse'; puskarena
relative into a substantive clause
:
hrtarh rdjyam yac cd 'nyad vasu kimcana
(MBh.), 'by Pushkara was taken
away the kingdom and whatever other property [there was]'.
PRONOMINAL DERIVATIVES.
516
179
Emphatic Pronoun.
The
513.
and
isolated
t<^H svayam (from the
uninflected pronominal
word
own
self.
root sva] signifies
'self,
be a nom. sing. and it is oftenappears
used as nominative, but along with words of all persons
its
By
est
form
to
it
7
and numbers; and not seldom
represents other cases also.
it
thus,
Svayam is also used as a stem in composition
But sva itself (usually adjective
below,
svayamja, svayambhu.
516) has the same value in composition and even its inflected
forms are (in the older language very rarely) used as reflexive
:
:
:
pronoun.
Nouns used pronominally.
The noun atmdn,
514.
singular,
as reflexive
is
'soul',
pronoun of
all
widely employed, in the
three persons.
The adjective bhavant, f. bhavafi, is used (as already pointed
out 456) in respectful address as substitute for the pronoun of
Its construction with the verb is in accordthe second person.
ance with its true character, as a word of the third person.
:
Pronominal Derivatives.
515.
From pronominal
the larger class
roots
and stems,
as well as
of roots and from noun-stems,
from
formed
are
by the ordinary suffixes of adjective derivation certain words
and classes of words, which have thus the character of pronominal adjectives.
Some of the more 'important
of these
may be
briefly
no-
ticed here.
516. Possessives. From the representative stems mad
formed the adjectives madiya, asmadiya, tvadiya, yusmadlya,
'relatwhich are used in a possessive sense
tadtiya, and yadkya,
and
so
on.
to
me,
mine',
ing
Other possessives are mamaM (also mdmaka, RV.) and tavakd,
from the genitives mama and tava.
etc. are
:
An
etc.),
analogous derivative from the genitive amusya
'descendant of such a one'.
It
is
amusyayanti (AV.
was pointed out above (493) that the "genitives" asmdkam and yu-
smdkam
are really stereotyped cases of possessive adjectives.
12*
VII.
180
PRONOUNS.
[516
Corresponding to svaydm '513) is the possessive sva, meanThe RV.
all persons and numbers.
ing 'own', as relating to
has once the corresponding simple possessive of the second person,
tvd,
'thy'
.
For the use of sva as reflexive pronoun, see above, 513, end.
All these words form their feminines in a.
Other derivatives of a like value have no claim to be mentioned here.
the possessives are so rarely used as to make but a
But (excepting sva)
small figure in the language, which prefers generally to indicate the possessive
by the genitive case of the pronoun itself.
relation
517. By the suffix vant are formed from the pronominal
with prolongation of their final vowels, the adjectives
roots,
mavant, tv&vant, yusmnvant, yuvtivant, tavant, ettivant, ytivant, meanOf these, however, only the
ing 'of my sort, like me', etc.
last three are in use in the later language, in the sense of
and 'quantus. They are inflected like other adjective
'tantus
stems in vant, making their feminines in vatl (452 if.).
and
Words
of similar
kiyant,
inflected in the
meaning from the roots t and Id are
same manner: see above, 451.
iyant
518. The pronominal roots show a like prolongation of
vowel in combination with the root drc, 'see, look', and its
derivatives drca and (quite rarely) dfksa: thus, madrc, madrca ;
asmadrca: tvadrg etc.; yusmadfc etc.; tadfc etc.; etadfc, etadfca,
etadfksa (VS.); yadfc etc.; idfc and Iddfc etc. They mean 'of my
sort, like or resembling me', and the like, and the last five are
not uncommon, with the sense of talij and 'qualis
The forms
in drc are unvaried for gender
those in drga (and drksa ?] have
l
1
.
;
feminines in
t.
From
ya come tdti, 'so many', Mti, 'how
They have a quasi-numeral character,
inflected (like the numerals pdnca etc.: above, 483) only
in the plural, and with the bare stem as nom. and accus.: thus,
519.
many?'
and are
N.A.
ydti,
tdti;
I.
'as
etc.
to,
ka,
many'.
tatibhis,
t&tibhyas,
tdtmam,
tdtisu.
'
520. From ya (in V. and Br.) and ka come the comparaand superlatives yatard and yatamd, and katard and katamd ;
and from i, the comparative itara.
For their inflection, see
below, 523.
tives
521. Derivatives with the suffix ka, sometimes conveying
a diminutive or a contemptuous
meaning, are made from certain
of the pronominal roots and stems
(and may, according to the
grammarians, be made from them all): thus, from fa, takam,
ADJECTIVES DECLINED PEG-NOMINALLY.
526
181
from ya, yakds, yaka, yake : from
takdt, takas; from sa, saka
asau, asakau: from amu, amuka.
For the numerous and frequently used adverbs formed from pronominal
:
see Adverbs (below, chapter XVI.).
roots,
Adjectives declined pronominally.
A
522.
number
from pronominal
pronouns
others
roots,
in use
some of them coming
of adjectives
more
or
less
analogous with
are inflected, in part or wholly, accord-
Thus
pronominal declension (like cT ta. 495
523. The comparatives and superlatives from pronominal
to the
ing
.
:
y
namely, katard and katamd, yatard and yatamd, and itara
and its comparative anyatard
are declined
Their feminine stems are in a.
roots
;
also anyd, 'other',
like ta throughout.
But even from these words forms made according
met with (e. g. itarayam, K.).
to
the adjective de-
clension are sporadically
Others words are
524.
vtcva,
These,
(e.
g.
'all,
also,
eka,
every',
except in the nom.-
'one'.
are not without exception,
vfyvaya, vfyvat,
RV.
;
at
least
in the earlier language
eke loc. sing., AV.).
Yet other words follow the same model usually, or
525.
some
inflected
sing,
form am,
'all',
so
neut., where they have the ordinary adjective
instead of the pronominal at (ad).
Such are sdrva,
acc.-voc.
or optionally
but in other senses,
lapse into the adjective inflection.
Such are the comparatives and superlatives from prepositional stems:
ddhara and adhamd, dntara and dntama, dpara and apamd, dvara and avamd,
in
of their significations,
or without
known
;
rule,
upara and upamd. Of these, pronominal forms are demore numerous from the comparatives than from the superlatives.
uttara and uttamd,
cidedly
Further, the superlatives (without corresponding comparatives) paramd.
caramd, madhyamd; and also anyatama (whose positive and comparative belong
to the class first mentioned: 523).
ddksina,
Further, the words para, 'distant, other' purva, 'prior, east'
and
'right, south'; ubhdya (f. ubhdyl or ubhayi), 'of both kinds or parties';
;
;
the rare
sama
one, half
;
(accentless),
'any or every one
and the possessive
1
,
simd, 'each,
all',
nema,
'the
svd.
of the pronominal declension are met with from
numeral adjectives: e. g. prathamdsyas, trtiyasydm; and from other words
having an indefinite numeral character: thus, dlpa, 'few': ardhd, 'half;
and others.
kevala, 'all'; dvtiaya, 'of the two kinds'
526. Occasional forms
[527-
182
CHAPTER
VIII.
CONJUGATION.
f 527.
involves,
THE
subject of conjugation
or verbal
as in the other languages of the family,
tinctions of voice, tense,
inflection
the dis-
mode, number, and person.
Then, besides the simpler or ordinary conjugation of
a verbal root, there are certain
more
or less fully developed
secondary or derivative conjugations.
528.
Voice. There
are (as in Greek) two voices, active
and middle, distinguished by a difference in the personal
This distinction is a pervading one: there is no
endings.
form which does not have
active personal
and
middle,
vice versa;
and
its
corresponding
extended also in part to
it is
the participles (but not to the infinitive).
529. An active form is called by the Hindu grammarians
parasmai padavn, 'a word for another', and a middle form is
called atmane padam, 'a word for one's self: the terms might be
best paraphrased by 'transitive' and 'reflexive'. And the distinction thus expressed is doubtless the original foundation of the
difference of active
of the
flexive
is
meaning
and middle forms
in
:
in the recorded condition
of transitive and reno small measure blurred, or even alto-
however,
language,
the
antithesis
gether effaced.
530.
Some
in one only;
verbs are conjugated in both voices, others
sometimes a part of the tenses are inflected
only in one voice,
others only in the other or in both;
of
a verb usually inflected in one voice sporadic forms of the
other occur;
the verb
531.
is
and sometimes the voice
differs according as
with
certain
compounded
prepositions.
The middle forms
which there
is
outside the present-system (for
a special passive inflection: see below. 768),
TENSES AND MODES.
533]
and sometimes
183
are liahle to be used
also within that system,
likewise in a passive sense.
Tense. The
532.
with
2.
a prefixed augment;
(to
it
8.
a future, with
it
is
added,
7.
a.
:
it
1.
a present,
in form, having
made with
4.
reduplication
a so-called pluperfect,
with prefixed augment);
different formations
ing to
a perfect,
3.
which in the Veda
made from
6.
tenses are as follows:
an imperfect, closely related with
5.
an
aorist,
simple; b. reduplicated;
of three
c. sibilant;
a conditional, an augment-tense, stand-
in the relation of an imperfect to a present;
and
a second, a periphrastic, future (not found in the Veda).
The tenses here distinguished
usage)
names
(in accordance with prevailing
as imperfect, perfect, pluperfect, and aorist receive those
from their correspondence in mode of formation with tenses
so called in other languages of the family,
especially in Greek,
and not at all from differences of time designated by them. In
no period of the Sanskrit language is there any expression of
nor of perfect time, except in
imperfect or pluperfect time
the older language, where the "aorist" has this value
later, imperfect, perfect, and aorist (of rare use) are so many undiscrim;
inated
past
tenses
or
preterits
:
see below, under the different
tenses.
533.
tween the
Veda
Mode. In
respect to
mode, the difference be-
and the older language of the
is
degree, of the Brahmanas
classical Sanskrit
and,
in a less
especially great.
In the Veda, the present tense has, besides its indicative
a subjunctive, of considerable variety of formation,
an optative, and an imperative (in 2d and 3d persons).
The
same three modes are found, though of much less frequent occurrence, as belonging to the perfect; and they are made also
from the aorists, being of especial frequency from the simple
aorist.
The future has no modes (an occasional case or two
inflection,
are purely exceptional).
ative
over,
In the classical Sanskrit, the present adds to its indicof which last, morean optative and an imperative
the
first
persons are a remnant of the old subjunc-
VIII. CONJUGATION.
184
And
tive.
aorist has
the
usually
peculiar inflection,
[533
an optative,
also
somewhat
of
the precative
called
(or
bene-
dictive).
The
534.
present, perfect,
alike in the earlier
of them,
active
participles,
and
and middle,
sharing in the various pe-
and in the Veda
;
found such participles belonging also to the
Tense-systems. The
535.
a pair of
later language,
tense-formations
of the
culiarities
and future tenses have each
tenses,
accompanying modes and participles,
marked groups or systems:
are
aorist.
then, with their
fall into
certain well-
The present-system, composed of the present tense with its modes, its participle, and its pretI.
erit
which we have called the imperfect.
fect
The perfect-system, composed of the pertense (with, in the Veda, its modes and its preterit,
II.
the so-called pluperfect) and
III.
its participle.
The aorist-system,
and
reduplicated,
sibilant,
or
along with, in the later language,
tive
systems,
simple,
composed of the aorist tense
its
"pnecative" opta-
(but. in the Veda, with its various
modes and
its
participle).
IV.
The future-systems:
with
lant future,
tional,
and
its
a.
the old or sibi-
accompanying preterit, the condiparticiple; and b. the new periphrastic
its
future.
536.
Number and
Person. The verb
the same three numbers with the noun,
dual,
and plural
sons,
first,
;
second,
every tense and
the imperative
and in each number
and
mode
numbers
third.
except
it
of course,
has,
namely
All of these are
that
are supplied
the
singular,
has the three per-
first
made
in
persons of
from the subjunctive.
540
VERBAL ADJECTIVES AND NOUNS.
1
185
Verbal adjectives and nouns: Partici-
537.
ples. The participles belonging to the tense-systems have
been already spoken of above (534). There is besides, coming directly from the root of the verb, a participle, prevailingly of past and passive (or sometimes neuter) meaning.
Future passive participles, or gerundives, of several different
formations, are also made.
Infinitives. In the older language,
siderable variety of derivative abstract nouns
538.
few sporadic instances having anything
are used in an infinitive
systems
sense
most often in the dative
;
case,
to
a very con-
only in a
do with the tense-
or
quasi -infinitive
but sometimes also in
the accusative, in the genitive and ablative, and (very rarely)
in the locative. In the classical Sanskrit, there remains a
single
to
infinitive,
of accusative case-form,
having nothing
do with the tense-systems.
Gerund. A
539.
like
being,
rivative
the infinitive, a stereotyped case-form of a de-
noun
is
a part
both the earlier and
quent in the latter.
form
;
-
so-called gerund (or absolutive)
of the general verb-system in
later language,
In the Veda
in the later language,
it
it
being especially frehas a somewhat various
has only two forms, one for
simple verbs, and the other for compound. Its value
of an indeclinable
active
participle,
is
that
of indeterminate
but
prevailingly past tense-character.
A
is
second gerund, an adverbially used accusative in form,
found, but only rarely, both earlier and later.
540.
Secondary conjugations.
The secondary
or
derivative conjugations are as follows: a. the passive; b. the
intensive;
a
c.
the desiderative;
conjugation-stem,
d. the causative.
instead of the simple
the whole system of inflection.
Yet there
root,
is
In these,
underlies
clearly to
seen in them the character of a present-system,
be
expanded
VIII. CONJUGATION.
186
more or
into a
is
so purely
less
[540
complete conjugation
a present-system that
the chapter devoted to
it
;
will
and the passive
be described in
of the inflection of the
that part
verb.
Under the same general head belongs the subject of
or the conversion of noun and
denominative conjugation,
into
adjective-stems
Further,
conjugation-stems.
that
of
compound conjugation, whether by the prefixion of prepositions to roots or
by the addition of auxiliary verbs
and adjective-stems.
And
finally,
to
noun
that of periphrastic con-
jugation, or the looser combination of auxiliaries with verbal
nouns and
adjectives.
The
541.
characteristic of a proper
verb-form
is its
mined
character as regards
its
By this alone is
number and person
also
tions of
mode and
as regards
mode and
But the
tense.
tense are mainly
of tense and mode-stems, to which,
L
or personal)
personal ending.
in part
root,
(finite
made by
deter-
and
distinc-
the formation
instead of to the pure
the personal endings are appended.
In this chapter will be given a general account of the personal endings, and also of the formation of mode-stems from
tense-stems, and of those elements in the formation of tensestems
the augment and the reduplication
which are found
in more than one tense-system.
Then, in the following chapters,
each tense-system will be taken up by itself, and the methods
of formation of its stems, both tense-stems and mode-stems, and
their combination with the endings, will be described in detail.
Personal Endings.
542. The endings of verbal inflection are, as was pointed
out above, different throughout in the active and middle voices.
They are also, as in Greek, usually of two somewhat varying
forms for the same person in the same voice one fuller, called
primary the other briefer, called secondary. There are also less
:
;
pervading differences, depending upon other conditions.
A condensed statement of
and number here follows.
all
the varieties of ending for each person
PERSONAL ENDINGS.
545]
Singular: First person. The primary ending
543.
the active
has
is
mi.
instead
ni
187
;
in
The subjunctive, however (later imperative),
and in the oldest Veda this ni is sometimes
and the person ends in a (as if the ni of am were
The secondary ending is m; and to this m an a has
dropped).
come to be so persistently prefixed, appearing always where the
tense-stem does not itself end in a (vam for varm or varam in
RV., once, is an isolated anomaly), that it is necessary to reckon
am as ending, alternate with m. But the perfect tense has
wanting,
neither
mi nor
from
or,
m
;
-roots,
its
ending
is
simply a (sometimes a
:
248 c)
:
au.
The primary middle ending, according
persons, would be regularly me.
to
the
analogy of
But no tense or
mode, at any period of the language, shows any relic whatever
the primary ending, present as well as
of a m in this person
perfect, from a-stems and others alike, is e; and to it corresponds * as secondary ending, which blends with the final of an
The optative has, however, a instead of i; and
a-stem to e.
the
other
:
in the subjunctive
(later
imperative) appears ai for
544. Second person.
is shortened to
si, which
*e.
In the active, the primary ending
as secondary
as to the loss of
But the
this s after a final radical consonant, see below, 555.
perfect and the imperative desert here entirely the analogy of
The perfect ending is invariably tha (or tha,
the other forms.
is
s
:
The imperative is far less regular. The fullest form
ending is dhi; which, however, is more often reduced to
hi; and in the great majority of verbs (including all a-stems,
at every period of the language) no ending is present, but the
In a very small class of
bare stem stands as personal form.
The Veda has also an ending
verbs (722) ana is the ending.
tat; and this is even used sporadically in other persons of the
248 c).
of
its
imperative (see below, 570
1).
In the middle voice, the primary ending, both present and
The secondary stands in no apparent relation to
perfect, is se.
this, being thas; and in the imperative is found only sva (or
sva: 248 c), which in the Veda is not seldom to be read as ma.
In the older language, se is sometimes strengthened to sai in the
subjunctive.
545.
Third person.
the secondary,
consonant, see
The
active
primary ending
is
ti;
as to the loss of the latter after a final radical
But in the imperative appears inbelow, 555.
t:
stead the peculiar ending tu ; and in the perfect no characteristic
consonant is present, and the third person has the same ending
as the
first.
VIII. CONJUGATION.
188
The primary middle ending
older
is
[545
with
te,
as corresponding
ta
often
strengthened to
middle
the
the
third person
In
perfect,
subjunctive.
the first, namely e
has, like the active, the same ending with
simply; and in the older language, the third person present also
often loses the distinctive part of its termination, and comes to
To this e perhaps corresponds,
coincide in form with the first.
the
In
secondary.
te
language,
is
tai in the
The
as secondary, the t of the aorist 3d pers. passive (842 ff.).
imperative has tarn (or, in the Veda, rarely am] for its ending.
Dual: First person. Both
in active and in middle,
person is in all its varieties precisely like the
corresponding plural, only with substitution of v for the m of the
latter
thus, vas (no vasi has been found to occur), va, vahe,
546.
dual
the
first
:
The person
vahai.
vahi,
is,
of
course,
and from the Veda no form in
use,
pas,
of comparatively rare
even, is quotable.
In the active, the
547. Second and Third persons.
primary ending of the second person is tkas, and that of the
third is tas; and this relation of th to t appears also in the
perfect, and runs through the whole series of middle endings.
The perfect endings are primary, but have u instead of a as
and an a has become so persistently prefixed that their
vowel
forms have to be reckoned as athus and aim.
The secondary
;
endings exhibit no definable relation to the primary in these
two persons
they are tarn and tarn ; and they are used in the
imperative as well.
In the middle, a long a
which, however, with the final
a of a-stems becomes e
has become prefixed to all dual
endings of the second and third persons, so as to form an inThe primary endings, present and perseparable part of them.
;
are athe
fect,
and atam
(or,
and
cite; the secondary (and imperative) are atham
with stem-final a, ethe etc.).
The Rig -Veda has a very few forms in
ethe
see
and
ete
with subjunctive strengthening
aithe
and
(they
are
aite,
all
apparently from
detailed below
:
615, 701, 737, 752, 836, 1008, 1043).
548.
Plural: First person.
The
earliest
form of the
ending is mast, which in the oldest language is more
frequent than the briefer mas (in RV., as five to one; in AV.,
In the classical Sanskrit, mas
however, only as three to four).
is the exclusive
primary ending; but the secondary abbreviated
active
ma
In
belongs also to the perfect and the subjunctive (imperative).
ma often becomes ma (248 c), especially in the
the Veda,
perfect.
The primary middle ending
the secondary form to mahi; and,
is
make.
This
is
lightened in
it is regu-
on the other hand,
PERSONAL ENDINGS.
550]
larly
(in
the Veda, not invariably)
subjunctive
89
strengthened to mahai in the
(imperative).
Second person. The
549.
]
The secondary,
active primary ending is tha
.
also imperative, ending is ta
(in the Veda, ta only
But in the perfect any characteristic consonant is
once in impv.j.
wanting, and the ending is simply a. In the Veda, the syllable
na, of problematic origin, is not infrequently added to both
forms of the ending, making ihana (rarely thana] and tana. The
forms in which this occurs will be detailed below, under the
different formations
the addition is very rarely made excepting
:
to persons of the first general conjugation.
The middle primary ending
which belongs to the
is dhve,
In the subjunctive of the older
The secondary
language it is sometimes strengthened to dhvai.
once dhva]
and
(and imperative) ending is dhvam (in RV.
dhvat is once met with in the imperative (570).
In the Veda,
the v of all these endings is sometimes resolved into u, and the
perfect as well as the present.
,
;
ending becomes dissyllabic.
Third person.
550.
The
primary ending is anti in
The middle secwhich should correspond an active
full
the active, with ante as corresponding middle.
ondary ending
is
anta,
to
ant; but of the t only altogether questionable traces are left,
in the euphonic treatment of a final n (207)
the ending is an.
;
In the
The
ante.
antu
imperative,
initial
a of
and antam take the place of
all
these
endings
is
anti
like that of
and
am
in
the 1st sing., disappearing after the final a of a tense- stem.
Moreover, anti, antu, ante, antam, anta are all liable to be
weakened by the loss of their nasal, becoming ati etc. In the
active, this weakening takes place only after reduplicated stems
(and after a few roots which are treated as if reduplicated
639 ff.); in the middle, it occurs after all tense-stems save those
:
ending in
a.
Further, for the secondary active ending an there is a subtts
(or ur : 169, end), which is used in the same reduplicating
stitute
verbs that change anti to ati etc., and which accordingly appears
as a weaker correlative of an.
The same us is also used universally in the perfect, in the optative (not in the subjunctive),
in those forms of the aorist whose stem does not end in a, and
roots ending in a, and a few others (621).
middle has in all periods of the language the
peculiar ending re, and the optative has the allied ran, in this
In the Veda, a variety of other endings containing a r
person.
as distinctive consonant are met with
namely, re (and ire] and
rate in the present
rata in the optative (both of present and of
in the imperfect of
The
perfect
:
;
VIII. CONJUGATION,
190
550
rire in the perfect
ranta, ran, and ram in aorists (and
ram and ratam in the imperative. The
in an imperfect or two)
three rate, ratam, and rata are found even in the later language
aorist)
;
;
;
in one or
two verbs
(629).
551. Below are given, for convenience, in tabular form,
schemes of endings as accepted in the classical or later
namely, a. the regular primary endings, used in the
language
present indicative and the future (and the subjunctive in part)
and b. the regular secondary endings, used in the imperfect,
the
:
;
the conditional, the aorist, the optative (and the subjunctive in
and further, of special schemes, c. the perfect endings
and d. the imperative
(chiefly primary, especially in the middle)
part)
;
;
To
the so-called imperative endings
of the first person is prefixed the a which is practically a part
of them ; though really containing the mode-sign of the sub-
endings
(chiefly secondary).
junctive from which they are derived.
Further, a part of the endings are marked with an
and a part are left unaccented. The latter are those
which never, under any circumstances, receive the accent
the
former are accented in considerable classes of verbs, though by
no means in all.
It will be noticed that, in general, the unaccented endings are those of the singular active
but the 2d
sing, imperative has an accented ending
and, on the other
hand, the whole series of 1st persons imperative, active and
552.
accent,
;
;
;
middle,
have
unaccented endings (this being a characteristic of
which they represent).
the subjunctive formation
553.
The schemes
a.
of
normal endings, then, are as follows
Primary Endings.
:
PERSONAL ENDINGS.
557]
d.
1
ani
2
dhi,
3
tu
7if,
Imperative Endings.
dva
dma
ai
avahdi
dmahdi
tarn
ta
svd
dthdm
dhvdm
tdm
dtdm
dntam, dtdm
tdm
dntu, dtu
554. In general, the rule
syllabic,
are
3d
a
is
accented on
is
in
regarded,
pi.
191
is
followed that an accented ending,
this respect,
as integral
of the endings.
But the
has in RV. the accent ate in
number of verbs (see 613, 685, 699, 718;; and an
met with in other endings thus, make (see 719, 735
occasional instance
:
of
the
dis-
parts
ending ate of the pres. indie, middle
555. The secondary endings
if
and the constant union-vowels
its first syllable
.
second and third persons singular,
an added consonant without vowel, should regularly (150)
whenever the root or stem to which they are to be added itself ends
as consisting of
be
lost
And
in a consonant.
Thus
ceptions.
a.
A
this rule is in
general followed;
ending in a dental mute sometimes drops this final mute
s in the second person
and, on the other hand, a root
root
instead of the added
or
stem ending in
third person
yet not without ex-
:
in
s
;
sometimes drops
either
case,
this s instead of
the added
in the
t
establishing the ordinary relation of
s
and
t
these persons, instead of s and s, or t and t.
A similar loss of any
other final consonant before the ending is exceedingly rare.
For instances,
see below, 692.
in
b.
Again,
a
union-vowel
is
sometimes introduced before the ending,
either a or I: see below, 621, 631, 819,
880.
In a few isolated cases in the older language,
see below,
556.
this
I
is
changed
to ai
:
904 b, 1068.
The changes
of form
which roots and stems undergo
in their combinations with these endings will be pointed out in
detail below, under the various formations.
Here may be simply
mentioned in advance, as by far the most important among them,
a distinction of stronger and weaker form of stem in large classes
the stem being
of verbs, standing in relation with the accent
stronger form
accentless ending,
of
when
the accent falls upon it, or before an
and of weaker form when the accent is on
.the
ending.
Of the endings marked as accented in the scheme, the ta of 2d pi. is
not infrequently in the Veda treated as unaccented, the tone resting on the
Much less often, the tarn of 2d du. is treated
stem, which is strengthened.
in the
same way
:
other endings, only sporadically.
Subjunctive Mode.
557.
Of the subjunctive mode
(as
was pointed out above)
namely,
only fragments are left in the later or classical language
in the so-called first persons imperative, and in the use (58O)
:
VIII.
192
of the imperfect
and
aorist
CONJUGATION.
persons without
oldest period, however,
being three or four times
In the
prohibitive.
quent formation,
[557
augment after mn
was a very fre-
it
as
common
as the
Rig- Veda, and nearly the same in the Atharvan
the Brahmanas it becomes comparatively rare.
of form are considerable, and sometimes perplexing.
optative in the
but already in
Its varieties
;
most normal and regular formation, a special
for the subjunctive by adding to the tensewhich combines with a final a of the tense-stem
stem an a
The accent rests upon the tense-stem, which accordingly
to a.
has the strong form.
Thus, from the strong present-stem dok
(yduh) is made the subjunctive-stem doha; from juho (yhu),
juhdva; from yunaj C^yuj), yundja ; from bh&va (ybhu), bhdva;
from tudd (ytud), tudti; from ucyd (pass., yvac), ucyti; and so on.
558.
mode-stem
In
is
its
made
559. The stem thus formed is inflected in general as an
a-stem would be inflected in the indicative, with constant accent,
and a for a before the endings of the first person (733)
but
with the following peculiarities as to ending etc.
:
560. In the active, the 1st sing, has ni as ending: thus, ddhani,
bhdvdni.
But in the Rig- Veda sometimes a simply thus, at/a,
yundjdni,
:
bravd.
In 1st du., 1st
pi.,
and 3d
the endings are always the secondary:
pi.,
d6han; bhdvdva, bhdvdma, bhdvdn.
In 2d and 3d du. and 2d pi., the endings are always primary: thus,
thus, dohdva, dtihdma,
ddhathas, ddhatas, dohatha
bhdvdtas, bhdvdtha.
bhdvdthas,
;
In 2d and 3d sing., the endings are either primary or secondary:
dtihasi or dohas,
thus,.
d6hati or ddhat; bhdvasi or bhdvds, bhdvdti or bhdvat.
Occasionally, forms with double mode-sign a (by assimilation to the
more numerous subjunctives from tense-stems in a) are met with from nona-stems thus, dsdtha from as ; at/as, at/at, dydn from e
:
561. In the middle, forms with secondary instead of primary endings
3d pi. (where they are more frequent
than the primary), and in a case or two of the 3d sing.
The striking peculiarity of subjunctive middle inflection is the frequent
are very rare, being found only in the
strengthening of e'to di in
the endings.
This is less general in the very
language than later. In 1st sing., di alone is found as ending, even
in RV.; and in 1st du. also (of rare
occurrence), only dvahdi is met with.
In 1st pi., dmahdi prevails in RV. and AV. (dmahe is found a few times),
earliest
known
and
is
alone
but
is
the only
occurs once in RV.,
later.
In 2d
pi.,
later.
and
is
dhvdi for dhve
times in the Brahmanas.
far
In 2d sing., sdi for se does not occur in RV.,
and the Brahmanas. In 3d sing., tdi for te
the predominant form in AV., and the only one
form in AV.
In 3d
from frequent occurrence);
it
is
pi.,
found in one word in RV., and a few
nidi
occurs
for nte is
neither in
the Brahmana form (of
RV. nor AV. No such
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.
564]
193
dual endings as thai and tai, for the arid te, are anywhere found; but RV.
has in a few words (nine: above, 527, end) aithe and aite, which appear
to
be a like subjunctive strengthening of ethe and ete (although found in one
Before the ai-endings the penultimate vowel is
form, krnvdite}.
indicative
regularly long a; but antdi instead of antdi is two or three times
and once (TS.) atdi
met with,
for dtdi.
562. The subjunctive endings, then, in combination with
the subjunctive mode-sign, are as follows
:
active.
8.
am
1
middle.
d.
p.
ova
ama
athas
i
(dmahdi
[avahe
[amahe
(adhve
(ase
atha
aithe
{
[as
[asai
(ati
[adhvai
(ante, anta
(ate
an
atas
3
aite
[at
<_
[atai
And,
in
2d pers.
:
[antdi
further combination with
the initial a of
in
p.
(dvahdi
ai
(asi
2
d.
s.
all
final a of a tense-stem,
these endings becomes a
asi or as,
athas,
atha,
ase,
:
thus,
adhve.
for example,
563.
Besides this proper subjunctive, with mode-sign, in its triple
with primary, with strengthened primary, and with secondary endthere is in the older language another, without mode-sign and with
form
ings
secondary endings, or in
all
respects coinciding with the forms of an
augment-
tense (imperfect or aorist) save for the absence of the augment.
Subjunctives of this character are frequent in RV., decidedly less common in later
Vedic,
(580)
and very little used in the Brahmanas except after
after which they stand also in the later language.
These
forms
appellation
is
are
sometimes
called
an evident misnomer:
"imperfect
md
prohibitive
subjunctive",
"improper subjunctive"
is
but the
preferable.
Since (below, 587) the forms of augmented tenses are also freely used in
an indicative sense without augment in the oldest Veda, the distinction of
the two classes of use is often difficult to make.
As
to the uses of the
subjunctive, see below,
572 ff.
Optative Mode.
564. As has been already pointed out, the optative is of
comparatively rare occurrence in the language of the Vedas
but it gains rapidly in frequency, and already in the Brahmanas
;
greatly
outnumbers the subjunctive,
almost entirely to replace.
Its mode of formation
language
Whitney, Grammar.
is
the
which
same
still
in
all
later
it
comes
periods of the
.
13
VIII.
194
565. The optative
ferent one, according as
or in some other final.
CONJUGATION.
mode-sign
it is added
is
[565
in the active voice a dif-
a tense-stem ending in a,
In the latter case, it is ya, accented
this ya is appended to the weaker form of the tense-stem, and
takes the regular series of secondary endings, with, in 3d plur.,
MS instead of an, and loss of the a before it. After an a-stem,
this i blends with the final a to e (which
unaccented
it is
and
then is accented or not according to the accent of the a)
the e is maintained unchanged before a vowel-ending (am, us),
to
;
;
,
;
by means of an interposed euphonic y.
In the middle voice, the mode-sign is i throughout, and
takes the secondary endings, with a in 1st sing., and ran in
3d pi. After an a-stem, the rules as to its combination to e,
the accent of the latter, and its retention before a vowel-ending
with interposition of a y, are the same as in the active.
After
any other final, the weaker form of stem is taken, and the accent is on the ending (except in one class of verbs, where it
falls upon the tense-stem
see 645)
and the I (as when combined to e) takes an inserted y before a vowel-ending.
:
;
It
is,
of
course,
impossible to
combined with the
final
exist for
i,
assuming
tell
from the form whether
i
or 1 is
an a-stem to e; but no good reason appears to
rather than the I which shows itself in the other class
of
of stems in middle voice.
566.
The combined mode-sign and endings of the
optative,
then, are as follows, in their double form, for a-stems and for
others
:
\
a.
for non-a-stems.
OPTATIVE MODE.
570]
195
from the simple
aorist, the middle from the sibilant
are practically of rare occurrence at every period of the
language, and especially later.
precative
aorist
The inserted
in the middle,
and the 2d
s
and
pi.,
runs in the active through the whole series of persons
allowed only in the 2d and 3d persons sing, and du.,
;
it is
is
3d sing.
quotable from the older literature only for the 2d and
act., the precative form, by reason of the nec-
In the 2d sing,
essary loss of the added s,
in
the 3d sing,
(above,
not distinguishable
is
same
the
act.,
the
is
from the simple optative;
the later language, which
instead of the precative-sign s;
in
case
555) saves the personal ending t
usually, and the other Vedic texts
but the RV.
proper ending yds
The accent
to
some extent, have the
(for yast).
is as
in the simple optative.
568. The precative endings, then, accepted in the later
language (including, in brackets, those which are identical with
the simple optative), are as follows
:
middle,
active.
d.
p.
yasam
yasva
yasma
2
[yas]
yastam
yasta
isihas
lyasthdm
3
[ydt]
ydstdm
ydsus
istd
iydstdm
s.
1
As
to the uses of the optative,
s.
d.
p.
[wdhi]
[iy&]
[Imdhi]
idhvdm
[Iran]
572 ff.
see below,
Imperative Mode.
The imperative has no mode-sign;
569.
its
adding
own endings
it
made by
is
directly to the tense-stem,
just
as
the other endings are added to form the indicative tenses.
Hence, in 2d and 3d du. and 2d pi., its forms are indistinguishable
from those of the augment-pretexit from the same stem with its augment
omitted.
The
rules as to the use of the different endings
where the variety
is
considerable
The
the -various tense-systems.
peculiar in
570.
its
use that
fifty
in the latest
;
verbs, and has
earliest
in tat.
period
in the five leading
less
2d
sing.,
calls for a little explanation here.
The Imperative
though found from the
made
it
especially in
be given below, in connection with
ending tat, however, has so much that is
will
than
of a second person singular;
seventy
but
it
This
of the
is
nowhere a frequent form,
and allowed to be
language,
Vedic texts
occurrences.
it is
Its
formed from nearly
usual value
occurs as 1st sing, once, in
is
that
AV. (dvyu-
'let me watch till day-break'); as 3d sing., toward a dozen
punar md "vi?atdd rayih, TS., 'let wealth come again to me';
'the king here shall make
aydrh tydsya rdjd murdhdnarh m pdtayatdt, $B.,
13*
sdm jdgrtdd ahdm,
times
(e.
g.
VIII. CONJUGATION.
196
and as 2d
[570
several times in TS.
devesu
(e. g. apah
us to the gods as well-doers'), and
many times in a Brahmana passage (repeated in K. xvi. 21. TB. iii. 6. 1, and
in which, moreover, two authorities (K. and AB.) have once
AB. ii. 6, 7)
his head fly
nah sukrto
off');
'ye
brutdt,
pi.
.
.
.
waters, announce
varayadhvdt for vdrayatdt: no other occurrence of dhvat has been noted.
As
regards its meaning, this form has been shown
have prevailingly in the Brahmanas, and traceably
but much less distinctly in the Vedic texts, a specific tense-value
as signifying, namely, an injunction
added to its mode-value
to be carried out at a later time than the present
it is
(like
the Latin forms in to and tote] a posterior or future imperative.
571.
to
(Delbriick)
:
J
Examples are
J
ma
tfsthantam abhyehi ti bruhi tdm Iti na dgatdm
'say to her "come to me as I stand just here", and
ihai
:
pratiprdbrutat (QB.),
vd
[afterward] announce her to us as having come';
'hd dhattdt (RV.),
in
(and similarly
(AV.),
'when thou
many
shalt stand upright,
cases);
utkulam udvah.6 bhavo 'dtihya prdti dhdvatdt
after having carried up, run back again';
up the ascent;
'be a carrier
vdnaspdtir ddhi tvd sthdsyati tdsya vittdt (TS.),
take [then] note of it'.
According
ydd urdhvds tfsthd drdvine
[then] bestow riches here'
to the
grammarians, the form in
'the
tat
tree
ascend thee,
will
may be used when bene-
diction is intended.
Uses
Of
572.
most
distinct
the
three
of the
modes,
and limited in
Modes.
the imperative
office,
use throughout the whole history of the
language.
a
command
the one
is
and most unchanged in
It signi-
an attempt at the exercise
of the speaker's will upon some one or
something outside
fies
or injunction
of himself.
This, however (in Sanskrit as in other languages), is by
no means always of the same force
the command shades off
into a demand, an exhortation, an
entreaty, an expression of
;
earnest desire.
The imperative also sometimes signifies an assumption or concession and occasionally, by pregnant construction, it becomes the expression of something conditional or
contingent; but it does not acquire any regular use in dependent-clause-making
;
.
573.
The
the expression
its
the
optative appears to have as
of wish or desire;
in the
prevailing use in independent clauses
name
"optative" properly belongs.
its
primary
office
oldest language,
is
that to
which
USES OF THE MODES.
575
197
The so-called precative forms (567, are restricted to this
use, but are not otherwise distinguished from the simple optatives.
'But the expression of desire, on the one hand, passes naturally over into that of request or entreaty, so that the optative
a softened imperative
and, on the other hand, it comes
becomes
;
to signify what is generally desirable or proper, what should or
ought to be, and so becomes the mode of prescription or, yet
;
weakened into signifying what may or can be, what
or usual, and so becomes at last a softened statement
is
it
again,
is likely
of what
is.
the
in
dependent clauses, with relative
becomes a regular means of expression of the conditional and contingent, in a wide and inFurther,
optative
pronouns and conjunctions,
creasing variety of uses.
574.
The
subjunctive,
as
has been pointed out, be-
an early period in the history of the
language; there are left of it in classical usage only two
relics
the use of its first persons in an "imperative" sense,
comes nearly extinct
at
;
or to signify a necessity or obligation resting on the speaker,
or a peremptory intention
its
other persons,
on his part
;
and the use of
with the negative particle
m
md, in a
prohibitive or negative imperative sense.
And the general value of the subjunctive from the beginits fundaning was what these relics would seem to indicate
:
mental meaning is perhaps that of requisition, less peremptory
than the imperative, more so than the optative. But this meaning
is liable to the same modifications and transitions with that of
and subjunctive and optative run closely parallel
the optative
with one another in the oldest language in their use in independent clauses, and are hardly distinguishable in dependent.
And instead of their being (as in Greek) both maintained in
use, and endowed with nicer and more distinctive values, the
subjunctive gradually disappears, and the optative assumes alone
;
the offices formerly shared by both.
575.
junctive
acteristic
The
and
difference,
optative,
uses,
is
one
then,
in their
of
between imperative and subfundamental and most char-
degree
:
command,
requisition,
and no sharp line of division exists between them
and
they are more or less exchangeable with one another,
clauses.
in
coordinate
combinable
wish
:
;
CONJUGATION.
VIII.
[575
Thus, in AV., we have in impv.: catdm jlva carddah, 'do
thou live a hundred autumns'; ubhau tau jivatam jarddasti, 'let
them both live to attain old age'; -- in subj., adyd jivani, 'let
me live this day' catdm jivati carddah, 'he shall live a hundred
- -- in
we live hundopt., jlvema cardddm catani, 'may
autumns';
reds of autumns'; sdrvam hyur jivyasam (prec.j, 'I would fain
Here the modes would be
live out my whole term of life'.
;
interchangeable with a hardly perceptible change of meaning.
Examples, again, of different modes in coordinate construcsuvana putran mdhisl
tion are
iydm agne nari pdtim videsta
.
:
.
.
m
bhavati gatva pdtim subhdga
rajatu (AV.), 'may this
O Agni find a spouse giving birth to sons she shall
!
;
woman,
become
a chieftainesg having attained a spouse let her rule in happiness'
nah punar dadah (TS.), 'watch over
gopayd nah svastdye prabudhe
us for our welfare, grant unto us to wake again'; syhn nah
sa te sumatir bhutv asme (RV.), 'may there be to us
sunuh
It is not very seldom
let that favor of thine be ours'
a son
;
.
.
;
.
.
;
show
the case that versions of the same passage in different texts
different modes as various readings.
There
these
in
is,
modes
nothing
fact,
to prove that they
of forms originally equivalent
future meaning.
As examples
576.
and
of the
in
in the
earliest
employment of
be specialized uses
having, for instance, a general
might not
less
all
characteristic
use of sub-
older
language, in independent
a gha ta gachan uttara
clauses, may be quoted the following
nd
yughni (RV.), 'those later ages will doubtless come'; ydd
mara iti mdnyase (RV.), 'if thou thinkest "I shall not die'"; nd
ta nacanti nd dabhati tdskarah (RV.), 'they do not become lost
no thief can harm them'; kdsmai devhya havisa vidhema (RV.),
'to what god shall we offer oblation?' agniria rayim acnavat
dive-dive (RV.), 'by Agni one may gain wealth every day'; utai
'nam brahmdne dadyat tdtha syona civa syat (AV.), 'one should
in that case she will be
give her, however, to a Brahman
junctive
optative
the
:
.
.
.
;
.
.
.
;
propitious
and
favorable';
dhar-ahar dadyat (QB.),
should
'one
give every day'.
577. The uses of the optative in the later language are of
the utmost variety, covering the whole field occupied jointly by
the two modes in earlier time.
few examples from a single
text (MBh.) will be enough to illustrate them
uchistam nai 'va
A
:
bhunjlyam na kuryam padadhavanam, 'I will not eat of the remnant of the sacrifice, I will not perform the foot-lavation' jnatln
vrajet, 'let her go to her relations'; nai 'vam sa karhicit kuryat,
'she should not act thus at
any time'; katham vidyam nalam
nrpam, 'how can I know king Nala?' utsarge samcayah syat tu
;
USES OF THE MODES.
581]
vindeta 'pi sukharii kvacit,
may be
chance
199
'but in case of her
abandonment there
happiness somewhere'
hitham vaso wkarteyam na ca budhyeta me priya, 'how can I cut
off the garment and my beloved not wake?'
a
578. The
she
;
later use of
find
also
may
the
first
;
persons subjunctive as so-,
called imperative involves no change of construction from former
time, but only restriction to a single kind of use
thus, divyava,
:
k
let
us two play';
karavcini
kirn
te,
'what shall
I
do for thee?'
579. The subjunctive with mi is in the oldest language
almost the sole form of prohibitive expression, and is very
common. The kind of subjunctive employed is that which corand in the
responds to the augmentless forms of a past tense
great majority of cases (five sixths inRV., nine tenths in AV.)
it is the augmentless aorist that is chosen.
Thus prd pata me
'hd raiisthah (AV.), 'fly away; do not stay here'; dvisdnc ca md;
:
hyam rddhyatu ma ca 'Mm
foe be subject to me, and
dvisate
radham (AV.), 'both
me not be
ma no dirgha
let
urv dcyam
let
my
subject to my foe';
abhi nacan tamisrah
Indra; let not the
dbhayam jyotir indra
would win broad fearless light, O
long darknesses come upon us'; ma na ayuh prd mosih (RV.),
'do not steal away our life'; ma libher (impf.) na marisyasi (RV.),
'do not fear; thou wilt not die'; ma smai 'tint sdkhm kuruthah
(RV.),
(AV.),
'I
make
'do not
friends of them'.
Only one optative (bhujema)
only
once
struction
a
(in
probably
is
corrupted
used prohibitively with md in RV., and
passage) an imperative; neither con-
found in AV.; and the cases in the later language are
is
rare.
580. This very definite and peculiar construction, of an
augmentless past tense with ma, has preserved itself in use, and
is occasionally met with in the later language: thus, samaqvasihi
ma cucah, 'be comforted, do not grieve'; ma bhaih, 'do not fear'
(both MBh.).
But the use of the optative with nd, 'not', in a prohibitive
sense appears even (very rarely) in the Veda, and becomes later
thus, nd risyema kada cand (RV.),
no harm at any time'; nd ca 'tisrjen nd juhuyat
(AV.), 'and if he do not grant permission, let him not sacrifice';
tad u tdtha nd kuryat (QB.), 'but he must not do that so'; na
the
prevalent
'may we
construction
;
suffer
let him not sleep by day'; na tvam vidyur
not
This in the later
jandh (MBh.),
people know thee'.
language is the correlative of the prescriptive optative, and both
are extremely common
so that in a text of prescriptive character the optative forms may come to outnumber the indicative
diva cayita
;
(QGS.),
'let
;
and imperative together
581.
In
all
(as is the
case,
for example,
dependent constructions,
it
is
still
in Manu).
harder even
VLLL CONJUGATION.
200
[581
language to establish a distinction between suband optative a method of use of either is scarcely
to be found to which the other does not furnish a practical
-- and then, in the later language, such uses are
equivalent
A few examples will be
represented by the optative alone.
in the
oldest
:
junctive
sufficient to illustrate this
:
a. After relative pronouns and conjunctions in general
ya vyuchur yac ca nundm vyuchhn (RV.), which have shone forth
to jayata
hereafter shine forth'; yo
[hitherto], and which shall
asmakam sd eko 'sat (TS.), 'whoever shall be born of her, let
him be one of us'; yo vai thn vidyat pratydksam sd brahma vedita
syat (AV.), 'whoever shall know them face to face, he may pass
:
'
l
putranam.
jatUnam jandyac ca yhn (AV.),
thou mayest bear'; ydsya
dtithir
grhhn agdchet (AV.), 'to whosesoever house he may come as
guest'; yatamdtha kamdyeta tdtha kuryat (QB.), 'in whatever way
he may choose, so may he do it'; ydrhi hota ydjamanasya nhma
grhmyht tdrhi bruyat (TS.j, 'when the sacrificing priest shall name
the name of the offerer, then he may speak'; svarupam yada
drastum ichethah (MBh.), 'when thou shalt desire to see thine
for a
'of
own
knowing
.
priest';
born and
sons
.
whom
.
.
.
form'.
In more distinctly conditional constructions
ydjama
dev&n yddi cakndvama (RV.), 'we will offer to the gods if we
shall be able'; ydd agne syhm ahdm tvdm tvdm va gha sya ahdm
syus te satya iha "cisah (RV.), 'if I were thou, Agni, or if thou
wert I, thy wishes should be realized on the spot'; yo dyam
b.
:
atisdrpat pardsfan nd sd mucyatai vdriinasya rajnah (AV.), 'though
one steal far away beyond the sky, he shall not escape king
ydd dnacvan upavdset ksodhukah syad ydd acniyad rudrb
abhi many eta (TS.), 'if he should continue without
he would starve
if he should eat, Rudra would attack
Varuna';
'sya pacttn
eating,
his cattle';
:
prarthayed yadi mam kaccid dandyah sa me puman
bhavet (MBh.), 'if any man soever should desire me, he should
suffer punishment'.
These and the like constructions, with the
are very
optative,
c.
I
In final
common
in the
Brahmanas and
later.
clauses
ydtha 'ham catruho 'sani (AV.), 'that
a slayer of my enemies'; grnanti ydtha pibatho dndhah
'that being praised with song ye may drink the draught';
:
may be
(RV.),
urau ydthu tdva cdrman mddema (RV.), 'in order that we rejoice
in thy wide protection'; iipa jamta
ydthe 'yam pimar agdcJiet (QB.j,
'contrive that she come back again'; krpam bury ad yatha mayi
(MBh.), 'so that he may take pity on me'. This is in the Veda
one of the most frequent uses of the subjunctive
and in its
;
correlative negative form, with ned, 'in order that not'
it continues not rare in the Brahmanas.
1
or 'lest
,
PARTICIPLES; AUGMENT.
586]
The
indicative
is
also
'yarn nafyati tathd vidheyam
used in
final
'it
(H.),
201
clauses
after
yatha:
yatha
thus,
must be so managed that he
perish'
(and thus usually in H.).
With the conditional
use of subjunctive and optative is further to be
compared that of the so-called "conditional" tense see below, chap. XII.
:
582. No distinction of meaning has been established between the modes of the present-system and those (in the older
language) of the perfect and aorist-sy stems.
Participles.
583.
Participles,
the tense-stems
active
and middle, are made from
except the periphrastic future,
and,
all
in
the later language, the aorist (and aorist participles are rare
from the beginning).
584.
form
5fcT
The general
at; fern.
Trft
participial endings are ST^T ant
antl or
the active, and 5TFT ana
a.
STrft
suffix is virtually nt,
(weak
see above, 449)
ana) for the middle.
(fern. t\\*\\
a tense-stem
After
atl:
in
the
for
But:
active
a,
ending
one of the two a's being
participial
lost in the com-
bination of stem-final and suffix.
b. After a tense-stem ending in a, the middle participial
suffix is mana instead of ana.
c. The perfect has in the active the peculiar suffix vans
(weakest form
us,
middle form vat;
flection of this participle, above,
For details, as to form of
ceptions,
fern,
usi:
see,
for the in-
458 ff.).
stem
etc.,
and
for special ex-
see the following chapters.
Augment.
585.
-
and,
The augment
if
is
a short
a,
prefixed to a tense-stem
the latter begin with a vowel,
combining with
that vowel irregularly into the heavier or vrddhi diphthong
(136 a).
It
is
always (without any exception) the accented
element in the verbal form of which
In the Veda, the augment
is
it
makes
in a few forms long a
:
a part.
thus, emap, auar,
avrni, avrnak, avidhyat, ayunak, ayukta, arinak, araik.
586.
The augment is a sign of past time. And an augis made from each of the tense-stems from which
ment-preterit
VIII. CONJUGATION.
202
the
of
system
conjugation
from the present-stem
is
derived:
the pluperfect
;
[586
namely,
the
(in
the
Veda
imperfect,
from
only),
while
the conditional, from the future-stem
the perfect-stem
in the aorist such a preterit stands without any corresponding
;
;
present indicative.
587.
In the older language (mainly in the Veda; the usage
the Brahmana) the augment is often lost, and
have the same value as if they were
forms
augmentless
or, rather more often, they are used as subjunctives
complete
is
a rare one in
the
;
563).
(above,
of the augmentless forms is throughout accordant with
that is to say, where such
corresponding unaugmented tense
a tense exists (which is not the case with the varieties of sibilant aorist).
The accentuation
that of
the
Reduplication.
588.
The
derivation of conjugational and
stems from roots by reduplication,
with other formative elements,
declensional
alone
either
or
along
has been already spoken of
and the formations in which reduplication appears
have been specified: they are, in primary verb-inflection,
(259),
the
(of a certain
present
nearly
tensive
all),
and the
class
of verbs),
aorist (of a large
the
perfect
(of
number); and the
in-
and desiderative secondary conjugations contain in
same element.
their stems the
589.
fixion
The general
principle of reduplication
to a root of a part
with consonants, the
of itself repeated
initial
is
the pre-
if
it
consonant and the vowel
begin
;
if it
begin with a vowel, that vowel, either alone or with a following consonant. The varieties of detail, however, are very
considerable.
in present
Thus, especially as regards the vowel, which
and perfect and desiderative
is
regularly shorter
and lighter in the reduplication than in the root-syllable,
in aorist is longer, and in intensive is
strengthened. The
differences
as
regards
an
initial
chiefly confined to the intensive;
general rules
may be
here stated,
consonant are
for
all
less,
the others,
and
certain
further details being
REDUPLICATION.
592]
203
be given in connection with the account of the sep-
left to
arate formations.
The consonant
590.
general the
of the reduplicating syllable
consonant of the root
first
from ysC prach;
wS\W\J*$li8
from ysiTJ.
But:
'
o
thus,
A
rJSfi
in
W^" paprach
m VfiPT^w; ^^bubudh
palatal
substituted in reduplication for an
is
non-aspirate
aspirate: thus, ^TJT
b.
thus,
is
~x
A
a.
fr
:
dadha from
f^R foMr from y>T
|/ETT;
6/*r.
^
substituted for a guttural or for
is
h:
ca^r from y^\ kr ; nrfl^ cikhid from
SQW jagrc&h from ]/ER grabh ; ^"^ jahr from
The
occasional reversion,
syllable to guttural form has
Of two
c.
initial
on the other hand,
first:
thus,
the
consonants,
non-nasal mute preceded by a
of the
of a palatal in the radical
been noticed above (216.9).
second,
sibilant,
is
if
be a
it
repeated instead
from y F2JT stha; rj^r^ caskand
pasprdh from yFT^-T sprdh: -- but
tastha
cTFSCT
form i/FfrJ skand ;
3Fp
TFF sasmr from y F7.
c
c.
Accent
The statements which have been made above, and
will be made below, as to the accent of verbal
591.
those
Verb.
of the
which
forms, apply to those cases in which the verb is actually accented.
But, according to the grammarians, and according to the
invariable practice in accentuated texts, the verb is in the great
majority of
That
so-called
its
occurrences unaccented or toneless.
to say,
is
finite
of course, the verb in its proper forms,
forms.
The
and participles, are subject
and adjectives.
592.
The general
verbal nouns and
to precisely
rule,
The verb
or
its
personal or
the infinitives
the same laws of accent as other nouns
covering most of the cases,
is unaccented, unless
in an independent clause
at the beginning of the clause
the beginning of a pada.
For the accent of the verb,
adjectives,
as
or
well
as
also,
for
is
it
this
:
stand
in metrical text,
at
that of the vocative case
the beginning of a pada counts as that of a sentence, whatever be the logical connection of the pada with what precedes it.
(above, 314),
Examples
of the
unaccented verb are
:
agnim
ide purohitam,
'I
praise
VIII. CONJUGATION.
204
[592
Agni, the house-priest'; sd id devesu gachati, 'that, truly, goes to the god?';
ague supdyano bhava, '0 Agni, be easy of access'; iddm indra prnuhi somapa,
'hear this,
ndmas
Indra, sorna-drinker';
Rudra, we
te
rudra krrtmas,
ydjamdnasya pa?un pahi, 'protect the
offer';
'homage
to
thee,
cattle of the sacrificer'.
Hence, there are two principal situations in which the verb
retains its accent
593.
First,
:
the
verb
beginning of a clause
accented
is
when
it
stands
at
the
of a pada.
in verse,
or,
Examples of the verb accented at the head of the sentence are, in prose,
cundhadhvam ddfvydya kdrmane, 'be pure for the divine ceremony'; apnotl
J
mdm lokdm, 'he wins this world';
in verse, where the head of the sentence
is
pada, syame 'd indrasya cdrmani, 'may we be in Indra's
darcdya ma ydtudhandn, 'show me the sorcerers'; gdmad vdjebhir
also that of the
protection';
a sd nahj 'may he come with good things
of the clause
hear our
call';
sleep, let the father sleep, let the dog sleep,
man ndmas
yuvam.
..
in verse,
to us';
where the head
tesam pahi crudhi hdvam, 'drink of them,
sdstu mdtd sdstu pitd sdstu $vd sdstu vifpdtih, 'let the mother
within the pada,
is
te
pdhy asmdn,
'Vicvakarman,
rdjna uce duhitd prche
vdm
nara,
let
the master sleep'; vfyvakarto
homage
thee;
us!'
protect
'the king's daughter said to
"I
pray you, ye men'"; vaydm te vdya indra viddhi su nah prd
'we offer thee, Indra, strengthening; take note of us
you
bharamahe,
1
.
Examples
of the verb accented at the
the head of the sentence are:
dthd
may we enjoy thy most intimate
te
head of the pada when this
is
dntamdndm vidydma sumatindm,
not
'so
dhdtd 'syd agrtivdi pdtim dddhdtu
pratikamyam, 'Dhatar bestow upon this girl a husband according to her wish';
ydtudhdnasya somapa jaht prajdm, 'slay,
Soma-drinker, the progeny of the
favors';
sorcerer'.
594. Certain special cases under this head
a. As a vocative forms no syntactical part
is
attached,
but
are as follows:
of the sentence to
only an external appendage to
is
it,
a
verb
which
following
it
an
initial vocative, or more than one, is accented, as if it were itself initial in
the clause or pada: thus, d?rutkarna fractal hdvam, *0 thou of listening ears,
hear our call!' site vdndamahe tva,
Q Sita, we reverence thee'; vfyve deva
1
vdsavo rdksate
J
mdm, 'all ye gods, ye Vasus, protect this man'; utd "gay
cakrtisam deva deva jivdyathd punah, 'likewise him,
gods, who has committed crime, ye gods, ye make to live again'.
b.
If
more than one verb follow a word or words syntactically connected
with them
the others being treated as if
all, only the first loses its accent,
they were initial verbs in separate clauses, with the same adjuncts understood: thus, tardnir fj jayati kseti ptisyati, 'successful he conquers, rules,
amitrdn
pdrdca indra prd mrnd jahi ca, 'our foes, Indra, drive
away and slay'; asmdbhyam jesi yotsi ca, 'for us conquer and fight';
dgnisomd havisah prdsthitasya vitlrh hdryatarh vrsana jusetham, '0 Agni and
thrives';
.
.
.
far
Soma, of the oblation set forth partake,
sure'.
enjoy,
ye
mighty ones, take plea-
ACCENT OF THE VERB.
595]
205
In like manner (but much less often^, an adjunct, as subject or
standing between two verbs and logically belonging to both, is reckoned
to the first alone, and the second has the initial accent: thus, jaht prajdrh
c.
object,
ndyasva ca, 'slay the progeny, and bring [it] hither'; crnotu nah subhdgd
bodhatu tmdnd, 'may the blessed one hear us, [and may she] kindly regard [u>]
1
.
As
d.
which a single verb standing between two adjuncts
cases in
to
has the initial accent perhaps as being in the division of the sentence reckoned
to the second rather than the first, see below, 597.
595.
Second, the verb
dependent clause.
in a
The dependency
a.
of a clause is in the very
conditioned by the relative pronoun
Thus:
yajndm paribhur
yarn
its
great
majority
of
cases
derivatives or compounds.
is mine'; ydtra nah purve pitdrah
Una,
'whither our fathers of old departed'; adya muriya yddi ydtudhano
me
'let
'as
bhdvanti,
on the
die
if I
spot,
am
J
a sorcerer';
hdny anupurvdm
ydvad iddm bhtivanarh vfcvam
ydtkdmds te juhumds tan no astu,
ydthd
days follow one another in order';
'how great this whole creation
dsti,
one of
position,
'what offering thou protectest'; 6 te yanti
shall behold her hereafter'; solid
dsi,
are
'they
dsti
pareytih,
dsmi,
or
t/a,
its
coming who
'along with that which
ye aparT.su pacyan,
ydn me
accented, whatever
is
'what desiring we sacrifice to thee,
is';
let that
become
yatamds
ours';
tftrpsdt,
'whichever one desires to enjoy'.
The presence
of a
word in the sentence does
relative
accent the verb, unless this
really the predicate of a
is
not,
of course,
dependent clause
:
thus,
tdydvo yathd yanti, 'they make off like thieves (as thieves do}'; ydt
sthd jdgac ca rejate, 'whatever [is] movable and immovable trembles'; yathd-
dpa
tye
kdmarh ni padyate,
;
he
down
lies
at his pleasure'.
+
when it means 'if, and ced (ca
id),
give an
'it',
accent to the verb
thus, brahmd ced dhdstam dgrahlt, 'if a Brahman has
grasped her hand'; tvdrh ca soma no vdco jwdturh nd mardmahe, 'if thou,
Soma, wiliest us to live, we shall not die'; d ca gdchdn mitrdm end dadhdma, 'if he will come here, we will make friends with him'.
The
b.
particle ca
:
c.
clause
accent
There are a very few passages in which the
no subordinating word appears
containing
:
thus,
sdm dcvaparndf
cdranti no ndro
dependence
logical
to
give
the
verb
of a
its
'smdkam indra rathino jayantu,
'when our men, horse-winged, come into conflict, let the chariot-fighters of
Indra, win the victory'. Rarely, too, an imperative so following
our side,
another imperative that
accented;
thus,
its
tuyam d
galii
drink along with the Kanvas'
d.
A
may seem a consequence of the latter's is
kdnvesu su sdcd ptba, 'come hither quickly;
action
e.
(i.
them
value means
subordinating force belonging to
nahf),
in order to drink).
few other particles give the verb an accent, in virtue
which in
its
fullest
a mere asseverative sense
accented: thus,
m
they are releasers';
te
;
:
thus, especially hi
'for',
the verb or verbs
muncantdm
ydc cid dhf.
.
but shades
.
off
connected with
vimtico hi sdnti,
'let
andcastd iva smdsi,
them
'if
of a slight
(with its negation
from that into
it
are always
release him, for
we, forsooth, are
as
CONJUGATION.
VIII.
206
were unrenowned';
it
tdpati sUro
thus, net tva
also
[595
ned (na-\-id), meaning 'lest, that not':
the sun may not burn thee with his
'that
artfsa,
J
virdjam ned vichindddni ti, 'saying to himself, "lest I cut off the
and the interrogative kuvfd, 'whether?' thus, ukthebhih kuvid
virafagdmat, 'will he come hither for our praises?'
beam';
596. But further, the verb of a prior clause
quently accented in antithetical construction.
is
not infre-
Sometimes, the relation of the two clauses is readily capable of being
but often, also, such a relation is
regarded as that of protasis and apodosis
very indistinct;
and the cases
coordination, the line between
;
of antithesis
shade
them appearing
to
off
into those of ordinary
be rather arbitrarily drawn.
In the majority of cases, the antithesis is made distincter by the presence in the two clauses of correlative words, especially anya
am/a, eka
J
ea: thus, prd-pra nye ydnti pdry anyd asate, 'some go
efca, va
va, ca
on and
on,
others
sit
about'
(as
if it
were
'while
some
go'
etc.);
tid
va
sincadhvam upa va prnadhvam, 'either pour out, or fill up'; sdrh ce 'dhydsva
'gne prd ca vardhaye 'mam, 'both do thou thyself become kindled, Agni,
and do thou increase
this person'.
But
it is
also
made without such help
thus, pro, 'jatah prajd jandyati part prdjata grhnati,
'the
:
unborn progeny he
J
yusmdd dkramm nd smdn updvartate,
'[though] she has gone away from you, she does not come to us'; nd 'ndhb
'dhvarytir bhdvati nd yajndrh rdksansi ghnanti, 'the priest does not become
blind, the demons do not destroy the sacrifice'.
generates, the born he embraces'; dpa
597. "Where the verb would be the same in the two
antithetical clauses,
not infrequently omitted in the second: thus, beside complete expressions like urvi ca 'si vdsvl ca 'si, 'both thou art broad and thou art good',
it is
much
oftener, incomplete ones like agnfr
'Agni was in yonder world, Yama [was] in
occur,
'smfn,
amusmih lokd dsid yamb
this';
asthnd 'nydh prajdh
J
mansena nydh,
bone some creatures stand firm, by flesh
others'; dvipac ca sdrvarh no rdksa cdtuspad ydc ca nah svdm, 'both protect
everything of ours that is biped, and also whatever that is quadruped
pratitfsthanti
belongs to
'by
us'.
Examples from the Brahmanas like the first of those here given (with
the second verb expressed), and like the third (in composition with a
preposition), show that this explanation of the verbal accent is preferable to the
one formerly given
namely, that the verb is to be regarded as understood
in the first clause and initial in the second.
598.
In a very small number of more or less doubtful
the verb appears to be accented for emphasis.
Thus, before cand, 'in any wise'; in connection with the asseverative
The detail
particles fd, dha, ktla, angd, evd, but sporadically; and so on.
and examination of the cases is not worth while here*.
cases,
*
The specialities and irregularities of the EV. as regards verbal accent are discussed
by A. Mayr in Sitzungsb. d. Wiener Akad. for 1871; of the AV., by W. D. Whitney in
J. A. 0. 8., vol. v.
(and Kuhn's Beitrage, vol. i.) of the TS., by A. Weber in Ind. Stud.,
;
-vol. xiii.
601]
207
CHAPTER
IX.
THE PRESENT-SYSTEM.
599.
THE
or
present-system,
from the
system of forms coming
present-stem,
composed (as was pointed out
of
a
indicative
above)
present
tense, along with a subjunctive (mostly lost in the classical
an
language), an
is
optative,
and a
imperative,
augment-preterit,
Greek) the
name
and
participle,
to
also
which we give
a
past
an
tense,
(by analogy with the
of imperfect.
These forms generally go in Sanskrit grammar by the name of "special
tenses",
while the other tense-systems are styled "general tenses"
as if
made from a special tense-stem or modified root, while the
the former were
all alike, from the root itself.
There is no reason why such a
and nomenclature should be retained; since, on the one hand,
the "special tenses" come in one set of verbs directly from the root, and,
latter
came,
distinction
on the other hand, the other tense-systems are mostly made from stems
and, in the case of the aorist, from stems having a variety of form comparable
with that of present-stems.
600.
Practically, the present-system is
the most pro-
minent and important part of the whole conjugation, since,
from the earliest period of the language, its forms are very
much more
frequent than those
of
all
the
other systems
together.
Thus, in the Veda, the occurrences of personal forms of this system are
all others about as three to one
in the Aitareya Brahmana, as
to those of
five to
;
one
;
one
;
in
which
in
in the Hitopadega, as six to one
Manu,
601.
;
in the Qakuntala, as eight to
as thirty to one.
And,
as there is also great variety in the
different
roots
form their present-stem,
manner
this,
as
being their most conspicuous difference, is made the basis
of their principal classification and a verb is said to be of
;
this or of that conjugation,
or class,
in which
made.
its
present-stem
is
according to the
way
IX
208
PRESENT-SYSTEM.
-
[602
In a small minority of verbs, the present-stem
602.
Then
identical with the root.
more
the passive and causative) eight
or less different
of forming a present-stem from the root,
smaller
followed by a larger or
the native
number
or "conjugation-classes",
are the "classes"
is
there are besides (excluding
Hindu grammarians.
These
of verbs.
as laid
down by
by the
are arranged
They
ways
each way being
wholly artificial and unsystematic order
and they
(the ground of which has never been pointed out)
are wont to be designated in European works according to
latter in a certain
;
this order,
or else, after
ing at the
head of each
Hindu example, by
class in the Hindu
the root stand-
A
lists.
differ-
ent arrangement and nomenclature will be followed here,
below
as
namely
the classes being divided
(as is
usual
two more general classes or
European grammars)
conjugations, distinguished from one another by wider differences than those which separate the special classes.
in
into
The
603.
follows
classes
of
FIRST CONJUGATION are
the
as
:
The root-class (second class, or ad-class, of
Hindu grammarians); its present-stem is coincident
I.
the
with the root
ya,
itself:
^
thus,
3^
ad,
'go';
fef
II.
The reduplicating
dvis,
'hate';
duh,
'eat';
^
,
EfT
'go';
'milk'.
class
(third
or
hu-
form the present-stem
thus, sp^" juliu from y^ hu, 'sacrifice'; ^7 dada from
bibhr from j/H, 'bear'.
I/^T, 'give'; \3p\
class); the root
III.
is
reduplicated to
The nasal class
(seventh or rudk-class) ;
nasal, extended to the syllable
inserted before
~^{jundh
(or
(or "^TTTCJ
W^yunaj]
IV.
a.
the final
from
^ na
in strong forms,
a
is
consonant of the root: thus,
runadh)
>/?JsT
:
from i/"^U rudh;
TFj(^yunj
yuj.
The ^w-class
(fifth
or sw-class);
the syl-
CONJUGATION-CLASSES.
606]
lable
*7
nu
is
added
the root:
to
209
R
thus,
sunu from
yH; 3T3 apnu from yJETR ap.
b.
A
very
number
small
'only
of
half-a-dozen)
one very common
n,
and quite irregularly inflected root not so ending (off
kr, 'make'), add 3 u alone to form the present-stem. This
roots ending already in
and
^
also
Hindu grammarians it
be
best
ranked
us
as
a
may
by
sub-class, the u- class:
thus, cH tanu from i/rR tan.
is
the eighth or tow-class of the
O
JTT
;
-V
V. The na- class (ninth or ^n-class); the syllable
na (or, in weak forms,
m\ is added to the root
^
stjlmi
thus,
farina
FrPTT stabhna
:
(or jtiluD krinl]
from
i/sfft"
(or FrPft
stabhnl) from i/FcR
&n,
sta&A,
'buy';
'estab-
lish'.
604. These classes have in common, as their most fund-
amental characteristic,
now upon
a shift
the ending, and
of accent:
now upon
the tone being
the root or the class-
sign.
Along with this goes a variation in the stem itself,
which has a stronger or fuller form when the accent rests
upon
it,
and a weaker or
briefer
form when the accent
is
on the ending: these forms are to be distinguished as the
strong stem and the weak stem respectively (in part, both
have been given above).
The classes also form their optaand their 3d pi.
tive active, their 2d sing, imperative,
middle, in a different manner from the others.
605.
In the classes of the SECOND CONJUGATION,
present-stem ends in
remaining always upon
,
the
and the accent has a fixed place,
of the stem, and
the same syllable
never shifted to the endings.
Also, the optative, the 2d
middle
are (as just stated) unthe
3d
pi.
sing, impv., and
like those of the other conjugation.
V 606. The
classes of this conjugation are as follows:
VI. Thea-class, or
Whitney, Grammar.
unaccented a-class
14
(first
IX.
210
or J/m-class)
PRESENT-SYSTEM.
the added class-sign
;
which has the accent,
root,
throughout: thus.
from y^\m,
y^ vad^
tud-cl&ss)
it
;
and the
^J nay a
y^3j)udh,
'wake';
accented a-class
(sixth or
'speak'.
or
the added class-sign
;
class; but
a simply
y*\ bhu, 'be';
bodha from
The a-class,
VII.
is
strengthened by guna
is
*R bhdva from
'lead'; SJTEI
from
^vdda
[606
is a,
as in the preceding
has the accent, and the unaccented root
remains unstrengthened thus, c^tuddfrom^ff^. 'thrust';
suvd from /H su,
HsT srjd from /TO srj. 'let loose'
:
t "v
c
;
*"
oR
c\
'give birth'.
The /#-class (fourth
VIII.
to the root,
Y^(
:
div (more properly ^fa div:
y
from
or
which has the accent
^ nah,
7
'bind';
^F^TT
cfoiJ-class)
thus,
;
^oT
see 765);
krudhya from
ya
is
added
d^vya from
^3f ndhya
y&m krudh,
'be angry'.
IX.
The passive conjugation
is
also properly a
present-system only, having a class-sign which
is
not
extended into the other systems though it differs markedly from the remaining classes in having a specific
;
meaning, and in being formable in the middle voice
Its inflection may
from all transitive verbs.
(only)
therefore best be treated next to that of the ?/a-class,
with which
it
as
most nearly connected, differing from
the a-class from the a-class.
It forms its stem,
it
is
by adding an accented yd to the root thus,
^7J adyd from y*$Z[ ad; "^EET rudhyd from i/^T rudh ;
budhyd from y'SFl budh; H" ^ tudyd from y"^ tud.
namely,
:
2
The Hindu grammarians reckon a tenth class or curhaving a class-sign aya added to a strengthened root (thus,
cor&ya from ycur), and an inflection like that of the other astems. Since, however, this stem is not limited to the presentsystem, but extends also into the rest of the conjugation
while it also has to a great extent a causative value, and may
607.
class,
CONJUGATION-CLASSES.
611]
be formed in that value from a large number of roots
it will
be best treated along with the derivative conjugations (chap. XIV.).
A
small
number
or substitute
a ch for
608.
a ch,
add in the present-system
consonant, and form a
which is then inflected like an a-
of
roots
their
final
stem ending in cha or chd,
This is historically, doubtless, a true class-sign, analogous
with the rest
but the verbs showing it are so few, and in
formation partly so irregular, that they are not well to be put
together into a class, but may best be treated as special cases
falling under the other classes.
Roots adding ch are r and yu, which make the stems rchd and yucha.
stem.
;
Roots substituting ch for their final are is, us (or vas 'shine'), gam,
yam, which make the stems ichd, uchd, gdcha, ydcha.
Of so-called roots ending in ch, several are more or less clearly stems,
whose use has been extended from the present to other systems of tenses.
609. Roots are not wholly limited, even in the later language,
mode of formation of their present-stem, but are sometimes reckoned
longing to two
formation
is
or
more
different
conjugation-classes.
And
such
to
one
as be-
variety of
especially frequent in the Veda, being exhibited by a consider-
able proportion of the roots there occurring; already in the Brahmanas,
how-
ever, a condition is reached nearly agreeing in this respect with the classical
language.
The
different
present-formations
sometimes have differences of
meaning yet not more important ones than are often found belonging to
the same formation, nor of a kind to show a difference of value as originally
;
If anything of this kind is to
belonging to the separate classes of presents.
be established, it must be from the derivative conjugations, which are separated by no fixed line from the present-systems.
610.
We
take up
now
the
different
classes,
in the order
they have been arranged above, to describe more in
the formation of their presentdetail, and with illustration,
systems, and to notice the irregularities belonging under each
in which
class.
I.
\ 611.
is
Root-class (second, ad-c\ass).
In this class there
also present-stem,
sonal endings
- -
and
is
to it
no class-sign; the root itself
are added directly the per-
but combined in subjunctive and optative
with the respective mode-signs, and in the imperfect taking
the augment prefixed to the root.
The accented endings
in the imperfect,
where
the accent
except
(552) regularly take
and before
falls on the augment
it
14*
IX.
212
PRESENT-SYSTEM.
them the root remains unchanged
[611
before the unaccented endings,
;
the root takes the guna- strengthening.
It is
only in the
that the endings come immediately
three classes
first
and that the rules
in contact with a final consonant of the root,
consonant
for
combination have to be noted and applied.
Present Indicative.
1.
The endings
"612.
added
pi. mid.),
and has guna,
capable of
if
root
weak, fer
strong
'go':
e,
P
s.
imds
iye
ivdhe
intake
ithds
ithd
ise
iyathe
idhve
Ltds
ydnti
ite
iyhte
iydte
strong stem-form,
'hate';
"^
dves ;
dvis.
for the final s,
see
226.
I^^IH
I^Q-HH
T^"
|&fe|t(.
f^a-H 1^
dvesmi
dvisvds
dvismds
dvise
dvisvdhe
dvismdhe
dveksi
dvisthds
dvisthd
dvikse
dvisathe
dviddhve
dvisdnti
dviste
dvisate
dvisdte
dvistds
i
root
~^^duh
t
'milk': strong
For rules of combination
initial to dft,
see
dohmi
*
^
^
i.
middle.*
dvis,
in 3d
&RH
c.
e.
root
a.
:
ivds
fir^T
l
i.
ate
in the three persons sing. act.
p.
For rules of combination
i
f?T
root takes the accent,
f*
d.
eti
b.
The
^ e; weak form,
active.
emi
it,
of inflection
Examples
form of root-stem,
s.
the primary (with
are
to the hare root.
for
the
final
stem-form
ft,
and
^^doh;
weak,
for the conversion of the
222, 155, 160.
duhvds
duhmds
Used in the middle with the preposition
'repeat, learn, read'.
duhe
duhvdhe
adhi, to signify
duhmdhe
'go over for
one's
self,
I.
616]
2
MUSI
dogdhi
are
IT^H^
I^M"
uif
^c^isj
qrij
dugdhd
dhukse
duhhthe
dhugdhve
^JMH^
.S^lTi
duhdnti
3"^
^c^(rt
duhhte
Js^H
dugdhe
dugdhds
not rare in
The
irregular
213
dugdhds
613. Examples
examples are
ROOT-CLASS (SECOND, #G?-CLASS).
the
of the
3d
duhdte
mid. coincident in form with the 1st sing,
older language (both V. and Br.): the most
frequent
sing.
duhe, vide, cdye: more sporadic are cite, bruve, huve.
accent of the 3d pi. mid. is found in RV. in
rihate, duhate,
ice,
Examples of the same person in re and rate also occur: thus (besides those
629 30, 635), vidre, and, with auxiliary vowel, arhire
mentioned below,
(unless these are to
tion:
be
ranked, rather,
2.
614.
the
older
anywhere
A
as perfect
forms without reduplica-
790 b).
Present Subjunctive.
Subjunctive forms of this class are not uncommon in
language, and nearly all those which the formation
admits are quotable, from Veda or from Brahmana.
complete paradigm, accordingly, is given below, with the few
forms not actually quotable for this class enclosed in brackets.
We may take as models, for the active the root i, 'go', and for
the middle the root as, 'sit', of both of which numerous forms
are met with (although neither for these nor for any others can
the whole series be found in actual use).
The mode-stems
are dya
(e
214
IX. PRESENT-SYSTEM.
given in full above
(566).
and unstrengthened
root.
[616
The stem-form
is
the unaccented
The whole formation
is
so regular
that a single example of inflection will be enough.
middle.
active.
d.
a.
d.
s.
p.
p.
^
dvisyam dvisy&va
dvisy&ma
dvisiyd
dvisivdhi
dvisimdhi
2
dvisy&s
dvisy&tam
dvisy&ta
dvisiihks
dvisiyatham
dvisldhvdm
dvisyat
dvisyatam
dvisyus
dvisitd
dvisiyatam
dvisirdri
3
So likewise, from
iydm and iylyd; from yduh, duhydm and duhiyd;
j/i,
and so on.
The RV. has once tana
4.
in
2d
its
own endings
to
the root-stem.
in
3d sing,
act.;
act.
(in syatana).
Present Imperative.
The imperative
"^617.
pi.
adds, in second
(with SfrTFT atum
The stem
elsewhere,
is
and third persons,
in 3d pi. mid.)
directly
accented and strengthened
the accent
is
on the ending
and the root remains unchanged. The first persons, so called,
of the later language are from the old subjunctive, and
have
its
strengthened stem and accent; they are repeated
here from where they were given above (614).
sing, act., the
classes)
if it
ftj
dhi
if
regularly (as in the two following
is
ending
the root end with a consonant, and
end with a vowel.
As examples we take some
roots already used for the purpose.
r
d.
p.
dyani
dyava
dyama
asai
asavahai
asamahai
^p
^rFT
itdm
^rT
MlfH
MIHIMM
t4i^H
ltd
assvd
ashtham
addhvdm
itam
ydntu
astam
asatam
asatam
ihi
3
f%
g.
d.
p.
yr\
etu
hi
of the
middle.
active.
s-
In the 2d
I.
620]
ROOT-CLASS [SECOND, ad-CLASx.
dohani doJiava
215
dohama
dohai
dbhavahai dohdmahdi
jrcr
g^r
^IMIH^ gnj\
dhuksvd
duhhtham dhugdhvdm
dugdlihm
duhktam
jfiri
p~^
dugdlii
dugdhdm dugdhd
^
dogdhu dugdhum duhdntu
618. The 2d sing. act. ending
duhdtdm
tat is found in the older language in a
few verbs of this class: namely, vittdt, vitat, brutat. In 3d sing, mid., two
or three verbs have in the older language the ending am : thus, duhdm (only
RV. case), uidara, fayam; and in 3d pi. mid. AV. has duhrdm and duhratdm.
The use
of
tana for ta in 2d
itana, yatdna, hantana,
in the
same person
etc.
of a strong
5.
The
619.
stem-form 5IH
chanically,
it
the final
i.
^
participles
pi.
And
act.
or
Present Participle.
may be formed from
Thus,
ati
p^H
duhdnt,
5^
(weak
Me-
the 3d pi. by dropping
for the verbs inflected above,
are EPFT ydnt,
ati
:
the active
The
f^Nri dmsdnt.
thus, ZTrft
but, from roots in
,
in
yati-,
T^^ft
5Ttf?ft
anti
(449).
The middle
to the
thus,
we have examples
active participle has the ending
*3fi[jint
at] added to the unstrengthened root.
f^Mrfl dvisati:
5flrft
quite frequent in the Veda:
(and accented) stem.
feminine stem ends usually in
duhati,
is
in stota, etana, sofana,
participle has the
ending ETR and,
added
unstrengthened root: thus, ^ETR iyand, 3^11 duhand^
dmsand.
But a number of these participles in the older language
have a double accent, either on the ending or on the radical
thus, duhdnd and duhana (also dughana], vidand and
syllable
:
the last having
vidana, stivand and siivana, stuvand and stdvdna
The root as,
also a stronger form of the root when accented.
in
the
Usma
the
forms
Veda,
dsand}.
with,
'sit',
unique
(along
6.
Imperfect.
This tense adds the secondary endings to the root
as increased by prefixion of the augment. The root has the
620.
^w^a-strengthening
(if
capable of
it)
in the three persons of
IX. PRESENT-SYSTEM.
216
the singular, although the accent
[620
always upon the augment.
is
inflection are:
Examples of
middle,
active.
d.
s.
d.
s.
p.
p.
at/am
aiva
aima
Usi
asvahi
asmahi
ais
aitam
aita
asthas
Usatham
addhvam
ait
aitam
ayan
asta
asatam
mata
and, from the root
dduhma
ddoham dduhva
dduhi
dduhmahi
dduhvahi
2
ddhok
ddugdham ddugdha
ddugdhas dduhatham ddhugdhvam
ddugdham dduhan
ddugdha
dduhatam
dduhata
Roots ending in a may in the later language optiontake
us
instead of an in 3d pi. act. (the a being lost before
ally
and in the older they always do so
thus, dyus from Vya,
it)
The same ending is also allowed and
dpus from Ypa 'protect'.
met with in the case of a few roots ending in consonants
621.
:
;
:
namely
'know', caks, dvis, duh, mrj.
The ending tana, 2d pi. act., is found in the Veda in dyatana, dsastana,
vid,
aftana.
To save the
inserts
a: thus,
characteristic endings
ddas,
ddat;
in 2d and 3d sing, act., the root ad
the root as inserts 1:
thus,
dsis,
dsit
(see
below, 636).
622. The use
of the
older language, either in the
has been noticed above
uncommon
rather
ddn
(?),
3d
sing.;
623. The
this imperfect:
in the
persons of this tense, without augment, in the
same sense as with augment, or as subjunctives,
Augmentless imperfects of
(587).
Veda
:
thus, h&n,
bruvan, duhus,
first
eafesus,
3d
or root-form of aorist
see below,
is
ves,
2d
pi.;
vasta, suta,
sing.
identical
in
;
this
ftan,
its
3d
class
vet,
are
staut,
sing. mid.
formation with
829 ff.
624. In the Veda (but almost limited to RV.) are found certain second
persons singular, made by adding the ending si to the (accented and strengthened) root, and
view as
them
having an imperative value. There is some difference of
but the most acceptable opinion regards
to their formal character;
as isolated indicative
persons
of this
class,
used imperatively.
They
are
ksesi
:
(2naf
(2
ROOT-CLASS (SECOND, a</-CLASs).
I.
629]
ma
(1 fcai
'attain'),
jdsi
jesi,
'rule'),
nesi,
pdrsi
(2pr
(for jossi,
'set
from yjus),
prdsi,
across'),
217
ddrsi,
dhaksi,
naksi
bhaksi,
mdtsi,
mdsi
'measure'), ydksi, ydrhsi, yasi, y6tsi, rdtsi, rdsi, vdksi, vesi
frfoj,
after'),
safest,
sdtsi,
(ivi 'strive
hosi.
Irregularities of the Root-class.
625.
are
impossible (at least at present) to determine with
of the actually used roots of the language
in the present-system according to this class, or
It is
how many
accuracy
inflected
according to any of the other classes, because the older language
especially, and the later in less degree, has sporadic forms which
are either of doubtful classification or too isolated to determine
the character of the root to which they belong.
The root-class
said, however, to include from seventy to ninety roots.
considerable number of them present irregularities of inflection,
may be
A
a brief account of which (not claiming exhaustive completeness)
is given in the following paragraphs.
626. The roots of the class ending in u have in their
strong forms the vrddhi instead of the ywwa-strengthening before
an ending beginning with a consonant thus, from \stu, staumi,
dstaut, and the like; but dstavam, stdvani, etc.
:
stu,
Roots found to exhibit this peculiarity in actual use are ksnu, yu, sfcit,
five in the earlier language), nw, ru, su 'impel', and hnu.
snu (these
627. The root mrj also has the vrddhi-vowel in its strong
forms: thus, marjmi, dmarjam, dmart; and the same strengthening is allowed in weak forms before endings beginning with
but this is not found to
a vowel
thus, marjantu, amarjan
occur in the older language.
:
:
In
the
other
tense-systems,
also,
and in derivation, mrj shows often
the vrddhi instead of the puna-strengthening.
628. A number of roots accent the radical syllable throughboth in strong and in weak forms
thus, all those beginning with a long vowel, as, id, ir, iq ; and also caks, taks, tra,
All these, except
nihs, vas 'clothe', cinj, cl, and su 'generate'.
taks and tra (and tra in the only Vedic forms), are ordinarily
conjugated in middle voice only. Forms with the same irregular
accent occur now and then in the Veda from other verbs thus,
Middle participles so accented have been noticed
mdtsva, fdhat.
above (619).
out,
:
:
629.
the
roots mentioned in the last paragraph,
^wwa-strengthening
cdyana,
part
Of the
and so on.
already noticed)
thus,
throughout:
Other irregularities in
are
the 3d pi.
cdye,
persons
its
ci
has
cese,
qayiya,
inflection (in
cerate
(AV.
etc.
IX. PRESENT- SYSTEM.
218
have also
dcerata {RV. has also dceran], the 3d
and impv. cdydm. The isolated active form
ceratdm,
cere],
sing, pres/ cdye (R.)
dcayat
common
is
[629
in the older language.
630.
roots, Id and if insert a union-vowel i before endings
beginning with s, sv, th : thus, ifise, ifidhve, idisva (these three being the
only forms noted in the older language); but RV. has ikse beside If we. The
Of the same
3d
pi.
ifire
(on account of its accent) is also apparently
present rather than
perfect.
The
631.
a union-vowel
roots rud (not in Veda), svap, an, and cvas insert
before all the endings beginning with a con-
i
sonant, except the s and t of 2d and 3d sing, impf., where they
instead either a or i: thus, svdpimi, cvdstsi, dniti, and
mat or unit. And in the remaining forms, the last three are
insert
either root or ending
thus, svdpantu and
or svapdntu etc.
In the older language, yvam makes the same insertions
thus, vamiti,
allowed to accent
cvdsantu
:
(AV.),
:
avamit; and other cases occasionally occur: thus, janisva, vasisva (yvas 'aim'),
On the other hand, an sometimes makes forms
fnathihi, stanihi (all RV.).
from an a-stem: thus, anati (AV.); pple dnant (QB.); opt. anet (AB.).
632. The root bru (of very frequent use) takes the unionvowel i after the root when strengthened, before the initial vowel
of an ending
thus, brdvimi, brdvisi, brdviti, dbravts, dbravit; but
:
brumds, bruyam, dbravam, dbruvan, etc. Special occasional irregularities are brumi, bravihi, abruvam, abruvan, bruydt, and sporadic
forms from an a-stem. The subj. dual brdvaite has been noticed
above (615).
.<
633. Some
namely,
few,
tu,
form so made
(in V.,
634. The
vowel
occur
:
of the
root
arriisi
thus,
camwvo
635. The
roots
ru, and stu;
u
are
allowed
to
be
inflected like
is
met with
bru:
of a
only tavlti noted).
am
(hardly found in the later language) takes
(RV.),
(VS.: TS.
amlti and
f amisva)
amit and amisva
and famidhvam (TB.
(TS).
I
as union-
From |/pam
etc.).
in the older language have been already
mid. duhate, duhre, and duhrdte; 3d sing,
duhrSm and duhratam; impf. act. 3d sing, dduhat (which
irregularities of
in part noted: the
in
and an occasional instance
3d
pi.
yduh
indie,
impv. duhdm, pi.
is found also in the later language),
3d pi. aduhran (beside dduhan and
duhtis); the mid. pple dtighana; and (quite unexampled elsewhere) the opt.
forms duhiydt and duhiydn (RV. only).
Some
of the roots of this class are abbreviated or otherwise
weakened in
(
636.
their
The
weak forms
root
5TFT as,
:
'be',
thus
loses its vowel in
weak forms
(except where protected by combination with the augment).
I.
637]
2d sing, indie,
Its
i
2d and 3d
in
gr
is
219
2d sing,
The insertion of
dsi (instead of assi);
edhi (irregularly from asdhi).
^ftf
is
impv.
|
ROOT-CLASS (SECOND,
sing.
has been
impf.
its
noticed already
above.
The forms
follows
of this extremely
common
verb are, then, as
r
:
Indicative,
Optative,
d.
d.
p.
T
sv as
dsi
sthds
dsti
stds
smds
syam
W
sthd
syava
syama
HTTT^
KllrtH^
nnrT
syas
syatam
syata
syat
syatam
m
H%
sdnti
Imperative.
dsani
dsava
edhi
stdm
dstu
stam
syus
Imperfect.
dsama
sdntu
Participle H?T
asam
asva
asma
aSIS
astam
asta
asit
astam
asan
Hrft sail
(fern.
The Vedic subjunctive forms are the usual ones, made upon the stem
They are in frequent use, and appear (asat especially) even in late
Brahmanas where the subjunctive is almost lost. The resolution sidm etc.
In 2d and 3d sing. impf. is a few times
(opt.) is common in Vedic verse.
daa.
met with the more normal as
(for as-s,
Middle forms from yas are
also
ds-t}.
given
by the grammarians
as allowed
+
do not appear to have been met
with certain prepositions (vi
ati), but they
with in use.
A middle present indicative is compounded (in 1st and 2d persons)
with the nomen agentis in
the middle voice (see
is
in the
sva,
below,
usual relation
dhvam, with
the
its
(tar]
to
The
form the periphrastic future in
1st
sing,
middle to active forms
indie, is he;
(in
2d pers.,
the rest
e,
dhve,
total loss of the root itself).
The only other tense
regular in
of
tr
942 ff.).
of this verb in use is the perfect,
which
is
entirely
inflection.
637. The root han, 'strike,
manner of noun-stems in an
slay',
is
treated
in declension
somewhat
(421):
in
after
weak
IX- PRESENT-SYSTEM.
220
[637
m
and v)
it loses its n before an initial consonant (except
and in the
of an ending, and its a before an initial vowel
latter case its A, in contact with the n, is changed to gh (comThus, for example
pare 402).
forms,
:
Present Indicative.
d.
d.
1
hdnmi
hanvds
2
hdnsi
hathds
hathd
dhan
dhatam
dhata
3
hdnti
hatds
ghndnti
dhan
dhatam
dghnan
Its
is
Imperfect.
s.
jaM
participle
is
are formed
occur
ghndnt
to the
according
The root
(in
p.
dhanma
dhanva
Its 2d sing. impv.
on the model of redupli-
g/matij.
(fern,
this root are frequent
ghnate; ahata, aghnalam. aghnata
638.
dhanam
hanmds
anomalous dissimilation,
(by
cating forms).
Middle forms from
that
s.
p.
in
and those
the Brahmanas,
same rules
thus,
:
AB., also ahata)] ghnlta (but
vac, 'wish', is in the weak
to uc (as in the perfect:
and usually contracted
hanmahe,
hate,
also hanita).
forms regularly
see chap. X.):
thus, ucmdsi (V.: once apparently abbreviated in RV. to cmasi),
Middle forms (except the pple) do not
ucdnti; pple ucdnt, ucand.
occur nor do the weak forms of the imperfect, which are given
;
as aufva,
austam, etc.
in like manner the
RV. has
usand from the root vas
participle
'clothe'.
The root
cas, 'command', shows some of the peculiarities of a reduplicated verb, lacking (646) the n before t in
all 3d perss. pi.
and in the active participle. A part of its
active forms
namely, the weak forms having endings begincome from a
ning with consonants (including the optative)
stem with weakened vowel, fis (as do the aorist, 854, and some
639.
of the derivatives).
Thus, for example
:
Present Indicative.
d.
Imperfect.
p.
s.
d.
tfsvds
fismds
dfasam
dfisva
dfisma
dfista
s.
p.
1
fasmi
2
fassi
cisthds
fisthd
d?as
dfistam
3
fasti
fistds
fasati
dfat
dfistam
In 2d sing, impf., afdt is said to be also allowed. If it
used, the t must be the sporadic conversion of final radical
and then
would be open
or of the ending (according
sing.
2d
pi.
it
impv.
is
fastdna
to question
whether the
t
of
3d
is
dfdsus
actually so
s to
t
(167);
sing, is radical
to 555).
The optative is fisydm etc. The 2d
$adhf (with total loss of the s); and RV. has the strong
(with anomalous
accent).
But no pis-forms of the present-
system occur in the Veda.
The middle
inflection is regular,
and the accent (apparently)
always upon the radical syllable (pple casana, RV. etc.).
The root dap, 'worship', has in like manner (RV.) the pple ddfat
(not
REDUPLICATING CLASS (THIRD, AW-CLASS).
II.
644]
640. The double
duplication of ghas
and pple,
to
and
and the
so-called
has.
etc.
root jaks,
A
(above, 631).
'eat,
is
laugh',
has the absence of n in
accent on the
reduplicated verbs; and
rud
It
221
an
act.
evident re-
3d perss.
pi.
vowel-endings, which belong
also takes the union-vowel i in the manner of
it
root
before
2d pers. impv. jagdhi from
it
occurs.
641.
Other obviously reduplicated verbs are treated by the
native grammarians as if simple, and referred to this
conjugation
such are the intensively reduplicated jagr, daridra, and vevl
:
(chap.
XIV.), didhi etc.
(676),
(677).
Reduplicating Class (third, /m-class).
II.
This class forms
642.
and cakas
present-stem by prefixing a
its
reduplication to the root.
643.
\
As regards
a.
the consonant
of.
the reduplication,
the general rules which have already been given above (590)
are followed.
b.
A
long vowel
^J dada
lable: thus,
shortened in the reduplicating syl-
is
from
i/^T
da;
from
fspft bibhl
y$ bhl;
st^juhu from yj^ hu. The vowel fj r never appears in the
reduplication, but is replaced by ^ i: thus. f^T bibhr from
yy{ bhr ;
fqtfrf
piprc from yvft pro.
For verbs in which a and a also are irregularly represented in the reduplication by
c.
it
ar]\
i,
see below,
The only root
takes
660.
vowel is r (or
held
which
is
t,
apart from the
thus, iyar and iyr (the latter has not
of this
root by an interposed y:
been found in actual use).
\ 644. The present-stem
classes
class with initial
as reduplication
belonging
to
the
of this class
first
of the
(as
conjugation)
has
a
other
double
and a
with gunated root-vowel
weaker form, without guna: thus, from j/^" hu, the two forms
form
are
and
:
a stronger form,
^^Ij'uho
and
fipft bibhl.
3^ juhu;
And
;
from
j/~>ft
bhi,
they are i^H bibhe
the rule for their use
is
the same as
in the other classes of this conjugation: the strong stem is
found before the unaccented endings
stem before the accented.
(552),
and the weak
IX- PRESENT-SYSTEM.
222
[645
According to all the analogies of the first general
we should expect to find the accent upon the rootThat is actually the case,
this is strengthened.
when
syllable
however, only in a small minority of the roots composing the
class
namely, in hu, bhi (no test-forms in the older language),
hri (not found in the older language), mad and dhan (both very
forms of this class found to occur), ci 'notice'
rare), jan (no
older language only), and in bhr in
(in V.), yu 'separate' (in
but RV.
the later language (in V. it goes with the majority
and this, the later accentuation, is found also
has bibharti once
645.
conjugation,
:
:
;
In
in the Brahmanas).
it rests
transfer
the rest
apparently, by a recent
of upon the
And in both classes alike, the accent is anomback upon the reduplication in those weak
radical syllable.
all
upon the reduplicating instead
alously thrown
forms of which the ending begins with a vowel
other weak forms it is upon the ending.
;
Apparently (the cases with written accent are too few
while in the
to
determine the
point satisfactorily) the middle optative endings, lya etc. (566), are reckoned
throughout as endings with initial vowel, and throw back the accent upon
the reduplication.
\
646.
The verbs
of this class lose
the
?
n in the 3d
K,
and in the imper-
pl. endings in active as well as middle,
fect
have
3R an
instead of
3^ws
and before
this a final
radical vowel has guna,
1.
"
647.
Present Indicative.
The combination
of stem and
is
endings
as
in
the preceding class.
Examples
of inflection:
a.
y"^
hu,
'sacrifice':
strong stem-form, sl^T/ttAo/ weak form, sC^ juhu
active.
s
w_
(or juhu).
middle.
d.
p.
juhomi
juhuvds
juhumds
juhve
juhuvdhe
juhumdhe
juhosi
juhuthds
juhutha
juhuse
juhvathe
juhudhve
juhoti
juhutas
juhvati
juhute
juhvate
juhvate
s.
d.
p.
2
b.
Root
*j[
bhr,
'bear'
(given with Vedic accentuation):
strong stem-form, fsPTf bibhar ; weak,
^R
bibhr (or bibhr}.
II.
650]
REDUPLICATING CLASS (THIRD, AW-CLASS).
223
N,
bibharmi
bibhrvds
bibharsi
bibhrthds
bibharti
bibhrtds
bibhrmds
*\
C.
bibhre
C.
bibhrvdhe
bibhrmdhc
bibhrdhve
c.
C.
bibhrthd
bibhrse
bibhrathe
bibhrati
bibhrte
bibhrate
-x
The u
is
said
of hu (like
that of
the
class-signs
be omissible before v and
to
thus, juhvds, juhvdhe.
It
is
of the
bibhrate
see
below,
697)
endings of 1st du. and
pi.:
etc.
2.
648.
m
nu and u:
Present Subjunctive.
not possible
(at
between those subjunctive forms
least,
of
at
the
present)
older
to
draw a distinct line
language
which should be
reckoned as belonging to the present-system and those which should be assigned to the perfect
even, in some cases, to the reduplicated aorist and
Here
intensive.
class;
will
be noticed only those which most clearly belong to this
will be treated under the perfect-system.
more doubtful cases
the
Except in
first
persons (which continue in use as "imperatives" down to the
subjunctives from roots having unmistakably a reduplicated
present-system are of far from frequent occurrence.
later language),
The subjunctive mode-stem is formed in the usual
with the mode-sign a and guna of the root-vowel, if
The evidence of the few
this is capable of such strengthening.
accented forms met with indicates that the accent is laid in accordance with that of the strong indicative forms
thus, from
it
: from
would
be bibhara
the
stem
would
be
juhdva
ybhr,
yhu,
Before the mode-sign, final radical a would
(but bibhdra later).
thus ddda
be, in accordance with analogies elsewhere, dropped
from yda, dddha from ydha (all the forms actually occurring
would be derivable from secondary roots, as dad and dadh}.
649.
manner,
:
:
Instead of giving a theoretically complete scheme of
will be better to note all the examples quotable
from the older language (accented when found so occurring).
650.
inflection,
it
Thus, of 1st persons, we have in the active juhdvani, bibhardni, dadani,
in the middle, dadhai,
dddhama, jdhama;
mimdij dadhdvahdi; juhavdmahdi, daddmahe, daddmahai, dadhdmahdi.
dadhdni, jahani; juhavdma,
Of other persons, we have with primary endings in the active bibhardsi
560, end), dddhathas, juhavatha (do.) and juhavatha
(with double mode-sign:
in the middle, dddhase;
ary endings,
babhasat
;
dddhas,
;
dddhate, rdrate, dddhdtdi, daddtdi:
vfvesas,
juhavat, bibharat,
dadhan^ yuyavan, juhavan.
with second-
yuydvat, dddhat, dadhdnat,
3.
To form
651.
\
PRESENT-SYSTEM.
IX.
224
above
[651
Present Optative.
mode, the optative endings given
as made up of mode-sign and personal endings,
(566),
this
The accent
are added to the unstrengthened stem.
The
already stated (645).
unnecessary
to give here
single verb
thus,
:
inflection is so regular that
more than the
d.
juhuyhm
juhuy&ma
652.
The
juhvlya juhvwahi
etc.
etc.
etc.
endings, and the
sonant
:
is
^
f%
mode
In 2d sing,
^
h in two successive
syllables): and other examples of fa dhi
found in the Veda.
653.
Example
after
middle.
d.
2
3
d.
s.
.
juJidvani juhavava
a vowel are
of inflection:
active.
s.
act.,
dhi after a con-
f?I
forms sT^Rl juhudhi (apparently.
in order to avoid the recurrence of
{
etc.
of their combination
hi after a vowel, but
however,
huj
juhvimahi
etc.
with the root, have been already given.
the ending
p.
juhdvavahai juhdvamahai
juhdvama juhdvai
g^H
spra
^lyiH^
5^^
juhudhi juhut&m
juhuta
juhusvd
juhvatham
juhudhvdm
3^ '5
juhdtu
jtihvatu
g^iu
g^riH^
is
of a
Present Imperative.
4.
\
persons
it
d.
s.
p.
juhuy&va
etc.
first
as
middle.
active.
s.
is
^niH^ g^g
^diH^
g^iniH^
sj^riiH^
juhutnm
juhuthm
juhvatam
juhvatam
The other
division of this class differ here, as in the inin the accentuation of their strong forms only
namely,
in all the first persons
(borrowed subjunctives), and in the 3d
dicative,
:
sing, act.: thus
libharai etc.
654. Vedic
strong forms in
(in
the older language)
irregularities
2d persons:
(beside yuyutdm}-,
{yarta,
of
thus,
dddata,
inflection
yuyodhi,
are:
Ubharani
a.
the
etc.,
occasional use
fifadhi (beside tifihf);
dddhata and dddhatana
Ubhartu,
of
yuyotam
(see below,
673),
6581
REDUPLICATING CLASS (THIRD,
II.
225
juh6ta and juhdtana, yuyotana; b. the use of dhi instead of hi
c. the ending tana
(only in the two instances just quoted)
act. (in the instances just quoted and in others, as
mamaltana,
pipartana,
after a vowel
;
in
2d
pi.
dhattana,
jigatana,
d.
etc.);
the
ending
2d
in
tat
in
act.,
sing,
dattdt,
dhattat, piprtat.
5.
As
655.
Present Participle.
the
elsewhere,
made mechanically from
thus,
^^juAvat,
made:
Efi-fj
ati.
sl^M
thus,
As
ending 3?T
The feminine
(444).
participles are regularly
blbhrana.
us,
the
out,
and a
The strong forms
it.
has no dis-
it
inflection,
i:
Imperfect.
already pointed
class takes the
guna before
I^WU
Jukvana,
6.
656.
In
weak forms
The middle
1
stem ends in
the 3d pi. indie, by dropping
^
fsffi^bibhrat.
of strong and
tinction
may be
active participle-stem
3d
pi.
act.
are,
as
of this
vowel has
final radical
in pres.
indie.,
the three sing. act. persons.
657.
f*
of inflection:
Example
middle.
active,
d.
d.
djuhavam djuhuva
djuhvi
djuhuta
djuhuthas djuhvatham djiihudhvam
djufiuta
djuhvatam
2d and 3d
act.
djuhos
djuhutam
djuhot
djuhutam
djuhavus
}/H bhr,
the
From
dbibhar
(for abibhar-s
ajuhumahi
ajuhuma
and
ajuhuvahi
sing.
and
abibhar-t]
so
djuhvata
are
in
all
other
The 3d
cases where the strong stem ends in a consonant.
and from y^\ bhi, it is tjf^tHH^
pi. act. is ^^^dbibharus;
abibhaym.
658. The usual Vedic
the ending tana
tana,
djagantana,
occur in this tense also
djahatana.
thus,
strong forms, and
adadata, ddadhata ; ddat-
also
once apiprata for apiprta
2d
irregularities in
:
The RV. has
pi.
act.
act.
mid., and abibhran for abibharus in 3d pi.
are
jihata.
forms
ffylta,
jthlta,
pi'?as, vives, jtgat;
augmentless
in
3d
sing,
Whitney
,
Grammar.
Examples
15
of
IX PRESENT-SYSTEM.
226
-
[659
Irregularities of the Reduplicating Class.
659. It is still more difficult to determine the precise limits
of this class than of the root-class, because of the impossibility
to above, under subjunctive
648) of always separating
(referred
its forms from those of other reduplicating conjugations and
:
In the RV., about forty roots may be
parts of conjugations.
confidently assigned to it; in the AV., less than thirty; many
of them have irregularities (besides those in tense-inflection
already pointed out).
660. Besides the roots in r or ar
namely, r, ghr (usually
the following roots having
written ghar\ tr, pr, Ihr, sr, pro
a or a as radical vowel take t instead of a in the reduplicating
syllable: ga 'go', Spa 'rise', ma 'measure', ma 'bellow', ca, ha
'remove' (mid.), vac, sac; vac has both i and a; ra has * once
in
RV.:
for stha,
pa
'drink',
gkra,
Jian,
see
below (670
4).
661. Several roots of this class in final a change the a in
weak forms to * (occasionally even to i), and then drop it altogether before endings beginning with a vowel.
This
in
is
close
analogy with the treatment of the vowel of the class -
717.
sign of the no-class: below,
These roots are
662.
fa, act.
:
and mid.: thus,
654), fifatu, afifat,
663. ma
'bellow', act.,
mimati, mimanti, mimiyat
664. ha
djihlta,
fifati,
fifimasi, fiflhi
(also fifadhi
:
above,
tf$lte.
;
and
ma
'measure', mid.
(rarely also act.):
thus,
mmuie, mimafc, amimlta; mimihi, mtmatu.
'remove', mid.: thus,
jtfiite,
jihidhve, jtfiate; jihisva, jihatam;
ajihata.
665. ha
shorten the
I
act.
'quit',
to i:
(originally identical
with the former),
further
may
thus, jahati, jahita, jahltat (AV.); jahimas (AV.), jahitas
In the optative,
(TB.), jahitam (TA.),
ajahitam (TS.).
lost altogether;
jahyam, jahyus (AV.).
thus,
The 2d
the radical vowel
sing.
impv.
is
is
jahlhi
or jahihi.
Compare with
666. ra
this the forms in dhi
'give',
from ydha (below, 669).
mid.: thus, ranaTivam, ranthas (impf. without augment):
and, with i in reduplication, ririhi.
In all these verbs, the accent is constant on the reduplicating syllable.
667. The two
da and dha (the commonest of the
vowel altogether in the weak forms,
In 2d sing. impv. act., they
being shortened to dad and dadh.
form respectively dehi and dhehi. In combination with a following t or th, the final dh of dadh does not follow the special
rule of combination of a final sonant aspirate (becoming ddh
with the t or th : 160), but
as also before s and dhv
the
class)
lose
their
roots
radical
II.
671]
REDUPLICATING CLASS (THIRD.
more general rules of aspirate
bination
and its lost aspiration
;
227
and of surd and sonant comthrown back upon the initial
is
of the root.
668. The inflection of
ydha
is.
then,
Present Indicative,
active.
s.
1
dddhdmi
d.
dadhvds
p.
dadhmds
2
dddhdsi
dhatthds
dhatthd
3
dddhati
dhattds
dddhati
s.
dadhe
as follows:
IX PRESENT-SYSTEM.
228
-
of the second p :
which then are inmimami, but like bMvami, as if from the present-
tisthami, pibami (with irregular
later often written pivami), and
flected not like
stems
tistha,
sonantizing
jiyhrami
piba, jighra.
672. In the Veda, the reduplicated
turned into
[671
da and dha are
roots
ddda and dddha,
the a-stems
or
inflected as if
also
sometimes
dad and
roots
and single forms of the same character are made from
other roots: thus, mimanti (jAna 'bellow'), rdrate (j/>a 'give': 3d sing. mid.).
dadh of
class VI.;
673. In the Veda,
a like secondary root, jighn,
also,
is
made from yhan
(with omission of the radical vowel, and conversion, usual in this root, of h
to gh when in contact with n); and some of the forms of safe, from y~sac,
show the same conversion
674. In AB.
(viii.
to
an a-stem, safca.
28), a similar secondary form, jighy, is given to
j/^/u
:
thus, jighy ati, jighy atu.
675.
A
few so-called roots of the
more
reduplication,
y~fas)
or less obvious:
and caks (from
also sa$c,
first
or root-class are the products of
thus, jaks (640), and probably fas
j/fcap or a lost root fcas,
'see').
In the Veda
(from
found
is
from ysac.
676. The grammarians reckon
(as
already noticed, 641) several roots of
the most evidently reduplicate character as simple, and belonging to the rootSome of these (jagr, daridra, vevl) are regular intensive stems, and
class.
will be described below under Intensives (chap. XIV.); didhi, 'shine', along
with Vedic dldl 'shine' and plpl 'swell', are sometimes also classed as intensives; but they have not the proper reduplication of such, and may perhaps
be best noticed here,
as
reduplicated present-stems
with irregularly long
reduplicating vowel.
Of
the
pres.
indie,
occurs
in the
older language only didyati, 3d pi.,
pples dZdyat and didhyat, and mid. didye,
didhye,
with
dldhyatham, with the
The subj. stems are diddya, dldhaya,
pples didyana, didhyana, pipyana.
plpdya, and from them are made forms with both primary (from dlddya] and
secondary endings (and the irregularly accented didayat and dldayat and
dldhayan}. No opt. occurs. In impv. we have didiln (and didihi) and pipihi,
and pipyatam, pipyatam, pipyata. In impf., adldes and pipes, ddldet and
ddldhet and aplpet (with augmentless forms), aplpema (with strong form of
root), and adidhayus and (irregular) apipyan.
A
few forms from
all
the three show transfer to an a-inflection
:
thus,
dldhaya and plpaya (impv.), dpipayat, etc.
Similar forms from y~mi 'bellow' are amimet and mimayat.
677. The stem cafcas (sometimes cafeap) is also regarded by the grammarians as a root, and supplied as such with tenses outside the presentsystem
which,
however,
hardly
occur
in genuine use.
It is
not
known
in the older language.
678. The
root bhas, 'chew', loses its radical vowel in
weak forms, taking
the form baps: thus, bdbhasti, but bdpsati (3 pi.), bdpsat (pple).
679. The
root bhl,
vowel in weak forms
:
'fear',
is
allowed by the grammarians to shorten
thus, bibhlmas or bibhimas,
bibhlyam or bibhiyam.
its
REDUPLICATING CLASS (THIRD,
II.
684]
680. Forms
jajnise,
of this class from
are
jajnidhve
yjan,
229
with added
'give birth',
thus,
i
given by the grammarians, but do not appear
to
have been found in use.
681. The
and
roots ci
the
after
root-syllable
cikydthe], cikitam, aciket,
682. The
forms are
(if its
hur
:
weak forms
683.
cikethe
cikeai,
weak
i
:
in the reduplication (from the
thus,
The
con-
is
end in consonants. And
roots of this class all
a nasal preceding the final consonant
is
;
a few
684.
:
in
forms, a nasal simply, adapted in character to the
of the
verbs of the
1.
the nasal extends also into other
class,
:
to the syllable
694.
see below,
Present Indicative.
Examples of inflection:
a. the root
strong stem-form, 7H5T yundj ; weak,
For the rules of combination of
final j,
see
Jsf
yuj,
ET^" yunj.
219.
middle.
active.
d.
d.
2
and
y),
Nasal Class (seventh, ra///-class).
tense-systems: they are an}, bhanj, hins
'join':
for
So the root hvar
dviviktam.
viviktds,
but in the strong forms expanded
ndj which has the accent.
consonant
In
e to k in the
(anomalous,
be reckoned here) has u in reduplication, and contracts
to
their class-sign
^
thus,
thus, juhurthas.
III.
the
have in the Veda reversion of
cikyat (pple); cikiddhi.
root vyac has
tracted to vie in
to
cit
reduplication:
yunjmds
yunjvdhe
yunje
yunjmahe
yundjmi
yunjvas
yrf^i
yundhsi
UC^H^
g^r
nf"
i^w\
jnr
yunkthds
yunkthd
yunhse
yunjathe
yungdhve
g%"
^iTi
g^
yunjhte
yunjdte
1
3
uni^
**yundkti
Urh^
rsin
yunktds
yunjdnti
b. the root "^T rudh,
yunkte
'obstruct';
bases
and
rundh.
For rules of combination of final dh. see 153^ 160.
runddhmi
rundhvds
rundhmds
rundhe
rundhvdhe
rundhmahe
IX- PRESENT-SYSTEM.
230
[684
2
rundtsi
runddhds
runddhd
runtse
rundhathe
runddhve
rundddhi
runddhds
rundhdnti
runddhe
rundhnte
rundhdte
3
Instead of yunkthas, yungdhve, and the like (here and in
impv. and impf.), it is allowed and more usual (231) to
write yunthas, yundhve, etc.; and, in like manner, rundhas, rundhe,
for runddhas, runddhe; and so in other like cases.
the
a. the ordinary use of a
685. Vedic irregularities of inflection are
3d sing. mid. like the 1st sing., as vrnje; b. the accent on te of 3d pi. mid.
:
in anjate,
indhate,
bhunjate.
Present Subjunctive.
2.
The stem
made, as usual, by adding a to the strong
runddha.
Below are given as if
yundja,
present-stem
made from ~\'yuj all the forms for which examples have been
noted as actually occurring in the older language.
686.
is
thus,
:
middle.
active.
s.
d.
p.
s.
1
yunajani
yundjava
yundjama
yunajai
2
yundjas
3
yundjat
yundjatas
yundjan
yundjate
d.
p.
yundjamahai
yunajadhvai
687. The RV. has once anjatas, which is anomalous
Forms with double mode-sign
from the weak tense-stem.
thus, trnahan (AV.),
yunajan
act.:
are
being made
met with:
and the only quotable example of 3d du.
(QB.);
(besides anjatas) is hinasdtas (^B.).
act.
as
QB. has
also hinasavas as 1st du.
an elsewhere unexampled form.
Present Optative.
3.
688.
The
optative is made,
compounded mode-endings
stem.
Thus
to
as elsewhere,
by adding the
weak form
the
of present-
:
active.
s.
yunjyhm
etc.
middle.
d.
yunjyhma
yunjy&va
etc.
689.
yunjiyd
etc.
4.
d.
s.
.
.
yunjivdhi
etc.
etc.
yunjimdhi
etc.
Present Imperative.
In this class
(as
the roots
the ending of the 2d sing. act.
is
all
end in consonants)
always
ftf
dhi,
NASAL CLASS (SEVENTH, rudh-CLAss}.
III.
693]
active.
s.
i
2
gfrr
middle.
d.
s.
p.
yteiiPs JHsTra
yun&jani yundjava
1^
231
u^sllH
d.
p.
Zpfff
UHslN<
yundjama
yundjai
yundjavahai yimdjamahai
J3T
3?^
y^iyiH^
H7
yunksvd
yunjatham
yungdhvam
yungdhi
yunktam
yunktd
yundktu
yunktam
yunjdntu
690. There is no occurrence,
of this class.
The Veda has, as
times the ending tana, in the 2d
UHsllH^
yunktam yunjatam
so far as noted,
usual,
yunjdtam
of the ending
tat,
in verbs
sometimes strong forms, and some-
act.:
pi.
^
thus, undtta, yundkta, anaktana,
pinastana.
5.
f
691.
The
Present Participle.
preceding ones: thus,
in this class as in the
^c^yunjdnt (fern,
RV. has indhana).
6.
The example
made
act.
mid. ET^FT yunjand (but
692.
are
participles
y^rfl yunjati)
;
Imperfect.
of the regular inflection of this tense
needs no introduction:
middle.
active.
s.
d.
p.
d.
s.
p.
**tt\*\
dy uajam dyunjva
dyunjma
dyunji
dyunjvahi
dywymahi
dyunak
dyunktam dyunkta
dyunkthas
dyunjatham dyungdhvam
dyunak
dyunktam dyunjan
dyunkta
dyunjatam
3
ayunjata
The endings s and / are necessarily lost in the nasal class
throughout in 2d and 3d sing, act., unless saved (555) at the
expense of the final radical consonant which is a case of very
in the older language have been noted only
rare occurrence
and once in AV.
ahinat (TB.), 3d sing., for ahinas (\/hins\
alhanas, 2d sing., for abhanak (ybhanj)', this last is a case of
:
:
the utmost rarity.
693. The Veda shows no irregularities in this tense. Occurrences of
2d and 3d sing, act., showing
augmentless forms are found, especially in
an accent like that of the present: for example, bhindt, prndk, vrnak, pindk,
rinak.
IX. PRESENT-SYSTEM.
232
[694
Nasal Class.
Irregularities of the
roots which thus expand a penultimate nasal in
forms of the present-system into a syllable nd are
about twenty-five: namely, tac, pro, ric, vie, anj, bhanj, vrj,
The
694.
the strong
yuj, krt 'spin', chrd, trd, chid, bhid, ud, rdh, idh, rudh,
Those here
ubh, ac (anacamahai, once, RV.), pis, cis, hihs, trh.
- - have that
written with the nasal
namely anj, bhanj, hihs
addition also in the other tense-systems.
Two, rdh and ubh,
also of other classes with nasal class-signs
make
bhuj,
present-systems
rdhnoti
thus,
:
ubhnati
IV.),
(cl.
(cl.
Several have
V.).
a-stems
with penultimate nasal: thus, prncd, cihsd, trhhd, umbhd ; and
occasional a-forms, especially in the later language, are met
with from others thus, bhunjet, chindeta, apinsat, arundhat (com:
pare the nasalized roots of the d-class, below, 758).
695. The root trh combines trnah with U, tu, etc. into trnedhi, trnedhu
and,
according
to
the grammarians,
has
also
such forms as
trnehmi:
;
see
224 b.
above,
696. The
root
hihs
origin
(by
apparently a desiderative from yhari)
weak forms thus, hfhsanti, hfhste
accents irregularly the root syllable in the
(but hindsat
IV.
Nu
\
697.
:
etc.).
and ^-classes
(fifth
and eighth, su and to-classes).
adding to the root the syllable
^
nu,
strong forms receives the accent, and
B.
The few
end in ^
(or kar]
is made by
which then in the
A. The present-stem of the ww-class
n,
roots
is
strengthened to ^fino.
of the w-class (about half-a-dozen)
with the exception of the later irregular
for which,
see below,
714.
then, are closely correspondent in form
;
The two
Sfi
kr
classes,
and they are wholly
accordant in inflection.
The u of either class-sign is allowed to be dropped before
and m of the 1st du. and 1st pi. endings, except when the
root (raw-class) ends in a consonant; and the u before a vowelending becomes v or uv, according as it is preceded by one or
by two consonants (129).
v
1.
r
H
698.
su,
R
Present Indicative.
Examples
of inflection:
'press out': strong
sunu.
form of stem,
A.
raw-class;
roof
RT suno ; weak form,
NU- AND
70O] IV.
U- (FIFTH AND EIGHTH, SU- AND tan-) CLASSES. 233
active.
middle.
d.
s-
s.
p.
oo
sunomi
sunuvds
d.
n.
_
sunumds
sunve
sunuvdhe
H^lfo
0^^
oo^
oo^
U-^lS)
sunosi
sunuthas
sunuthd
sunuse
sunv&the
sunoti
sunutds
sunvdnti
00^.
sunute
sunvhte
The forms sunvds, sunmds, sunvdhe, sunmdhe are alternative
with those given here for 1st du. and pi., and in practice are
more common (no examples of the fuller forms have been noted
From }/ap, however (for example),
from the older language).
only the forms with u can occur thus, apnuvds, apnumdhe ; and
:
also only apnuvdnti,
apnuve, apnuvdte.
B. w-class; root
rPTT tano ;
weak,
tanomi
tan,
strong form of stem.
'stretch':
tanu.
tanmds
tanvds
etc.
etc.
The
rT'T
cH
etc.
tanmdhe
tanvdhe
tanve
etc.
etc.
etc.
so precisely like that given above that it
is not worth writing out in full.
The abbreviated forms in 1st
du. and pi. are presented here, instead of the fuller, which rarely
occur
inflection
is
no double consonant ever
(as
precedes).
699.' In the older language, no strong 2d perss. du. or pi., and no
t/iana-endings, chance to occur (but they are numerous in the impv. and
The RV. has
several cases
impf.:
see
3d
mid.: thus, tanvate, manvate, sprnvate.
pi.
below).
In RV. occur also several 3d
class
:
thus,
invire,
rnvire,
pll.
pinvire,
mid. in
crnvire,
of the
ire
irregular
from present-stems of this
hinvire.
Of these,
sunvire,
pinvire and hinvire might be perfects without reduplication
ary roots pinv and hinv (below, 716).
prnvise (RV.) is of anomalous
2.
700.
manner,
The 2d
accent in
sing.
from the second-
mid. (with passive value)
and questionable character.
Present Subjunctive.
The subjunctive mode-stem is made in
by adding a to the gunated and accented
the
usual
class-sign
are given all the
:
In the following scheme
sundva, tandva.
forms of which examples have been met with in actual use in
some of
the older language from either division of the class
thus,
:
them
are quite
numerously represented
there.
IX. PRESENT-SYSTEM.
234
[700
middle.
active.
s.
d.
p.
s.
d.
1
sundvani
sundvava
sundvdma
sundvai
sundvavahai
2
sundvas
sundvatha
sundvase
sundvdithe
3
sundvat
sundvan
sundvdmaJtdt
(sundvate
sundvanta
\
701. Of the
sundvdtdi
briefer 1st sing, act.,
RV. has krnava and hinava.
Forms
with double mode-sign occur (not in RV.): thus, krndvdt and karavdt (AV.);
afnavdtha (K.), krnavatha (VS.; but -vatha in Kanva-text), karavatha (QB.).
RV. has in a single
the other hand, apnavatai is found once (in TS.).
passage krnvdtte (instead of krndvdile): the only form in dithe is apndvaithe.
On
3.
702.
to the
Present Optative.
The combined endings
weak tense-stem:
middle.
d.
d.
sunuyama
etc.
etc.
From yap,
as usual.
thus,
active.
sunuyava
sunuyl
(566) are added,
sunviyd
etc.
sunvivdhi
the middle
sunvimdhi
etc.
etc.
etc.
optative would be apnuviyd
and
so in other like cases.
4.
The
703.
Present Imperative.
inflection of the imperative is in general like
that in the preceding classes.
As regards
the rule of the later language
is
taken whenever the root
(for
stem stands by
itself as
the earlier usage, see below, 704).
flection is
f^T hi
is
2d per-
Example
of in-
:
active.
middle,
d.
3
ending
itself ends in a consonant; other-
wise, the tense- (or mode-)
son
that the
the 2d sing, act.,
d.
*sunavani sundvava sundvama
sundvai
sundvavahai sundvamahai
sunu
sunutam
sunusvd
sunvaiham
sunudhvdm
THTrf
'^
HHHIH
^OO
>*/>^
N/
^-^
sunotu
sunutam
^5
*S
S.
sunutd
^~r
-***
j
sunvdntu
-"X
--V
sunutam sunvatam
"S
sunvdtam
707] IV. Nil- AND U- (FIFTH AND EIGHTH, SU- AND tan-} CLASSES. 235
From yap,
the 2d sing. act. would be
apnuhi; from > ag,
from ydJirs, dhrsnuhi ; and so on.
From yap, too,
would be made apnuvdntu, cipnuvatham, apnuvatam,
'
acnuhi;
apnuvatam.
704. In the
a root with final
earliest
language,
the rule as to the omission of hi after
vowel does not hold good:
in
RV.,
such forms as inuhi,
dhunuhi, crnuhf, sprnuhi, hinuhi, and tanuhi, sanuhi, are
thrice as frequent in use as inu, prnu, sunn,
tanu, and their like; in AV.,
however, they are not more than one third as frequent; and in the Brahmanas
krnuhf,
cinuhf,
they appear only sporadically
RV.
The ending
even frnudhi (with
;
dhi) occurs
several
times
found in krnutat and hinutat, and kurutat. The
strong stem-form is found in 2d du. act. in hinotam; and in 2d pi. act. in
krnota and krnotana, crnota and crnotana, sun6ta and suntitana, hintita and
in
tat is
The ending tana
and tanota, karota.
hinotana,
occurs
only in
the
forms
just quoted.
5.
Present Participle.
^ 705. The endings 5FFT ant and TR and are added
weak form of tense stem thus, from ]/g su come act.
to the
:
sunvdnt
tan, rT^Trr
tanvdnt
(fern, ri^ril tanvatfy
6.
tUirH apnuvand.
Imperfect.
The combination
/" 706.
of augmented stem and endings
according to the rules already stated: thus,
middle.
active.
d.
s.
s.
p.
dsunavam dsunuva
dsunuma
dsunutam dsunuta
dsunos
3
rT^FT tanvand. From
they are 5fio|ti ojowwt?a< and
/>,
is
mid. H-^fM sunmmd\ from
(fern. M^lrfl sunvati),
-^
MHHHIH^
yyH^
dsunutam dsunvan
dsunot
Here,
as
elsewhere,
the
dsunvi
d.
p
dsumivahi
dsunumahi
dsumithas dsunvatham dsunudhvam
MH^ri
^H^lrilH^ ^H-^ri
dsunuta
dsunvatam
briefer
forms
dsunvata
dsunva,
dsunma,
dsunvahi, dsunmahi are allowed, and more usual, except from
roots with final consonant, as dhrs; which makes, for example,
ddhrmualways ddhrsnuma etc., and also ddhrsnuvan, ddhrsnuvi,
vatham, ddhrsnuvatam, ddhrsnuvata.
707.
Strong
akrnota, akrnotana.
stem-forms and Jana-ending are found only in RV., in
Augmentless forms with accent are minvan, hinvdn, rnutd.
1X PRESENT-SYSTEM.
236
-
Irregularities of the
nu and
[708
w-classes.
than thirty roots form their present-system in
the manner set forth above, by the addition of the class-sign
nu to the root they are aks, ac 'attain', talcs, dabh, cak, sagh,
Less
708.
:
1
dac, r, kr 'make', vr (ur), str, spr, rdh, trp, dhrs, i 'send
mi 'prop', hi, u,
(or in: see below, 716), ksi 'destroy', ci, dhi,
du, cru, su, sku, prus, dhu: and of these, several (as taks, sagh,
dac, u, skii) have only isolated forms of this class.
ap,
709. The
'enjoy', is said
root trp,
by the grammarians
to retain the
n
where, however, forms
while in the Veda the regular
of its class-sign unlingualized in the later language
of conjugation
change
of
class
this
hardly
occur;
made: thus, trpnu.
is
710. The root cru, 'hear', is contracted to cr before the
Its forms crnvise
class-sign, forming crno and crnu as stem.
and crnvire have been noted above (699).
.
The root dhu in
711.
the later language shortens its vowel,
and dhunu (earlier dhuno, dhunu).
the stem-forms dhuno
making
712. The
so-called root urnu, treated by the native grammarians as
and belonging to the root-class (I.), is properly a present-stem of
with anomalous contraction, from the root vr (or var}.
In the
dissyllabic
this
class,
has no forms which are not regularly made according to the nubut in the Brahmana language are found sometimes such forms as
urnauti, as if from an w-root of cl. I. (626); and the grammarians make for
Veda,
it
class;
it
its
a perfect, aorist, future,
impf.
,
aurnos, aurnot;
Its
etc.
its
2d
impv.
sing.
opt. mid., urnuvita
act.
(K.)
is
urnu
or urnuhi;
or urnvltd (TS.).
713. The roots of the other division, or of the ej-class,
are extremely few
they are tan, man, van, san ; also ksan (not
in V.: in (TB., and very rarely later), and kr 'make' (in late
:
Vedic and
later)
;
and BR. assume
in of the w-class instead of i
of the raw-class.
714.
is
The extremely common
clusively
fi
kr
(or
kar\
'make',
the strong form
^
n}.
It
of stem
it
(as
the ^ww-strengthening,
changed
to kur,
and
kuru.
fore
gT^
(being the only root of
according to the w-class
that class not ending in
IT
root
in the later language inflected in the present-system ex-
^ v v and q-\ m
well as the class-sign)
and that
so that the
The
has the irregularity that in
class-sign
Thus
:
the weak form
two forms of stem are
3
of the 1st du.
y of the opt. act.
in
u
is
and
^T(T
has
it
is
karo
always dropped bepi.,
and
also before
741T
VI. ^4-CLASS (FIRST, $Aw-CLA88).
243
such as bhdvanta (which are very common) are, of course, properly augmentless imperfects.
The Brahmanas (especially QB.) prefer the 2d sing,
A 3d pi. in antai (vartantai, KB.) has been
act. in asi and the 3d in at.
RV. has an example, area, of the briefer 1st sing. act.
noted once.
3.
738.
Present Optative.
The scheme
of optative endings as combined with
the final of an ez-stem was given in full above (566.
active.
middle.
d.
s.
s.
p.
d.
p.
1
bhdveyam bhdveva
bhdvema bhdveya
bhdvevahi
bhdveta
bhdveyatham bhdvedhvam
bhdves
bhdvetam
bhdvet
bhdvetam bhdveyus bhdveta
bhdvethas
bhdvemahi
3
The RV. has once the 3d
pi.
mid.
bhdveran
bhdveyatam
bharerata
one other example,
(for
see 752).
4.
739.
An
Present Imperative^
example of the imperative
inflection is
d.
s.
bhdvani bhdvava
d.
s.
p.
bhdvama
*N
^^
"V
"S
3
bhdvatam bhdvata
bhdvasva
WT
H^ri
IH^
bhdvatu bhdvatam bhdvantu
740.
The ending tana
:
^
^
is
bJidvantam
as rare in this whole conjuga-
the V. affords only bhajatana in the a-class
The ending
(and nahyatana in the 7/a-class 760).
the other hand, is not rare; the RV.
:
yacatat, rdksatat,
"N.
bhdvadhvam
bhdvetham
bhdvatam bhdvetam
in 2d pi. act.
tion as is iftana in the present
yachatat,
p.
bhdvavahai bhdvamahai
bhdvai
-
bhdva
:
middle.
active.
vahatdt;
tat
of
2d
sing, act.,
on
has avatat, osatat, dahatdt, bhavatdt,
to
which AV. adds jinvatat, dhavatat;
and the Brahmanas bring other examples.
5.
Present Participle.
741. The endings ^rT ant and
the present-stem, with loss,
stem-vowel:
mid.
HCHM
thus,
act.
qH
mana
are
added
to
before the former, of the final
HcfH bhdvant
(fern.
^T^tft Ihdvanti}-,
bhdvamana.
16*
IX. PRESENT-SYSTEM.
244
6.
An
742.
[742
Imperfect.
example of the imperfect
d.
s.
inflection is:
middle.
active.
dbhavam dbhavava
TOT^ 3WFT^
d.
s.
p.
dbhavama dbhave
^W^rT
p.
dbhavavahi dbhavamahi
EPWHH^ EW'^IH^
SW^EFT
dbhavas
dbhavatam dbhavata
dbhavathas dbhavetham dbhavadhvam
dbJiavat
dbhavatam dbhavan
dbhavata
743. No forms in fana
are
made
in
this
dbhavetam
dbhavanta
Ex-
tense from any o-class.
augmentless forms (which are not uncommon) are: cydvam, dvas,
ddhas, bddhat, bhdrat, cdran, ndpan; badhathas, vdrdhata, fdcanta. The subjunctively used forms of 2d and 3d sing. act. are more frequent than those
amples
of
of either of the
mote proper subjunctive persons.
Irregularities of the
-class.
A
744.
far larger number of roots form their presentsystem according to the a-class than according to any of the
other classes: in the RV., they are about two hundred and forty
in the AV.
about
(nearly two fifths of the whole body of roots)
,
;
two hundred (nearly the same proportion);
very nearly,
how many
in
are
they
the
to tell precisely, or
later language is not
possible (of the number "about a thousand", as usually stated,
the greater part are fictitious
see 108 a).
Among them are no
roots ending in long d
except a few which make an a-stem
:
some anomalous way: below, 749 a.
,in
A
745.
few verbs have irregular vowel-changes in forming
the present-stem: thus,
a. uh 'notice' has ^wna-strengthening (against 240): thus, ohate.
b. krp
(or fcrop),
on the contrary, remains unchanged
'lament',
:
thus,
krpate.
c.
guh,
d.
kram,
middle:
'hide',
thus, kramati, krdmate;
but hardly occurs;
a cam at i.
e.
mrj,
has prolongation instead of guna: thus, guhati.
lengthens its vowel in the active, but not in
'stride',
cam with
klam,
the
'tire',
preposition
is
a,
the
said to form klamati etc.,
'rinse
the
mouth',
forms
In the later language are found occasional forms of this class from
'wipe';
and they show the same vrddhi (instead of guna} which belongs
more proper inflection (627): thus, marjasva.
to the root in its
f.
to
The grammarians give
lengthen the u in
the
a
number
of roots
present-stem.
in urv,
which they declare
Only three are found in (quite
VI. A-CLASS (FIRST, b/lU-CLASS).
751]
245
All appear
use, and they show no forms anywhere with short u.
be of secondary formation from roots in r or ar.
The root murch or
murch, 'coagulate', has likewise only u in quotable forms.
limited)
to
g.
as rthiv.
The onomatopoetic root athiv, 'spew', is written by the grammarians
and declared to lengthen its vowel in the present-system.
746.
The
''embrace'.,
svanj,
roots
danc,
of which
'bite',
the
ranj,
nasal
is
'color',
in
'hang',
sanj,
other parts of the
conjugation not constant, lose it in the present-system
thus,
ddcati etc.; sanj forms both sajati and sajjati (probably for
sajyati,
or for sasjati from sasajati]
math or manth has mathati later.
:
;
In general, as the present of this class is a strengthening formation, a root that has such a nasal anywhere has it here also.
747. The roots gam, 'go', and yam, 'furnish', make the
present-stems gacha and ydcha: thus, gdchami etc.: see 608.
748. The root sad, 'sit', forms sida (conjectured
contracted from stsd for sisad)
thus, sidami etc.
to
be
:
749. Transfers to this class from other classes are not rare,
has been already pointed out above, both throughout the
as
The most noticeable
present-system and in occasional forms.
cases are the following
a. The roots in a, stha,
'stand', pa,
'drink', and ghra,
'smell', form the present-stems tistha (tisthami etc.), piba or (later)
piva (pibami etc.), and jighra (jighrami etc.); and, in the Veda,
da, 'give', and dha, 'place', form sometimes ddda and dddha,
han, 'slay', forms sometimes jighna, and hi, 'impel', forms jighya
:
all
see 671
4.
from
pinv,
simpler
these by transfer from the reduplicating class
b.
Secondary root-forms like
inv, jinv,
:
roots of the raw-class, are either found alongside their originals,
or have crowded these out of use: see 716.
750. On the other hand, the root dham or dhma, 'blow',
forms its present-stem from the more original form of the root
thus, dhdmati etc.
:
VII.
'
751.
Accented
-class (sixth,
The present-stem
?W-class).
of this class has the accent on
the class-sign ^ a, and the root remains unstrengthened. In
its whole inflection, it follows so closely the model of the
preceding
class,
unnecessary
that to
will be
give the paradigm in full
(only for the subjunctive,
to occur will be instanced).
all
the forms found
IX. PRESENT-SYSTEM.
246
Example of inflection
752.
root
:
[752
'enter';
fifST vi$,
stem,
vgd:
Present Indicative.
1.
middle.
active.
d.
s.
vicGmi
vicamas
victlvas
vifdma
vifdva
vifdni
vi(atha
,
(vicdti
j_
.
A
vifdmahai
fvifate
_i
<
,
,
_
vicantai
vifatte
[vifatai
[vifat
and
The only forms
of the briefer 1st sing. act. is mrksd.
example
single
in aithe
etc.
vicaithe
,
vi$an
vi^atas
,
vicamahe
vi$dvahai
vi$ai
vifas
{vifdsi
:
etc.
(vi?dse
_
{
\vi?a8ai
i,
.
3
vicavahe
etc.
Present Subjunctive.
2.
i
p.
vice
etc.
etc.
etc.
d.
s.
p.
aite are prnafthe
3.
viffyam
viceva
etc.
etc.
and yuvafte.
Present Optative.
vicema
viceya
etc.
The RV. has the ending tana once
in
vicevahi
viqemahi
etc.
etc.
tiretana
2d
etc.
pi.
and rata in
act.,
juserata 3d pi. mid.
Present Imperative.
4.
The
first
persons having been given above as subjunc-
tives, the second are added here:
2
,
f%5F
felrFT^ felrT
N^IH
mca
vicdtam
vicdta
vicAsva
etc.
etc.
etc.
etc.
The ending
tat is
N^I&IIH^
vicetham
feiy^
vicddhvam
etc.
etc.
found in RV. and AV. in mrdatat, vrhatdt, suvatat;
other examples are not infrequent in the
Brahmana language
:
thus, khidatat,
srjatdt.
5.
The
active
Present Participle.
participle
is
fek\i\^vi$dntf
the
middle
is
i^^WM vigdmana.
The feminine of the active participle is usually made from the strong
stem-form: thus, vifdnti; but sometimes from the weak: thus, sincantl and
sincati (RV. and AV.), tuddntl and tudati
(AV.): see above, 449 b.
VII.
756]
ACCENTED G-CLASS
6.
i
^foSR^
dvicam
247
SIXTH, tud-CLA.ss).
Imperfect.
^fciN
tjfoiiH
^rf^tl
4iief!MNf^
ytomJ^
dvicava
dvicama
dvice
dvicavahi
dvicamahi
etc.
etc.
etc.
etc.
etc.
Examples of augmentless forms accented are srjds,
The a-aorist (846 ff.) is in general the equivalent,
etc.
srjdt,
tirdnta.
as regards its form,
of an imperfect of this class.
Irregularities of the a-class.
753.
It is impossible to determine closely the limits of
partly because of the occurrence of forms unaccented,
unaccentuated texts, which might belong either to it or
this class,
or
in
partly because its modes and imperfect
form with those of the a-aorist (below, chap.
XI.), and their separation is not always practicable, and partly
for other reasons.
With considerable confidence may be reckoned
as belonging to it about seventy roots: namely, ksi, yu 'join',
to
the
preceding class,
are accordant in
ru 'roar', su (or su) 'stir up', dhu, hu, kr 'strew', gr 'swallow',
rikh or likh, sic, ich, vij, khid, vid 'find', vidh, ksip, lip, riph,
tr,
die, pic, ric, vie, is, tvis, mis, muc, uch, ubj, tuj, ruj, khud, tud,
nud, rud, lup, ubh, cubh, gur, jur, tur, bhur, sphur, jus, prus,
rus,
(or
uks, vrcc
cus,
rch,
(or vracc],
mrd. prn, mrn, krt
hhrajf),
prch
'cut',
(or prach],
crt,
rd,
trp,
rnj,
vnrc,
srj,
bhrjj
sprc,
rs
krs 'plough', mrks, vrs, drh, vrh or brh.
Some even of
these have either only isolated or very rare occurrences of a-forms.
'push',
The
roots ich, uch,
and rch are reckoned as substitutes in the
present-system for is 'wish', vas 'shine', and r 'go to' (608).
Prn and mrn have been noticed above (731) as secondary roots
from present-stems of the na-class
(V.).
754. Certain
peculiarities of this "body of roots are very noticeable: it
contains only one or two roots with long vowels, and none with long interior
vowels
;
very few with final vowels
as this forms a
system,
in
as
stitutes of
combination with
the
weak forms
;
r,
and none with a as radical vowel, except
which is then reduced in the present-
generally,
to r
or
some of the usual sub-
r.
755. The roots in i and u and u change those vowels into
and uv before the class-sign thus, ksiydti, suvdti (sva instead
of suva occurs in AV.; and the Brahmanas have forms in ksya
from ksi}.
iy
:
756.
gird,
jur,
The three roots in r form the present-stems kird,
and they are sometimes written as kir etc.; and gur,
are really only varieties of gr, jr, tr; and bhur and
tird,
tur
sphur are evidently related with other ar or r root-forms.
IX. PRESENT-SYSTEM.
248
757. Two other
[757
which are used only in middle forms, and in
roots
combination with the preposition a (sometimes further combined), make the
present-stems a-driya and a-priyd, and are reckoned as r or ar roots: dr,
It is a question whether
'regard', and pr, 'be busy' (neither is found in V.).
and the same
they are more properly reckoned to this class or as passives
question arises as to the stems mriyd and dhriyd, from the roots mr, 'die',
;
and dhr,
'hold':
758.
see below,
Although
773.
the
of this
present-stem
class
shows in
general a weak form of the root, there are nevertheless a number
of roots belonging to it which are strengthened by a penultimate
nasal.
Thus, the stem muncd is made from ymuc, 'release';
from l/sic, 'sprinkle'; vindd from yvid 'find'; krntd from
ykrt 'cut'; pined from ypig, 'adorn'; trmpd from }/trp, 'enjoy':
lumpd from yiup, 'break'; limpd from yiip, 'smear'; and occasional forms of the same character are met with from a few
others, as tundd from ytud, 'thrust'; umbha from yttbh, 'hold';
brn/id from ybr/i 'strengthen'; drnhd (beside drnhd] from ydrh,
TS.
'make firm'; cumbhd (beside qumbha] from yculh, 'shine'.
has crnthati from y$rath (instead of crathriati).
sincd
VIII.
759.
(
Fa-class (fourth, <%'-class).
The present stem of
cisely like that of the #-class
same abbreviated form
^760.
stem
^T^T
7
to
the
pre-
^
na ^^
'bind';
ndhya.
1.
Present Indicative.
middle.
d.
ndhyami
etc.
.
ndhyavas
ndhyamas
etc.
etc.
2.
ndhye ndhyavahe
etc.
etc.
ndhyamahe
etc.
Present Subjunctive.
ndhyama
ndhydni
d.
s.
ndhyai
ndhyavahai
fndhyasi
2
ya
as that of the a-class.
of inflection: root
Example
TJ
and may be presented in the
active.
1
adds
Its inflection is also
this class
accented but unstrengthened root.
ndhydmahai
,,
{
_,,
_.
ndhyasai
nahyadhvai
ndhydtdi
ndhydntdi
[ndhyas
3-1
ndhyatas
,
\ncthy at
A
3d
pi.
ndhyan
mid. in antai (jdyantdi) occurs once in TS.
76 !]
VHI. Ytf-CLASS (FOURTH.
etc
etc
-
249
.
Present Optative.
3.
ndhyeyam ndhyeva
rfw/'-CLASS
ndhyema
ndhyeya
etc.
-
ndhyevahi ndhyemahi
etc.
etc.
etc.
Present Imperative.
4.
2
^
ndhya
ndhyatam ndhyata
etc.
etc.
ndhyasva ndhyetkdm
etc.
etc.
ndhyadhvam
etc.
etc.
Of the ending tana, RV. has one
example, nahyatana; the ending
is
tat
found in asyatdt, chyatdt.
5.
The
Present Participle.
active participle
hyantl)', the middle
is
*1$lvX
6.
etc.
Examples
of
^rft
(fern,
nd-
Imperfect
dnahyam dmhyava dnahyama
etc.
ndhyant
^RH ndhyamana.
is
dnahye dnahydvahi dnahyamahi
etc.
etc.
augmentless forms
etc.
the
showing
etc.
accent belonging to
the
present-system are gdyat, pdfyat, pdfyan, jdyathds.
Irregularities of the ya-el&sa.
The
761.
in
number.
a.
the ya-class are more
as follows
roots of
They may be grouped
Roots signifying a state of feeling,
These are nearly half the whole
'be pleased';
we,
kup,
'be angry'; fcsam,
'be
class.
angry';
'be patient';
worn out
ksudh,
'be
'be pleased';
'be thirsty'; tras,
'be spoiled
trs,
1
;
tarn,
'be crazed'; druh,
drp,
;
'be
lean';
exhausted
'be alarmed';
muh,
'be
fat';
confused';
yas,
ject';
ran,
lubh,
'be
das,
'be ardent'; yudh,
'be happy';
ftar,
rddh,
pam, 'be
lustful';
'be weary';
mrs,
'be
'be hostile'; raj,
quiet';
hrs,
'be
pwc,
and nap, 'be missing
1
.
;
;
Some
trp,
1
;
dus,
1
;
'be minded';
man,
ill
condition';
fus,
radh,
med,
'be sub-
'be in pain';
rup,
'be
dry';
pram,
and we may perhaps add
of
these are
some only of later
and some have only sporadic forms
made perhaps under the influence of the analogy of the others.
use,
grdh,
;
'be in good condition';
'be hurt';
1
1
'be satisfied';
'be colored';
in pain';
excited
'be
:
krudh,
'be submissive
dam,
'be in
mrit,
'be agitated
tus,
;
'be excited
'be successful'; ris,
'be gratified';
'be deficient',
forgetful';
weary';
1
'be hostile'; pus,
budh, 'be awake'; bhram, 'be unsteady'; mad,
'be
'be
klam,
'be hungry'; ksubh,
'be
or body.
are (alphabetically) as follows
1
'be greedy'; jas,
mind
or a condition of
They
fcrp,
than a hundred
:
of only earlyof this class,
IX PRESENT-SYSTEM.
250
-
[761
b. Roots which have a more or less distinctly passive sense, and which
evident and in part presumable transfers from the passive or
and sometimes also with assumption of active
i/a-class, with change of accent,
are in part
not possible to draw precisely the limits
It is
endings.
of
the division, or
where passive form and meaning pass into intransitive
but there are a number of clear cases, where in the older language the accent
wavers and changes, and the others are to be judged by their analogy. Thus,
determine in
all cases
;
muc forms mucyate once or twice, beside usual mucydte, in RV. and AV.;
and in the Brahmanas the former is the regular accent and similar changes
:
are found in other verbs
:
thus,
ji or jya,
ksi
'destroy',
ha
pac, dr
'leave',
Cases closely analogous with these are miyate etc. from
ymi or ml, 'lessen'; ricyate etc. from yric, 'leave'; viyate etc. from j/w,
'impregnate'; fiyante from y^ya, 'coagulate'; tfsyate etc. from Yfis, 'leave';
bhid.
chid,
'burst',
puryate etc. from j/pr, 'fill'; and Itipyate,
be ranked along with them.
Active
forms are early made sporadically from some of these
thus, drhya (RV.),
ksiyati and puryati (TA.); and dlryati, klipyati, and other like cases, are
drhyasva from ydrhh, 'make
tdpyate, tlryate,
found
The AV. has
later.
has aprusyat,
complement
c.
way
A
And
to
'grows old' (later also jiryate)', and QB.
from the earliest period jdyate etc., 'is
birth'.
yjan, 'give
small body of roots
is
'play';
on';
nri,
are either transitive, or not intransitive in a
them with
connects
'send';
diu,
ylifj
jlryati,
'was sprinkled'.
that clearly
'throw';
may
either altered passive or original ya-lormation from y'ja, serving as
is
born',
firm';
fdhyate,
klfyyate,
fra, 'save';
either
of
nah, 'bind'; pap,
'overcome' (RV., once); tan,
tur,
'dance';
'hang on';
pad,
'go';
6/irap,
'fall';
t>ap,
'bleat';
d.
A
1.
Roots reckoned as
'hover';
dl,
and nap are better classed here than under
vyadh,
:
'split';
'thunder' (RV., once),
'succeed';
sidh,
the above classes
'see';
n,
'sew';
r/,
'press
srlv,
'flow';
'shine'
dip,
thus, as
slv,
'fail';
(and perhaps das
a).
body of roots, of various meaning, and of somewhat questionable
character and relations, which are by the native grammarians reckoned as ending
with diphthongs thus,
:
ending in ai and belonging to the a-class
:
thus,
As these show abundantly (and in most cases exclusively)
gdyati from ygai.
a-forms outside the present-system, there seems no reason why they should
not be regarded as a-roots of the ya-c.la.ss.
They are: ga 'sing'; .gla, 'be
wearied or disgusted':
va,
'droop';
fj/a,
dhya,
'coagulate';
'think';
pra,
pya,
'cook';
'swell';
stya,
mia,
'wither';
'be coagulated';
ra,
'bark';
and, in one
two sporadic forms, fca, 'burn'; da 'cleanse'; sta, 'be hidden'; spha, 'be
Tra, 'save', was given in the preceding division.
Many of these are
evident extensions of simpler roots with added a.
With them may be
mentioned tay, 'extend' (compare pass, tayate from ytan: 772), and c%,
or
fat'.
shy or anxious' (which connects itself with uses of yd}.
2. Roots reckoned as ending in e and belonging to the a-class: thus,
dhdyati from ydhe. These, too, have a-forms, and sometimes t-forms, outside
'be
the present-system, and
to
must be regarded
a before the class-sign of this
class,
as a-roots,
or
either with
a weakened
with a weakened to
I or
i
and
inflected according to the a-class.
hva,
'hide';
'call'
found from
ma,
sympathize,
pity';
Roots
3.
They
are
dha,
:
and a
With
'exchange'.
'be 'wasted'
vyay,
form of
artificially
va,
'suck';
'weave'; vya,
example or two are
them may be mentioned day, 'share,
(one of the forms of y7w);
retribution' (probably a
251
Ya-CLAss (FOURTH, div-CLAss).
VIII.
767]
(denom.
late
of vyaya?}-,
with
'visit
cay,
ci),
marked with
a final o
(108c) and reckoned
the radical vowel
to this
being declared dropped before the class-sign
thus,
They have, as showing an accented yd, no real right to be
dydti from do.
classed here at all, but seem more accordant in formation with the presentclass,
:
stems sva and ksya, noticed under the preceding class (755).
Outside these
present-systems, they show a and i-forms; and the ya in the only RV. ocwhich
currence, and in most of the AV. occurrences, is resolved into ia
in the true
is
class-sign ya
the
case only
in very rare and purely sporadic
They might, then, perhaps be best viewed as a-roots with a weakand inflected by the a-class, but without the usual conversion of
i,
They are: da 'cut', da 'bind'; ca, 'sharpen'; sa, 'bind'; cha,
(755).
instances.
ened to
i
to
'cut
iy
off'.
762. The
j/a-class is the only one thus far described which shows any
tendency toward a restriction to a certain variety of meaning. In this tendency, as well as in the form of its sign, it appears related with the class
the passive,
meaning which is next to be taken up
Though very far from being as widely used as the latter beside
other present-systems, it is in no very small number of cases an intransitive
conjugation by the side of a transitive of some other class.
of distinctly defined
with t/a-sign.
763. The roots of this class ending in am lengthen their
vowel in forming the present-stem
they are tarn, dam, bhram
also
klam (hardly found in
cram,
occurs), cam,
(but bhramyat
for example, camyati, crhmyati.
use), and ksam (but ksamyate also)
:
:
764.
The root mad has
765.
The
are written
roots in
the
w
same lengthening:
namely,
by the grammarians with
iv,
div,
siv,
thus, madyati.
sriv
(or criv)
and a similar lengthening
in the present-system is prescribed for them.
They appear to be properly dm etc., since their vocalized
forms
is
always u
div
to
this
is
have nothing
by
proved
which changes to dyu (361 d):
desiderative stem jujyusa from yjlv (1028h).
assumed root
div,
:
'shine',
766. From the
roots jr
and
tr
(also
written as jur and
final in other
to
do with the
compare
also the
tir or tur]
come
the stems jirya and tirya, and j&rya and tUrya (the last two only in RV.);
from pr comes pUrya.
767. The
root
vyadh
is
abbreviated to vidh:
thus,
vfdhyati.
And any
root which in other forms has a penultimate nasal loses it here
thus, drhya
from drnh or drh; bhrdfya (also bhfcya) from bhrahf or bhraf; rajya from
:
ran? or raj.
IX. PRESENT-SYSTEM.
252
Accented
IX.
A
768.
certain
middle endings,
is formed from
[768
Passive conjugation.
//</-class:
form of present-stem, inflected with
and
used only with a passive meaning,
is
all roots for
a passive conjugation.
which there
occasion to
is
an accented
Its sign is
7J
make
yd added
hanyd from j/^T han, ETTQJ apyd
from j/ETPT ap JT^T grhyd from J/JT^n grh (or grah}\ and
"X
so on, without any reference to the class according to which
to
the root:
thus, t^*y
}
C.
(.
the active and middle forms are made.
The form
of the root to which the passive-sign is
accent
is on the
the
thus,
(since
sign) the weak one
a penultimate nasal is dropped, and any abbreviation which is
\ 769.
added is
made
:
weak forms
the
in
of
the
perfect
(794),
in
the
aorist
optative (922 b), or before to, of the passive participle (954), is
made also in the passive present-system thus, ajya from j/aw/,
:
badhyd from ybandh, ucya from j/wzc, ijyd from yyaj.
770. On the other hand, a final vowel of a root is in
general liable to the same changes as in other parts of the
verbal system where it is followed by y: thus.,
and u
lengthened: thus, miya from ymi; suyd from ysu;
changed to i : thus, dlyd from yda ; hiyd from
yha: but jnayd from yjna, khyayd from ykhyd;
C. r final is in general changed to ri: thus, kriyd from ykr- but if
a.
i
b.
a
final are
final is
usually
preceded by two consonants (and
also,
is
it
claimed,
in the root
r),
instead the pwna-strengthening: thus, smart/a from j/smr, staryd from
and in those roots which show a change of r
verbs
:
see 242), that change
thus, firyd from y$r;
\
771.
The
that of the
is
made here
therefore, in the
T5FTET
is
(so-called f-
lengthened
:
inflection of the passive-stem is precisely like
other a- stems
Example
and ur
has
ytr;
puryd from ypr.
it
;
only in accent from
differs
that of the class last given.
stem
to ir
and the vowel
also,
it
It
may be
here presented,
same abbreviated form:
of inflection: root
^i kr,
kriyd:
1.
Present Indicative.
d.
kriye
etc.
kriyavahe
etc.
p.
kriy&mahe
etc.
'make'; passive-
IX.
773]
ACCENTED ya-CLASS
Present Subjunctive.
2.
The forms noticed
alone here instanced
as
occurring in
the older language are
:
a.
1
253
(PASSIVE).
p.
kriyai
kriydmahai
2
kriyddhvai
tkriydte
3
\kriydtai
The 3d
pi.
ending antai
found once (ucyantai,
K.).
Present Optative.
3.
No
is
kriyeya
kriyevahi
kriyemahi
etc.
etc.
etc.
forms of the passive optative chance to occur in RV. or AV.;
they
are found, however, in the Brahmanas.
4.
kriydsva
hriyetham
etc.
etc.
5.
This
is
Present Imperative.
kriyddhvam
etc.
Present Participle.
made with
the suffix JTR
mana:
thus,
kriydmana.
In use, this participle
ticiple
hy
its distinctively
'in process of doing',
is well distinguished from the other passive parpresent meaning: thus, krtd, 'done'; but kriydmana,
or 'being done'.
6.
dkriye
etc.
The passive-sign
is
Imperfect.
dkriyavahi
etc.
dkriyamahi
etc.
never resolved into ia in the Veda.
772. The roots tan and khan usually form their passives
from parallel roots in a: thus, taydte, khaydte (but also tanydte,
The corresponding form to |//aw, namely jhyate (above,
khanydte).
761 b), is apparently a transfer to the preceding class.
773. By their form, mriydie, 'he dies', and dhriydte, 'he
maintains himself, is steadfast', are passives from the roots mr,
and dAr, 'hold'; although neither is used in a proper
'die',
passive sense, and mr is not transitive except in the derivative
With them are to be compared the
form mrn (above, 731).
and a-priyd (above, 757), which may possibly be
stems
a-driyd
IX. PRESENT-SYSTEM.
254
[773
peculiar adaptations of meaning of passives
and
'fill',
'scatter
dr,
from the roots pr,
.
774. Instances are occasionally found in the later language of an
apparent assumption of active instead of middle endings by passive persons
of the present-system.
Probably, however, these are rather to be regarded
as
examples of transfer to the
775.
such as were considered above (761
t/a-class,
As was
b).
above (607), the formation and
out
pointed
in dya (the tenth or cwr-class of the Hindu
grammarians) will be treated under the head of secondary conjugation (chap. XIV.), along with the intensive and desiderative
formations, because, in all alike, the stem is not a present-stem
merely, but has been extended also into other tense-systems.
inflection of stems
Uses
Present and Imperfect.
of the
776. The uses of the mode-forms of the present-system
have been already briefly treated in the preceding chapter (572 ff.).
The tense-uses of the two indicative tenses, present and imperfect, call here for only a word or two of explanation.
777. The present has, besides its strictly present use, the
same side-uses which belong in general to the tense namely,
the expression of habitual action, of future action, and of past
:
in lively narration.
a.
Examples
of future
meaning
are:
abruvan hrstd gachdmo vayam apt
(MBh.), 'they said with gladness, "we will go too'"; agnir
yatra vdnchati ndisadhah (MBh.),
Nishadhan should desire'.
atmabhavam prdddd
'Agni gave his own presence wherever the
b. Examples of past meaning are tittard sur ddharah putra dsld ddnuh
nd dhenuh (RV.), 'the mother was over, the son under; there
Danu lies, like a cow with her calf; prahasanti ca tdm kecid abhyasuyanti
:
$aye sahdvatsd
cd 'pare akurvata
daydm
kecit
(MBh.), 'some
ridicule
her,
some
revile her,
some
pitied her'; tato yasya vacandt tatrd 'valambitds tarn sarve tiraskurvanti
(H.),
'thereupon they
all
fall
to
reproaching him by whose advice they had
alighted there'.
778. In connection with certain particles, the present has
rather
a.
more
With
definitely the value of a past tense.
pwrcf,
'formerly':
thus,
saptarsin
Thus:
u ha sma vdi purd rkshd
ity
dcaksate (QB.), 'the seven sages, namely, are of old called the bears'; tanmdtram api cen mahyam na daddti purd bhavdn (MBh.), 'if you have never
before given
b.
me
even an atom".
With the
asseverative particle sma.'
thus,
frdmena ha sma vdt tad
devd jayanti ydd esdm jdyyam dsd rsayaf ca (QB.), 'for, in truth, both gods
and sages were wont to win by penance what was to be won'; dvistah kalind
dyute jlyate sma nalas
was beaten in play'.
tadd (MBh.),
'then
Nala,
being possessed by Kali,
USES OF THE PRESENT AND IMPERFECT.
781]
No example
of this
construction
found in either RV.
is
255
or
AV.,
or
elsewhere in the metrical parts of the Veda.
In the Brahmanas, only habitual
action is expressed by it
In all periods of the language, the
(Delbruck).
use of sma with a verb as pure asseverative
particle, with no effect on the
tense-meaning, is very common; and the examples later are hardly to be
distinguished from the present of lively narration
of which the whole
construction
doubtless a form.
is
779. The imperfect has remained unchanged in value through
the whole history of the language
it is the tense of narration
it
expresses simple past time, without any other implication.
:
;
Compare what is said later (end of chap. X. and chap. XI.) as to the
value of the other past tenses, the perfect and aorist.
CHAPTER
X.
THE PERFECT-SYSTEM.
L
780.
THE
perfect-system in the later language, as has
been seen above
and a
consists only of
(535),
an indicative tense
both of them in the two voices, active and
participle
middle.
In the oldest language, the perfect has also its modes and
pluperfect, or is not less full in its
augment-preterit, or
apparatus of forms than
its
^
781.
is
The formation
in all verbs, differences
inate consequence,
The
the present-system.
of the perfect
is
essentially alike
among tbem being
of only subord-
or having the character of irregularities.
characteristics of the formation are these
a stem
a.
made by
:
reduplication of the root;
b. a distinction between stronger and weaker forms of
stem,
the
former being used
(as
conjugation) in the singular active,
persons
c.
in presents of the First
the latter in
all
other
;
endings in some respects peculiar,
unlike those of
the present;
d.
the frequent use, especially in the later language,
of a union-vowel
*
between stem and endings.
x
256
PERFECT-SYSTEM.
-
Reduplication. In
\ 782.
[732
roots beginning with a con-
which forms the perfect-stem
sonant, the reduplication
is
of the same character with that which forms the present-
stem of the reduplicating conjugation-class (II.
hut with this exception, that radical 5[ a and
ff r
have only
(or 3^|" ar)
the reduplicating syllable
thus,
:
from
y^
^
5TT
i,
pr,
and
ft
vowel of
as
'fill',
comes
but the perfect-stem qq papr ;
the present-stem fqq pip?,
from
and never
5f a,
see 643)
:
comes the present-stem MHI mima,
but the perfect-stem r^fT mama; and so on.
'measure',
j/JTT,
Irregularities of roots with initial consonants will
^
reduplication are these
a.
A
:
root with initial
sonant repeats the
vowel to
51T
ad from
y^
as,
be given below, 784.
For roots beginning with a vowel, the rules of
783.
f
a,
a
f
before a single final con-
which then fuses with the
a (throughout the whole inflection):
ad; and in
like
manner
radical
thus,
5TR an,
ENs^a/,
ETFJ ah.
The
from
root TR r forms likewise throughout
Eff^"
ar
(as if
ET^" ar].
b.
A
root with
^
i
or
3
u before a single
final
conso-
nant follows the same analogy, except in the strong forms
of the radical syllable has
(sing, act.), where the vowel
guna,
becoming ^
vowel maintains
e
or
EfT
o; before
this,
the reduplicating
independent form, and is separated from
the radical syllable by its own semivowel: thus, from y
'^T
35 comes
^T is in weak forms, but tm iyes in strong; from
its
1/3*1 uc, in like manner,
*N
The
root 5
i,
come
^T
uc and 3^Trf uvoc.
-\
-V
a single vowel, falls under this rule, and
forms ^1 ly and
^ET iye.
c. Roots which
begin with vowels long by nature or by
do
not
in
position
general make a perfect-system, but use
instead a periphrastic formation, in
which the perfect tense
REDUPLICATION.
78'
of an auxiliary verb
noun
(see
To
an
to the accusative of a verbal
yap (probably originally ap: 1087 fj
making the constant perfect-stem ap
however,
exception,
from ap :
(as if
added
below, chap. XV.: 1070 ff.).
this rule,
constitutes
is
257
above.,
a).
For the peculiar reduplication an, belonging
vowels, see below,
to certain roots with initial
788.
784. A number of roots beginning with va and ending
with a single consonant, which in various of their verbal forms
and derivatives abbreviate the va to u, do it also in the perfect,
and are treated like roots with initial u (above, 783 b), except
that they retain the
the singular active.
form of root in the strong persons of
Thus, from yvac come uc and uvac ; from
full
come us and uvas ; and so on.
The roots showing this abbreviation
\/vas
vah ; and va, 'weave'
follow the same rule.
cas,
A
the
single
(so-called
root beginning
ve
:
are vac, vad, vap, vac,
761 d, 2), is said to
with ya, namely yaj,
same contraction, forming the stems
iyaj
and
f
has
offer',
If.
785. A number of roots having ya after a first initial consonant take t (from the y] instead of a in the reduplicating
thus, from yvyac comes vivyac ; from Ypya comes pipya.
These roots are vyac, vyath, vyadh, vya, jya, pya; and, in the Veda,
tyaj, with cyu and dyu, which have the root-vowel u.
syllable
also
A
:
single root with va is treated in the
same way
:
namely
which forms
susvap.
These roots are for the most part abbreviated in the weak forms
svap,
see
:
below, 794.
786. A considerable number of roots have in the Veda a
long vowel in their reduplication.
trs,
Thus, of roots reduplicating with a: kan, kip, gr 'wake', grdh, tan, trp,
vas
dhrs, nam, mdh, mrj, mrp, ran, radh, rabh, vale, van, vat,
dhr,
'attack',
dadhdra
vrt,
vrj,
isolated cases
is
;
common
1020
For jagr, see
Of
vrdli,
pad,
sah,
Some
skambh.
of
these
occur
only
in
with short vowel. Most are Vedic only but
also in the Brahmana language, and is even found later.
some have
also forms
;
below.
roots reduplicating with I:
the so-called roots (676) dldhl and dldl,
which make the perfect from the same stem with the present thus, dldetha,
has pipye, pipyus,
diddya ; dldhima, didhyus (also didhiyus, dldiyus). But plpl
:
etc.,
with short
Of
i.
In AV. occurs once jlhida.
roots reduplicating with
u: ju and
fit
(or pt>5).
few roots beginning with the (derivative: 42) palatal mutes
the radical
and aspiration show a reversion to the more original guttural in
17
Grammar.
Whitney,
787.
A
x
258
PERFECT-SYSTEM.
-
syllable after the reduplication:
yhi forms jighi;
forms jigi;
thus,
yd
[737
forms ciki;
yhan forms jaghan
forms
}/cit
appear in other reduplicated forms of these roots). A root da,
by the grammarians to form digi: but neither root nor perfect
said
A
788.
number
small
cikit;
yji
same reversions
(and the
of roots with initial a or r
'protect',
is
is
quotable.
(ar)
show
the anomalous reduplication an in the perfect.
Thus, in the Veda:
or
yanj
]/ap,
anapma
aj,
which forms the pres. andkti
has the perfect
HI.),
(cl.
(with anaja and anajyat);
anaje etc.
'attain'
etc.
which comes once anacamahai], has the weak forms
and the strong forms ananpa and anapa
(from
anapt/am),
(with opt.
along with the regular apa etc.;
yrdh (from which comes once rnddhat) has anrdhe;
has anrctis and anrcey<rc or arc
yarh has (in TS.) anrhus;
anaha (RV., once) has been referred
to a root ah,
elsewhere unknown,
but with altogether doubtful propriety.
The later grammar, then, sets up the rule that roots beginning with a
and ending with more than one consonant have an as their regular redupli-
and explained as of
cation
;
this formation
;
and such perfects are taught from
roots like afcs, ar;,
and anc or ac
;
but the only other quotable forms appear to be anarchat (MBh.) and anarsat
(TA.); which are accordingly reckoned as "pluperfects".
One
789.
following
two individual cases of irregularity are the
or
:
a. The extremely common root bhu, 'be', has the anomalous reduplication ba, forming the stem babhu; and, in the Veda,
ysu forms
b.
ja
The
manner
in like
root
bhr,
(as also in intensive:
c.
The
sasu.
has in the Veda the anomalous reduplication
1002b): but RV. has once also the regular babhre.
'bear',
root sthiv,
'spew', forms either tisthiv
(B.
et
al.)
or tisthlv.
d. Vivakvan (RV., once) is doubtless participle of yvac, with irregular
redublication (as in the present, 660).
790.
ing cases
a.
latest,
Absence of reduplication
met with
in the follow-
The root vid 'know' has, from the earliest period to the
a perfect without reduplication, but otherwise regularly
made and
has
is
:
the
inflected:
thus,
veda,
meaning of a present.
vettha,
etc.,
The root
pple
vid 'find'
vidv&ns.
It
forms the
regular viveda.
b. A few other apparently perfect forms lacking a reduplication are
found in RV.: they are taksathus, yamdtus, skambhdthus and skambhus, nindima
(for
ninidima?),
dhise
And AV. has cetatus.
common in the oldest
and dhire
The
(?
ydha),
and vidre and arhireC? see 613).
participial words dafvdns,
language.
midhvdns, sahvahs are
STRONG AND
793"|
One
c.
or two sporadic cases
WEAK
STEM-FORMS.
259
have been quoted from the
later
language
:
namely, fahsus and pansire (MBh.).
791. For an anomalous
case
or
two of
reduplicated preposition,
see
1087f.
below,
Strong and weak stem-forms.
792.
In the three
persons of the singular active, the root-syllable
and exhibits usually a stronger form than
The
tense-inflection.
difference
is
effected partly
ening the root in the three persons referred
weakening
/
it
in the others, partly
As regards
793.
A
by
is
accented,
in the rest of the
by strength-
to,
partly
by
doing both.
the strengthening
:
vowel takes either the guna or vrddhi change
in 1st sing, act., guna in 2d, and vrddhi in 3d: thus, from
ytf bhl, 1st fsft bibhe or f^R bibhai ; 2d i^R bibhe; 3d
bibhai; from y%\ kr, 1st ^Fu|" cakdr or *Jtil^ cakar, 2d
a.
final
cakdr, 3d ^37T|" cakdr.
But the u of ybhu remains unchanged, and adds v before
a vowel-ending thus, babhuva etc.
:
%
Medial
to.
a before a single
the analogy of a final vowel, and
final
consonant follows
lengthened or vriddhied
is
and optionally in the first: thus, from
2d t&V{tatdp, 3d
cfflWatdp or
in the 3d. sing.,
1st
tap,
t\mj,atap,
tatap,
In the Veda,
rules in the
first
however, the weaker of the two forms allowed by these
is almost exclusively in use: thus, 1st only bibhdya,
person
The only exceptions noticed
3d bibhdya, tat&pa.
tatdpa,
jagrdha (doubtful reading) in
c.
A
medial short vowel has in
the guna- strengthening (where this
from
j/gqj
druh comes
\d^\ viveg; from
y^fift
cakdra and
are
AV.
all
is
three persons alike
possible
:
240)
:
thus,
l^FJ dudroh; from j/fipT^V comes
krt comes r^\^cakdrt.
to apply to
if it has
as
tha
has
ending
simple
sing,
itha (below, 797), the accent is allowed to fall on any one of
the syllables of the word, and the root-syllable if unaccented has
sometimes the weak form (namely, in contracted stems with e for
medial a : below, 794 e and in certain other verbs thus, vivijithd
17*
d.
the
2d
These rules are said by the grammarians
always when
it
;
:
;
.
X. PERFECT-SYSTEM.
260
The
[793
however, appears to afford no example of a 2d
ending, accented on any other than the radical syllable,
or failing to conform to the rules of strengthening as given above (in a, b, c).
e. Sporadic instances of a strengthening in other than the singular
earlier
whatever
sing.,
language,
its
And the roots pr, pr,
persons are found in RV.: thus, yuyopimd, vivefus.
j
and dr 'tear are said by the grammarians to have the strong stem in the
weak forms; and jr 'decay' to be allowed to do the same.
f. The root mrj has (as in the present-system
627) vrddhi instead
guna in strong forms thus, mamdrja ; and yguh (also as in present 745
has u instead of o.
:
:
794.
a.
It
:
As
regards the weakening in weak forms
has been seen above (783 b) that roots
of
c)
:
beginning
or u fuse reduplicating and radical syllable together to i
or u in the weak forms; and (784) that roots contracting va
and ya to u or i in the reduplication do it also in the root in
with
i
weak forms,
the two elements here also coalescing to u or i.
few roots having ya and va after a first initial consonant, and
reduplicating from the semivowel (785), contract the ya and va to i and u:
The exthus, vivic from yvyac, vividh from yvyadh, susup from ysvap.
b.
A
tended roots jya, pyd, vyd, $ya, hva show a similar apparent contraction,
making their weak forms from the simpler roots ji, pi, m, CM, 7m, while hva
must and fvd may get their strong forms also from the same (and it is
questionable whether from the others strong forms occur).
The
root grabh or grah (if it be written thus) contracts to grh, making
forms of stem jagrdh (1st and 2d sing, act.), jagrah (3d), and
jagrh; but prach (if it be so written) remains unchanged throughout.
C.
the three
A
number of roots having medial a between single cond.
sonants drop that vowel. These are, in the later language, gam,
Jthan, Jan, han, ghas: they form the weak stems jctgm, jakhn,
but RV. has
jajn, jaghn (compare 637), jaks (compare 640)
:
once jajanus.
from
In the old language are found in like manner mamndthe and mamnate
}/man,- vavne from yvan; tatne, tatnise, tatnire from ytan (beside
tatane,
and
tate,
as if
from yta); paptima and paptus and paptivdns from
e); saccima and safcus, sacce and safdre
ypat (beside pet-forms; below,
from ysac.
e. Roots in general having medial a before a single final
consonant, and beginning also with a single consonant that is
that is, not an asrepeated unchanged in the reduplication
contract their root and reduplia guttural mute, or h
thus,
together into one syllable, having e as its vowel
ysad forms the weak stem sed, ypac forms pec, yyam forms
yem; and so on.
pirate,
cation
:
not having the form here defined are declared by the
most of them optionally;
undergo the same contraction
Certain roots
grammarians
to
STEM-FORMS; ENDINGS.
797]
261
and examples of them all are of rare occurrence (of one only, bhaj, quotable
from the older language).
They are as follows: raj (occurs in MBh.) and
radh (radh?), notwithstanding their long vowel; phan, phal, bhaj (occurs in
RV. etc.), though their initial is changed in reduplication; trap, tras (occurs
in MBh.),
syam,
though they begin with more than one consonant;
svan,
dambh (forming debh from the weaker dabh), though it ends with more than
one; and bhram (occurs in KSS.), bhraj, granth, ^ranth, svanj, in spite of
more reasons than one
This contraction
ithd:
thus, tenitha
to the contrary.
allowed
is
in
also
beside tatantha (but
2d sing. act. when the ending is
no examples are quotable from the
older language).
The
roots
pap
and dad
(from da:
672)
are
said
to
reject
the
con-
but no perfect forms of either appear to have been met with in use.
From ytr (or tar) occurs terus (R.); and jerus from yjr is authorized
both against the general analogy of roots in r.
by the grammarians
traction
:
f.
Roots ending in a lose their a before all endings beginning with a vowel, including those that assume the unionvowel i (796)
unless in the latter case it be preferable to
regard the
as a
i
weakened form of the
a.
Endings, and their union with the stem.
795.
The
general scheme of endings of the perfect indicative has
been already given (553); and it has also been pointed out
(543)
that roots ending in
TT
a have
^ au
in
1st
and 3d
sing, active.
Those of the endings which begin with a con-
796.
(
sonant
vahe,
-
namely %
-
R%
make,
9
tha,
dhve,
^
\
va,
JJ
ma
H
in active;
re in middle
3sc
se,
are very often,
language usually, joined to the base with
the help of an interposed union-vowel ^ i.
and in the
later
The union-vowel
verbal
system:
i
is
found widely used also in other parts of the general
aorist, the futures, and the verbal
namely, in the sibilant
nouns and adjectives
(as
also
in other classes of derivative
later language, a certain degree of correspondence is seen
parts of the
same verb,
as regards their use or
stems).
among
In the
the different
non-use of the connective;
it can
but this correspondence is not so close that general rules respecting
be given with advantage ; and it will be best to treat each formation by
which the use of
itself.
has estab-
The perfect is the
lished itself most widely and firmly in the later language.
tense in
797.
The most important
t
rules as to the use of ^
the later language are as follows:
*
in
X. PERFECT-SYSTEM.
262
a.
re of
The"^
3d
pi.
mid. has
[797
it
always.
The other consonant-endings, except
b.
take
sing, act.,
iha
5J
of 2d
in nearly all verbs.
it
But
it is rejected throughout by eight verbs
namely Ar
Ihr 'bear', sr 'go', vr 'choose', dru 'run', cru 'hear',
stu 'praise', sru 'flow'; and it is allowably (not usually) rejected
by some others, in general accordance with their usage in other
'make',
formations.
In 2d sing, act., it is rejected not only by the eight
verbs just given, but also by many others, ending in vowc.
or
els
in
consonants,
which in other formations have no
but it is also taken by
^ i;
other formations ;
and it
verbs which reject
many
optional in
is
cluding those in %R a (of which the
is
ending
The
the grammarians,
run out into
itha,
5TT
and most of those in
^2f itha],
rules of
infinite
detail,
especially
and
as
many
is lost
^
',
3
,
in
it
verbs, in-
when
and
the
3
u.
regards the use of iha or
not wholly consistent with one
"2-tre
and, as the forms are by no means frequent, it is not possible at
present to criticise the statements made, and to tell how far they are founded
on the facts of usage.
another;
With
this
into
changed
a
i,
or
y
final
iy.
radical
The u
or
i
of ~\/bhu
i
is
not
combined,
but
becomes uv throughout
before a vowel.
In the
798.
otherwise
Thus
.
In the RV.,
a.
older
language,
the
the union-vowel
i
is
sonants provided the last syllable of the stem
wise:
uvocitha,
thus, dsitha,
usage
is
in
quite
part
:
viveditha,
taken by roots ending in conis a heavy one, but not other-
but tatdntha and vivydktha; ucimd,
yuyopimdj but jaganma and yuyujma; ucise, jajnise,
sasahise, but vivitse and dadrkse ; bubhujmdhe and $a$admdhe etc. (no examples of ivahe or imahe chance to occur, nor any of either idhve or dhve}\
sedima,
paptima,
yetire,
duduhre, pasprdhre,
tataksire, but caklpre, vividre,
The only exception in RV. is vettha
(and so on twenty-two forms).
The
from yvid, without i (in Br., also attha from yah: below, 801 a).
jajnire,
ijire,
tatasre
:
other Vedic texts
Brahmanas 3d
sasrjire,
pi.
present nothing inconsistent with this rule, but in the
forms in ire are made after light syllables also
thus,
:
bubudhire.
b. In roots ending with a vowel, the early usage is more nearly like
Thus: for roots in a the rule is the same (except that no 2d sing,
the later.
in itha is
met
sons with
i
with),
as
dadhimd,
dadhise, dadhidhve, dadhire (the only perroots in r appear also to follow
quotable from RV. and AV.);
EXAMPLES OF INFLECTION.
800]
the later rule
and in 3d
263
as cakrse, paprse, vavrse, vavrmdhe, but dadhrise
:
mid. both cakrire
pi.
and dadhrire;
and
jabhrise,
ybhu has both babhutha
But there are found
(usually) and babhuvitha, but only babhuvimd (AV.).
against the later rules, susuma, cicyuse, juhure, and juhure, without i: the
instances are too few to found a rule upon.
799. The ending
of
rire
3d
pi.
mid.
is
found in RV. in six forms
namely, cikitrire, jagrbhrire, dadrire, bubhujrire, vividrire, sasrjrire
SV. adds duduhrire.
800.
Examples
of inflection.
tion of the rules given above,
may be
By way
given in
fect indicative inflection of the following verbs
As example
a.
final consonant,
we
take the root ^TJ budh,
is
^t^T bubodh; weak
form,
its
strong
SRTJ bu-
bubudhiva
bubudhimd bubudhe
^^ ^
^^
bubudhdtus
d.
s.
.
bubodhitha bubudhdthus bubtidhd
The
full the per:
middle.
d.
bubodha
:
which
of illustra-
'know':
active.
2
to
of the normal inflection of a root with
form of perfect-stem
bubodha
;
y
bubudhiis
bubudhivdhe btibudhim&he
^_
^^
bubudhise bubudhathe
bubudhidhve
,
bubudhe
asserted variety of possible accent in
.
bubudhate
2d
sing. act.
bubudhire
(above,
793d)
needs to be noted both in this and in the remaining paradigms.
b.
As example
final i or w-vowel,
forms of stem are
2
of the normal inflection of a root with
we may
HTO
take the root
ninyimd ninye
nindya, ninhya
ninyivd
i^r, PnRj^
in-dy^ SRI
nine fha, nindyitha ninydthus ninyd
3
PKIHU
o v
PRUT
"
t
ninydtus
ninaya
The
cikriyus,
m, 'lead': its
and ft^ ninl.
ninyivdhe ninyimdhe
PiP^5
PFOT
ftfefij
ninyise
ninyhthe
ninyidhve
PRR
."s f^F&
.,
ninye
ninyus
would make in weak forms
ybhu makes babhnva, babhutha
root kri
etc.;
^ft
nindy or pRTTT ninay,
Pi^icJ
L
Mp^l(
'
ninyate
ninyire
cikriyivd,
cikriydtus,
(V.)
or babhuvitha,
X. PERFECT-SYSTEM.
264
babhuvivd,
u change
c.
babkuvtts; bab/mve, babhuvire, etc.; other roots in
this to uv before the initial vowel of an ending.
As example
we may
,
and
([J
take ^T da, 'give'
dad
its
dadivd
dadima,
3$m,ffi
^m^
^
dadatha, dadithd daddthus
dadd
dadau
dadus
daddtus
The RV. has once paprd
As example
sion of root
for paprcrf*
forms of stem are
(794 e),
3
dadimdhe
dade
dadivdhe
^f
dadise
^ ^
dadhthe
dadidhve
dade
dadate
dadire
(and
Bafts' for
jahati?).
^
a showing fu-
resulting in medial
we may
take
rR
;
tan,
e,
in
stretch':
its
forms of stem are nTrH tatdn or H'HH tatan, and
,
^T
5TT
dada
794 f.
of a root with medial
and reduplication,
weak forms
the
:
dadi): see above,
(or
u or
of the inflection of a root ending in
dadau
d.
[800
rR
^
^ew.
rTrTR
tatdna, tatnna
tenivd
tenimd
tene
tenivdhe
tenimdhe
tatdntha, tenithd
tendthus
tend
tenise
tenathe
tenidhve
rTrTH
HHHH^
^5^
^ ^^
^T
tatana
tendtus
tenus
tene
tenate
tenire
root Jan, with the others which expel medial a in weak
forms (794 d), makes jajdntha or jajnithd, jajnivd, jajnus ; jajne,
jajnimdhe, jajnire ; and so on.
The
e.
As example
of a root with initial
3f
va contracted
3
u in the reduplication, and contracted with the reduplication to 3T u in weak forms (784), we may take 3frl vac,
to
'speak': its
forms of stem are
3^ uvdc
or
331^ uvac, and
V^NC|
uvdca, uvaca
ucivd
ucimd
uce
ucivdhe
ucimdhe
uvdktha, uvdcitha
ucdthus
ucd
ucise
ucathe
ucidhve
2
IRBEGULARITIES.
801]
uvaca
ucdtus
ucus
265
uce
ucate
ucire
In like manner, ^yaj forms
iydja or iyaja, iydstha or iydjitha ;
ye, yise, and so on
j/wc has nvoca and uvocitha in the strong
;
and
forms,
Of
f.
all
the rest like vac.
the four roots in
made
persons are
Of
made
is
the roots in
as follows
cakrmd
cakrvd
act.
sing.
mentioned
797 b, the
at
first
as follows:
cakdra, cakara
The 2d
ft r
cakre
the
cakdrtha;
ft r
in general,
cakrmdhe
cakrvdhe
3d
pi.
the
mid.
first
is
cakrire,
persons are
:
dadhdra,dadharadadhrivd dadhrimd dadhre dadhrivdhe dadhrimdhe
A
801.
notice
few miscellaneous
irregularities
call
for
still
:
The root ah, 'speak', occurs only in the perfect indicand only in the 3d persons of all numbers and in the
2d sing, and du., in active (and in 2d sing, the h is irregularly
a.
ative,
changed
to
t
before
ahatus; ahus (in V.,
the
ending): thus, attha, nha;
only nha and ahus are met with).
ahathus,
From yva 'weave', the 3d pi. act. uvus occurs in RV., and no other
form appears to have been met with in use. It is allowed by the
grammarians to be inflected regularly as va; and also as vay (the presentand
stem is vdya : 761 d, 2), with contraction of va to u in weak forms
b.
perfect
;
further,
in the
The
c.
weak forms,
root vya,
as simple w.
has in RV.
'hide',
the perfect-forms vivyathus
and
have been met with in use; the grammarians
require the strong forms to be made from vyay, and the weak from vi.
vivye,
and no others appear
d.
The
root
'go',
i,
to
and AV. the 2d
forms in RV.
sing.
act.
iydtha
beside the regular iyetha.
e.
The AV. has once
vavrdhete
(for
-dhdte),
and
once jaharus
(for
jdhrus}: both are perhaps false readings.
f.
Persons of the perfect from the er-forms of roots in changeable f
titirus and tistire (bothRV.); and they have corresponding participles.
(242) are
g.
The bastard
root
urnu (712)
is
said
by the grammarians
to
make
2d
sing.
the perfect-stem urnunu.
h.
The
roots
majj
and nap are
said to insert a nasal in the
X. PERFECT-SYSTEM.
266
[801
active, when the ending is simple tha: thus, mamanktha, nanahstha (also
mamajjitha and ne?itha).
The anomalous ajagrabhaisarh (AB. vi. 35) seems a formation on the
i.
perfect-stem (but perhaps for ajigrabhisan, desid.
?).
Perfect Participle.
802
is
The ending
.
of the active participle
to say, in the strong forms
weakest, and replaced by
:
it is
vans (that
is SfftT
contracted to
3^
us in the
vat in the middle forms
cffiT
:
see
above, 458 if.). It is added to the weak form of the perfect
stem
as shown, for example, in the dual and plural of
the active inflection of the given verb;
weakest participle-stem
the
and, mechanically,
with the 3d
identical
is
pi.
Thus, sHMlU bubudhvans, PHl^l^ nimvans, rloNfH
active.
cakrvans.
803. If the
\
weak form
ending takes the union-vowel S
labic, the
disappears
in
i
thus,
is
monosyl-
(which, however,
(Tf^lH
tenivans,
sii^JH jajnivans, ^ii^cjtH adivans (from
and so on; ^f^TCT dadivans and its like,
ucivans,
from roots in
weakest cases):
the
ad: 783 a),
5TT
to
is
a,
be reckoned in the one class or
we view
the other according as
vowel or as union-vowel
But
of the perfect stem
its
^
i
as
weakened root-
(794f).
which the perfect-stem is monosyllabic by absence of
the reduplication do not take the union-vowel: thus, vidvdns
and, in V.,
dafvahs, midhvans, sahvans ; and RV. has also dadvans (AV. dadivans and
participles of
,
once
dadavdhs)
varjivahs
(in
from
ydd
(or
dad
:
and
672)
AV.
has
vif ivdns
and
negative fern, dvarjusi).
804. Other Vedic
irregularities
for
calling
notice
are
few.
The long
vowel of the reduplication (786) appears in the participle as in the indicative
thus, vavrdhvdhs, sasahvdhs, jujuvdhs. RV. and AV. have sasavdns from
:
ysan
RV. makes the
or sa.
modifications
of
the
root:
participial
thus,
occasional exchanges of strong and
805.
From
jaganvdhs
(as to
either
roots
weak stem in
gam and han
the n, see
forms of ytr or tar from different
but tatarusas.
Respecting the
titirvdhs,
the
inflection,
see above,
462
c.
Veda makes the strong stems
212) and jaghanvdhs; the
these or the more regular jagmivdhs
later
language allows
(the weakest
and jaghnivdhs
stem-forms being everywhere jagmus and jaghntis).
PARTICIPLE; MODES.
810]
806. From three
267
vid 'find', uip, and dry, the later
language allows
be made with the union-vowel, as well as in the
regular manner without it: thus, vivifivdna or vivifvdns.
PB. has once
roots,
strong participle-stems
to
cichidivahs.
The ending of the middle
It
participle is and.
added to the weak form of perfect-stem, as this
appears
807.
is
in
the middle inflection
^R
ninyana,
:
5RTJH bubudhand,
thus,
^F?
dadand,
sT^H jajnand,
tenand,
ucdnd.
In
the Veda,
participles
:
thus,
the long reduplicating vowel
vavrdhand,
is
shown by many middle
etc.
RV. has
vdvasdnd, dddrhdnd, fucuvand,
?afayand from y$l (with irregular guna, as in the present-system: 629);
from ]/sr,- and once, with mana, sasrmdnd from
j/sr.
tistirand
Modes
of the Perfect.
808. Modes of the perfect belong only to the Vedic language, and are even rarely found outside of the Rig- Veda.
To draw the line surely and distinctly between these and the mode-forms
from other reduplicated tense-stems
and the intensive
the
is
reduplicated aorist,
present-stem of class II., the
not possible, since no criterion
form exists which does not in some cases fail, and since the general
equivalence of modal forms from all stems (582), and the common use of
the perfect as a present in the Veda (823), deprive us of a criterion of
meaning. There can be no reasonable doubt, however, that a considerable
of
body of forms are to be reckoned here optatives like anacydm and babhuyds
and babhuydt, imperatives like babhutu, subjunctives like jabhdrat, show such
:
distinctive characteristics of the perfect formation that by their analogy other
similar words are confidently classed as belonging to the perfect.
809. The normal method of making such forms would
from a reduplicated perfect-stem, as
appear to be as follows
an
would be made by simply
mumuc,
imperative
(for example)
the derived subappending, as usual, the imperative endings
after
the analogy
mode-stem
be
mumoca
would
junctive
(accented
of the strong forms of the perfect indicative), and would take
:
;
either primary or secondary endings
and the optative modestems would be vnumucyh in the active, and mumuci (accent on
personal endings) in the middle.
And the great majority of the forms in question (about
;
three quarters)
810.
a.
with
are
made
in these ways.
Thus
:
Examples of the regular subjunctive formation
secondary
piprdyas, bubodhas;
3d
endings,
sing.,
active:
2d
sing.,
paprdthas,
are
:
mamdhas,
jabhdrat, sasdhat, paspdr$at, piprdyat, ciketat;
X. PERFECT-SYSTEM.
268
1st pi., tatdndma,
This
not occur).
is
[810
(u^dvdma; 3d
pi., tatanan, paprdthan (other persons do
the largest class of cases.
b. with primary endings, active: here seem to belong only dadhdrshati
and vavdrtati: compare the formation with different accent below, 81 la.
c. of middle forms occur only the 3d sing, tatdpate, papamafe, yuyojate,
jujosate (SV.;
RV. has
or three others: below,
and the 3d
jujosate)-,
81 1 b,
pi.
tatdnanta (and perhaps two
end).
811. But not
a few subjunctives of other formation occur; thus:
strengthened root-syllable, as above, but with * accent on the
reduplication (as in the majority of present-forms of the reduplicating class
Here the forms with primary endings, active, preponderate,
above, 645).
with
a.
:
and are not very rare:
for
example,
jtijosasi,
jujosathas, jtijosatha
jtijosati,
With secondary endings,
(other persons do not occur).
jtijosas,
jtijosat,
and
belong most distinctly here (since ddda$as and
are perhaps rather aorists).
And there is no middle form but
jujosan are the forms
stisudas etc.
that
(RV.: see above, 81 Oc).
b. with unstrengthened root-syllable occur a small body of forms, which
are apparently also accented on the reduplication (accented examples are found
jtijosate
only in 3d pi. mid.): thus, active, for example,
the
ptipuuai;
only
middle forms
are dadhrsate,
mumucas
vavrtat, vividat,
;
vdvrdhate,
3d
sing.;
and
cdkramanta, dddhrsanta, rurucanta (with dadabhanta, paprathanta, mdmahanta,
juhuranta, which might also belong elsewhere: 81 Oc).
c. accented on the ending are vdvrdhdnta and cakrpdnta (which are
rather to be called augmentless pluperfects).
As
to
see below,
forms with double
tutujydt,
to
an a-conjugation,
fUfruyas, babhuyds;
babhuydt; 2d du., jagamydtam,
fu^uydma;
in middle,
b.
transfers
dna$ydm, jagamydm, paprcydm, riricydm; 2d
3d sing., jagamydt, vavrtydt,
1st sing.,
vavrtydSj vivifyds,
vavrtyama,
numerous.
or
Examples of the regular optative formation are:
812.
a. in active:
sing.,
mode-sign,
815.
3d
tatanyus,
pucruydtam;
vavrtyus.
1st pi.,
sasahyama,
The forms
are
the forms are few: namely, 1st sing., vavrtlya;
vawrdhithas, caksamlthds ;
1st pi., vawrtimahi.
pi.,
And
3d
sing.,
jagrasita,
vavrtita,
mdmrjlta,
2d
quite
sing.,
pufuclta;
sdsahlsthds and ririsista appear to furnish examples
of precative optative forms.
There
is
no irregular mode of formation of perfect optatives. Individual
shown by certain forms
thus, cakriyds, paplydt, fu$ruyas
irregularities are
and wruydtam, with treatment
:
of
the final
anajydt with short initial; jak&ydt
form that shows a union-vowel a.
(770);
813. Of
regular imperative forms,
is
as
before the passive-sign yd
anomalous;
only a very small
ririses is
number
the only
are to be
quoted namely, active, cikiddhi, mumugdM, pucugdhf, and piprihi; mumoktu
and babhutu; mumuktam and vavrktam; jujustana and vavrttana (unless we
:
818
MODES; PLUPERFECT.
1
are
to
add
mamaddhf,
mamattu,
269
mamdttana);
vavrtsva
middle,
and
vavrddhvam.
814. As
union- vowel
irregular
imperatives
may be reckoned
have been transferred
or
several which
show a
an a-conjugation.
Such are, in
the active, mum6catam and jujosatam (2d du.), and mumticata
(2d pi.}; in
the middle, piprdyasva (only one found with accent), and
mdmahasva, vdvrdhasva, vdvrsasva (2d sing.), and mdmahantdm (3d pi.: probably to be accented -dsva and -dntam).
a,
to
815. Such imperatives as these, taken in connection with some of the
subjunctives given above (and a few of the "pluperfect" forms: below, 820),
suggest as plausible the assumption of a double present-stem, with reduplication arid added a (with which the desiderative stems would be
comparable
below, chap. XIV.): for example, jujosa from YJUS, from which would come
:
and jujosate (81 la) as indicative, jujosas etc. as subjunctively
used augmentless imperfect, and jujosatam as imperative. Most of the forms
given above as subjunctives with primary ending lack a marked and constant
jujosasi etc.
And it
character, and would pass fairly well as indicatives.
appears tolerably certain that from one root at least, vrdh, such a double
subjunctive
stem
is
be recognized from vdvrdha come readily vdvrdhate, vdvrdhdnta
alone can come regularly vdvrdhasva, vdvrdhete (above, 801 e),
to
and from
;
,
it
and vdvrdhdti
(once,
RV.: an isolated
and, yet more, the participle vavrdhdnt (once,
we have also vdvrdhltha's, not vdvrdh-
RV.)
case):
yet even here
To assume double present-stems, however,
ethds.
highly implausible
;
it
is
better to
recognize the
in
all
the cases would be
formation
as
one begun,
but not carried out.
Only one other subjunctive with double mode-sign
found to set beside vdvrdhdti.
namely, paprcdsi
is
816. Forms
for
root:
mumucas
;
of different model are not very seldom
made from the same
example, from j/mwc, the subjunctives mumticas, mumocati, and
from ydhrs, dadhdrsati and dadhrsate from j/pn, the imperatives
,
piprlM and piprdyasva.
Pluperfect.
Of an augment-preterit from the perfect-stem,
817.
to
which
name
of pluperfect is given on the ground of its formation
(though not of its meaning), the Veda presents a few examples
and one or two forms of the later language (mentioned above,
the
;
788, end) have also been referred
There
is
something
of the
same
to
it.
difficulty in distinguishing the pluperfect
Between it and
reduplicated formations.
the aorist, however, a difference of meaning helps to make a separation.
as the perfect-modes from kindred
818. The normal pluperfect should show a strong stem in the
arid a weak one elsewhere
thus, mumoc and mumuc
active,
augment prefixed and secondary endings added
3d pi. mid.).
(us
in
3d
pi.
act.,
singular
with
ata in
X. PERFECT-SYSTEM.
270
Of forms made according
to this model,
we
[818
have, in the active:
1st sing.,
ajagrabham and acacaksam (which, by its form, might be aorist: 860);
2d sing, djayan; 3d sing., ajagan and aciket; 2d du., amumuktam; 2d pi.
ajaganta, and ajagantana and ajabhartana (a strong form, as so often in this
person: 556); 3d pi. (perhaps), amamandus and
be added the augmentless ciketam and cakaram.
acakriran and ajagmiran
2d
(with
Iran instead
amamadus
and susupthds, are the most regular forms
sing, jugurthas
819. Several forms from
To these may
.
In the middle, the 3d pi.
of ata), and the augmentless
to
be found.
ending in consonants save the endings
in 2d and 3d sing. act. by inserting an I (555 b): thus, dbubhojis, avive&s;
arireclt, djagrabhlt (avavarit and avava^ltdm are rather intensives); and the
roots
augmentless jfhinszs (accent?) and dadharslt belong with them.
A
820.
3d
sing.,
few forms show a stem ending in a: they
acakrat; in the middle: 3d sing.,
are,
asasvajat,
3d
in the active:
dpiprata;
2d
du.,
might be aorist),
ddadrhanta; and cakradat, cakrpdnta, vdvrdhdnta, juhuranta, would perhaps
be best classified here as augmentless forms (compare 811, above).
dpasprdhetham
;
atitvisanta
pi.,
(which
by
form
its
Uses of the Perfect.
In the later language, the perfect is simply a preterit
equivalent to the imperfect, and interchangeable
with it.
Except as coming from a few often used verbs (especially aha and uvaca), it is much more rarely employed than the
821.
or past tense,
imperfect.
822. In
Brahmana language, very nearly the same thing
the
In most Brahmanas,
perfect only
the
in
occasional;
the
is
true.
the usual tense of narration, and the
is
imperfect
the
Qatapatha Brahmana,
perfect
is
much
more widely used.
823. In the Veda, the
case
is
past tense in narration, but only rarely
sense, or signifies a completed past;
guishable
in
;
sometimes
but oftenest
is
perfect
used as
also it has a true "perfect
it
1 '
has a value not distin-
time from the present. It is thus the equivalent of
and present; and it occurs coordinated with them all.
point
imperfect, aorist,
Examples are
The
very different.
of
of perfect with present, nd frdmyanti nd vf muncanty
nd
'they weary not nor stop, they fly like birds'; se
paptuh
(RV.),
vdyo
'd u rdjd ksayati carsanindm ardn nd nemth pdri td babhuva (RV.), 'he in
he embraces them all, as the wheel the spokes';
truth rules king of men
dbhud agnih samtdhe
of perfect with aorist, tipo ruruce yuvatfr nd y6sd.
:
ete
;
.
mdnusanam dkar
a
young maiden
;
jyotir
bddhamdnd tdmdhsi
Agni has appeared
made
for
(RV.),
.
'she is
come beaming
;
light, driving away the darkness';
dhim dnv apds tatarda (RV.), 'he slew the dragon, and penetrated
waters'.
This last combination
is
like
she hath
the kindling of mortals
of perfect with imperfect, dhann
to the
of constant occurrence in the later language.
271
824]
CHAPTER
XI.
THE AORIST SYSTEMS.
<^
UNDER
824.
out
pointed
above,
each of which has
A
I.
name
the
532)
its
of aorist are included
three
quite
sub-varieties
SIMPLE-AORIST
distinct
(as
was
formations,
namely,
:
the Greek "second
(equivalent to
aorist"), analogous in all respects as to form and inflection
with the imperfect.
It has two varieties: 1. the rootaorist, with a tense-stem identical with the root (corres-
an imperfect
to
ponding
of the
root-class,
I.);
2.
the
a-aorist, with a tense-stem ending in f #, or with unionvowel 5f a before the endings (corresponding to an imperfect of the a-class, VII.).
3. A REDUPLICATED AORIST, perhaps in origin identwith
an imperfect of the reduplicating class (II.), but
ical
having come to be separated from it by marked peculiarities
II.
of form.
It usually
has a union-vowel
51
a before the end-
an imperfect of one of the ^-classes
but a few forms occur in the Veda without such vowel.
ings, or
III.
is
inflected like
A
SIBILANT-AORIST (corresponding to the Greek
;
"first
having for its tense-sign a H s added to the root,
either directly or with a preceding auxiliary ^ */ its endings
are usually added immediately to the tense-sign, but in a
aorist"),
small
number
of roots with a union-vowel
roots also are increased
by H
s for its
ing to these differences
it falls
A. without union-vowel
^
with
H
s
5[
a ; a very few
formation ; and accord-
into four varieties
a before endings:
alone added to the root;
5.
as
:
namely,
s-aorist,
-aorist, the same
4.
with interposed ^ i; 6. s^s-aorist, the same as the preB. with
ceding with H s added at the end of the root;
union-vowel
5!"
a,
7.
s
a- aorist.
XI. AORIST-SYSTEMS.
272
j
bound together and made
All these varieties are
825,
into a single
certain correspondences of
complex system by
form and meaning. Thus, in regard
in the indicative,
alike,
does
not
825
exist
to form,
they are
all
augment-preterits to which there
any corresponding present;
meaning, although in the
later
in regard to
or classical language they
exchangeable with imperfects and peralike have in the older language the general
are simply preterits,
all
they
fects,
value of a completed past or "perfect", translatable by 'have
done' and the like.
826. The aorist-system
is
a formation of very infrequent occurrence in
forms are found, for example, only twenty-one
times in the Nala, eight in the Hitopadeca, seven in Manu, six each in the
Bhagavad-Gita and Qakuntala), and it possesses no participle, nor any modes
(excepting in the prohibitive use of its augmentless forms: see 580; and
the
classical Sanskrit
the
so-called
(its
precative
:
see
921
ff.);
in
the
older language,
common, and has the whole variety
on the other
modes belonging to
the present, and sometimes participles.
Its description, accordingly, must be
given mainly as that of a part of the older language, with due notice of its
it
hand,
is
quite
of
restriction in later use.
827. In the RV., nearly
of one or another class; in the
half the
roots
AV., rather
other texts of the older language
occurring show aorist forms,
than one third; and in the
less
comparatively few aorists occur which are
not found in these two.
More than
more than one
fifty roots,
class
in
RV. and AV.
(not taking
into account
together,
make
aorist
forms of
the reduplicated or "causative"
but no law appears to underlie this variety; of any relation such as
taught by the grammarians, between active of one class and middle of
another as correlative, there is no trace discoverable.
aorist);
is
Examples are of classes 1 and 4, adham and dhasus from ydha, ayuji
and ayuksata from yyuj ;
of 1 and 5, agrabham and agrdbhxsma from
of 1 and 2, arta and arat
ygrabh, mrsthas and marsisthas from ymrs ;
:
of 2 and 4, avidam and avitsi from yvid 'find', anijam and
from yr ;
of
anaikslt from j/ny;
of 2 and 5, sanema and asanisam from ysan;
2 and 7, aruham and aruksat from yruh;
of 4 and 5, amatsus and
amadisus from
of 1
and 2 and
ymad;
4,
of
4 and
6,
hasmahi and hdsisus from yha;
of 1 and 4
atnata and atanat and atan from ytan;
abudhran and abhutsi and bodhisat from ybudh, astar and strslya and
from ystr. Often the second, or second and third, class is represented by only an isolated form or two.
and
5,
astaris
SIMPLE AORIST:
831]
This
828.
of the
is,
273
Aorist.
Simple
I.
ROOT-AORIST.
1.
three
principal divisions of aorist,
of forms already ex-
removed from the analogy
the one least
it is like an imperfect,
of the root-class or of the dplained
class, without a corresponding present indicative, but with (more
or less fragmentarily) all the other parts which go to make up
;
a complete present-system.
1.
This formation
829.
a few roots in
Root-aorist.
is
in the later language limited to
a and the root H bhu,
TT
be made in the active only,
s-aorist
usual,
or the
(4),
The
roots in
lose their
it
and 3d
-aorist
the middle
a before
allowed to
using instead the
(5).
a take 3^T us as 3d
TT
is
it
;
*F
bhu
ending, and, as
pi.
(as
in the perfect
:
vowel unchanged throughout, inserting ^
before the endings FT am and R an of 1st sing,
793 a) retains
v after
is
ETF
and
its
Thus:
pi.
ddam
ddava
ddama
dbhuvam
dbhuva
ddas
ddatam
ddata
dbhus
dbhutam
ddat
ddatam
ddus
dbhut
dbhutam
dbhuma
-X
dbhuta
(Tx
For the
classical Sanskrit, this is the
dbhuvan
whole
story.
In the Veda,, these same roots are decidedly the most
esfrequent and conspicuous representatives of the formation
pecially the roots ffd, da, dha, pa 'drink', stha, bhu; while sporadic forms are made from Jnd, pra, sa, ha. As to their middle
830.
:
forms, see below,
834 a.
Instead of abhuvam,
But
831.
number
RV.
has twice dbhuvam.
same class are
and a few in i and u
aorists of the
of roots in r ,
also
made from
a
(short or long)
with, as required by the analogy of the tense with an imperfect
of the root-class, ywwa-strengthening in the three persons of the
singular.
Thus
(in
the active),
Whitney
,
Grammar.
and afrot; from }/?n, acres
j/?rw, afravam
akaram and akar (for akars and afcar-<); from
from
and of ret; from ykr 'make',
18
274
XI. AORIST-SYSTEMS.
vr 'enclose', dvar (585); and so adar,
much
aaiar,
[831
Dual and plural forms
aspar.
than singular; but for the most part they also show
an irregular strengthening of the root-vowel: thus (including augmentless
formsjj akarma and akarta, vartam, spartam, ahema and ahetana, bhema,
are
less frequent
ftoma, afravan; regular are only avran,
afcrara,
ahyan, afriyan, and anltdm.
832. Further, from a few roots with medial (or initial)
vowel capable of ywraz-strengthening, and having in general that
strengthening only in the singular.
Thus, abhet (2d and 3d sing.) from ybhid; amok (3d sing.) from j/mwc
avart from yvrt ; vark from yvrj AV. has once avrk) adarfam from }/drp
,
(
;
,
But chedma, with guna, from ychid.
and adrfan, avrjan, afvitan.
833. Again, from a larger number of roots with a as ravowel
Of these, gam (with n for m when final or followed by m: 143, 212)
dical
is
:
most frequent occurrence, and shows the greatest variety of
(2d and 3d sing.), aganma, aganta (strong form),
The other cases are akran from ykram; atan from ytan; askan
of decidedly
forms
thus,
:
agman.
agamam, agan
from yskand ; dsrat from y trans (? VS.
dAafc und daghma from ydagh
ana (585) and anastam from }/nap (?) afcsan (for agh-san, like apman) from
) ;
,
;
yghas; and the 3d pll. in w, dfcramws, kramus, ayamus, yamus, abddhus,
dabhus, nrtus (impf ?) mandus and taksus are perhaps rather to be reckoned
as perfect forms without reduplication (790 b).
.
:
834. So far only active forms have been considered. In
the middle, a considerable part of the forms are such as are
held by the grammarians (881) to belong to the s-aorist, with
omission of the s: they doubtless belong, however, mostly or
altogether,
here.
Thus
:
ending in vowels, we have adhithas and adhita; adita
and adimahi (and adlmahi from ydd 'cut'); aathithas and asthita and dsthiran,
forms of a-roots (arddhvam is doubtless for arasdhvam);
of r-roots, afcri,
a.
From
roots
akrthds, akrta, akratam, akrata; avri, avrthas, avrta; drta (with augmentless
arta),
and u
of
drata; mrthds, amrta; dhrthds; drihds; astrta; asprta; gurta;
roots, the only examples are dhvi (?AV., once) and acidhvam.
i
The
absence of any analogies whatever for the omission of a s in such forms, and
the occurrence of avri and akri and akrata, show that their reference to the
-s-aorist is
b.
since
without sufficient reason.
As regards
loss
roots
ending in consonants, the case is more questionable,
consonant before thds and ta (and, of course,
of s after a final
dhvam) would be in many oases required by euphonic rule (233).
however, such unmistakable middle inflection of the root-aorist
We
as
find,
ayuji,
ayujmahi, ayugdhvam, dyujran; dsta and dfata; apadi
and apadmahi and apadran; amanmahi; aganmahi and agmata;
atnata; ajani (1st sing.) and ajnata (3d pi.); from ygam are made agathds
and agata, and from >/wan, amafa, with treatment of the final like that of
ayukthds,
ayukta,
(1st sing.)
han in present
inflection
(637).
The ending ran
is
especially frequent in
SIMPLE AORIST:
837]
3d
1.
ROOT-AORIST.
275
being taken by a number of verbs which have no other person of
pi.,
this aorist:
akrpran,
thus,
agrbhran,
asprdhran,
dsrgran,
avasran,
adr^ran,
and
dvifran;
abudhran, dvrtran, ajuaran,
is
found beside ran in
ram
ddr$ram, dbudhram, dsrgram.
c. From roots of which the
final would combine with s to fes, it seems
more probable that aorist-forms showing 7c (instead of a) before the ending
belong to the root-aorist: such are amukthas (and amugdhvam], aprkthds and
abhakta, avrkta, asakthas and asakta, rikthas, vikthas
dspasta, asrsta, mrsthas would be the same in either case.
aprkta,
There
d.
cases
as
remain,
amatta,
:
arabdha,
atapthas, chitthas, patthas, and nutthas.
asrpta,
Modes
835. In subjunctive
ative
doubtful belonging:
of
and vikta
of
Those
tives.
;
augmentless indic-
frequent than the more proper subjunccorresponding form with augment occurs have
which no
to
been given above
forms identical with the
much more
are
this aorist
of the Root-aorist.
use,
the others
it
unnecessary to report in detail.
is
836. Of true subjunctives, the forms with primary endings are quite
In the active, gani is the only example of 1st sing, (as to bhuvani,
few.
see below); of 3d sing, occur sthati, and ddti and dhdti, which are almost
indicative in use
In the
vatas.
;
dual persons,
of
3d
middle,
and dhaithe, and 1st
pi.
sing,
karat, garat,
No middle forms
The
abhuvam
end),
series
830,
darfathas,
anomalous
fravathas and prd-
accent),
2d du. dhethe
in the active,
are,
ddrfam; tdrdas, pdrcas,
daghat, yamat^ yodhat, frdvat, spdrat, sdghat
gar an, yaman.
:
(?
dhamahe.
Forms with secondary endings
ydmas ;
sthdthas,
idhate
they
ddrpan,
would seem
to
and
bhuvani (compare
doubtful belongings
be of the next class; here, a
bhuvam, bhuvas, bhuvat, bhuvan,
and the isolated friivat, are
with a different accent,
;
are classifiable with confidence here.
of
;
^Una-strengthening would be more regular (but note the absence of guna in
the aorist indicative and the perfect of ybhu).
837. As regards the
s
Pure optative forms, both
of roots.
From
the y, deyam,
be precative);
we have
optative,
optatives and optatives with
to
distinguish
between pure
inserted before the endings, or precatives.
active
and middle, are made from a number
with change of a to e before
roots in a occur in the active,
dheyam and dheyus,
stheyama,
and jneyas (which might also
only simahi and dhimahi (which might be augmentless preterit, as adhimahi also occurs once, and adhltam once but ydha
in the middle,
:
shows nowhere else conversion of
its
a
to long
1],
From
bhu,
bhuyas and
the middle
From roots in r,
bhuyat (possible precatives), and bhuyama.
forms arlta, muriya, vurlta.
From roots ending in consonants, afyam and
acydma and a?yus act., and aflya and afimdhi mid. (this optative is espe-
vrjydm ; mrdhyas, sahyas, gamyas and
and sahyama; indhlya, gmiya, ruciya, vaslya;
And rdhyam
idhimahi, nafimahi, nasimahi, prclmahi, mudlmahi, yamimahi.
etc. and rdhimdhi belong perhaps here, instead of to a present-system (cl. I.).
cially
common
gamyat
in the
older texts)
;
(possible precatives),
18*
XI- AORIST-SYSTEMS.
276
838.
optative forms
Precative
this
of
[838
aorist
active are
in
the
later
language allowed to be made from every verb (922). In RV., however,
they do not occur from a single root which does not show also other aorist
forms of the same
3d sing.
They
class.
(ending in -yds
act.
indeed, of very limited use:
are,
for
we
find
thus,
in
daghyds,
bhuyds, yamyds, yuyds, vrjyds, ?ruyds, sahyds (RV. has no 3d sing, in -yat};
and besides these and the 2d sing, in yas (given in the preceding paragraph),
-ydst),
avyds,
cifyas,
which might be of either formation, occur in the active only bhuydsam (beside
bhuyama) and kriyasma, each once. In the middle, RV. furnishes the three
forms grabhlsta, padistd, muclsta; nothing additional is found in any other
From
text.
the
AV.
the active precative
on,
forms are more frequent than
the pure optative (which are not wholly
common, excepting
as
unknown, however); they
made from ybhu; and from no other root
are
nowhere
is
anything
and bhuydstdm being
Inwanting; and these persons having no representative from any root).
cluding the cases already given, they have been noticed as made from about
like a complete series of persons quotable (only bhuyasva
twenty
as follows:
roots,
fruyasam
kriyasam
etc.,
etc. (j/vad),
saghydsam, bhrdjydsam, udydsam
etc.,
priydsam, bhriydsam,
rdhydsam
etc.,
radhydsam
etc.,
trpydsma, jivydsam, pusydsam etc. AV. has once bhuydstha,
with primary ending, but it is doubtless a false reading (TB. has -sta in
the corresponding passage). TS. has dldydsam, from the quasi-root dldl (676).
badhydsam
etc.,
839. Imperative forms
of the root-aorist are not rare in the early lang-
In the middle, indeed, almost only the 2d sing, occurs it is accented
either regularly, on the ending, as fcrsua, dhisvd, yuksvd, or on the root, as
mdtsva, ydksva, vdnsva, rdsva, sdksva ; mdsva is not found with accent the
uage.
:
;
In the active, all the persons
represented by krdhvam, vodhvam.
(2d and 3d) are found in use; examples are: 2d sing., krdhi, prudhf, gadhi,
2d
is
pi.
yandhf, gahi, mafti, mogdhi; 3d sing., dato, a*u, s6tu ; 2d du., ddtam,
jitam, frwtam, bhutdm, sprtdm, gatam, riktdm; 3d du., only gantam, vodhSm;
2d
prwta,
bhutd,
-p\.,'gatd,
fcrta,
dhatana; 3d pi., only dhdntu, frubut irregularities both as to accent
gata,
These are the most regular forms
vantu.
and strengthening are not infrequent.
are varktam,
;
Thus, strong forms in 2d du. and pi.
vartam; kdrta, gdnta, yanta,
vartta,
heta,
yr6ta,
stita;
and,
Much more irregular are
aanfana, t/antana, sotana.
yodhi (instead of yuddhf) from yyudh, and bodM from both ybudh and ybhu
A single form (3d sing.) in tat is found,
(instead of buddhi and bhudht).
with tana,
namely
kdrtana,
fastat.
As
2d persons singular
perative sense, see above, 624.
to
in
si
from the simple root used in an im-
Participles of the Root-aorist.
840.
In the
number
oldest
of participles
this formation.
language,
In the active, they are extremely few
and probably rdhdnt.
of the
E-V., are found a
as belonging to
which must be reckoned
:
namely
ferdnt,
sthdnt,
and bhiddnt,
SIMPLE AORIST: PASSIVE AORIST.
844]
277
In the middle, they are much more numerous
examples are arana,
idhand, krand, jusana, drparad, prcand, bhiyand, vrand, sprdhand, hiydnd.
Such formations are extremely rare in the later Veda and in the Brahmana.
:
841 All together, the roots exhibiting in the older language
forms which are with fair probability to be reckoned to the rootabout
aorist-system are very nearly a hundred (more than ninety)
eighty of them make such forms in the RV.
.
;
Passive Aorist third person singular.
A
842.
middle third person singular, of peculiar formation
and prevailingly passive meaning, is made from many verbs in
the older language, and has become a recognized part of the
passive conjugation, being, according to the grammarians, to be
substituted always for the regular third person of any aorist
middle that is used in a passive sense.
formed by adding ^ i to the root,
which takes also the augment, and is usually strengthened.
This person
843.
is
The ending i belongs elsewhere only to the first person and this third
person apparently stands in the same relation to a first in i as do, in the
middle voice, the regular 3d sing, perfect, and the frequent Vedic 3d sing,
present, which are identical in form with their respective first persons. That
;
a fuller ending has
been
lost off is extremely improbable;
from the simple
aorist formation
root,
this is
and hence,
as an
most properly treated here, in
connection with the ordinary root-aorist.
Before the ending ^ i. a final vowel, and usually
% a before a single consonant, have the vrddhi-
844.
also a medial
strengthening; other medial vowels have the guna-strengtli-
ening
if
Examples
ending in
dmofi,
(all
of
:
djnayi, ddhayi, dpayi
a,
astern
a/carz,
it (240); after final TT # is added T y>
them quotable from the older language) are from roots
capable of
in other
from roots with medial
,
dyoji,
;
ddarfi,
asarji,
varhi;
i,
M,
vowels,
r,
acefz,
a'prai/i,
dchedi,
dstavi,
apesi,
dhavi,
dbodhi,
from roots with medial a strengthened,
agami, dpadi, at/ami, avaci, vapi, dsddi (these are all the earlier cases):
with a unchanged, only djani (and RV. has once jdni), and, in heavy sylfrom roots
lables, dmyaksi, vandi, fansi; with medial a. dbhraji, dradhi;
with
initial vowel,
According
to
the a unchanged:
roots
ardhi (only case).
the
grammarians,
thus,
am, and ybadh, retain
and there are noted besides, from
certain roots in
adami, abadhi;
sometimes showing a nasal, arambhi, arandhi, ajambhi, abhanji
alambhi (always, with prepositions) or alabhi: QB. has asanji.
or
abhaji,
Augmentless forms,
as in all other like cases,
indicative or subjunctive value:
are
met with, with
either
examples (besides the two or three already
XI. AORIST-SYSTEMS.
278
given) are
:
present, is always on the root- syllable.
845. These forms
are
made
RV. from
in
combined add only about
texts
earlier
The
dhdyi, frdvi, bhari, red, vedi, rod, jdni, pddi, sddi, ardhi.
when
accent,
844
forty roots,
to the
fifteen
and
all
number;
the other
in the later
language they are (like all the kinds of aorist) very rare. When they come
from roots of neuter meaning, like gam, pad, sad, bhraj, sanj, etc., they
have (like the so-called passive participle in ta: 952) a value equivalent to
that of other middle forms
;
in a case or two (RV.
vii.
73. 3[?]; VS. xxviii. 15)
they appear even to be used transitively.
The
2.
846.
This aorist
made from
made
a large
is
the /5-class
number
roots
rare in the middle,
It is
most of the
or
(4)
(5).
analogy
(VII.); its inflection is
it
of roots (near a hundred).
is
middle according to the s-class
their
Its closest
and
in the later language allowed to be
in both voices, but
roots forming
a-aorist.
with the imperfect of the a-class
the same with that in all particulars;
is
takes in general a
in ft r
(three
weak form
or four
save
of root
the
which have the guna-
only),
strengthening.
As example
of inflection
may be taken
the root
'pour': thus,
sic,
middle.
active.
d.
d.
dsicam
dsicava
dsicama
dsice
dsicavahi
dsicamahi
dsicas
dsicatam
dsicata
dsicathas
dsicetham
dsicadhvam
dsicat
dsicatam
dsican
dsicata
dsicetam
dsicanta
847. The
aorist,
a-aorist
makes in the RV.
a
being represented by less than half the
becomes, however, more
made from more verbs in
small figure beside the rootlatter's
number
of roots.
It
common later (it is the only form of aorist which is
AV. than in RV.); and in Veda and Brahmana together
about seventy roots exhibit the formation more or less fully. Of these a large
(fully half) are of the type of the roots which make their present-
number
system according
to the d-class
ening before a final
(VII.),
consonant
having a vowel capable of pwia-strengththus, with i, chid, bhid, nij, pis,
(753):
SIMPLE AORIST:
849]
ris,
if is
vid,
2pi,
(fds],
fvit,
with M, krudh, ksudh, dm, dyut,
with r, rdh,
sridh;
sic,
279
-AORIST.
2.
druh, pus, budh, bhuj, muc, mus, yuj, rudh, muh, ruh, pwc,fer,
grdh, trp,
throughout), hi
drp, dYp, mrs, vrj, vrt,
trh,
trs,
end in vowels:
thus,
(?
r,
A
vrdh, srp.
have
(which
the
small
number
gruna-strengthening
ahyat once in AV.), stu
and several in
once in AV.);
sr
gr,
fcr,
3d sing. impv. mid.,
(? stuvatdm,
apparent transfers from the root-class by
a,
the weakening of their a to a: thus, Mi/a, hvd,
vyd, fvd, and (in RV. only)
da and dha. A few have a penultimate nasal in the present and elsewhere,
which in this
aorist is lost:
thus, bhrah?,
less classifiable character are
feraw,
sad, radh,
das,
dabh, sap, ap,
The
IT,
gam,
srahs, krand,
Of
manth, randh.
fam, fram, tan, van, san,
The anomalous astham is the aorist
fafc.
tarn,
form the tense-stems papta, ncpa,
palpably and the other two are probably the result
of reduplication
but the language has lost the sense of their being such,
and makes other reduplicated aorists (3) from the same roots (see below, 854).
of as 'throw'.
voca, of which the
nap, vac
roots pat,
first
is
;
848. The
inflection of this
aorist
is
in
general so regular that
it will
be sufficient to give only examples of its Vedic forms. We may take as
model avidam, from yvid 'find', of which the various persons and modes are
more frequent and
in fuller variety than those of
any other verb.
Only the
forms actually quotable are instanced; those of which the examples found
are from other verbs than vid are bracketed.
Thus
:
middle.
active.
d.
s.
1
avidam
2
dvidas
[avidata]
3
dvidat
dvidan
have dhve
dvidama
dvidava
The middle forms
s.
p.
d.
dvide
p.
[dvidavahi]
dviddmahi
[avidetdm]
dvidanta
[dvidathds]
[avidata]
are rare in the earlier
language, as in the later:
we
dkhye etc., dvide (?) and avidanta, avocathds and avocdvahi
(and aviddmahe GB. and asicdmahe KB. are doubtless to be amended to mahi).
Augmentless forms, with indicative or subjunctive value, are not inetc.,
frequent.
Examples, showing accent on the tense-sign, according to the
general analogies of the formation, are ruhdm, srpas, bhujdt, viddt, aratdm,
vocata, fakan; vidata (3d sing.), ardmahi, fisdmahi, viddnta, budhdnta,
mrsanta
(for
exceptions as regards accent, see below, 853).
Modes of the
a-aorist.
849. The subjunctive forms of this aorist are few; those which occur
method which was followed for the indicative
are instanced below, in the
1
2
[vidava]
<
,_,
:
viddma
viddthas
[vidamahe]
viddtha
[vidas
3
viddt
[viddtdi ?]
The ending ihana
is
found once,
in
risdthana.
Of middle forms occur
only tfsdtdi (AV.: but doubtless misreading for (fsydtdi) and fisdmahe (AV,,
for
RV.
fisdmahi).
XI. AORIST-SYSTEMS.
280
850. The optatives are few
frequent, and in the Brahman as
videyam, saneyam
vareta; in middle,
A
is
vides,
;
games ;
in the
oldest language, but
not rare.
are
garnet,
[850
vocet
;
gametam ;
become more
are
Examples
in
:
pafeema,
active,
sanema ;
videya; gamemahi, vanemahi.
(only)
middle precative form occurs, namely videsta (AV., once); it
so isolated that how much may be inferred from it is very questionable.
single
851.
A
complete series of active imperative forms are made from ysad
2d pi.), and the middle sadantam. Other imperatives
(including sadatana,
are very rare: namely, sdra, ruha; ruhdtam, viddtam; khydta
stuvatam (?).
;
and, in middle,
Participles of the fl-aorist.
The
852.
huvdnt,
vidant-
savant,
(all
active participles
and
RV.) are
(in
to
trpdnt,
rudhant,
vrdhdnt,
1309)
compounds,
participial
be assigned with plausibility
fucdnt,
fisdnt,
kftant-,
guhant-,
to this aorist.
Likewise the middle participles vrdhand, sridhdnd, huvand; and perhaps
also vipand and cubhand, although no personal forms corresponding to them
occur.
Irregularities of the
-aorist.
853. A few irregularities and peculiarities may be noticed
The roots in r, which (847) show a strengthening like
present of the
sixth or unaccented
a-class,
have
also
the
and sdra.
from
ysan
sanema.
class
The
of the
accent on
thus, from j/r, dranta (augmentless 3d
root sad follows the same rule: thus, sddatam;
radical syllable, like that class:
sdrat
here.
that
the
pi.),
and
found sdnas and sdnat and sanema, beside saneyam and
questionable whether these are not true analogues of the sixth-
are
It is
(unaccented a-class) present-system.
On
the other hand, ruhat (beside
(only accented form) are anomalies. From
accented voceyam, vocema, voceyus ; elsewhere the
ruhdm, ruhdva, ruhdtam} and
yvac, the optative is
is on the root-syllable
accent
854. The stem voc has
a root
:
rfsat
thus, vdce, v6cat, vdcati, vdcanta.
in Vedic
use well-nigh
assumed the value
of
forms are very various and of frequent use, in RV. especially far
outnumbering in occurrences all other forms from yvac. Besides those already
;
its
given, we find voca (1st sing, impv.) and vocdti, vocavahai; voces, voceya,
vocemahi; vocatdt (2d sing.), vocatu, vocatam, vocata.
Of the stem neya from j/nap only ne^at occurs.
The root pas (as in some of its present forms 639) is weakened to pz,
:
and makes afisam.
855. Isolated forms which have more or less completely
the aspect of indicative presents are made from some roots beside the aorist-systems of the first two classes. It must be left
for maturer research to determine how far they may be relics
of original presents, and how far recent productions, made in
the way of conversion of the aorist-stem to a root in value.
858!
3.
REDUPLICATED AORIST.
Reduplicated Aorist.
II. (3)
The reduplicated
856.
forms of aorist in that
all
TCJ
cases
gation,
the
it
aorist is different
be made from
from the other
has come to be attached in almost
derivative
(causative
conjugation in
etc.)
as the aorist of that
conjugation,
dya,
liable to
to
281
and
therefore
is
which have such a conjubeside the aorist or aorists which
belong to their
all roots
primary conjugation.
Since, however, the connection of
the two is no formal one (the aorist
being made directly
from the
root,
a matter
of
stem),
but rather
established association, owing to kinship of
the formation and inflection of this kind of aor-
meaning,
ist is
and not from the causative
best treated here, along with the others.
857.
syllable,
Its characteristic is a
by which
the imperfect
it
is
reduplication of the radical
on the one hand, to
and, on the
(II.),
assimilated,
of the reduplicating class
But the
other hand, to the so-called pluperfect.
aorist re-
duplication has taken on a quite peculiar character,
few tracas
left
which may have preceded
858.
cation,
it
As
this.
regards, indeed, the consonant of the redupli-
follows the general rules already given (590).
the quality of the reduplicated vowel
formations already treated:
an a-vowel and
r
(or ar)
it
is
considerable extent,
in
And
in general as in the
needs only to be noted that
are usually
(for
below, 860) repeated by an ^-vowel
But
with
even in the Veda of a different condition
as
exceptions,
they
are,
see
to
a
the reduplicated present also (660).
in regard to quantity,
this
aorist
aims always at
establishing a diversity between the reduplicating and radical syllables,
And
making the one heavy and the
the preference
is
very markedly
cation and a light root- syllable
for a
which
about wherever the conditions allow.
other light.
heavy redupli-
relation
Thus
:
is
brought
XI. AORIST-SYSTEMS.
282
859.
If
root
the
a light
is
syllable (having
vowel followed by a single consonant),
made heavy.
And this,
with
a short
the reduplication
is
by lengthening the reduplicating vowel,
usually
for radical a or r or /
i
[859
(in
the single root containing that
vowel) thus, arlnsam, adudusam, ajljanam, avivrdham, aciklpam.
The great majority of aorists are of this form.
the root begins with two consonants, so that
If, however,
the reduplicating syllable will be heavy whatever the quantity of
:
vowel, the vowel remains short
apisprcam.
its
:
thus,
aciksipam,
acukrudham,
atitrasam.
860.
If the
root
is
the vowel of the
vowel, or a short before two consonants),
reduplication
fT r
(if it
Thus
And,
in
is
short
occurs),
:
(having a long
a heavy syllable
and, in this case
are reduplicated
by
5f
a or
(T
a,
and
a.
f
adidlksam, abubhusam, adadaksam, adadhavam, atatahsam.
the rare cases in which a root both begins and ends
with two consonants, both syllables are necessarily heavy, notthus, apapraccham,
withstanding the short vowel in the former
acaskandam (neither, apparently, found in use).
:
These
aorists are not distinguishable in
form from the so-called pluper-
fects (817ff.).
861. In order, however, to bring about the favored relation
of heavy reduplication and light radical syllable, a heavy root is
sometimes made light
either by shortening its vowel, as in
:
avivacam from y'vac, aslsadham from ~\/sad/i, adidipam (K. and
later: RV. has didlpas] from
bhis, asudip, abibhisam from
sucam from ]/ sue ; or by dropping a penultimate nasal, as in
acikradam from ]/ krand, asisyadam from ~|/ syand.
In those cases in which (1047) an aorist is formed directly
from a causal stem in ap, the a is abbreviated to i thus, atisthipam etc., ajijnipat, jihipas, ajijipata (but VS. ajijapata]; but from
y
y
:
crap comes acicrapama
862. Examples
of this aorist
from roots with
initial
vowel are very rare;
language has only amamat (or amamat) from ]/am, and arpipam
in which latter the root
(augmentless) from the causative stem arp of ]/r
the
older
The grammarians give other similar formations,
from ]/a&/, arjiham from |/arfe, aiciksam
aubjijam
]/arc,
from yiks, ardidham from yrdh.
Compare the similar reduplication in desiderative stems: 1029 b.
is
as
excessively
abbreviated.
arcicam from
863.
Of
special irregularities
may be mentioned
:
3.
867]
REDUPLICATED AORIST.
283
From ydyut is made adidyutam (taking its reduplicating vowel from the
y instead of the u); yplu makes apiplavam (QB. etc.).
Some verbs with radical a or r are by the grammarians allowed to reOthers are allowed
duplicate with either i (1} or a, or even with a only.
to retain
either
shorten a long root-vowel.
or
whole formation being so
met with in use.
As
rare,
Details are unnecessary, the
and the forms instanced having never been
apaptam, avocam, and anepam, see above, 847.
to
The
864,
of the reduplicated aorist
inflection
is
to say,
with
has the union-vowel
it
w hich
r
the
all
peculiarities
^
that
a before the endings,
'give birth':
active.
middle.
d.
s.
:
the presence of that vowel
Thus, from y^ftjan,
conditions.
like
is
that of an imperfect of the second general conjugation
d.
p.
MsJlsMIH'
djijanam djijanava
^
p.
M
MsflsH
djljanama djyane
djijanavahl
djijanamahi
^
djljanas
djyanatam
djyanata
djtjanathas
djijanetham dfyanadhvam
fclsilswr^
^siWlrilH^
WlsH*^
*tellstlrl
WlsHcilH^
fctsflswri
ajijanat
ajijanatam
djijanan
djyanata
dfljanetam
djljananta
The middle forms
are quite rare in the older language
(the 3d pi. is decidedly the most common of them, being made
the 3d s. from seven)
but all are quotable
from eleven roots
865.
;
;
except 1st and 2d du.
and of the
1st du.
no active example
occurs.
Atitape appears to be once used (RV.) as 3d sing., with
A
passive sense.
has the ^wwa-strengthening before the endOf similar
thus, apiparam, atitaras, adidharat, avivaran.
ings
strengthened forms from i and w-roots are found apiprayan (TS.),
abibhayanta (RV.), apiplavam (QB.), acucyavat (K.); of unstrengthened, acucruvat (GB.). Few roots ending in other vowels' than r
make this aorist see below, 868.
866.
final r
:
:
867. Forms
of the inflection without union-vowel are occasionally
met
with: namely, from roots ending in consonants, sfsvap (2d sing., augmentless)
and apipnat from y$nath; from roots in r or ar, didhar (2d sing.),
from
ysvap,
and ajigar (2d and 3d sing.). Of 3d pi. in us are found almost only a form
or two from i and w-roots, with guna before the ending: thus, apipraj/ws,
And the
acucyavus, apwpravws, asusavus (? AB.); but also ablbhajus (QB.).
3d
pi.
mid.
avavrtran and avavrtranta and asasrgram seem to belong here
rather than to the pluperfect.
XI. AORIST-SYSTEMS.
284
868.
jugation
to
language, a few
later
make
roots
said
are
by the
primary conkam, and dha 'suck'
this aorist as a part of their
they are cri and
:
and dha
(cvi
the
In
grammarians
[868
dru and sru,
cvi,
optionally).
In the older language are found from y$ri a$i$ret and afifrayus (noticed
preceding paragraph); from ydru, adudrot and adudruvat (TB.: not
in the
used as
aorist);
from
j/sra,
asusrot and (augmentless) susros and susrot.
Of
forms analogous with these occur a number from roots in u or u : thus,
anunot and nunot from ynu; yuyot from yyu 'repel'; dudhot from ydhu;
apupot from ]/pu,- tutos and tutot from ytu; and one or two from roots in i
or i:
from ysi
siset
thus,
apipres (with
'bind';
(or so)
apiprayan,
noticed
yprl (and the "imperfects" from dldhl etc., 676, are of corresAnd from ycyu are made, with union-vowel z, acucyavit
ponding form).
and acucyavltana. None of these forms possess a necessarily causative or a
above) from
decidedly aoristic value, and
be assigned
is
it
very doubtful whether they should not
all
to the perfect-system.
Modes of the Reduplicated
Aorist.
869. As in other preterit formations, the augmentless indicative persons of this aorist are used subjunctively, and they
are very much more frequent than true subjunctives.
Of the latter are found only riradha (1st sing.); titapasi;
and pisprfati (as if corresponding to an indicative
sigadhati,
and perhaps the
apifnat);
The augmentless
but,
forms are accented in general on the redu-
nma^as;
jijanat,
on the other hand,
we have
fifrdthas
:
thus,
and
like
1st sing. mid. $a$vacaf.
indicative
didharas.
plication
ciklpati
apisprk,
piparat; jijanan;
and $i$ndthat;
also sisvap
;
and dudrdvat,
pufrdvat, tustdvat (which perhaps belong rather to the perfect: compare 810).
According to the native grammarians, the accent rests either on the radical
syllable or
on the one that follows
870. Optative forms
middle "precative"
as a perfect:
ririsista
81 2 b).
it.
The
least questionable case is the
has been
ranked above with sasahlsta,
are even rarer.
(ririsista
Cucyuvimahi and cucyavwata belong either here
or to
the perfect-system.
871.
Cifrathantu.
Of imperatives, we have the indubitable forms pupurantu and
And jigrtdm and jigrtd, and didhrtam and didhrtd (all RV. only),
are doubtless to be referred hither, as corresponding to the indicatives (without
union-vowel) ajigar and adldhar : their short reduplicating vowel and their
accent assimilate
them
which we are probably
872.
closely
the reduplicated imperfects
to
(cl.
II.),
with
to regard this aorist as ultimately related.
No participle is found belonging to
the reduplicated aorist.
873. The number of roots from which this aorist is met
with in the earlier language is about ninety.
In the classical
it is
in the whole
very unusual
mentioned above (826) it occurs only once.
Sanskrit
;
series of later texts
SIBILANT AOEIST.
877]
Sibilant-Aorist.
III.
The common tense-sign
874.
H
aorist is a
s
285
^
(convertible to
of
all
the varieties of this
which
s)
added
is
the
to
root in forming the tense-stem.
no analogues among the class-signs of the present-
This sibilant has
be compared with that which appears (and likewise with
or without the same union-vowel i) in the stems of the future tense- system
(chap. XII.) and of the desiderative conjugation (chap. XIV.).
system
;
but
To
it
to
is
the root thus increased the
is
augment
prefixed and
the secondary endings are added.
In the case of a few roots,
875.
stem (always ending in
and the
^
ks]
the
sibilant
tense-
further increased by an
is
inflection is nearly like that of
f
a,
an imperfect of the
second general conjugation.
In the vast majority of cases, the sibilant is the
and the inflection is like that of an
876.
final of the tense-stem,
imperfect of the
And
first
general conjugation.
two nearly equal and strongly
marked classes, according as the sibilant is added immediately to the final of the root, or with an auxiliary vowel
^
i,
s,
fall into
making the tense-sign
the root
H
these, again,
is
in a very small
making
877.
^ w.
number
the whole addition
We
Finally, before this
of cases increased
"^ts
by a
ffpST^**.
have, then, the following classification for the
varieties of sibilant-aorist
:
A. With endings added directly to the sibilant:
4. with H s simply after the root: s-aorist;
5.
with ^
6.
the same, with
B. With
7.
Ef
i
before the
:
*s-aorist
;
end of root: m-aorist.
a added to the sibilant before the endings
with sibilant and
As regards the
"R s
3f s at
distinction
5f
a:
:
Sfl-aorist.
between the fourth and
fifth
forms,
it
may
be said in a general way that those roots incline to take the auxiliary i in
the aorist which take it also in other formations but it is impossible to lay
;
XI. AORIST-SYSTEMS.
286
[877
down any strict rules as to this accordance, and also, considering the rarity
of aorist-forms in the later language, practically quite useless to attempt the
See below, 903.
task.
The
4.
The tense-stem
878.
^
s-aorist.
of this aorist
is
made by adding
the augmented root, of which also the vowel
s to
is
usu-
ally strengthened.
The general
879.
root-vowel are these
A
a.
final
in the active,
from
and (excepting
wmm
yy^fru,
faiFSf
^
vowel (including
ft r)
ft r)
agratis-
and
has the vrddhi-ch&nge
guna in the middle thus,
middle stem ^fa anes;
:
active stem ERST anais,
y^i
from
rules as to the strengthening of the
:
5P2Tfa agros
from
;
|/5R kr,
akars and *33n^ akrs.
-s
c
A
medial vowel has the vrddhi-ch&uge in the active,
and remains unaltered in the middle thus, from y'^>*^ chand,
active stem iirH achants, middle stem
achants from
b.
:
tj^rH
from ]/"^I rudh,
;
araiks
and
tii^rl
ariks;
and 5T^fH aruts; from
and
y'flsT srj]
JblHW asraks
5TH^T asr^s.
"S
C
The endings
880.
3TT us (not
R
are the usual secondary ones,
ow) in 3d pi. act.,
and
^{
ata (not
3^tT
with
wte)
in 3d pi. mid.
But before H
s
and
cT ^
of 2d and 3d
the later language always inserted an
^
ings ^T
This
below,
is
and
insertion
^rT
is
2,
sing.
act.
making
is
in
the end-
It.
unknown
in
the earliest language
(of the
RV.):
see
888.
881. Before endings beginning with t or th, the tensesign s is (233 b) omitted after the final consonant of a root
unless this be r, or n or
(converted to anusvara}.
The same omission is of course made before dhvam, after either vowel
m
or consonant;
and the ending becomes dhvam, provided the sibilant, if retained,
s: thus, astodhvam and avrdhvam (beside astosata and
would have been
avrsata),
for
the
but aradhvam (beside arasata}.
These three are the only test-cases
form of the ending which have been noted in the older language,
SIBILANT AORIST:
884]
except drdhvam (ydr
avrdhvam and avrsata
^B., once), which
'regard':
to
287
S-AORIST.
4.
is
drthas
to
(2d sing.) as
avri and avrthas.
According to the grammarians,
the
omission of
s
before
and
t
th
takes
place also after a short vowel (the case can occur only in the 2d and 3d sing,
mid.); but we have seen above (834 a) that this is to be viewed rather as
a substitution in those persons of the forms of the root-aorist.
Neither in
the earlier nor in the later language, however, does any example occur of an
aorist-form with s retained after a short vowel before these endings.
As examples of the
882.
sibilant
and
^
we may
aorist
"^J rudh,
active.
'obstruct',
middle.
d.
s.
of this variety of
'Thus:
'lead'.
rii,
inflection
take the roots
s.
p.
drautsam drautsva
d.
drautsma drutsi
p.
drutsvahi
drutsmahi
drautsis
drauttam drautta
drutthas
drutsatham
druddhvam
drautsit
drauttam drautsus
drutta
drutsatam
drutsata
dnaisam,
dnaisva
dnaisma
dnesi
dnesvahi
dnesmahi
dnaisis
dnaistam
dnaista
dnesthas
dnesatham
dnedhvam
dnaisit
dnaistam
dnaisus
dnesta
dnesatam
^RM IH IH
dnesata
883. The omission
currence.
achanta,
of s in the active forms is a case of very rare ocIn the older language have been noted only achantta (RV.; written
by 231), abhakta (AB.), and the augmentless taptam and fapta
The middle forms with omission are in(repeatedly in the Brahmanas).
distinguishable from the corresponding ones of the root-aorist; and whether,
in the older language, a given form
the other
is
is
to
a question difficult to settle.
be assigned
to the
Above (834 b
one
aorist or to
d) were given
all
the older forms of belongings thus questionable.
884.
to i
Certain roots in a weaken the a in middle inflection
(as also in the root-aorist:
above,
834 a):
these are said to
da (da 'give', and da 'cut' and 'share'), and dha (dha
'put', and dha 'suck'); in the older language have been noted
TA. has
only ddisi and adisata (from da 'give') and asthisata.
be
stha,
aglsata
from
]/y
The middle
'sing'.
inflection of the aorist of
yda would
be,
then,
XI. AORIST-SYSTEMS.
288
[884
ddisi,
ddithas, ddita ;
according to the grammarians
ddisvahi,
ddisatham, ddisatam; ddismahi, ddidhvam, ddisata.
885. Roots ending in changeable r (so-called roots in f 242) are said
;
:
by the grammarians
astlrsthds,
etc.
to
convert this vowel to ir in middle forms
:
thus, astlrsi,
(from ystr): hardly any such forms, however, have been found
in the older language (only akirsata, PB.; and, on the contrary, astrsi occurs
once, AB.).
886. The s-aorist is made in the older language from somewhat over a hundred roots (in RV., from about seventy; in
AV., from about fifty, of which fifteen are additional to those
in RV.
and the other texts add about twenty more
not counting in any case those of which the forms may be from the rootaorist). It has there certain peculiarities of stem-formation and inof which the optative
flection, and also the full series of modes
middle is retained also in the later language as "precative".
;
887. Irregularities of stem-formation are:
a.
The
nu have u instead
dhu, and
roots hu,
ahusata, adhusata, anusi and anusatam and anusata
of o in the middle
;
ydhur
(or
:
thus,
dhurv) makes
adhursata.
b.
c.
many a,
From ymad
From ygam
occurs amatsus
occurs
(RV., once), with unstrengthened vowel.
agasmahi,
apparently
for
agansmahi (compare
below, 895).
888. The principal peculiarity of the older language in regard to inflection is the frequent absence of in the endings of
2d and 3d sing, act., and the consequent loss of the consonantThe forms without
ending, and sometimes of root-finals (150).
are the only ones found in RV. and K., and they outnumber
~i
the others in
(only one,
889.
manner
TS.;
occurs in
in the Brahmanas they grow
GB. and QB.; PB. has none).
rarer
If the root ends in a vowel,
necessarily lost:
in like
AV. and
adrak,
thus,
aprds
(for
only the consonant of the ending is
both aprds-s and apras-t] from yprd: and
manner ahas from yhd;
ajais (for ajdis-t] from yji; and in
and ydus
acdis from yd, and ndis (augmentless) from ym;
aydus-t) from yyu.
Bat (as in other like cases
like
(for
555) in 3d sing, the ending t is sometimes
expense of the tense-sign; and we have ajdit (beside ajais
and ajdmt) from yji ; and in like manner acdit, afrdit, ahdit, ndit : no examples have been noted except from roots in i and I.
:
preserved at the
890.
If the root
(in
consonant, the tense-sign
or strengthened form) ends in a
with the ending. Thus, abhdr (for abhdrs-t :
either its simple
is lost
beside abharsam, abhdrstdm] from ybhr; other like cases are ahar, and (from
roots in ar) aksar, atsar, asvar, hvar.
Further, drdik (585, end: for ardiks-t)
from yric; like cases are afvdit from ycvit, and (from roots with medial
Further,
adydut from ydyut, ardut from yrudh, and mduk from ymuc.
from roots ending in the palatals and ft, aprdk from ]/prc, asrdk from |/sr;,
)
SIBILANT AORIST
894]
4.
:
289
S-AORIST.
abhdk from ybhaj, adrdk from }/drf, adhdk from ydah; but, with a different
change of the final, ayat from yyaj, apra/ from j/prc/z, and avat from |/uafe
and (above, 146) sras appears to stand twice in AV. for sras-t from ysrj :
,
RV. has
also twice ay as from yyaj.
Further, from roots ending in a nasal,
atan from j/taw, khan from ykhan, aydn and anan from yyyam and nam
(143).
If,
lost
the root ends in a double consonant,
again,
along with
tense-sign and
achantta and achdntsus] from ychand
;
the latter of the two
achan
is
achdnts-t;
beside
and other like cases are akrdn,
asfcan,
ending:
thus,
(for
and asydn.
A
relic of this peculiarity of
the older inflection has been preserved to
the later language in the 2d sing, bhdis, from ybhi.
891.
is
Irregularities of inflection do not occur further:
avesam from
ym
too great an anomaly to be accepted.
Modes of
892.
The
the s-aorist.
indicative forms without
are used in a
augment
especially after mti prohibitive, and are not
Examples with accent, however, are extremely rare
subjunctive sense,
uncommon.
;
has been noted only vdnsi, middle
judging from this,
the tone would be found on the radical syllable.
According
to the Hindu grammarians, it may be laid on either root or
there
;
ending.
Proper subjunctive forms are not rare in RV., but
common in the later Vedic texts, and very
seldom met with in the Brahmanas.
They are regularly made
with ^wm-strengthening of the radical vowel, in both active and
middle, and with accent on the root.
893.
are markedly less
The forms with primary endings
are
:
in active,
stosdni
;
darsasi
;
nesati,
parsati, pdsati, matsati, yosati, vaksati, saksati; dtisathas, dhdsathas, pdrsathas,
vaksathas, varsathas
pdrsatha, mdtsatha;
;
pasatas, yaihsatas, yaksatas, vaksatas ; dhdsatha, nesatha,
in middle, narhsdi, mahsdi; mdhsase ; krarhsate, trdsate,
mdhsate, yaksate, rdsate, vahsate, sdksate, hdsate; trdsdthe (not
as we should rather expect); ndmsahte, mdhsante: and, with the
fuller ending in 3d sing., mdsdtdi.
darsate,
trdsdithe,
The forms with secondary endings
nesat,
pdksat,
ydksat,
yosat,
vdhsat,
are (active only): jesas, vdksas; ddrsat,
vdksat,
vesat,
sdtsat,
chantsat,
etc.
(14 others); yaksatdm; stosdma; parsan, yamsan, yosan, rasan, vaksan, cesan,
Of these, yaksat and vaksat are found not rarely in the Brahmanas
frdsan.
;
any others, hardly more than sporadically.
894. Of irregularities are to be noted the following:
a. The forms dfksase and prksase (2d sing, mid.) lack the #wna-strengthening.
b.
Jesam,
Whitney,
stosam, and yosam (AV. yusam, with
Grammar.
u
for o as
19
in anusata
XI. AORIST-SYSTEMS.
290
[894
persons formed under government of the analogy of
unless they are relics of a state of things anterior
to the vrddhi- strengthening: in which case jesma is to be compared with them
etc.)
appear to be
the second and
first
third
(we should expect jdisma or jesdma}.
c. From roots in d are made a
few forms of problematic character
namely, yesam (only case in RV.), khyesam, jnesam, gesam and gesma, desma,
Their value is optative.
sthesam and sthesus.
The analogy of jesam and
possibility of their derivation from i-forms of the a-roots
jesma suggests the
or
the
sibilant
:
might be of a precative character
(thus,
;
That
yd-i-s-am).
they are to be reckoned to the is-aorist appears highly improbable.
d. The RV. has a few difficult first persons middle in se, which are
They are: 1. from the simple root,
perhaps best noted here.
ohise?), stuse ; 2. from present-stems, arcase, rnjase, yajase,
and punlse.
They have the value
of indicative present.
hise
krse,
(and
grnue
gdyise,
Compare below, 897.
895. Optative forms of this aorist are made in the middle only, and
they have in 2d and 3d sing, always the precative s before the endings.
Those found
masiya
(for
to
occur in the
older
language are
:
disiya,
bhakslyd,
dhisiya,
mahsiya], muksiya, rdsiya, sdksiya, strislya; mansisthds; darslsta,
bhaksista, manslsta, mrkslsta; bhaksimahi, dhukstmdhi, mahslmdhi, vahsimdhi,
saksimdhi; mahslrata. PB. has bhuksisiydj which should belong to a sz's-aorist.
The RV. form trdsltham (for trdslydthdm or trdsdthdm) is an isolated anomaly.
makes
This optative
language: see below,
921
a
part
the
of
accepted
"precative"
the
of
later
ff.
896. Imperative persons from this
the 2d sing. act. nesa and parsa
aorist
are extremely rare
:
we
find
from a-stems, and showing
rather, therefore, a treatment of the aorist-s'tem a,s a root), and the 3d sing,
mid. rdsatdm and pi. rdsantdm (of which the same may be said).
only
(both
Participles of the s- Aorist.
897. Active
If rnjase
is
participles are ddksat or dhdksat,
(above,
894 d)
an s-aorist participle
;
tihasdna, jrayasdnd, dhiyasdnd,
sahasdnd, cavasdnd,
all
mandasdnd, yamasdnd, rabhasdnd, vrdhasdnd,
in RV.; with
5.
898.
The
The tense-stem
H
s
namasdnd, bhiydsdna,
The
as follows:
in
AV.
^5-aorist.
of
this
aorist
adds the general
of a prefixed auxiliary vowel ^
by help
tense-sign
making ^T is, to the root, which
and which has the augment.
899.
and sdksat (both RV.).
be reckoned as an s-aorist form, rnjasdnd
and of a kindred character, apparently, are arfasdndj
is to
is
,
usually strengthened,
rules as to the strengthening of the root are
SIBILANT AORIST:
902]
A
a.
0.
1
vowel has vrddhi in the
final
from y
from y
act.,
c[
#V
and guna in
apams from yq
active,
the middle: thus, ^Mlf^N apavis and SOT^R"
pu; WH^^itaris.
291
^6 -AORIST.
p<W,
^lilUlN
mid.,
f.
5TT
An
vowel has guna, if capable of it, in both
voices: thus, ti^fem ale$is, act. and mid., from yf^5T lig;
"^
~x
r^r
arocts from
avarsts from
i(llT(q
y"^tf -rwc; Njq&j
b.
interior
r*~
but
.
c.
but
from y sffo jw.
is sometimes lengthened in the active;
f
more usually remains unchanged in both voices.
CfeiV|G|fc|
it
The
ajlvis
Medial
roots
a
the older
in
language
san, ran, stem, tans, vraj, vad,
mad,
which show the lengthening are kan,
From svan
tsar, hvar, jval, das.
car,
and sah occur forms of both kinds.
900. Of exceptions may be noted: yrnr? has (as elsewhere 627) vrddhi
guna: thus, amarjisam; ystr has astaris, and j/fr has aparit (also
a far ait in AV.), with guna in active.
The root grabh or grah has (as in future etc., below, 935 d, 956 long
:
instead of
)
i
instead of
The
i
before the
sibilant
:
thus,
roots in changeable r (so-called
agrabhisma,
The endings
are
(3H us and ^rT ata in 3d
the combination
is-s
and
:
242), and yvr are said by
but no forms with long I from
But in 2d and 3d
pi.).
is-t
the preceding formation
in
as
from the
are
of the language contracted into
The 2d
agrabhlsata.
roots in f
do the same optionally;
such roots are found in the older language.
the grammarians to
901.
agrahlsta,
"$3
is
and
earliest
sing.,
period
^rT^.
mid. should end always in idhvam (or iddhvam,
from is-dhvam 232)
and this is in fact the form in the only
examples quotable from the older language, namely ajanidhvam
and artidhvam and aindhidhvam ; but the grammarians give rules
by which the lingual dh is optional only, and that after i preceded by g, r, I, v, h.
pi.
:
;
f
902.
As examples
of the inflection of the ^ s-aorist
may
1
be taken the roots
Thus
^pu,
'purify',
and
^Uf^budh,
'awake
.
:
middle.
active.
s.
dpavisam
d.
dpavisva
p.
dpavisma
s.
dpavisi
d.
dpavisvahi
p.
dpavismahi
19*
XI. AOBIST-SYSTEMS.
292
[902
dpavis
dpavistam
dpavista
dpavisthas dpavi&atham dpavidhvam
apamt
dpavistam
dpavisiis
dpavista
dpavisatam
dpavisata
dbodhisma dbodhisi
dbodhisvahi
dbodhismahi
dbodhisam dbodhisva
etc.
etc.
etc.
etc.
etc.
etc.
903. The number of roots from which forms of this aorhave been noted in the older language is about a hundred
and twenty (in RV. about eighty; in AV. more than thirty, of
which a dozen are additional to those in RV. in the other texts,
Among these are no roots in a but othernearly thirty more).
wise they are of every variety of form (rarest in final i and i).
but very sparingly
Active and middle persons are freely made
from the same root (only about fifteen roots have both active
and middle forms, and of these a part only exceptionally in the
one voice or the other).
No rule appears to govern the choice of usage between the
and in no small number of cases (more than
is and the s-aorist
a fifth of all), the same root shows forms of both classes.
ist
,
;
;
;
;
904. Irregularities of the older language are to be noticed
The contracted forms aferarram, agrabhlm, and avadhtm
as follows
a.
mentless vddhim] are found in 1st sing. act.
b. For afarlt occurs in AV. a$arait; also
farais
for
pans
ajagrabhaisarh
c.
:
see
From yvad
of
the
MSS.)
form
found vadisma (once, AB.), with short root-vowel.
AV.
801
is
a part
:
aug-
monstrous
agrahaisam
:
(with
found
is
in
AB.
(in
(also
the
i).
has nudisthas, without guna.
d. The forms atarima (RV.) and avddiran (AV.), though they lack the
sibilant, are perhaps to be referred to this aorist.
e.
Ajayit, with short
i
in the ending,
Modes
occurs in TS.
of the /s-aorist.
905. As usual, augmentless indicative forms
common than proper subjunctives. Examples, of
occur (and including all the
vddhim;
vddhls,
mathis,
mardhistam,
of
all
this
the
aorist
accented words), are, in the active:
ydvls,
sdvls;
dosistam, hihsistam;
dvlt,
jurvit,
avistdm, jdnistam,
are
more
persons found to
mdthit,
pdrmsam,
vddhlt,
bddhistdm;
vef.lt;
framima,
vadisma; vadhista arid vadhistana, mathistana, hihsista; hvdrisus, grahisus ;
in the middle rddhisi ; jdnisthds, marsisthas, vyathisthds ; krdmista, janista,
The accent is on the root-syllable
pavista, prdthista, mdndista; vyathismahi.
:
(tarisus,
AV.
once, is probably an error).
SIBILANT AORIST:
911]
293
^S-AORIST.
5.
906. Of subjunctive forms with primary endings occur only
act.
davisani, and
the 1st
mid. (with unstrengthened
pi.
the 1st sing,
yacisamahe and
e)
sanisamahe.
Forms with secondary endings are almost limited
There are found
fahsisas
karisat,
;
mdrdhisat,
savisat.
a
to the
to
occur
avisas,
:
jambhisat,
yodhisat,
yacisat,
are
2d and 3d
act.
sing.
josisat,
tarisat,
nfndisat,
raksisat,
vanisat,
vyathisat,
pdrisat,
Mdhisat,
fahsisat,
sanisat,
will be noticed,
with entire regularity, by adding
The only other persons found
before the endings.
They are made,
tense-stem in
to
kanisas, tarisas, raksisas, vddhisas, vddisas, vesisas,
it
is
the 3d pi.
sanisan
act.
and mid.
which are
sdnisanta,
also
example of a form with double
The radical syllable always has the accent, and its vowel usually
mode-sign.
accords with that of the indicative
but we have san- in the subjunctive
regular.
Bhavisat (AB. once)
is
a
solitary
:
against asanisam
and ran-, see below, 908).
to cay-
(as
907. The middle
optative of this
rocisiya,
janisimahi,
as
(six
follows
modisisthas
gmisiya;
very rare at
AV. from two
all
periods, being
same and
of the
the eight have other w-forms); and the
All the forms
so far as noticed, only four other roots.
from three additional ones
remaining texts add,
found to occur are
is
forms a part of the ac-
also
aorist
It
cepted "precative" of the later language.
made in RV. from only five roots, and in
;
of
janislya,
:
janisista,
indhislya,
vanislsta
;
and
rucislya
edhislyd,
sahisivahi-
edhislmdhi,
mandisimahi, vandisimdh^ vardhisimdhi, sahislmahi
is on the
ending, and this would lead us to
tarislmahi,
The accent
and sahislmahi.
expect a weak form of root throughout but the usage in this respect appears
to be various, and the cases are too few to allow of setting up any rule.
;
908. Of imperative forms, we have from yav
avitd
avistu, avistdm,
and avistdna
this,
(if
a series
seems probable,
as
:
namely, aviddhf,
stands anomalously
for
two of these are of unmistakably imperative form.
Other forms occur only in 2d du. and 2d pi., and are accordingly such as
avistd)
:
might also be subjunctives used imperatively (which is further made probable
two of them by their accentuation on the root-syllable): they are kram-
for
istam, gamistam, cayistam (against acayisam], tSristam, yodhistam, vadhistam,
pnathistam; rdnistana (against aranisus), pnathistana.
909.
anywhere
910.
No words
to
having a participial ending after
is
are found
occur.
This
is
the
only aorist of which forms are made in
see below, chap.
the secondary and denominative conjugations
:
XIV. (1019, 1035, 1048, 1068).
6.
911.
sss-aorist.
According to the grammarians,
from roots in
minish',
The
and
5(T
a
^ft ll
(including ft
'cling',
which
mi
this aorist is
'establish',
ft
substitute forms in
made
mi
'di-
a),
and
XI. AORIST-SYSTEMS.
294
from
^t^nam,
and
FTj/#m,
and
JT^ram,
the corresponding middle being
active;
is
used only in the
s-form (4).
of the
Its inflection is precisely like that of the ^s-aorist
more than
to give
necessary, then,
we may form from
the roots
ETT yci,
its
'go',
first
and
it is
;
un-
which
persons,
^ nam,
'bend'.
Thus:
d.
s.
dyasisam
etc.
etc.
912. The
p.
dnamsisam dnamsisva dnamsisma
dyasisma
dyasisva
etc.
d.
s.
p.
etc.
szs-aorist is properly only a
the tense-sign and endings of the latter
etc.
sub-form of the
added
etc.
having
form of root increased
to a
zs-aorist,
It is of extreme rarity in the older language, being made
by an added s.
RV. only from the roots ga and yd, and in AV. only from fta, and probably
in
from pya and van (see below, 914): the remaining texts add jna (TB.) and
dhd (QB.); the forms adrdszt (K.) and ahvdslt (GB.) might "be either from
this or from the s-aorist.
The
participle
had assumed, even
hdsamdna and causative hdsayanti (RV.) show
at
a very
early
period,
the
value of a
that has
secondary root
beside hd for other forms than the aorist.
913. The whole
adhdsisam;
aydsisam,
agdsls
aydsistdm; ajndsisma;
from yaks}.
hdsista;
quotable
agdslt,
;
adrdslt
(and
agdsisus,
are these: hdsisam; hdsls
hdsisus,
forms
indicative
aydsit
aydsista;
ajndsista,
Forms without augment
hdsistdm;
of
series
;
is
follows:
as
and
aydsisus
ahvdslt ?);
(dksisus
hdslt, ydslt;
is
hdsistam;
The accent would doubtless be upon
gdsisus.
the root-syllable.
914. Of proper subjunctives
are found two, gdsisat and ydsisat (both RV.).
Optatives are not less rare
namely, ydsislsthds and pydsisimahi (for
which the AV. manuscripts read pydfisimahi, altered in the edition to pydyis-);
and doubtless vahfisiya (AV., twice) is to be corrected to vohsisiya, and
:
belongs here.
The accent
of ydsistdm
avistdm, 908) shows it to be a true imis doubtless the same, with anomalous
(like
perative form; and ydsista (RV., once)
I
for
i.
915. Middle forms
optative only;
but,
are hardly justified
persons in
-sisi,
of this
considering
in
aorist,
the
concluding
-sisthds,
etc.,
it
will
be
noticed,
occur from the
great rarity of the whole formation,
we
that in the ancient language the middle
were not allowable, like those in
-isi,
-isthds,
and the others of the i-aorist.
7.
916.
The
sa-aorist.
In the later language, the roots allowed to form
SIBILANT AORIST:
920]
end in
this aorist
or
S^p, E[^,
7.
sa-AomsT.
^
h
-
-
295
them sounds
of
all
which in combination with the tense-sign make
they have
They
:
them may,
Zip ,
,
uip,
guh,
lih,
and
femp,
A;i'p,
duh,
ruh,
mp, mrp,
wft,
trh,
#prp
strh
,
dvis, flis,
tvis,
Some
(Kielhorn).
of
meanings must, take aorists of other forms. And a
drop both tense-sign and union-vowel a in certain persons
or with certain
few are allowed
to
of the middle
that is, they
:
As
917.
main
in the
ks ;
ft
or ft r as radical vowel.
u,
r if
dip,
dih, mih,
krs;
vis,
i,
^
are
3
may make
instead forms of the root-aorist
the tense-stem ends in
5j
(1).
the inflection
7
is
an imperfect of the second general
But (according to the grammarians the forms
like that of
conjugation.
:
unfortunately have not been found in the older language)
the 1st sing. mid. ends in
i instead of
^
^ e, and the 2d
and 3d du. mid. in
ETTSfFT
atham and *JIHH atam, as in imperBoth active and middle in-
fects of the other conjugation.
flection
is
The
admitted.
root
is
throughout unstrength-
ened.
As example
918.
$pt
dip,
we may
of inflection
Thus
'point out'.
the root
middle.
active.
d.
s.
take
:
adiksama
ddiksam ddiksava
2
d.
s.
p.
p.
ddiksavahi ddiksamahi
ddiksi
Sff^TrT
ddiksas
ddiksatam ddiksata
ddiksathas ddiksatham ddiksadhvam
ddiksat
ddiksatam ddiksan
ddiksata
ddiksatam
ddiksanta
919. In the earlier language, the forms of the sa-aorist are hardly more
than sporadic, and are with much probability to be regarded as transfers of
the s-aorist to an inflection after the manner of an a-stem.
They are made
in
RV. from
and
all
eight roots
;
in
AV.
from two of these and from two others
,
;
add six more, making sixteen in all. As later,
or u or r as root-vowel, and a final consonant which combines
ks; but there are in the list also two ending in j (unless the forms
the remaining texts
have
with
s
to
ascribed
i
to
mrj and
vrj
be forced under mrp and
vrh).
All the examples
noted are given below.
920. In the
aruksas, asprksas;
indicative,
we
find,
adiksat, amiksat,
in
the
aviksat,
active:
avrksam;
adruksas,
dkruksat, aghuksat, aduksat and
XI. AORIST-SYSTEMS.
296
ddhuksat, druksat, akrksat,
[920
aghuksatdm; aruksama,
dmrksat, dsprksat;
in the middle,
ksdma, avrksdma; ddhuksan, apiksan (j/pis), aruksan;
akrksathas (]/Ars), adhuksata, and amrksanta.
Forms without augment
(no true subjunctives occur) are,
amronly
in the active
mrksas; dviksat ; mrksata; dhuksdn
in the middle, dviksata, duksata and dhuksata, dhuksdnta.
duksan;
There are no optative forms.
mrksam;
drksam,
duksas,
:
and
ruksas,
Imperative are in the active, mrksatam ; in the middle, dhuksdsva.
The few accented forms without augment which occur have the tone on
:
the tense-sign sd, in analogy with the a-aorist
a-class
(2)
and the imperfect of the
a single exception is dhtiksata, which probably needs
(VII.):
emend-
ation to dhuksata.
The aspiration of initial d and p, after loss of the aspirated quality of
the root-final (155), is seen in forms from the roots duh and guh, but not
from druh (only a single case, AB.);
has also aduksat and
however,
RV.,
duksas, duksan, duksata.
Precative.
921. As the so-called precative is allowed by the grammarians to be made in the later language from every root, and
in an independent way, without reference to the mode of formof the
ation
aorist
from the same
root,
it
is
desirable to put
together here a brief statement of the rules given for
The
922.
precative active
madej by adding|the active
is
precative endings (above, 568) directly to the root.
Of
it.
root-vowels
But
:
770),
(as before the passive-sign yd
i and u are
lengthened; r is usually changed to ri, but to ir
and ur in those roots which elsewhere show ir and ur forms
(so-called f-roots
242), and to ar in r and smr ; a is changed
a.
final
:
:
to e in the roots da, dha, stha,
others, in part optionally.
pa
'drink',
go,
'sing',
and a few
a penultib. The root in general assumes its weakest form
mate nasal is lost, as in badhyasam from y bandh ; the roots
which are abbreviated in the weak persons of the perfect (794)
have the same abbreviation here, as in ucyasam, ijyasam, vidhyasam, supyasam, grhyasam; yeas forms cisyasam (compare 639,
854) and so on.
:
:
older language also, as has been seen above (838), precative
forms are made in the active only for the root-aorist, and in a
In the
optative
manner accordant with that here
923.
The
described.
precative middle
is
made by adding
the middle
precative endings (above, 568) to the root increased by
H
s
PRECATIVE.
925]
or
-
"$& ts
an
-
that
root
is
strengthened according to the rules that
apply in forming the middle-stem
aorists
in general,
respectively:
gunated in both formations
fore
^T
of
(but without augment).
eis-aorist
The
the tense-stem of an s-aorist or
to
is,
297
;
of the
and of the
s
namely,
is-
vowel
a final
is
but a medial vowel, only be-
is.
Other minor rules
In the
is
it
unnecessary to repeat here.
language, as has been pointed out in detail above, precative optative forms of the middle voice are oftenest made from the s-aorist
(895) and the w-aorist (907); but also from the root-aorist (838), the aaorist
older
the
(850),
As example
'be', which is
924.
H
bku,
made from
s-stem
the
aorist
reduplicated
even from the perfect (812
and the
(870),
we may
of inflection,
Thus
.
(914);
and
said
(no
middle
take the root
aorist or precative is
in the older language) to form
it
its
middle on
:
middle.
active.
d.
s.
w-aorist
b).
d.
s.
p.
p.
Htllt-H
c\_
"s
,
c\_
<r\_
,
bhuyasam bhuyasva
_
_
.
bhuyas
_
f
t
According
.
bhavisimdhi
_
bhavisisthas bhavisiyastham bhavisidhvdm
H^llHH
SNs
_r
"^
L
_
.
bhavislstd
bhavisiyastam
to the grammarians, the
middle ending dhvam depends
preceded: in the s-form,
vowel than a or d; in the
it
is
dhvam
z's-form,
it
if
bhavisirdn
lingual
character of the
upon how the
aorist tense-sign
dental
is
.
.
f
bhuyastam bhuyasus
initial of the
_
bhaviswdhi
,
bhuyastam bhuyasta
HUIHIH
cx
"^
bhuyat
_
f
bhuyasma bhavisiyd
the
may be
or
si
is
preceded by any other
dhvam
optionally
if
the
is
is
preceded by y, r, I v, or h. This seems wholly irrational the true question
be regarded as really present in 2d pi. mid.,
is, whether the precative s is to
which is altogether probif so
as in all other 2d persons of both voices
:
,
:
able,
but in the absence of quotable forms from the older language cannot
be pronounced certain
925.
The
the ending
precative
is
a
is
necessarily and always dhvam.
form of rare occurrence in the
In each of the texts already more than once
classical language.
referred to (Manu, Nala, Bhagavad-GIta, Qakuntala, Hitopadeca)
XI. AORIST-SYSTEMS.
298
[025
occurs once and no more.
Its value, as already stated (573),
thus, sarvarastresv idam vaco bruyasta (Nala),
purely optative
that you] speak these words in all kingdoms'.
'[I beg
it
is
:
Uses
The uses
926.
of the
the
of
Aorist.
mode-forms
aorist
been
has
(as
582) appear to accord in general with those
already pointed out
The predilection of
of the mode-forms of the present-system.
the earlier language, continued sparingly in the later, for the
:
augmentless forms in prohibitive expression after mU, was sufficiently stated and illustrated above (579).
The tense-value
referred
and
to,
of
calls
the
only
aorist
indicative has also
somewhat more of
for
been more than once
and
detail
for
illustra-
tion here.
927
erit,
The
.
aorist of the later
language
simply a pret-
is
equivalent to the imperfect and perfect, and frequently
coordinated with them.
Thus, tatah sa gardabham lagudena tddaydmdsa; tend
agamat (H.), 'thereupon he beat the donkey with a stick
J
;
sdu pancatvam
and hereof the
tarn tu bandhujanah samaagamat punah
pujayat (MBh.), 'thereupon she went back to Vidarbha; and her kindred paid
latter died';
tatah sa vidarbhdn
,
uvdca cat
her reverence'; pritimdn abhut:
affection,
and
J
nam
'he
(MBh.),
was
filled
with
said to hinr.
928. The aorist of the older language has the value of a
proper "perfect": that is, it signifies something past which is
viewed as completed with reference to the present and it requires
accordingly to be rendered by our tense made with the auxiliary
have.
In general, it indicates what has just taken place
and
oftenest something which the speaker has experienced.
;
;
Examples from the Veda are pdrl 'me gdm anesata pdry agn'fm ahrsata,
imdn d~ dadharsati (RV.), 'these here have led about
:
devesv akrata frdvah kd
a cow, they have carried around the
fire, they have done honor to the gods
venture anything against them V yam dichdma mdnasd sb 'yam
a 'gat (RV.), 'he whom we (formerly, impf.) sought with our mind has (now,
aor.) come'; yene 'ndro havtsd krtvy dbhavad dyumny uttamah, idam tad akri
who
shall
devd asapatndh
kilo,
became
of highest glory,
(impf.)
'bhuvam (RV.), 'that libation by which India, making it,
I have now made, ye gods; I have become
free
from enemies'.
tdto
Examples from the Brahmana language are sd ha 'smih jydg uvdsa
ha gandharvah sdm udire: jydg vd iydm urvdfl manusyesv avatslt (QB.),
lived with him a long time.
Then the Gandharvas said to one another,
:
'she
"this
Urvac.i,
hath dwelt a long time among mortals'";
forsooth,
dantah pedire: tarn ho
.
J
vaca: apatsata vd asya dantdh (AB.),
.
.
tasya ha
'his teeth fell
USES OF THE AORIST.
928]
He
out.
said
him:
to
"his teeth
truly
299
indrasya vrtrdm
have fallen out'";
jaghnusa indriydrh viryam prthivim dnu vy hrchat tad dshadhayo vlrudho
bhavan sd prajapatim upa 'dhdvad vrtrdm me jaghnusa indriydm viryam
prthivim dnu vy arat tad dshadhayo vlrudho bhuvann iti (TS.), 'of Indra,
l
l
when he had
the
slain Vritra,
force
and might went away
into the earth,
he ran to Prajapati, saying
and became the herbs and plants
"my force
and might, after slaying Vritra, have gone away into the earth, and have
become the herbs and plants'"; svaydm enam abhyudetya bruydd vrdtya kvh
:
:
him in person, let him say:
dvau vivddamandv eydtam ahdm
adar^am ahdm a^rdusam iti yd evd bruydd ahdm adar?am iti tdsmd evd
yrdddadhydma (QB.), 'if now two should come disputing with one another,
[the one] saying "I have seen", [the other] "I have heard", we should believe
'vatslh
(AV.,
in prose
passage),
'going
up
to
"Vratya, where hast thou abode"?' ydd iddnlm
who
the one
said "I
have seen'".
929. This distinction of the aorist from the imperfect and perfect as
tenses of narration is very common in the Brahmanas, and is closely observed
:
neglect of
it
is
very rare, and
is
to
be regarded as either due
to corruption
of text or indicative of a late origin.
In the Vedic hymns, the same distinction is prevalent, but is both less
and less strictly maintained
many passages would admit an interpretation implying either sense; and evident aorist-forms (especially of the
clear
:
simple aorist: Delbruck) are sometimes used narratively,
forms are also occasionally employed in the aorist sense.
930. The boundary between
now
is
is
that which has just
occasionally overstepped, and the aorist
alent of a present.
the former as if
it
Not very
were the
rarely,
latter;
while imperfect-
been and that which
becomes nearly the equiv-
in the Veda, it is convenient to render
and in the Brahmana the same is true
especially of the aorist a/car.
CHAPTER
XII.
THE FUTURE-SYSTEMS.
931.
THE
and character.
ed by
IT yet,
verb has two futures,
The one has
and
is
of very different age
for tense-sign a sibilant follow-
an inheritance from the time of Indo-
other is a periphrastic formation, made
European unity.
by appending an auxiliary verb to a derivative noun of
The
XIl! FUTURE-SYSTEMS.
300
agency, and
it
is
[931
a recent addition to the verb-system;
its
beginnings only are met with in the earliest language. The
former may be called the s- future (or the old future, or
simply the future,;
may be
the latter
distinguished as the
periphrastic future.
The
I.
The
932.
added
syd,
vowel
i
^
to
(in
s-future.
tense-sign of this future
the root either directly
the
is
or
syllable
HT
by an auxiliary
the latter case becoming
^ET
isyd).
The
root
has the ^wwa-strengthening. Thus, from |/^T da is formed
the future tense-stem ^THT dasyd; from ]/^ i, the stem
^T
from y~^> d*uh, the stem
the stem Hf^W Wiavisyd; from
esyd
;
J7??J
dhoksyd; from
bhu,
stem ^[MCVU
the
y'fJEJ rdh,
yH
ardhisyd; and so on.
But from yjw the stem
and so on (240).
933.
This tense-stem
present-stem
We may
'give',
take
ending in
and that of
is
f
a# models
is jivisyd,
from y uks
it is
uksisyd,
then inflected precisely like a
a
(second general
conjugation).
of inflection the future of ]/^T da,
]/5R kr,
'make'.
Thus:
middle,
active,
d.
d.
^TRT
dasyhmi
dasyhvas
dasytimas
dasye
dasytivahe
dasyamahe
dasyasi
dasydthas
ddsydtha
dasydse
dasyetfie
dasyddhv
ddsydti
dasydtas
ddsydnti
ddsydte
ddsyete
dasydnte
karisyfimi karisyhvas karisyamas
etc.
etc.
With regard
etc.
karisye karisyavahe karisyamahe
etc.
etc.
etc.
the use or non-use of the auxiliary
vowel i before the sibilant, there is a degree of general accordance between this tense and the other future and the desidera-
934.
to
THE ^-FUTURE.
935]
live
but
;
by no means absolute, nor are any
is
it
down with
to be laid
301
definite rules
(and so much the less, because
two latter formations in actual use)
regard to
of the infrequency of the
it
:
between this and the aorist (s-aorist on the one side, or /s-aorist
on the other), any correspondence is still less traceable.
Pracit is necessary to learn, as a matter of
usage, how any
given root makes these various parts of its conjugational system.
tically,
935. Below is added a statement of the usage, as regards the auxiliary
vowel, of the roots observed to form the s-future in the older language (more
than a hundred and fifty the collection is believed to be tolerably complete)
:
most part,
for the
in the form
of a specification of the roots
which add
the tense-sign directly to the root; in brackets are further mentioned the
other roots which according to the grammarians also refuse the auxiliary
vowel.
Of
a.
take no
ci
except
and
ci,
in
all
Thus,
ksi,
i,
roots ending in vowels, the great majority (excepting those in
i.
a (numerous, and unnecessary
p ri
except
ji
[and dl];
all
[and cvi]
in u
all
;
in
I
to specify);
ni,
kri,
cm, dru
cyu, dru, plu,
bhi,
r)
in
all
i
vU
ml,
except su
'press',
which follow either method, as stosyami and stavisyami [and except
But all in r (numerous, and unnecessary to
ksu, ksnu, nu, yu< ru, snu].
stu,
[and those
specify)
take
i
said
take
either
to
language]
b.
;
Of
roots
k,
fafc;
roots in
in
changeable r, or so-called f-roots (242) are
no I-forms, however, are found in the older
and likewise those in u
namely bhu, dhu.
or
i
I;
two thirds add sya
ending in mutes,
in
c
but yac
(all
in ch, prach
[and pac, vie];
:
in j
(only case);
majj (manksya), mrj (marksya), yaj,
bhaj,
muc,
namely),
(all
vrj,
yuj,
bhanj, ran/, sari;, svanj, nij, vij, ruj, bhuj]; in
t,
vrace,
vac,
but vraj
srj
krt
Thus, of
directly.
ric,
:
bhrajj,
[also tyaj,
and wt
sic
namely),
[krt,
crt,
in d, ad, pad, cad, sad, skand, syand, chid, bhid, vid
optionally];
nud [also had, khid, svid, ksud, tad, and chrd and trd optionally]
nrt
'find',
:
only
in dh, bandh, radh, budh,
observed exceptions, vad, and vid 'know';
yudh, rudh [also vyadh, sadh, sidh, krudh, ksudh, c.udh, vrdh\ only observed
in n, tan and man (but man forms sometimes
exceptions, rdh and grdh
:
,
in p, tap, vap, ap, gup, drp, srp, kip [also cap, ksip, Up,
in bh, yabh and labh [also
svap forms both svapsya and svapisya;
in
observed
no
nam,
yam, ram : kram follows
m,
exceptions
rabh]
either method.
manisya);
lap]:
:
c.
;
Of
auxiliary
ending in
roots
.
The
roots
va
semivowels, all (they are very few) take the
'weave' and hva or hu ("hve") 'call'
or vi ("ve")
as before
take the forms vay arid hvay,
the a of their present-stem
:
thus,
vayisya, hvayisya.
d.
Of
roots ending in spirants, the minority
the auxiliary vowel.
[also danp,
tvis,
dvis,
dip,
pis,
ric,
vis,
They
are
Mp,
kruc,
clis,
tus,
:
roots in c
rue,
dus,
sprf]
pus,
vie,
,
in
;
pua]
;
(about a third) are without
drc (draksya),
s,
cis,
in
8,
mrc (mraksya)
krs (kraksya) [also
vas 'dwell' (vatsya
:
XII. FUTURE-SYSTEMS.
167)
in
yhas]-
[also
h,
vah,
dah,
[935
ruh
dwft,
mi/*,
naft,
[also
dih, lih]:
exceptions are yrah (grahlsya) and muh.
In the older language, a decided, though not a large, majority of simple
roots add the sya without auxiliary *; in the classical Sanskrit, doubtless the
contrary
the
is
derivative
as
case,
character
i
as
generally taken by any root of late origin and
is
it
is
also
in
uniformly
secondary
conjugation
(chap. XIV.).
936.
As
strengthened in forming the stem of
that has a strong and a weak form,
the strong form is used: thus, from y nap or nanc is made
nanksya ; from ]/ sras or srans, sransisya, and the like.
the root
this future,- so,
is
of a root
Special irregularities in forming stems
noted in connection with those roots above
from certain
majj,
(see
have been
roots
mrj,
vay and hvay,
grah).
The QB. has once the monstrous form a?nuvisyamahe, made upon the
present-stem apnw
IV.) of j/ap.
(el.
937. This future
in
is comparatively rare in the oldest language
apparently, because the uses of a future are to a large extent answered
p;irt,
but becomes more and more common later.
by subjunctive forms
Thus,
RV. has only seventeen occurrences of personal forms, from nine different
the
roots (with participles from six additional roots)
;
the
AV. has
fifty
occurrences,
from twenty-five roots (with participles from seven more); the TS. has occurrences (personal forms and participles together) from over sixty roots and
(as has been noticed above) forms frem more than a hundred and fifty roots
;
are quotable from the older texts.
Modes of the
938. Mode-forms
example
is
karisyds,
s-future.
of the future occur only sporadically.
2d
sing.
subj. act.
(in
RV.,
The
sole
Vedic
once or twice); GB. has
esyamahai, tansy amahai, sthasy amahai, all 1st pi. subj. mid.; and bhavisyadhvam, vetsyadhvam, savisyadhvam, 2d pi. impv. mid., are quoted (Bopp)
from MBh.
Participles of the s-future.
939.
cisely
as
Participles
in the active the ending
mana;
made from
are
from a present-stem in
rT nt,
the accent remains
verbs instanced above,
5f
the future- stem pre-
a: namely,
by adding
in the middle the ending
upon
the stem.
^iHJtt dasydnt
qH
Thus, from the
and ^IKIHM dasyd-
mana, Sfjf^H karisydnt and ^i^MHim karisydmana.
According to the grammarians, the feminine of the active participle is
either in anil or in ati ; but only the former has been noted as occur-
made
CONDITIONAL.
942]
ring in the older language, and the latter,
see above, 449.
RV.
In
303
met with
if
at all,
is
very rare:
occurs once susyanti, from |/su, with anomalous accentuation.
Preterit of the s-future: Conditional.
From
940.
the future-stem
made an
is
augment-preterit,
by prefixing the augment and adding the secondary endings.
in precisely the same manner as an imperfect from a present-stem in
This preterit
Ef a.
called the conditional.
is
form and meaning, as the French
conditional aurais to the future aurai, or as the English would have to will
have
nearly as the German wiirde haben to werde fiaben.
It stands related
to
the
future,
in
Thus, from the roots already instanced
d.
s.
:
middle.
active.
ddasyam ddasyava
d.
s.
p.
ddasyama ddasye
p.
ddasyavahi ddasyamahi
2
s
ddasyas
ddasyatam ddasyata
^(Kir
*(^
ddasyat
ddasyatam ddasyan
I
ddasyathds ddasyetham ddasyadhvam
HI ri IH
ddasyata
ddasyetam
ddasyanta
dkarisyam dkarisyava dkarisyama dkarisye dkarisyavahi dkansyamahi
etc.
etc.
The
941.
etc.
conditional
is
etc.
etc.
the rarest of
all
etc.
the forms of the Sanskrit verb.
The RV. has but a single example, dbharisyat, 'was going to carry
none of the Vedic texts furnishes another. In the Brahmanas it
more common
(fifteen occurrences,
of
off,
is
and
hardly
which several are in repetitions of the
same passage)
except in QB-> where it is met with more than fifty times.
Nor does it, like the future, become more frequent later: not an example
occurs in Nala, Bhagavad-Gita, or Hitopadeca
;
only one in
Manu
;
and two
in Qakuntala.
II.
942.
tense,
The Periphrastic Future.
This formation contains only a single indicative
active
and middle,
without modes, or participle,
or
preterit.
Its
consists
in a derivative
nomen
agentis.
having the
XII. FUTURE-SYSTEMS.
304
value of a future active
or without an
participle,
accompanying
[942
and used,
either
with
in
office
of a
auxiliary,
the
verbal tense with future meaning.
The noun
943.
and
tar}-,
is
XVII.)
is
formed by the
(as in its other
this
added
suffix cT tr
than verbal uses:
to the root either directly or
(or cT|~
see
chap.
with a preced-
ing auxiliary x^owel ^ i, the root itself being strengthened
by guna, but the accent resting on the suffix: thus, ^TcT
datr from y^TT da;
SficT
kartr
from
y^fi
kr ;
^rf^rT
bhavitr
from yv( bhu.
c^
As regards the presence or absence of the vowel z, the usage is said by
the grammarians to be generally the same as in the s-future from the same
root (above, 935).
no
i:
thus,
ference
;
The most important exception
kartr (against karisya);
while
i?rt,
vrdh, and syand have
The few forms which occur
is
that the roots in r take
han and gam show the same
roots
i
in the older language agree with these statements.
In the third persons of both voices,
944.
the nom.
masc. of the noun, in the three numbers respectively
is
used without auxiliary
it
will be';
vitdras,
dif-
here, though not in the s-future.
thus, Hf^FTT bhavita,
:
(373),
'he or she or
HftHI|f bhavitarau, 'both will be'; H&cU(H bhaIn the other persons, the first and
'they will be'.
second persons present of y'ERf as
auxiliary;
'be'
and they are combined, in
(636)
all
are
used as
numbers, with the
singular nom. masc. of the noun. As an independent
no middle forms
verb,
but for this auxiliary use middle
been
made
have
by analogy, ^T lie being used in
persons
33TT
as has
;
1st sing.
Thus, from y^J da,
'give':
middle,
active,
d.
d.
datasmi
datasvas
datasmas
datahe
datasvahe
datasmahe
datasi
datasthas
datastha
datase
datasathe
datadhve
data
datarau
daturas
data
^Trn^
datarau
dataras
PERIPHRASTIC FUTURE.
948]
Very
'thou
other persons than the third are used without the auxiliary
drasta, 'I shall see' (MBh.); tvam bhavita (MBh. Megh.),
rarely,
verb: thus,
305
aham
and examples are not unknown
shalt be';
of the auxiliary in the
3d
person: thus, vakta 'sti (MBh.), 'he will speak'; and of the use in dual and
plural of the proper number-form with the auxiliary
thus, kartarau svah
(MBh.), 'we two shall do'.
:
945. The accent in these combinations, as in all the ordinary cases of collocation of a verb with a preceding predicate
noun or adjective (592), is on the noun itself; and, unlike all
the true verbal forms, the combination retains its accent every-
where even in an independent clause
bhavitUsmi (QB.),
thus, tdrhi vri atinastro
'then I shall be out of danger' (where lhavisyami,
be accentless).
Whether in a dependent clause
:
used, would
the auxiliary verb would take an accent (595), and whether, if
so, at the expense of the accent of the noun (as in the case of
a preposition compounded with a verb-form
1083), we are
if
:
without the means of determining.
940. In the Veda, the nomina
agentis in tr or tar, like various other
derivative nouns (271),
but with especial frequency, are used in participial
construction, governing the accusative if they come from roots whose verbal
forms do so.
Often, also, they are used predicatively, with or without ac-
companying copula; yet without any implication of time;
they are not the
The tensebeginnings, but only the forerunners, of a new tense-formation.
use begins, but rather sparingly, in the Brahmanas (from which over thirty
occurrences are quotable),
phrastic future
is
nowhere
and grows more common
later,
though the peri-
so frequent as the s-future.
947. Middle forms are extremely few in the older language. TS. has
once prayoktdse, which seems to be 1st sing, (the usual ending e added to
the abbreviated root '); but TA. (i. 11) has once the later form yastdhe;
fayitdse in QB. is clearly 2d sing.; TB. has once yastdsmahe, 1st pi.
Uses of the Futures and Conditional.
948.
As
the s-future
is
the
commoner,
so
also
it
is
the
expresses in general what is gobut often, as in
at
time
to come
take
some
to
place
ing
other languages, adding on the one hand an implication of will
or intention, or on the other hand that of promise or threat-
one more indefinitely used.
It
ening.
A few examples are: varsisydty aisdmah parjdnyo vrstiman bhavisyati
(B.), 'it is going to rain; Parjanya is going to be rich in rain this year';
red karisyati (RV.), 'whoever does not know that, what
yds tan nd veda
will he do with verse?' d va{ vaydm agni dhasyamaha dtha yuydrh kfrh
Mm
then what will you
karisyatha (B.), 'we are going to build the two fires;
do?' tarn fndro 'bhyddudrava hanisydn (QB.), 'him Indra ran at, intending
to slay'; yddy evd karisyatha sakdih devafr yajnfyaso bhavisyatha (RV.), 'if
Whitney, Grammar.
20
XII. FUTURE-SYSTEMS.
306
[943
ye will do thus, ye shall be worthy of the sacrifice along with the gods';
ddntds te catsyanti (AV.), 'thy teeth will fall out'; na marisyasi md bibheh
(AV.), 'thou shalt not die; be not afraid'; bruhi kva ydsyasi (MBh.), 'tell us;
where are you going
to go?' yadi
mam
pratydkhydsyasi visam dsthdsye (MBh.),
me, I will resort to poison'. As in other languages, the
tense is also sometimes used for the expression of a conjecture: thus: ko
'yam devo gandharvo vd bhavisyati (MBh.), 'who is this? he is doubtless a
'if
you
shall reject
god, or a Gandharva'.
949. The periphrastic future is defined by the grammarians
as expressing something to be done at a definite time to come.
And this, though but faintly traceable in later use, is a distinct
of the
characteristic
makes
its
formation
appearance
along with $vds,
in
(Delbrtick).
the
It
language where
is
especially
it
often
first
used
'tomorrow'.
A
few examples are
yatardn vd ime fvah kamitdras te jetdras (K.),
'whichever of the two parties these shall choose tomorrow, they will conquer';
:
prdtar yastdsmahe (TB.), 'we shall sacrifice tomorrow morning'; ityahe vah
paktdsmi (QB.), 'on such and such a day I will cook for you'; tan ma ekdm
rdtrim dnte fayitdse jdtd u te 'yam tdrhi putrd bhavita (QB.), 'then you shall
lie with me one night, and at that time this son of yours will be born'.
is wanting, but an emphasis, as of
belong to the form; thus, bibhrhf md
pdrayisyasi 'ty dughd imdh sdrvdh prajd
In other cases, this definiteness of time
special certainty,
seems perhaps
pdrayisydmi tve 'U: kdsmdn
to
md
J
nirvodhd, tdtas tvd pdrayitdsmi ti (QB.), 'support
said it.
From what will you save me? said he.
off all
me and
A
these creatures; from that I will save you, said
mahac chokabhayam prdptdsmas (GB.), 'they set up
going to meet with great pain and dread"'; yaje
I will save you,
flood is going to carry
it';
paridevaydm cakrire
"we are
a lamentation
l
:
yaksi yastdhe ca (TA.),
have sacrificed, and I shall sacrifice'. In yet other cases, in
and yet more in the later, this future appears to
be equivalent to the other thus, prajdydm enam vijndtdsmo yadi vidvdn vd
juhoty avidvdn vd (AB.), 'we shall know him in his children whether he is
'I
sacrifice,
I
the older language even,
:
one that
with knowledge or without knowledge'; vaktdsmo vd idam
sacrifices
devebhydh (AB.),
'we shall
tell
this
to
the gods';
yadi svdrtho
mama
'pi
evam svdrtham karisydmi (MBh.), 'if later my own affair shall
come up, then I will attend to my own affair'; katham tu bhavitdsy eka Hi
tvdm nrpa yocimi (MBh.), 'but how will you get along alone? that,
king,
bhavitd tata
is
the cause of
my
grief about you'.
950. The conditional would seem to be most originally and
properly used to signify that something 'was going to' be done.
And this value it has in its only Vedic ocurrence, and occasionBut usually it has the sense ordinarily called
ally elsewhere.
"conditional"; and in the great majority of its occurrences it is
found (like the subjunctive and the optative, when used with
the same value) in both clauses of a conditional sentence.
USES OF THE CONDITIONAL.
952]
Thus,
sinam dtra
yo vrtraya
'him,
(RV.)i
who was going here
'bharisyat prd
tdm
gam akarisyam
vidUsa uvdca
jdnitri
to carry off Vritra's wealth,
claimed to the knowing one'; fatdyum
make
307
his
mother pro-
was going
'I
(AB.),
to
made) the cow live a hundred years' (in other versions
of the same story is added the other clause, in which the conditional has a
value more removed from its original thus, in GB., 'if you, villain, had not
(shonld have
:
stopped [prdgrahlsyah]
my
J
tdta evd
mouth');
sya bhaydm v\ 'ydya kdsmdd
dhy dbhesyad dvitiydd vdf bhaydm bhavati (QB.), 'thereupon his fear departed
for of whom was he to be afraid? occasion of fear arises from a second
;
person'; titpapdta
up
;
he thought
dram
it
tan mene ydd vdsah paryddhdsyata (QB.), 'he leaped
on a garment'; sd tad evd nd
long that he should put
'vindat prajdpatir ydtrd
where he was
'if
(GB.),
to (should)
'hosyat (MS.),
sacrifice';
'Prajapati,
evam cen nd
verily,
'vaksyo
did
not then find
murdhd
you should not speak thus, your head would
fly
off';
te
vyapatisyat
ad ydd dhdi
evd 'bhavisyad ydvatyo hai 'vd 'gre prajdh srstds tdvatyo hdi 'v<T
'bhavisyan nd prd 'janisyanta (QB.), 'if he had been only so much, there
would have been only so many living creatures as were created at first they
^tdvad
;
would have had no progeny'; kirn vd 'bhavisyad arunas tamasdm vibhettd
tarn cet sahasrakirano dhuri nd 'karisyat (Qak.), 'would the Dawn, forsooth,
be the scatterer of the darkness,
on the
if
the thousand-rayed one did not set her
front of his chariot?'
CHAPTER
XIII.
VERBAL ADJECTIVES AND NOUNS: PARTICIPLES,
INFINITIVES, GERUNDS.
951.
made
THOSE
adjectives, or participles, which are
and so constitute a part of the various
verbal
from, tense-stems,
tense-systems, have been already treated.
It
remains to describe
certain others, which, being made directly from the root itself,
belong to the verbal system as a whole, and not to any particular part of it.
The infinitive (with a few sporadic exceptions in the older
language) also comes in all cases from the root directly, and
not from any of the derived tense-stems.
The same is true of the so-called gerunds, or indeclinable
participles.
Passive Participle
952.
By
atively small
the accented suffix
number
of verbs,
td or nd.
in
*f
rT
td - - or,
nd
is
in a comparformed a verbal
20*
308
XIII.
VERBAL ADJECTIVES AND NOUNS.
when coming from
adjective which,
anything as having
fies
the verb
:
transitive verbs, quali-
endured the action expressed by
thus, ^ff dattd, 'given';
3WT
ukta, 'spoken'
usually called the passive participle;
it is
[952
or,
.
Hence
to distinguish
from the participle belonging to the passive present-system (771), the past passive participle.
it
When made
same
participle,
from an intransitive or neuter verb, the
as in other languages, has no passive but
only an indefinite past sense:
bhutd,
'been';
^faci patitd,
thus,
JH
gatd,
'gone';
>7rT
'fallen'.
In general, this participle is made by adding rf
bare verbal root, with observation of the ordinary
953.
td to the
rules of euphonic combination.
Some
however, require the prefixion of the auxiliary
roots,
vowel i to the suffix. For these, and for the verbs that add
nd instead of td, see below, 956, 957.
As to the accent when the root is preceded by a preposi-
1085 a.
see
tion,
The
954.
if
there
is
root before
anywhere
weak and strong
rT
td
has usually
its
in the verbal system
forms.
Thus
weakest form,
a distinction
of
:
A
penultimate nasal is dropped: e. g. akta from
anj,
badclM from ]/ bandh, srastd from ]/ srans or sras.
to. Roots which in the weak forms of the perfect are abbrea.
y
same abbreviation here thus, uktd from
istd from
yyaj, suptd from y svap,
from
prstd
prach.
vyadh,
y
]/
C. Final a is weakened to i in gitd from y go, 'sing', pita
from }/pa 'drink', dhitd from y dha 'suck', sphitd, vita from
and it is weakened
yvya, fita from yjya, cltd from y'fya;
to i in sthitd, hitd from y dha 'put' (with dh also changed to h
but dhitd is found also in compounds in V.), ditd from y da 'cut'
and y da 'bind'; sitd, mitd from y ma 'measure', citd (or catd),
viated (794)
suffer the
udhd
viddhd from
from
y vac,
:
y vah,
:
chitt
(or
chatd}.
A
m
n
lost after a
in gatd, natd, yatd, ratd
vatd (from yhan etc.).
gam etc.)
(from
e. More isolated cases are: utd from yav, utd from yva 'weave', fistd
from y^as, murtd referred to ymurch, syuta from ysiv, dyutd from ydw
d.
y
'play',
final
;
or
hatd,
is
matd, ksatd,
mutd from ymlv, dhautd from ydhav
tatd,
'cleanse
1
(RV. has also dhutd}.
PASSIVE PARTICIPLE IN ta OR na.
957]
309
955. Of more irregular character are the following:
A number of roots ending in am retain the nasal and lengthen
the radical vowel (as in others of their verbal
thus, kantd,
forms)
krantd, tantd, canto, crania, from y kram etc.; y d/ivan 'be covered' forms in like manner dhvanta.
b. Three roots in an make the participle from parallel roots
in a: thus, jatd, khatd, said, from
yjan etc.
C. The root da 'give' forms datta
(from the derivative form
dad], but data also is found in composition in V. The contracted
tta (as if for data, with the radical vowel
lost) is widely found
in composition, especially with prepositions
(1087 e), but also
with other elements thus, devdtta (RV.); punartta (PB. vi. 5.
12);
a.
:
'
,
:
and, according to the grammarians, sutfa. The root jaks (derivative of ghas: 675) foimsjagdM, as if
homjagh (once apparently
abbreviated in composition to gdha in TS.
thus, agdhad}; y svad
:
makes
in
Veda
svattd
(beside svaditd).
956.
The
suffix
with
i,
^
or in the form
^
itd,
is
reg-
ularly used with the derivative verb-stems in secondary conjugation (chap. XIV.), also often with roots of a derivative
character
(as flf^f jinv,
^
f^T
pat,
original roots (as
In RV. and AV., the participles
of
r^
number.
a sixth of the whole
of abbreviation
them,
payita shows
irregularity,
the
manth,
uditd (}/vad)
frath comes
(by substitution of the present-stem as
yha
rpgj
car,
sft
pi).
in ita from simple roots are more than
Among
From
va to u.
and not infrequently with
hins),
prthita
is
(once).
shown in jahami)
the only case
Jahita from
is
an isolated
same strengthening which appears in the
present-system (629).
A few roots form the participle either with or without the auxiliary i :
thus, guptd and gupitd, drptd and drpitd, dhrstd and dhrsitd, mattd and
inaditd, vittd
The
(also
vinnd) and viditd.
root grabh or grah has, as elsewhere, long I: thus, grbhitd, grhltd.
957.
The
taken instead of
rT
^ nd
(always without auxiliary ^
td by a number of roots.
Thus:
suffix
i)
is
and in i and w-vowels
namely, pyand or find
frdnd from |/pra, jlnd (beside jitd) from yjya or jl, fund from
ycva or fvi, hand and hind from yha, dind from yda 'bind' and 'cut',
kslnd (beside ksitd) from yksi 'destroy', plnd from ypya or pi, vllnd from
a.
from
Certain
roots in a,
:
j/fya,
yvll,
Una from
from yiu
b.
suffix
The
becomes
yil,
dund from ydu, dyund from ydlv
or dev
'lament', lund
and some others.
roots
Ir or
variable r (so-called
in
ur
(beside strtd); purnd,
:
thus, klrnd,
f-roots:
242), which before the
glrnd, jlrnd, tlrnd, dlrnd, plrnd, stlrnd
murnd; and jurnd.
VERBAL ADJECTIVES AND NOUNS.
XIII.
310
A
few
[957
from such roots are met with in the older
participial forms in td
language: thus, gurtd, purtd, flrtd.
c. A few roots ending in j (which becomes g before the suffix: 216. 4):
thus, bhagnd from ybhaj, bhugnd from ybhuj, magnd from ymajj, rugnd
from yruj.
Also,
one or two others that show a guttural before the na:
thus, lagnd from yiag, vrknd from ]/urapc, aknd from j/ac.
number of roots, some of them very common ones, in d (which
d.
A
becomes n before the
and
suffix
:
161, end): thus, channd, chinnd, bhinnd, vinnd
skannd, syannd, svinnd, tunnd, pannd, sannd (beside
sattd, which alone is found in V.); and hlannd (according to the grammarians)
from yhlad; also trnnd from ytrd and chrnnd from ychrd, which show an
and others.
irregular lingualization of the nasal
(beside vittd
viditd),
;
958. The grammarians reckon as participles of this formation a few miscellaneous derivative adjectives, coming from roots
which do not make a regular participle such are ksama, 'burnt'
:
,
'emaciated', pakvd,
krqa,
'expanded', cuska,
'ripe', phulla,
'dry'.
Past Active Participle in tavant.
959.
From
the
past
passive
adding the possessive suffix
having the
SftT
made,
RriIM
cTrT
its
other
derivatives
feminine ends in
active
'having done
tat krtdvan,
Its inflection is like that of
with this suffix (452 if.);
by
vant, a secondary derivative
meaning and construction of a perfect
participle: for example,
that'.
is
participle
cfcft
made
vati;
its
accent remains on the participle.
960. Derivative words
of this formation are found in RV., but without
anything like a participial value.
The AV. has
a single example, with par-
meaning: afitdvaty dtithau, 'one's guest having eaten' (loc. abs.).
In the Brahmanas also it is extremely rare. In the later language, however,
it comes to be quite common.
And there it is almost always used predicticipial
and generally without copula expressed, or with the value of a
atively,
personal verb-form in the perfect tense (like the derivative in ta in the
future: 942 ff.).
For example: mam na kafdd drstavan, 'no one has seen
me'; sa nakularh vyapadiiavan,
'he destroyed the ichneumon'; or, with copula,
mahat krchram praptavaty asi, 'thou hast
originally and properly made only from
fallen
upon great misery'.
Although
transitive verbs (with an object, to
which the participle in ta stands in the relation of an objective or factitive
it is finally found also from intransitives
thus, cutena sam$ritavatl
predicate),
(Qak.),
'has
:
become united with the mango-tree'; gatavatl
(ib.),
'she has gone'.
Future Passive Participles: Gerundives.
961.
Certain derivative adjectives
(for
the most part
GERUNDIVES
9631
more
311
.
or less clearly secondary derivatives) have acquired in
the language
a value as
qualifying something which
is
to,
which ought to, suffer the action expressed by the root
from which they come; and they are allowed to be made
or
Hence they
from every verb.
like
are,
more proper par-
usually treated as a part of the general verbal sys-
ticiples,
tem, and
(like the
called
future passive participles,
or gerundives
Latin forms in ndus, to which they correspond in
meaning).
The
962.
larly
vya,
suffixes
by which such gerundives
and ordinarily made are three
and EFffal aniya.
:
namely
are regu-
TJ ?/,
rTcET tct-
Derivatives in ya having this value are made in all periods of the
language, from the earliest down; the other two are of more modern origin,
being entirely wanting in the oldest Veda (RV.), and hardly known in the
later.
Other derivatives of a similar character, which afterward disappear
from use, are found in the Veda.
The
963.
suffix ya in its gerundive use has nothing to
from the same suffix as employed to make adjecand nouns of other character (see below, chap. XVIII.: 1213).
it exhibits also the
same variety in the treatment of the
distinguish
tives
And
it
root.
The
original value of the suffix is io,
the very great majority of
and o
to
ay and av before
Thus
its
it
and as such
Vedic occurrences.
it
has to be read in
Hence the conversion
of e
(see below).
a. Final a becomes e before the suffix
deya, khyeya,
but RV.
(probably dk-ia etc., with euphonic y interposed)
has once -jnaya.
b. The other vowels either remain unchanged,
and e usually and
or have the guna or the vrddhi strengthening
o always are treated before the ya as they would be before a
:
:
met/a
:
;
vowel thus, jdyya, bhdyya, layya ; ndvya, bhdvya, hdvya, bhavyd ;
varya: and, in the later language, riiya, Jet/a, dhuya (such cases
In a few instances, a short vowel adds t
are wanting earlier).
:
the suffix
thus, itya, mitya, cnitya, stutya, krtya (the
c. Medial a remains unchanged or is
only Vedic examples).
lengthened: thus, ddbhya, vdndya, sddya; madya, vacya.
d. Medial i, u, and r-vowels are unchanged or have the guna-
before
:
L
thus, idya, guhya,, dhrsya ; dvesya, y6dhya, mdrjya.
strengthening
The RV. has about forty examples of this gerundive, and the AV. adds
half as many more.
Except in bhavid (once), the accent in RV. is always
:
312
XIII.
on the root
;
AV. has
VERBAL ADJECTIVES AND NOUNS.
several cases of accent on
the
of
i
[963
the suffix (hence
written adya, a$ya, -vyadhya, -dharsyh}.
According to the grammarians, the
accent is on the root or else the ending is circumflexed
always the former,
:
if
the ya follow a vowel.
964.
from the
The
suffix tavya
noun
a
is
derivative
secondary adjective
(below, 972), made by adding
the suffix ya (properly ia whence the accent ya], before which
the final u, as usual, has ^w^a-strengthening, and is resolved
into av.
infinitival
in tu
t
Hence, both as regards the form taken by the root and
the use or omission of an auxiliary vowel i before the tavya,
the rules are the same as for the formation of the infinitive
(below,
968).
No example
of
this
formation
is
found in RV., and in AV. occur only
and hihsitavya. In the Brahmana language it begins to be not
rare, and is made both from the simple root and the derived conjugational
stems (next chapter); in the classical language it is still more frequent.
According to the grammarians, the accent of the word is either circumflex
two, janitavya
on the
final or acute on the penult: thus, kartavya or kartdvya; in the
accentuated texts, it is always the former.
As to the impersonal use of this gerundive, see below, under Passive
(999).
965. The suffix aniya is in like manner the product of secondary derivation, made by adding the adjective suffix lya (1215)
to a nomen actionis formed by the common suffix ana.
It follows, then, as regards its mode of formation,
for the suffix ana (below, chap. XVIII.: 1150).
This derivative also
upajivaniya
and
is
unknown
amantraniya
in RV., and in
both
(in
of
which,
AV.
is
the rules
found only in
moreover,
its
distinct
gerundive value admits of question). In the Brahmanas (where less than a
dozen examples of it have been noted), and in the later language, it is much
less
common than
the
gerundive in tavya.
Its accent,
as in all the deriv-
atives with the suffix lya, is on the penult: thus, karaniya.
966. Other formations
a.
Veda as follows
tva, apparently made from the infinitival noun
a (1209).
They are kdrtua (in two occurrences
of kindred value are found in the
:
Gerundives in tua or
in tu with the added suffix
ndmtua, v&ktua, s6tua, sndtua, hdntua, hetua; and,
with auxiliary i (or 5), jdnitva, sdnitva, bhdvltva.
b. Gerundives in enia or enya (compare 1217): they are Idenia, carenia,
dryenia, bhusenya, yudhenia, vdrenia; with one example from an apparent
aorist-stem, yamsenya, and three or four from secondary verb-stems (see
kartva], jdntua, jetua,
below,
C.
1038).
Gerundives in dyia
compare 1218): they are daksayia,
with a few from causative secondary con-
(once dyya:
pandyia, viddyia, fravdyia, hnavayia
;
jugation-stems (below, chap. XIV.)
and stuseyia
:
is
of close kindred with them.
INFINITIVES.
970]
A
d.
few adjectives in elima,
as
313
sacelima,
bhidelima (apparently
not
found in use) are reckoned as gerundives by the
grammarians.
967.
The
division-line
between participial
and ordinary
than in the other
Indo-European languages. Thus, adjectives in u, as will be seen
later (chap. XVII.
1178), from secondary conjugational stems,
have participial value and in the Brahmanas
(with an
adjectives
is
drawn
less strictly
in Sanskrit
:
example
;
or two in
AV.) is found widely and commonly used a
adjective formed with the suffix uka (ibid., 1180.
participial
Infinitives.
968.
is
The
language has a single infinitive, which
the accusative case of a verbal noun formed
by the suf-
fix
rT tu,
later
added
to the root usually
directly,
but often also
with aid of the preceding auxiliary vowel
^
The form
i.
of the infinitive ending, therefore, is
or
tj^^tum
^s^itum.
The root has the yema-strengthening, and is accented. Thus,
for example,
"^^etum from
|/^ if
SficFT
from y^TJ" car;
r\[^y\^cdritum
Tvr ;
The
same
kdrtum from
Hi^lrlH
j/sfi
bhdvitum from
as to the use or omission of the auxiliary i are
as those that apply to the formation of the periphrastic future-noun in tr or tar
(943).
the
rules
The same form,
in a like use, is found also in the older language, back
to its earliest recorded period
related formations,
5
but
it is
an account of which
.
there only one of a whole body of
is
in brief as follows
:
969. In the Veda and Brahmana, a number of verbal nouns,
nomina actionis, in various of their cases, are used in construc-
which assimilate them to the infinitive of other languages
were it not for these other later and more developed and pronounced infinitives, the constructions in question
might pass as ordinary case-constructions of a somewhat pecu-
tions
although,
kind.
liar
970. The nouns thus used
a.
its
accusative
genitive
b.
turn,
in
its
tos.
infinitively are the following
derivative suffix, is so used in
dative in e or (from a-roots) at, its
:
The root-noun, without
in
am,
its
and ablative in as, and
The verbal noun in tu
dative in tave or tavai,
its
is
locative in
so used in
and
its
t.
its
accusative in
ablative
and genitive
AND NOUNS.
XIII. VERBAL ADJECTIVES
314
Of other nouns, only single cases,
used with infinitive value; thus:
From
C.
noun
the verbal
generally
in as,
From nouns
From nouns
e.
in
in
reckoned as
datives, are
the dative in ase
in an extremely small number of instances,
se\ from a noun formed with s simply.
d.
[970
;
and
also,
a dative in se
(or
man and
van, datives in mane and vane.
datives in taye, or (from one or two
ti,
in tyai.
verbs)
From nouns
From nouns
f.
g.
i,
datives in
dye.
datives in dhyai and syai.
few infinitives in sani are perhaps locatives from nouns
A
h.
in
in dhi
and
in an added to a root increased
si,
by
s.
From
i.
a single root, dhr, are made infinitively used forms
of which the grammatical character is questionable.
in tdri,
Among
all
as infinitives,
these,
the (forms which have
best right to special treatment
on account of being of peculiar formation, or from suffixes not
found in other uses, or both, are those in
and
sani, tari, dhyai,
se,
Except the various cases of the derivative in
and
tu,
tavdi.
of the root-noun,
unknown outside the Rig- Veda.
for
Other suffixes and forms than those noticed above might be added
impossible to draw any fixed line between the uses classed as infinitive
these infinitives are almost wholly
;
it
is
and the ordinary case-uses and the so-called infinitives are found coordinated
in the same sentence with common nouns, and even with compound nouns.
;
More special rules as to the various formations are as follows:
971. The root-noun used as infinitive has the same form, and the same
accent, both when simple and when combined with prepositions, as in its
other uses.
In the very great majority of instances, it is made from roots
ending in a consonant; but also from a few in d (khyd, da, dhd, pa?, ma,
from two or three in i and u-vowels (hi, ml, bhu), and from one or two
yd],
in changeable
The
r,
which takes the zr-form
d form the accus. in
roots in
stir).
(tir,
dm
(pratidhdm, AV.), the dat. in di,
the abl. in as (understanding avasd before d as for avasds and not avasdt
in RV. iii. 53. 20), and the locative in e (only two examples, of which one
is
better understood as dative).
972. The
noun in tu is made freely from roots of every form.
ywna-strengthening, if capable of it, and often adds the
auxiliary vowel i before the suffix (according to the rule already stated, 968).
The root is accented, unless the noun be combined with a preposition, in
The
infinitive
root takes the
which case the latter has the accent instead
thus, kdrtum, etave, hdntos,
but nfkartum, nfretave, nfrhantos.
The dative in tavdi is in two respects anomalous in having the heavy
feminine ending di along with a strengthened u; and in taking a double
:
:
accent, one on the root or on the prefixed preposition,
ending
di
The
is
shown
:
thus,
etavdf,
root grah
also
makes
by ?dritu,
and the other on the
hdntavdf, dtyetavdi, dpabhartavdf.
(as
in other kindred formations)
stdrltu,
grdhltu
hdvltu (and compare bhdvitva,
,
and long
966 a).
i
INFINITIVES.
980]
315
973. The infinitive in ase is made in RV. from about twenty-five roots
AV. and later there have been noted no other examples of it. In near
;
in
three quarters of the cases, the accent is on the suffix
bhiydse,
tujdse
and dyase,
the suffix);
the
the exceptions are cdksase;
;
spdrase,
thus, rnjdse, jlvdse,
hdrase (with ^Una-strengthening of
Strengthening of the root is also shown by javdse, dohdse, bhojdse,
In pusydse is seen, apparently, the present-stem instead of the root.
root).
$obhdse.
The ending
extremely rare, being found only in
more doubtful cases.
se is
and one or two
state,
bhdrase,
:
dhdyase (with y inserted before
974.
jise
and perhaps
still
Infinitives in
mane
made from
are
only five roots: thus, trdmane,
damane, dhdrmane, bhdrmane, and (with different accent) vidmdne. From
yda comes davdne; turvdne may come directly from ytr, or through the
secondary root turv ; dhurvane is rather from ydhurv than from ydhvr.
975. The
infinitives in taye are istdye (j/j's), pltdye (ypa 'drink'), vitdye,
In tydi, the only examples noted are itydf (RV.) and sadhyai (AB.).
sdtdye.
With aye
are formed tujdye, drfdye, mahdye, yudhdye, sandye.
976. The ending dhyai
in its treatment.
it is
is,
more than any
and added
accented upon this a,
to
ddhyai, prnddhyai, dhiyddhyai, huvddhyai.
one in
a
few cases
mandddhydi,
accent
:
other,
irregular and various
and in the majority of cases
a weak form of root: thus, fwc-
has always an a before
It
it
;
But the form
of root is the strong
namely, $ayddhyai, stavddhyai, tarddhyai, jarddhyai,
In half-a-dozen forms, again, the root has the
vandddhyai.
namely,
:
ksdradhyai,
gdmadhyai, ydjadhyai (but once
twice
or
also
yajddhyai], vdhadhyai, sdhadhyai, bhdradhyai. In a single instance, ptbadhyai,
and in one, vdvrdhddhydi,
the suffix is added distinctly to a present-stem
;
to a perfect stem.
is
made from
Finally,
number
in a
a causative stem in ay
This infinitive
is
:
of instances
(ten),
this
infinitive
thus, madayddhyai, risayddhyai, etc.
by no means rare in RV., being made in thirty-five
But it is hardly known out-
different forms (with seventy-two occurrences).
side of the
and
RV.; the AV. has
in the branches of the
noticed (one of
it
them TS.
it
but once
(in a
passage found also in RV.);
Yajur-Veda but two or three examples have been
falsely reads gdmadhye)-, in the
Brahmana language
appears to be entirely wanting.
977. An example
rohisyai
(TS.),
978. The
or
avyathisyai
two are met with of an
infinitive in syai:
thus,
(K.).
infinitives in sani are:
-bhusdni from ybhu; fusdni from y?u
ysah; parsdni from }/pr, tarlsdni
the last confrom ytr; and grnudni and -strnlsdni from yygr and str
taining evident present tense-signs (compare the 1st sing, grnise, 894 d).
or ?va;
nesdni from ynl;
979. The only
saksdni from
infinitive in tari is dhartdri (with its
compound
vidhartdri),
from ydhr.
Uses of the Infinitives.
980. The uses of the so-called infinitives are for the most
cases from,
part closely accordant with those of the corresponding
Thus
other abstract nouns.
:
XIII. VERBAL ADJECTIVES AND NOUNS.
316
The
981.
noun and
the
[981
which is made only from the rootused as object of a verb.
accusative,
in tu,
noun
is
Especially, of forms from the roots
pafc, 'be able', and arh, 'be worthy,
fakema tvd samidham (RV.), 'may we
accomplish thy kindling'; md pafccm pratidhdm {sum (AV.), 'may they not be
able to fit the arrow to the string'; mdno vd imdm sadydh pdrydptum arhati
have the right
or the
mdnah pdribhavitum
Thus,
power'.
'the mind,
(TS.)>
forsooth,
can at once attain and surpass
ko hy etdsyd 'rhati gtihyarh ndma grdhltum (QB.),
take his secret name?'
In the Veda, the construction
her';
only one
among
others
;
the Brahmana,
in
one (three quarters or more of
all
who is worthy
with these verbs
'for
to
is
becomes the greatly prevalent
it
the cases).
Further, of verbs of motion (next most frequent case): thus, ddksindni
h6tum eti (TS.), 'he goes to sacrifice things pertaining to sacrificial gifts';
fndram pratfram emy dyuh
the lengthening out of
'I
(RV.),
go to Indra for
of ydhr,
life';
(i.
e.
beseech of him)
'persist in, undertake': as,
sd iddrh
jdtdh $drvam evd ddgdhum dadhre (QB.), 'he, as soon as born, began to burn
this universe';
of verbs meaning 'desire, hope, notice, know', and the
like: as, pdfdn vicrtarh vettha sdrvdn (AV.), 'thou knowest how to loosen
bonds'; tdsmdd agnfth nd "driyeta pdrihantum (QB.),
not be careful to smother the fire';
and of others,
'therefore one should
all
Of the
982.
sense
is
Examples
living
infinitive
that expressed
are
creature
vfyvam jlvdrh cardse bodhdyanti (RV.), 'awakening every
:
;
to
them'; ndt 'tdm
te
by
datives, the fundamental and usual
in order to, for the purpose of.
'for,
tdn tipa ydta ptbadhydi (RV.), 'come to drink
devd adadur dttave (AV.), 'the gods did not give her to
motion';
thee for eating'; prat "d yudhdye ddsyum tndrah (RV.), 'Indra went forward
to fight the demon'; cdksur no dhehi vikhydt. (RV.), 'give us sight for looking
abroad'.
Some
a.
however, grow out of this use of the in-
peculiar constructions,
Thus:
finitive dative.
The noun which
is
expressed by the infinitive
logically the subject or the object of the action
is
frequently put beside
construction which is in part a perfectly simple one,
beyond
its
natural boundaries by a kind of attraction):
pdnthdm dnvetavd u
sun a track
(RV.),
'he
made a
track
for the
it
in the dative (by a
but which
is
stretched
thus, cakdra surydya
sun
to
follow (made
rdksobhyo vinfkse (RV.),
'he whets his horns to pierce the demons'; rudrdya dhdnur d tanomi brahmadvtse fdrave hdntavd u (RV.), '1 stretch the bow for Rudra, that with his
for the
for his following)';
pfplie
pfnge
arrow he may slay the 6raftma-hater'; asmdbhyam dr$dye surydya punar
ddtdm dsum, 'may they grant life again, that we may see the sun'.
b.
An
causative
make the
;
infinitive
verb
:
blind
with
prd
and lame
thus,
thou hast made the
fire to
'make', is used nearly in the sense of a
|/fcr,
'ndhdrh frondm cdksasa etave krthah (RV.), 'ye
to
see
and
be kindled'.
go';
Of
agnfih samfdhe cakdrtha (RV.),
an occasional
similar, character is
USES OF THE INFINITIVES.
9841
construction with another verb:
we wish
'what
be done,
to
317
ydd im upmdsi kdrtave karat
as,
may he do
tat
(RV.),
that'.
c. A dative infinitive is not seldom used as a
predicate, sometimes with,
but more usually without, a copula expressed thus, agnfo iva nd pratidhfse
bhavati (TS.), 'like fire, he is not to be resisted'; mahimd te
anyena nd
:
9amnd?e
'these
vah
.
.
.
call
(RV.),
glorious
not
is
be put down, the
.
infinitive so used
:
ones
tyd
shall the
thus,
without a copula has pretty clearly
me yafdsa
son of
.
.
Uc.ij
aufijd huvddhyai [asti]
invoke for me'; suktebhir
.
indra nv agni dvase huvddhyai [stah] (RV.),
now on Indra and Agni
'let
to
1
the value of an imperative
ye
'Indra
fakrdh pdri?aktave (RV.),
not to be overpowered
mighty one is
d. Sometimes an
(RV.),
by another'; ndldm indro
'thy greatness is not to be attained
(VS.),
nikartave nd
'with your
hymns
shall
vandddhya agnim ndmobhih [asmi]
me greet Agni with homage'; asmdkasaf ca surdyo vfyva dfds
tarlsdni (RV.),
'and let our
for aid';
sacriflcers cross
dhyai and sani (which latter is in
those in which the imperative value
In the
all
is
its
all
The
regions'.
infinitives in
uses accordant with datives) are
most distinctly
to
be recognized.
only a sporadic case or two elsewhere) the dative
in tavai is frequently used with a verb signifying 'speak' (bru, vac, aft), to
express the ordering of anything to be done
thus, tdsmad 6sadhlnam evd
mulany ucchettavaf bruydt, 'therefore let him direct the roots of the plants
e.
B.
(with
:
to be cut
up (speak
in order to cutting up)'.
983. The ablative infinitive
which, like the accusative,
is made only from the root-noun and that in tu
is found
especially with the prepositions ft, 'until', and purh,, 'before'.
Thus, d tdmitos (TS. etc.), 'until exhaustion'; purd vacdh prdvaditos
In the Brahmana language, this is
(TS.), 'before utterance of the voice'.
the well-nigh exclusive construction of the ablative;
is
used
I/M,
also
after
rte,
'without',
and
after
several
in the Veda, the latter
verbs,
as
tra
and pa,
bhi.
In two or three instances, by an attraction similar to that illustrated
above for the dative (982 a), a noun dependent on this infinitive is put in
the ablative beside it thus, pura vagbhyah sampravaditoh (PB.), 'before the
utterance together of the voices'; trddhvam kartdd avapddah (RV.), 'save us
:
from
falling
down
984.
The
ablative) is in
into the
pit'.
genitive infinitive (having the same form as the
use in the Brahmana language as depend-
common
ent on icvard,
of 'capable' or
lord, master', employed adjectively in the sense
'likely' or 'exposed to'.
Examples are td [devdtah] ifvard enam praddhah (TS.), 'they are likely
burn him up'; dtha ha vd lyvarb '^nfrh citvd Mrhcid damritdm apattor vf
va hvdlitoh (QB.), 'so in truth he is liable, after piling the fire, to meet with
:
to
some mishap
pramathitoh
chanter'.
or other, or to stagger'; Ifvararh vai rathantaram udgatuq, caksuh
'the rathantara is liable to knock out the eye of the
(PB.),
XIII. VERBAL ADJECTIVES AND NOUNS.
318
The
dative
is
once used in
the
in
nayitavaf); and,
B.
instead
of the genitive (in ifvarati jd-
sometimes the
later language,
Occasionally the masc. sing. nom. Ifvarah
is
[934
accusative
in
turn.
used, without regard to the gen-
der or number of the word which it qualifies
thus, tdsye "fvardh
And in
pdplyasl bhdvitoh (QB.), 'his progeny is liable to deteriorate
instances the word Ifvara is omitted, and the genitive has the same
without it: thus, dve madhyandinam abhi pratyetos (AB.), 'two may be
prajd
a few
:
1
.
to the
noon
crated
is
libation';
diksitdh
tdto
pamano
bhdvitoh
(B.),
value
added
'then the conse-
liable to get the itch'.
This construction with ifvara, which
unknown
the
is
only one
for
the
genitive
where the genitive is
found in a very small number of examples with madhyd, and with the root
If: thus, madhyd kdrtoh (RV.), 'in the midst of action'; ife ray6 ddtoh (RV.),
infinitive in the
Brahmana,
is
in
the Veda,
'he is master of the giving of wealth'.
985. Unless the
infinitives in sani
and
tari are locative in
form (their
uses are those of datives), the locative infinitive is so rare, and has so little
that is peculiar in its use, that it is hardly worth making any account of.
An
example
986.
is
usdso budhf (RV.),
the awakening of the dawn'.
'at
In the Veda, the dative infinitive forms are very much
their occurrences
more numerous than the accusative (in RV.,
are twelve times as many; in AV., more than
the
accusative
in
turn
is
rare
(only
In the Brahmanas,
eight in AV.).
much greater comparative frequency
as many as those of the dative)
but
;
three times)
and
forms in RV., only
the accusative has risen to
(its forms are nearly twice
the ablative-genitive, which
to full equality with it. The
;
four
rare in the Veda, has also come
complete disappearance in the classical language of all excepting the accusative in turn is a matter for no small surprise.
is
987. The
later
infinitive
in turn
is
oftenest used in con-
structions corresponding to those of the earlier accusative
thus,
na vaspam acakat sod/ium, 'he could not restrain his tears'; tarn
drastum arhasi, 'thou oughtest to see it'; praptum ichanti, 'they
:
desire to obtain';
But
also,
samkhyatum arabdham, 'having begun
not infrequently,
in
those
of the
other
to count'.
cases.
So,
thus, avasthatum sthanantaram cintaya,
especially, of the dative
'devise another place to stay in'; tvam anvestum iha "gatah, 'he
has come hither to seek for thee';
but likewise of the geni:
samartho gantum, 'capable of going'; samdhatum icmend'.
Even a construction as nominative is
not unknown
thus, yuktam tasya maya samaqvasayitum bha'it
is proper for me to comfort his wife';
na
ryain (MBh.),
naptaram svayam nyayyam captum evam (R.), 'it is not suitable
thus to curse one's own grandson'.
tive
:
varah,
thus,
'able to
:
988. In
the later language, as in the earlier,
connections has what
we
look
the infinitive in certain
upon as a passive value. Thus, kartum arabdhah,
GERUNDS.
991]
319
'begun to be made': frotum na yujyate, 'it is not fit to be heard (for hearThis is especially frequent along with the passive forms of y$ak: thus,
tyaktum na $akyate, 'it cannot be abandoned'; fakyav iha "netum, 'they two
can be brought hither'; na ca vibhutayah ?akyam avaptum urjitah, 'nor are
ing)'.
mighty successes a thing capable
of being
attained'.
Gerunds.
989.
The
so-called gerund
less instrumental)
is
a stereotyped case (doubt-
of a verbal noun, used generally, but in
the later language not exclusively, as logical adjunct to the
subject of a clause, denoting an accompanying or (usually)
a preceding action to that signified
It
has thus the virtual
present or past,
scribes
by the verb of the clause.
value of an indeclinable participle,
qualifying the
whose action
actor
it
de-
:
Thus, for example grutvai 'va ca 'bruvan, 'and hearing (or
having heard) they spoke'; tebhyah pratijnaya 'thai 'tan paripapracha, 'having given them his promise, he then questioned
:
them'
.
990.
The gerund
is
made
of the two suffixes ^T tva and
by one
in the later language
T y<i.
the former being used
with a simple root, the latter with one that is compounded with a prepositional prefix
or, rarely, with an element of another kind, as adverb or noun.
Exceptions to this distribution of uses between the two suffixes are very
examples of simple roots with ya are arcya, grhya, usya (yvas 'dwell')
of compounded roots with tva are anudhyatva, apatyaktva, pratyarpayitvd
rare
:
;
The gerund in
(AV.: only case noticed in the Veda: TA. has -rocayitva).
however, may have the negative particle prefixed to it: thus, akrtva,
tvd,
anlrayitva.
Of compounds
verbal prefixes,
of the
gerund in ya with other elements than the usual
RV. has punarddya,
ararhkrtya, akkhallkftya, mithaspfdhya
991.
The
added directly
suffix
^T
;
karnagfhya,
AV. has
padagfhya,
tva has the accent.
to the root,
hastagrhya,
further namaskrtya.
It
is
usually
but sometimes with interposition
i
with regard to which, as well
of the auxiliary vowel
^
as to the form of the root before it, this formation closely
agrees with that of the participle in
rT
ta (above,
952 if.).
320
VERBAL ADJECTIVES AND NOUNS.
XIII.
When
marked.
i is
used, the disposition to take a weak form of root is less
Roots which have na instead of ta as participial suffix usually
reject the
i.
The
992.
which
!
7J
gerund
is
added directly
its
weak form.
ya
vowel takes rT tya instead of
TOT
Roots in
this
suffix
accented, but has
is
in a short
-jitya,
[991
the root,
to
A
root ending
ya: thus,
TJ
ftfrET
-krtya.
am and an whose
also
in
atya:
passive participle
thus,
-gatya,
-hatya.
ends in ata (954 d) form
But such am-roots are
allowed in the later language to preserve their nasal in the gerund:
thus,
Final changeable r becomes Ir
(no such form occurs in the Veda).
-gamya
or ur
:
to
Final a remains unaltered
thus, -glrya, -purya.
and mi
'establish'
:
thus, -gay a, -sthaya
and mi 'diminish' take the form ma;
II
'cling' is
;
allowed
do the same.
The older language has the same two gerund formahaving the same distinction, and used in the same way.
993.
tions,
a. In RV., however, the final of ya is in the great majority of instances (fully two thirds) long (as if the instrumental ending of a derivative
noun
in i or ti).
In AV., long a appears only once, in a RV. passage.
b. Instead of tvd alone, the Veda has three forms of the suffix, namely
tvd,
tvdya, and
(thirty-five
Of these three,
tvi.
against
occurrences,
tvi is decidedly the
twenty-one of
toa);
but
commonest in RV.
it
is
unknown
in
AV., and very rare elsewhere in the older language; tvaya is found nine
times in RV. (only once outside the tenth Book), twice in AV., and but
few times elsewhere. The historical relation of the three forms is obscure.
c.
Two
other
gerund
suffixes,
tvanam and tvinam, are mentioned by
the grammarians as of Vedic use, but they have nowhere been found actually
to occur.
994.
The use of
this gerund,
much more
character, becomes
the later language.
through not changing in its
and even excessive, in
frequent,
Thus, in the Nala and Bhagavad-Gita, which have only one tenth as
verb-forms as RV., there are more than three times as many examples
many
of the
gerund as in the
latter.
Early examples are vdjrena hatvd nfr apdh sasarja (RV.), 'striking ^vith
his thunderbolt, be poured forth the waters'; strfyam drstvdya kitavdm tatapa
:
(RV.), 'the gambler is distressed when he sees a woman'; pitvi sdmasya
vavrdhe (RV.), 'having drunk of the soma, he waxed strong'.
In the older
language almost without exception, and in the later usually, it expresses an
action or condition belonging to the subject of the sentence; but
texts
more
hatah
(H.),
him by his
loosely
construed
:
thus,
tatah
it is
in
some
cabdad abhijnaya sa vyaghrena
'thereupon he was slain by the tiger, the latter having recognized
noise';
kirn
nu me sydd idam
krtvct (MBh.),
'what,
I
wonder,
GERUNDS.
996]
would happen
(H.
,
-what
to
is
321
J
me, having done this?' sucintya co ktarh suvicdrya yat krtam
mature thought, and done after full deliberation'.
said after
Adverbial Gerund in am.
995. The accusative of a derivative nomen actionis in a, used
adverbially, assumes sometimes a value and construction so
accordant with that of the usual gerund that it cannot well be
called by a different name.
No example of a peculiar gerundial construction with such a form occurs
either in RV. or AV., although a few adverbial accusatives are probably to
be classed as representing this formation
thus, abhydkrdmam, pratdnkam,
pranodam, nilayam, dbhiskdndam. The gerund is found especially in the
Brahmanas (much oftenest in QB.), and sparingly later. In the classical
:
language
A
it is
quite rare.
vowel has frdd/u'-strengthening before the suffix; final a adds y;
a medial vowel has guna; but medial a is usually lengthened.
The accent
is
final
on the radical syllable.
Examples are: kamam va imdny dngdni vyatyasam fete (QB.), 'he lies
changing the position of these limbs at pleasure'; uttardm-uttardrh fdkhdrh
samdldmbharh rohet (QB.), 'he would climb, taking hold of a higher and ever
a
apansu mahdnagdm iva 'bhisarhsaram
higher limb';
'hereafter,
running together as
ndmdny dsdm
to see him';
it
etdni
didrksitdrah
were about a great snake, they
ndmagrdham
(QB.),
'with
(QB.),
will
separate
wish
naming
these their names'; yd viparydsam avaguhati (QB.), 'whoever buries it
As in these examples, the form is almost always a compound
upside down'.
one. In the later language, it it said to be used most often repeated
thus,
of
:
pdyam-pdyam
vrajati,
'he goes after drinking repeatedly';
vrajati,
'having
first
eaten, he goes';
'she proceeded to cry, throwing
prathamam bhojarh
bdhutkseparh krandUum pravrttd (Qak.),
up her arms
CHAPTER
(with arm-tossing)'.
XIV.
DERIVATIVE OR SECONDARY CONJUGATION.
996.
SECONDARY conjugations
system of forms,
like
are those in
which a whole
that already described as
made from
made, with greater or less completeness,
from a derivative conjugation-stem and is also usually conthe simple root,
is
;
nected with a certain definite modification of the original
radical sense.
Whitney, Grammar.
21
XIV. SECONDARY CONJUGATION.
322
We
[996
have seen, indeed, that the tense-systems are also for the most part
derivative-stems and even that, in some cases, such stems assume
made from
;
the appearance and value of
Nor
system.
coiijugational
roots,
there
is
and are made the basis of a complete
any distinct division-line to be drawn
between tense-systems and derivative conjugations
the latter are present-
systems which have been expanded into conjugations by the addition of other
In the earliest language,
tenses, and of participles, infinitives, and so on.
their forms outside of the present-system are still quite rare, hardly more
with the exception of one or two
than sporadic; and even later they are
much less common than
formations which attain a comparative frequency
the corresponding forms of primary conjugation.
The secondary
997.
II.
Intensive
;
are:
conjugations
Desiderative
III.
;
IV. Causative
I.
;
Passive;
V. Denom-
inative.
The passive is classed here rather as a matter of convenience and of
general usage than because it is of the same kind with the others.
I.
The
998.
main
is
passive conjugation has been already in the
described.
a.
Thus,
maining forms
IT
:
and
yd*-,
above, 768
b.
we have
seen that:
has a special present-system,
It
stem of which
the
and not made the basis of any of the restem is formed with the accented class-
present only,
sign
Passive.
this
it
takes the middle endings.
It
is
treated
ff.
In the other tenses, the middle forms are used also
But:
in a passive sense.
There
c.
ending in
^
is
a special passive 3d sing,
i: it is treated
above, 842 ff.
of the aorist,
And:
may be formed
grammarians,
According
from some verbs, for passive use, a special stem for the aorist
and the two future systems, coinciding in form with the peculiar 3d sing, aorist.
to
d.
the
there
,
3d sing, adayi], beside ddasi, dasye, datdhe, also
The permission to make this double formation
extends to. all roots ending in vowels, and to grah, drp, and han. The
and they are,
duplicate forms have not been noticed in the older language,
Thus: from yda
adayisi,
dayisye,
(aor.
ddyitdhe.
at the best, extremely rare in the later.
As
to
the prescribed passive inflection of the periphrastic perfect, see
below, 1072.
PASSIVE; INTENSIVE.
1001]
Besides the participle from the present tense-stem
e.
(771.
na
323
5),
the passive has a past participle in
and future
(957),
formation (961
999. The
mental case,
participles,
made
ff.).
passive
from the
directly
rT ta (952).
or
^
gerundives, of various
or
root.
with the logical subject in the instru-
construction,
and favorite one, especially in the later language
thus, evam uktva tena sarvesam bandhanani chittani (H.), 'thus saying, he
cut the bonds of them all'. And, extremely frequently, an impersonal passive
is
a frequent
:
in the third person is used
;
and
it
may
(i.
e.
(H.),
in other languages)
(as
from intransitive as well as transitive verbs
thus, cruyatam,
:
be formed
'let it
be heard'
hear ye!), iha "gamyatam, 'come hither'; sarvair jalam adayo 'ddiyatam
'let all fly up, taking the net with them'; tac chrutva jaradgaveno
'how
'ktam, 'hearing that, Jaradgava said'; katharh jlvitavyam,
is
one to live?'
long as that sage shall exist'. The
subject of such a construction is, of course,
yavad ane.ua munina sthatavyam
(H.),
'as
predicate to the instrumental
also in the instrumental
thus, adhuna tava
:
J
nucarena maya sarvatha bhavi-
always be
thy companion'; tena tvaya yatavyam (H.),
vajjlvarh sukhina bhavitavyam (H.), 'with that thou shalt be happy as long as
thou livest'. The gerundive is common in this construction, and not seldom
it has a purely future sense.
'henceforth I shall
II.
The
1000.
ative)
least
is
intensive
that one
of the
Intensive.
(sometimes also called frequent-
secondary conjugations which
is
removed from the analogy of formations already de-
scribed.
It
is,
like the present-system
jugation-class (642
but of one that
plication.
is
ff.),
of the second con-
the inflection of a reduplicated stem,
peculiar in having a strengthened redu-
It is decidedly
less
extended beyond the limits
derivative con-
of a present-system than any other of the
jugations.
The
intensive
conjugation
intensification of the action
signifies
the repetition or
expressed by the primary con-
jugation of a root.
1001. According to the grammarians, the intensive conin the
jugation may be formed from nearly all the roots
language
the exceptions being: roots of
more than one
21*
XIV. SECONDARY CONJUGATION.
324
those
syllable,
[1001
conjugated only causatively
(below,
1056\
and in general those beginning with a vowel.
In
fact,
so rare
that
however, intensives in the later language are extremely rare,
is hard to tell precisely what value is to be given to the
rules of the native grammar respecting them.
Nor are they at all common
earlier,
of the
it
except (comparatively) in the RV. which contains about six sevenths
whole number (rather over a hundred) quotable from Veda and Brah,
mana-texts (AV. has
RV.
than half as
less
many
as
RV., and many
of these in
passages).
Hence, in the description to be given below,
the actual aspect of the
language, will be had primarily and
especially in view; and the examples will be of forms found there in use.
as
formation,
1002.
different
a.
exhibited
in
the
The strong
older
intensive reduplication
is
made
in three
ways:
The reduplicating
syllable
is,
as elsewhere,
composed of
single consonant with following vowel, and, so far as the
consonant is concerned, follows the rules for present and perbut the vowel is a heavy one, radicfect reduplication (590)
al a and r (or ar] being reduplicated with a, an /-vowel by e,
and an w-vowel by o.
a
;
Examples
are
:
vavad, babadh, cacvas, rarandh; dadr, dadhr
;
cekit,
tetij,
neni, vevli; cocuc, popruth, cosku, johu.
b.
The reduplicating
from the end of the
sonant
is
root.
(or its substitute
either r
Examples are: carcar,
tahstan, danda$ (ydah? or
or tas),
syllable has a final consonant, taken
With an exception or two, this con-
calcal,
da(),
sarsr,
I)
or a nasal.
marmrj, jarhrs ; cankram, janghan,
janjabh (yjambh or jabh),
tantas (ytans
nannam (ynam).
Only roots having a or r as vowel make this form of reduplication, but
with such roots it is more common than either of the other forms.
Irregular formations of this class are
:
with a final other than r or n in
the reduplication, badbadh; with a final nasal
not found in the root, jangah (RV.), janjap
in the reduplication
(B.: and the
later
which
is
language
dandah); with an anomalous initial consonant in reduplication, jarbhur
from ybhr (compare the Vedic perfect jabhdra, 789 b) with various treatment
of an r or ar-element, dardar and dardir, carkar and carkir, tartar and tartur,
has
;
carcar and carcur, jargur and jalgul and galgul.
The
root r is the only one with vowel initial forming an intensive
in the older language
:
it
makes the
stem
irregular alar or air.
The reduplication
is dissyllabic, an /-vowel being added
consonant of the reduplicating syllable. This /-vowel
in the older language short before a double consonant, and
Q.
after a final
is
long before a single.
Examples are:
ganiyam
(but
ganigmatam},
varivrt,
vamvah, caniskad,
INTENSIVE.
1005]
325
navlnu, davidyut (and the participles ddvidhvat
single exception as to the quantity of the i is davidhdva.
sanisvan;
A
This method of reduplication
but
tdvituat).
followed in the older language by over
is
penultimate n (once m], and n
in the reduplicating syllable, pan,
phan, san, suem, han; gam; krand, fcand,
skand, syand; of roots having final or medial r, and r in the reduplicating
twenty
roots.
Thus, of roots having
final or
syllable, kr 'make', tr, bhr, vr, mrd, vrj, vrt ;
further, of roots assuming
in the reduplication a n not found in the root, only vah
(QB.: the grammarians
allow also kas, pat, pad}-, finally, of roots having u or u as radical
vowel,
with, av before the i-vowel, tu, dhu, nu,
dyut.
In this
class,
sonant (590)
are
the general rules as to the form of the reduplicating conviolated in the case of ghanlghan and bharlbhr, and of
ganlgam, karlkr (but the regular carlkr
(but also caniskand occurs).
The reversion
cekit,
to
kanikrand, and kaniskand
also occurs),
more original guttural form
and janghan and ghanlghan,
is
in
after the
reduplication in
with what takes place
accordance
elsewhere (216.9).
1003. The same root
more than one way.
in
is
allowed to form
its
intensive stem
Thus, in the older language, dddr and dardr ; dadhr and dardhr ; cdcal
and carcar (and carcur) tartar (and tartur] and tantr ; janghan and ghanlghan ;
;
and varlvrt; jarbhur and bharibhr;
navlnu; bdbadh and badbadh.
varvrt
The model of normal
1004.
present-system
and
this
is
dodhu and davldhu; nonu and
intensive inflection
is
of the reduplicating conjugation-class
(II.);
indeed to a considerable extent followed,
strengthening of stem, and accent.
respect to endings,
deviations from the model are not rare
in general of too infrequent
;
the
in
But
and the forms are
occurrence to allow of satis-
and explanation.
The most marked irregularity is the frequent insertion
* between the stem and
of an
ending. According to the
^
factory classification
grammarians, this is allowed in all the strong forms before
an ending beginning with a consonant; and before the
*i
e
a final vowel has t/wwa-strengthening, but a medial one
remains unchanged.
Present System.
1005.
their order,
We
will take
giving
first
up the parts of the present-system in
what is recognized as regular in the
XIV. SECONDARY CONJUGATION.
326
[1005
later language, and then showing how the formation appears in
As most grammarians do not allow a middle
the earlier texts.
and middle forms are few even in the Veda, no attempt will be made to set up a paradigm for the middle voice.
inflection,
As example
1006.
f^
of inflection
may be taken
of which the intensive stem
vidj
is
cjf^
the root
vevid,
or,
in
ifi^ veved.
strong forms,
Neither from this nor any other root are
more than a few scattering
forms actually quotable.
Present Indicative.
1.
s.
d.
vevedmi, vevidlmi
vevidvds
vevidmds
vevetsi, v6vidlsi
vevitthds
vevitthd
^fo|Tfr,
cfNTlH
il<=^irj
vevittds
vevidati
.
9
3
^|cj<{Jiri
vevetti, vevidlti
From y~^
would be
the singular forms with auxiliary vowel
ku,
suc^ojiJZj
jdhavlmi,
sii^cum johavlsi,
jo-
sii^<Jiiri
havlti.
1007. The forms found
the paradigm.
ddrdarsi;
3d
Examples
cdka$iti,
the
;
1st pi.,
nenijati;
nonumas; 3d
with the
and,
pi.,
in any
i
of
its
2d
sing., alarsi,
kdnikrantti, ganlgamti;
ndnadati, bharibhrati, vdrvrtati,
auxiliary
vowel,
No stem with
forms.
AV. has
nonavlti, dardariti, jarbhuriti.
takes the auxiliary
in general with
older language agree
1st sing., carkarmi, vevesmi;
sing., dlarti, veveti, nenekti, janghanti,
3d du., jarbhrtds
ddvidyutati,
in
are:
cdka&mi;
j6havimi,
dissyllabic reduplication
jdgrdti,
with irregular
accent.
A
single dual form with
The middle forms found
I
and strong stem occurs: namely,
to occur are:
tartarithas.
3d
1st sing., jdguve, nenije;
sing.,
with irregular accent, tetikte, dediste; with irregular
union-vowel, ndnnate; with ending e instead of te, jdngahe, jdguve, yoyuve,
nenikte, sarsrte;
bdbadhe,
and
and,
(with
irregular
accent)
badbadhe;
3d du.,
sarsrate
;
3d
pi.,
dedicate.
2.
Present Subjunctive.
1008. Subjunctive forms with primary endings
are
extremely
rare:
there have been noticed only janghdndni, jdgardsi (AV.); and, in the middle,
tantasatte (3d du.).
Forms with secondary endings
are
more frequent: thus, 2d
sing.,
jan-
INTENSIVE.
1011]
ghanas, jalgulas
3d
;
sing., jdgarat,
mdrmr?at, parpharat,
janghanava; 1st
cdrkrsat, jdnghanat,
dardirat, caniskadat,
cdkafdn
rardnat, cdkdnas and cakdnat
1st du.
,
;
pdpatan, tfcucan, carkiran;
Besides these, rardnas and
pi.,
(AV.).
and cakdnama, which
perfect mode-forms
bdrbrhat, mdrmrjat,
davidyutat, sanisvanat
carkirama, vevidama; 3d
pi.,
with double mode-sign,
and,
327
their accent assimilates
like mamdhas and
Of the middle are found only 3d persons plural: thus,
and cakdnanta
jdnghananta, jarhrsanta, marmrjanta, nonuvanta, fOfucanta
rather
to
with
long reduplication,
sasdhat etc. (8 10 a).
;
(and cakananta once).
Present Optative.
3.
mode would show
1009. This
with the usual endings
The
optative
(566),
the unstrengthened stem,
accented.
Thus:
d.
_p.
vevidyftm
vevidy&va
vevidyfima
etc.
etc.
etc.
is
represented by only an example
or
two in the older
language: thus, active, vevisyat (AV.), jagryat (AB.); RV. has only cakanyat
(pft.?);
middle, nenijita
(K.).
4.
1010.
Present Imperative.
The regular forms of the
the usual subjunctive
first
vevidani
2
imperative,
would be
persons,
vevidava
5!=l!i
veviddhi
.
vevettu, veviditu
cjftrlH^
vevittdm
vevittam
including
as follows
:
vevidama
^f^ff
vevitta
vevidatu
than optative.
The first
persons have been given above (janghdnani, the only accented example, does
not correspond with the model, but is in conformity with the subjunctive of
2d sing. dadrhf,
the reduplicating present) ; the proper imperatives are
1011. Older imperative forms
are
less
rare
:
dardrhi,
carkrdhi,
jagrhi,
nenigdhi,
and
raranddhf,
,
rarandhf,
cakandhi,
vavandhf; the ending tat is found in carkrtat and jagrtat; and the latter
is used in AV. as first person sing.
(as was pointed out above, 570)
barbrhi shows an elsewhere unparalleled loss of h before the ending hi;
3d sing., vevestu, dardartu, marmarttu, and rarantu; 2d du., jagrtam;
;
3d du., jagrtam; 2d pi., jagrtd, and raranta; cankramata (RV., once) has
an anomalous union-vowel; 3d pi., only the anomalous cakantu (RV., once) r
In the middle voice is found only neniksva (QB.).
apparently for cakanatu.
XIV. SECONDARY CONJUGATION.
328
[1011
Of imperative forms with auxiliary I, RV. has none; AV. has vavaditu
and such are sometimes found in the Brahmanas
AV. has
against rule, tanstanihi and janghanihi.
and johavltu,
also,
;
5.
The
1012.
Present Participle.
intensive participles, both active
common
are comparatively
and middle,
in the older language.
are
They
formed and inflected like those of the reduplicating present,
and have the accent on the reduplicating syllable.
Examples
are: active, cdkafat, ndnadat, cekitat,
memyat,
ftffweat, roruvat,
ddrdrat, mdrmrjat, jdnghanat, ndnnamat, pdriiphanat, kdnikradat, ddvidyutat
memyana,
middle, bdbadhana,
ndnnamana, ddndafana.
sarsrana,
;
y6yuvana, rdrucana, jdrbhurana,
No middle participle shows the dissyllabic
cekitana,
reduplication.
1013. On account of
(beside jdrhrsana)
their
accent, rarahand,
raraksand, and jdhrsand
are probably to be regarded as perfect participles, although
no other perfect forms with heavy reduplication from the same roots occur.
The inference is, however, rendered uncertain by the unmistakably intensive
badbadhand and marmrjand (beside mdrmrjana}.
The RV. has once jdnghnatas, gen. sing., with root- vowel cast out;
kdnikrat appears to be used once for kdnikradat; if cakdt is to be referred
to yka (Grassmann), it is the only example of an intensive from a root in
a,
and
accent
its
anomalous.
is
Marmrcantas (AB.)
is
probably a
false
reading.
6.
1014.
The imperfect
Imperfect.
is
regularly inflected as follows
dvevidam
2
3^rT
dvevidma
dvevidva
Sl^f^te^
:
5^j%fT
^ijfori^
dvevet, dvevidis
dvevittam
dvevitta
dvevet, dvevidlt
dvevittam
dvevidus
3
1015. The imperfect forms found
They
are,
in active,
including those
in the earlier texts are not numerous.
from which the augment
1st sing., acaka^am, dedi^am;
2d
sing.,
is
omitted, as follows:
ajagar,
adardar, ddrdar,
cakdn; 3d sing., adardar, adardhar, avarivar, dardar, kdniskan, ddvidyot,
ndvinot, and cakdn and rardn; 2d du., adardrtam; 1st pi., marmrjma;
3d pi., araranws, anannamus, adardirus, acarkrsus, djohavus, anonavus :
and,
in
3d
sing.,
irregularly,
in
3d
with auxiliary
djohavit;
and,
z,
dvavafit,
du.,
dvavarit,
avavafltam.
dyoyavit,
droravlt;
The middle forms
are
INTENSIVE.
1018]
extremely few:
if it
namely, 3d sing., ddedista,
weak form
radical in a
of root);
3d
pi.
belongs here, shows a transfer to
329
dnannata (with loss of the final
and avavafanta (which,
marmrjata,
an a-stem).
Derivative Middle Inflection. From
1016.
intensive stem.
.
present-system
as above described,
a further
may be formed
derivative
conjugation
formally identical with a passive, being
made by
every
in
which
the
is
the accented
It has not,
sign
yd, along with middle endings only.
however, a passive value, but is in meaning and use inT
distinguishable from the simpler conjugation.
A
final
vowel before
this
ya
is
treated as before the passive-
sign ya (770).
The
inflection is precisely like that of
ing in a in the middle voice
marmrj, is made the present
:
any other stem end-
thus, from ymrj, intensive stem
indicative marmrjye, marmrjydse,
marmrjydte, etc.; optative marmrjyeya, marmrjyethas, marmrjyeta,
etc.;
etc.;
imperative
marmrjydsva, marmrjydtam,
participle
marmrjydmana ; imperfect dmarmrjye, dmarmrjyathas, dmarmrjyata,
etc.; subjunctive forms do not occur.
1017. This kind of intensive inflection
is
said to be
much more
usual than the other in the later language;
the earlier,
it is
in
comparatively rare.
In RV., 7/6-forms are made from eight roots, five of which have also
forms of the simpler conjugation; the AV. adds one more; the other earlier
texts (so far as observed) only twelve more, and half of them have likewise
Thus: from j/mr/, marmrjydte etc., and
forms of the simpler conjugation.
from ytr, tarturyante; from year, carcurydmana ; from ynl,
marimrjytta ;
nenlyeran
etc.;
vevijydte;
from yvi,
from ysku,
from yvad,
veviyate;
coskuydse
from yrih, rerihydte etc.; from yvij,
from ydif, dedicate; from j/fcaf,
etc.;
vavadydmana; from }/nam, nannamyadhvam ; from
;
yvah, vanivahyeta etc. (with lengthened root- vowel, elsewhere unknown);
from ykrand, kanikradydmana ; from yvrt, varivartydmana (QB.: should be
varivrty-); from ymrf, amarimrfyanta (QB.? the text reads amarimrt syanta)
cakacydte
;
from yyup, yoyupydnte etc.; from ynud, anonudyanta; from yvli, avevllyanta;
from yjabh, janjabhydte etc.; from yjap, janjapydmana.
Perfect.
1018.
a perfect
The grammarians
may be formed
are at variance as to whether
directly
from the intensive stem,
XIV. SECONDARY CONJUGATION.
330
or whether only a periphrastic perfect
(below,
[1018
1070 if.)
is to
be admitted.
In the older language, no example of an intensive periphrastic perfect
A few unmistakable perfect forms are made from the
has come to light.
intensively reduplicated root in RV. namely, davidhava and ndnava, 3d sing.,
:
and nonuvus, 3d
jdgara 1st
sing,
and TS. has once dodrdva.
pi.,
and jdgara 3d
sing.:
but as
To these may be added
see below, 1020.
to these,
Aorist, Future, etc.
1019. As to the remaining parts of a full verbal conjugation, also, the grammarians are not agreed (occurrences
of such forms,
them any
apparently,
basis for rules)
;
being too rare to afford even
it is allowed to treat
in general,
the intensive stem further as a root in filling
of forms, using always the auxiliary vowel ^
ever used in the simple conjugation.
Thus, from
up the scheme
i where it is
intensive stem vevid, would be made the
the futures vevidisyami
participles vevidita, veviditavya, etc., the in-
y vid
t
aorist avevidisam with precative vevidyasam,
and
veviditasmi,
the
and the gerunds vevidiiva and -vevidya. And,
where the intensive conjugation is the derivative middle one,
the aorist and futures would take the corresponding middle form.
finitive veviditum,
Of all this, in the ancient language, there is hardly a trace. The RV.
has cdrkrse, 3d sing, mid., of a formation like hise and stuse (894 d), and
and QB. has
the gerundives vitantasayya, and marmrjenya and vdvrdhenya
,
the participle vanivahitd, and the infinitive dedlyitavdf.
and jdgaritd, see the next paragraph.
1020.
As
to jdgarisydnt
There are systems of inflection of certain roots, the
intensive character of which is questioned or questionable. Thus
The root gr (or gar] 'wake' has from the first no present-system save
:
one with intensive reduplication; and its intensive stem, jdgr, begins early
assume the value of a root, and form a completer conjugation; while by
the grammarians this stem is reckoned as if simple and belonging to the rootto
class
(I.),
and
is inflected
throughout accordingly.
Those of
its
forms which
occur in the older language have been given along with the other intensives
above.
They are, for the present-system, the same with those acknowledged
as regular later.
in
RV.:
The
older perfect is like the other intensive perfects found
namely, jdgara
etc.,
with the participle jdgrvdns; and
a
future,
jagarisydnt, and a passive participle jdgaritd are met with in the Brahmanas.
The old aorist (RV.) is the usual reduplicated or so-called causative aorist:
thus, ajigar.
The grammarians give
it
in
the later language a perfect with
INTENSIVE.
1026]
331
additional reduplication, jajdgdra etc., an zs-aorist, ajagarisam, with precative
jdgarydsam, and everything else that is needed to make up a complete con-
jugation.
The stem irajya (active only), 'regulate', from which a number
made in RV., has been viewed as an intensive from yraj or
however, any analogy with the intensive formation. The same
1021.
of forms are
It lacks,
rj.
true
is
of iradh,
iradhanta and
(only
'propitiate'
irddhyai,
for
apparently
iradhqdhyai}.
The middle stem
called an
intensive
Tj/a,
of yi
not infrequent in
but with
'go',
no analogy of form with any intensives.
mon
in RV.,
1022. The
pples
leldydntl
alelet
and
root
U
'totter',
with
or
dardar.
com-
1st pi. imafte,
isolated
constant intensive reduplication,
and leldyatas
(gen.
sing.)
thus,
pres., leldyati
leli,
and lelayate
and lelayamana, impf.
alelayat,
alellyata.
1023. The RV. anomalous form dart
ydv
The
also of questionable character.
is
quite irregular in inflection and accent:
is
the oldest language, is usually
very doubtful propriety, as it has
dar,
is
referred
[doubtfully
2d and 3d
(or dard),
to the intensive,
as
if
sing,
from
abbreviated from
RV. has once avarlvus (or -vur) where the sense requires a form
The form rarandta (RV., once) seems corrupt.
from yvrt, as avarivrtus.
1024.
A
marked
intensive or frequentative
meaning
is
always easily to be traced in the forms classed as intensive
in some of them it is quite effaced.
Thus, the roots cit,
;
not
and
mj,
use their intensive present-system as if it were an ordinary
nor is it otherwise with rand/i, ran, kan (of
conjugation-class
which, as noticed above, the forms admit of being referred to
the perfect-system), and with gr (jagr). The grammarians reckon
vis
;
the inflection of nij and vis as belonging to the reduplicating
present-system (II.), with irregularly strengthened reduplication
and they treat in the same way vie and vij; jagr, as we have
;
seen, they account a simple root.
Also daridra, intensive of ydra 'run', is made by the grammarians a
simple root, and furnished with a complete set of conjugational forms as
:
dadaridrau; adaridraslt,
The
etc.
does not occur in the older language.
allowed by the grammarians to
It is
also a passive,
desiderative,
vidayisami.
they occur at
all,
and
make from
so
on
:
thus,
the intensive
1026.
By
;
from
vevid,
caus.
are excessively rare in the later.
III.
sire for
causative,
veviddydmi; desid. of causative, veBut such formations are not found in the older language, and,
pass, vevidye; desid. vevidisdmi
if
It
so-called root vevi 'flutter' is a pure intensive.
1025.
stem
etc.
Desideraiive.
the desiderative conjugation
is
signified a de-
the action or condition denoted by the simple root
:
XIV. SECONDARY CONJUGATION.
332
[1026
1
thus,
sHM
wish
to drink';
'I
pibami,
desid.
drink',
nHlHl
pipasami,
'I
desid.
ist
^SRwfivami,
Such a conjugation is allowed to
be formed from any simple root in the language, and also
(
visami,
'I live',
I desire to live'.
from any causative stem.
The desiderative conjugation,
although its forms outside
the present-system are extremely rare in the oldest language, is
earlier and more fully expanded into a whole verbal system
than the intensive.
Its forms are also of increasing frequency:
much fewer than the intensives in RV., more numerous in the
Brahmanas and later not one third of the whole number of
roots (about ninety) noted as having a desiderative conjugation
in Veda and Brahmana have such in RV.
;
1027.
The
desiderative stem
is
formed from the simple
by the addition of two characteristics: a. a reduplication, which always has the accent; b. an appended H sa
which, however (like the tense-signs of aorist and future),
root
sometimes takes before
^
it
the auxiliary vowel S
e,
becoming
isa.
1028.
The
root in general remains unchanged; but with
the following exceptions
A final
a.
jigisa
*
or u is lengthened before sa: thus, ciksisa, cikisa,
cucrusa, juhusa
;
A
b.
final r
sislrsa, jihirsa;
:
.
becomes
bulhursa,
ir
or
tustursa
ur
before
(the only
sa:
thus,
cikirsa,
examples noted from
the older texts).
Before isa, the same finals necessarily, and a penultiu or r optionally, have the ywm-strengthening (no
examples are quotable from the older texts).
More special exceptions are
d. A few roots in a weaken this vowel to I or even i: thus, piplsa
c.
mate
or
i
:
(beside pipasa) from
ypa
'drink', jihlsa
(AV.) from
yha
didhisa (beside dhitsa) from ydha.
few roots in an or am lengthen the vowel
e.
A
jiyamisa) from
is
said to
f.
ygam
make
;
'remove' (jihlte: 664);
thus, jigansa (beside
jighahsa from yhan ; mlmahsa from ]/man and ytan
:
,
titahsa.
Reversion to guttural form of an initial after the reduplication is
from yd, cikitsa from ycit, jiglsa from yji, jighahsa from
seen in cikisa
yhan; and yhi
is
said to
make
jighlsa.
DESIDERATIVE.
1030]
g.
The
333
van and san make vivasa and
roots
sisasa,
from the root-forms
va and sa.
h.
in lv
The
(or iv
root jiv forms
have
guna before isa:
Dhurv forms dudhursa.
i.
thus,
to
jijlvisa,
make
the
or
susyusa
s
unchanged to * after the reduplication when
(184 c): thus, sisanksa (B.: ysanj), and susyusa
according to the grammarians.
sisanisa,
k. Further
may be mentioned
ninanksa (or ninafisa) from j/nap,
jisa (or mimrksa) from J/mr/.
as
is
or an i-vowel;
it
;
:
mimar-
^
is
i
3
if
the root has an a-
u
if
the root has an
But:
u- vowel.
A
r,
grammarians
mimanksa from ymajj
;
of the reduplication follows the
general rules (590); the vowel
vowel, or ft
the
by
prescribed
'perish'
The consonant
1029.
a.
VS.); and the other roots
same change before sa, and to
sisevisa.
Svap forms swsupser.
Initial s is usually left
the desiderative sign has
and
jujyusa (B.:
765) are required
:
few
blbhatsa from
have a long vowel in the reduplicating syllable thus,
badh; mlmansa from yman; and tutursa (RV.) i'rom
roots
:
or
ybadh
ytur.
b.
From
j/ap
made
is
mode
B). atffisa (with a
(in
of
reduplication
sometimes in the reduplicating aorist: 862). The gramother cases of the same kind: thus, arjihisa from yarh, ici-
like that followed
marians give
ksisa from yiks, undidisa from
language, ap
is
yund, ardidhisa from y-rdh.
initial vowel which forms
only root with
the
stem, except ap and rdh, which have abbreviated stems
C.
from
RV. has the stems fnaksa and
yynaf
'attain'
1030.
A
fyaksa,
:
In
the
older
desiderative
a
see the next paragraph.
regarded
as
desideratives
and yaj, with mutilated reduplication.
number
of roots, including
some of very com-
mon
use, form an abbreviated stem apparently by a contraction of reduplication and root together into one syllable
:
thus,
37
Such
~ipsa
from |/^TC ap ;
abbreviated
stems
dhitsa (beside didhisa) from
are
ydhd;
found
rTT ditsa
in
the
from y^J da.
older language as follows
ditsa (beside didasa) from
yda ;
:
dipsa from
ydabh; fiksa from ]/fafc; slksa from ysah: these are found in RV.: in AV. are
added ipsa from yap (RV. has apsa once), and Irtsa from yrdh: the other texts
furnish lipsa (3.) or llpsa (TB.) from yiabh, ripsa (GB.) from yrabh, pitsa
The gram(93.) from ypad, and dhiksa (QB.) from ydih (Or, rather, dah).
marians prescribe dhipsa or dhlpsa from ydabh, instead of dipsa; they form
pitsa from ypat as well as pad ; and they add ritsa from yradh, jnlpsa
and
(beside jijnapayisa] from the causative quasi-root jnap (below, 1042e),
mitsa from
yyma
ard ml and mi:
this
last could
be only an anomalous
XIV. SECONDARY CONJUGATION.
334
formation,
made
The use
1031.
Also moksa
after the analogy of the others.
stem from )/mwc
a desiderative
(it
is
1030
of the auxiliary vowel
^
in the early language
but more
,
is
reckoned as
denominative, rather).
common
i is
later
;
rare
quite
and
it
is
allowed or prescribed by the grammarians in many stems
which have not yet been found in actual use.
It
declared
is
exceptions,
follow
to
or
necessary
in
optional,
general, ithough not without
the analogy of the futures
(934, 943).
No example
VS.
(pipatisa),
i is found in
RV., and only one each in AV.
and TS. (jigomisa). The other examples noted in
of the use of
(jijlvisa),
the early texts are afifisa, cikramisa, jigrahlsa (with I for i, as elsewhere
in this root), cicarisa, jijanisa, didlksisa, bibadhisa, riradhisa, vividisa, jihih-
most of them are found only in QB.
sisa:
vowel are made from roots gram,
stem
is
modes
like other a-stems, in
(including,
icifrtsl
<%
first
ipsa,
titiksa,
the
in
participles
give here the
model
also without the auxiliary
desider-
conjugated in the present-system with per-
fect regularity,
and with
Stems
badh, vid,
Inflection: Present-System. The
1032.
ative
jiv,
both voices, in
older language,
and imperfect.
'seek to obtain',
from
'endure', from ]/fer
tij\
the
the subjunctive),
It will
be sufficient to
We may
persons only.
all
|/5TFJ
take as active
dp; as middle
'be sharp' (see below,
1040).
Present Indicative.
1.
middle,
active.
d.
psam
etc.
ipsavas
ipsamas
etc.
etc.
2.
Ipsani
etc.
Ipsava
etc.
Ipsama
etc.
ipseva
etc.
titiksavahe
etc.
etc.
titiksamahe
etc.
Present Subjunctive.
etc.
3.
ipseyam
titikse
titiksai
titiksavahai
etc.
etc.
titiksamahai
etc.
Present Optative.
ipsema
etc.
titikseya
etc.
titiksevahi
etc.
titiksemahi
etc.
DESIDERATIVE.
1035]
Present Imperative.
4.
Ipsatam
ipsa
etc.
ipsata
5.
ipsant
titiksetham
etc.
etc.
Imperfect.
dtitiksavahi
dtitikse
aipsama
etc.
titiksadhvam
etc.
(rilrl^tHIUl titiksamana.
fysanfi]
^Htil
(f.
aipsava
etc.
J
titiksasva
Present Participle.
6.
aipsam
fcilritf^
etc.
etc.
^Hti
335
etc.
etc.
dtitiksamahi
etc.
etc.
be reported from the
older language.
No 1st pi. in most, or 2d pi. in ihana or tana, or impv.
in tat, is met with. The quotable subjunctive forms are those in sani, sat
There are almost no irregularities of inflection
and
sat, san,
and santa.
But the
fern,
pple
sisasati
(instead
of
to
sisasanti)
occurs once
or twice
in the older texts.
1033. Desiderative forms outside the present-system are
The RV. has only perextremely rare in the oldest language.
fect forms from a stem mimiks
thus, mimiksdthus, mimiksdtus,
mimiksus; mimikse, mimiksire
along with the present forms
mimiksati, mimiksa etc., mimiksant (pple): they show that mimiks
or miks has taken on the character of an independent root.
In
AV.
found two aorist forms, irtsls and acikitsis, and a
all
two from mimansa (see below, 1037, 1039)
of them from stems which have lost their distinct desiderative
The forms
meaning, and come to bear an independent value.
noted from the other earlier texts will be given in full below.
are
participle or
In the later language, the complete system of verbal
is allowed to be made in the desiderative conjugation,
forms
the desiderative stem, less
its
final vowel,
being treated as
Thus:
a root.
The
1034. Perfect.
desiderative perfect
is
the peri-
phrastic (1070 if.).
ipsam cakara
Thus,
are
made
in
titiksam
etc.;
cakre
QB. from
etc.
Such forms
ruh.
)/)/ kram, dhurv, badh,
Apparent perfect forms of the ordinary kind made from mimiks in BV.
have been noticed in the preceding paragraph. And AB. (viii. 21) has once
didasitha,
'thou hast desired to give'.
1035.
Aorist.
aipsisam
7
The
aorist is of the
tffriffiiji^
dtitiksisi.
w-form
(5):
thus.
XIV. SECONDARY CONJUGATION.
336
The AV. has
A
but
it
and QB.
Futures. The
vowel
asmi;
i:
^
dcikirsls
titiksisiya,
made with
the auxil-
and
Ipsisyami
titiksitahe.
(rlirlRifli^
and didrksitdras.
Verbal Nouns and Adjectives. These
1037.
made with
that vowel
the auxiliary vowel
^
ever taken.
is
older language have
In the
been
rioted
:
i,
in
gerund in
llpsitavya (AB.), didhyasitavya (QB.);
A
desiderative
in
u
in
participle
too
cases where
all
(AV., GB.), jijyusita (AB.), fUfrusitd and dhlksita (QB.);
1038.
:
and aml-
tpsyasam,
futures are
titiksisye
titiksisyate
prohibitive
and ajighahsis,
thus,
and
ma
with
(augmentless,
^H^UIM
thus,
icifrti^Ti
The QB. has
are
irtsis
afrtsit,
precative is also allowed
probably never occurs.
1036.
iary
and
acikitsis,
579). TB. has aipsit;
mahsisthas.
[1035
mimahsitd
ta,
gerundive in tavya,
tva,
mimahsitva
(K.).
for
example, dipsu, bibhatsii,
sisasu
is of frequent occurrence, and has the meaning and construction of
An abstract noun in a
for example, jiglsd
a present participle.
is
adjective
also a usual
appendage to the desiderative conjugation. Adjectives in enya
966 b) are occasionally met with from the
gerundive character
earliest time
thus, didrksenya (RV.), cuprusenya (TS.), ninlsenya (PB.); also,
with irregular reduplication (apparently) paprksenya (RV.). RV. has also
(having a
:
:
didhisdyya (966
1039.
c).
Derivative
or
Tertiary Conjugations.
A
allowed to be made, by adding the passive-sign
7J yd to the desiderative root (or stem without final a)
thus,
and a caussCHTcT ipsydte, 'it is desired to be obtained';
passive
is
:
by adding in
ative
like
manner the causative-sign
(1041): thus, ^HtillH ipsdyami,
'I
cause
to
desire
3BRJ
dya
obtain-
ment'.
The only
participle
AV.
trace of
such formations noticed
mimansydmana
(apparently
to
in the older language is the
be read instead of mimahsdmana,
ix. 6.24).
For the desiderative conjugation formed on causative stems,
which is found as early as the Brahmanas, see below, 1052 b.
1040.
Some stems which
are desiderative in
form have
lost
the peculiarity of desiderative meaning, and assumed the value
of independent roots: examples are cikits, 'cure', juyups, 'despise',
titties,
'endure',
bibhats,
'abhor',
mimans,
''ponder'.
Doubtless
CAUSATIVE.
10421
some
apparent roots in the language with sibilant final
the
of
337
are akin with the desideratives in origin.
IV.
1041
Causative.
In the later language
.
allowed to be made from
is
The
every root a complete causative conjugation.
basis of
formed by appending the causative-
this is a causative stem,
sign 5HT dya to the, usually strengthened, root.
But by no means
conjugation-stems formed by the
and the grammarians
all
of causative value;
sign 5RJ dya are
regard them as a conjugation-class,
the tenth or cwr-class,
which roots may be inflected as according to
the other classes, and either alone or along with others.
according to
In RV., the proportion without causative value is fully one third. The
is a more obviously denominative one than any of the other con-
formation
jugation-classes, an intermediate between
A
meaning has established
causative
them and the proper denominatives.
itself in
connection with the formation,
and become predominant, though not exclusive. A number of roots of late
appearance and probably derivative character are included in the class, and
some palpable denominatives, which
(below,
The
cidedly
lack only the usual denominative accent
1055).
formation
causative
expanded
desiderative.
into
It is
a
full
is
of
much more
conjugation, than
made from more than two hundred and
early language (inRV., from about one
its
frequent use, and more deeither the intensive or the
hundred and
fifty);
roots in the
fifty
but in the
oldest,
forms outside the present-system are (apart from the attached reduplica-
ted aorist:
1046) exceedingly few.
1042.
sign 5HI
The treatment
ctya is
of the root before the causative-
as follows:
a. Medial or initial i, u, r, I have the #ww#-strengthening
thus, vedaya from j/Wd, codaya from ycud,
capable of it)
and kalpaya from }/klp (only example).
from
tarpaya
~\/trp;
But a few roots lack the strengthening: these are, in the older lang:
(if
uage,
cit
(citaya and cetaya),
vip
(vipaya
and
vepaya),
is,
il
and
,
ri*
dyut (dyutaya and dyotaya), mrd, sprit; and
Dus and guh lengthen the vowel instead.
yrabli makes in RV. grbhaya.
as in other forms
has
marjaya (beside
sometimes
thus,
vrddhi,
Mrj
(rimya and resaya),
tuj,
tur,
:
mar/at/a).
b.
A final vowel
has the rrdfZ/-strengthening
:
thus, cyavaya,
bhavaya, dharaya, saraya.
Whitney, Grammar.
22
XIV. SECONDARY CONJUGATION.
338
But no
root in
i
or
has vrddhi in the
I
[d, "below] comes from pi
[1042
older language
rather than pa)
indeed,
as,
(unless
payaya
regular causatives
from such roots are hardly quotable only RV. has ksayaya from yksi
few alternatively permitted forms, see below, e.
:
'dwell'
;
for a
A
few roots have (generally in the older language only) a form
with puna-strengthening
hr; vr
'burst', sr,
A
c.
:
'choose'
medial or
thus, dru,
yu
makes varaya
'ward
later
(it
also
'decay",
dr
not found in V. or Br.).
is
a in a light
initial
fru, pu, jr
off',
sometimes
syllable is
thus, bhajaya,
lengthened, and sometimes remains unchanged
svapaya, adaya; janaya, crathaya, anaya.
The roots in the older language which keep their short a are an, ;'an,
:
pan, svan, dhan,
nam,
prath,
ran, stan,
fnath,
pratfe,
gam (gdmaya
dhvan,
vyath,
svad,
nad,
das,
once in RV.),
dhvas, mah,
*
am dam,
>
nabh, tvar,
Some have both forms: namely, pat, chad, mad, ram, cam; raj has
svar.
rajaya (AV., once) and ranjaya. The roots which lengthen the vowel are
If a nasal is taken in any of the strong
decidedly the more numerous.
forms of a
root,
it
in the causative stem: thus, randhaya,
usually appears
lambhaya, rambhaya, skandaya.
Most
d.
and the root
roots in final a,
r,
add
p
before the
conjugation-sign: thus, dapaya, dhapaya, sthapaya; arpaya.
Such stems are made in the older language from the roots khyd, gla,
ghrd, jnd, da 'give', drd 'run', dha 'put' and dha 'suck', ma 'measure', mid, vd
'blow', and va 'tire', stha, sna, ha 'remove' and ha 'leave'. From ;na and
sna are found in AV. and later the shortened forms jnapaya and snapaya,
and from fra only frapaya (not in RV.). Also gla forms in the
later language
glapaya.
Stems from a-roots showing no p are, earlier, payaya from ypa 'drink'
pyayaya from ypya or pyay ; sayaya from ysa (or si); also, later,
and further, from roots cha, va
payaya from }/f, hvayaya from yhva;
{or pi),
and vya, according
'weave',
e.
The same p
is
to the
grammarians.
taken also by a few
i
and
I-roots,
with various ac-
companying irregularities: thus, ksepaya from yksi 'dwell' (RV., beside
and ksapaya and ksayaya from yksi 'destroy'
ksapaya AV.
ksayaya}
japaya (VS. and later) from yji; lapaya (TB. and later) from yil; adhya;
(
;
)
from adhi-\-yi; smapaya (beside smayaya, which does not occur)
from ysmi; hrepaya from yhri;
and, according to the grammarians.
repaya from yrl, vlepaya from yvll, krapaya from ykri, bhapaya (beside
bhayaya and bhlsaya) from ybhl, and cdpaya (beside cdyaya) from yd.
paya
Moreover,
yruh forms
later
ropaya
(earlier
and yknii or knuy
rohaya),
is
said to form knopaya.
f.
More anomalous
cases,
in which the
so-called
the denominative of a derived noun, are: pdlaya from
causative
ypa
is
palpably
prlnaya
from yprl; llnaya (according to grammarians) from yil; dhunaya (not causative in sense) from ydhu; bhlsaya from ybhl; ghdtaya from yhan; sphdvaya
{according to grammarians) from ysphd or sphdy.
'protect';
CAUSATIVE.
1043]
Inflection: Present-System.
1043.
tive
stem
339
in
inflected
is
other stems in
a
f
the present-system precisely
like
will be sufficient to give here in gen-
it
:
The causa-
eral the first persons of the different
formations,
model the stem UT^I dhardya, from j/J dhr.
taking as
Thus
:
Present Indicative.
1.
active.
middle.
d.
s.
p.
d.
dhardyami dhardyavas dhardyamas dhardye dhardyavahe dhardyamahe
etc.
The
etc.
RV. and AV.
in both
3d
etc.
sing.
etc.
mid. in
No example
etc.
outnumber
1st pll. act. in masi greatly
occurs
(as
2d
of
pi.
as occurring in the older language
in thana,
act.
I
_
,
_
dhdrdydva
dhdrdydma
the forms noted
all
dhdrdydi
dhdrayavahdi
dharayathas dharayatha
(dhdrdyddhve
dharayase
(dharayas
\
3
{
(
dhdrdydti
mas
nor of
:
(dhdrdydsi
2
those in
Present Subjunctive.
For the subjunctive may be instanced
dhdrdyani
1)
e for ate.
2.
1
etc.
10 to
(dhdrdyadhvdi
_
dhdrdydte
..
],,_ ,
dharayaite
( dharayatai
(
dharayatas dharayan
dharayat
dual mid. form in
one
Only
RV. mid. form in ai, except
ings in 2d and 3d sing. act.
3.
aite
maddyaite (RV.). The only
madayadhvai. The primary end-
occurs
in 1st du., is
are
:
more common than the secondary.
Present Optative.
dhardyeyam dhardyeva dhardyema dhardyeya dhardyevahi dhurdyemahi
etc.
etc.
Optative forms
in AV.); they
etc.
etc.
are
very rare
become more common
4.
etc.
etc.
in the oldest language (four in RV., two
Brahmanas.
in the
AB.
has once kamayita.
Present Imperative.
dhardya dhardyatam dhurdyata dhardyasva dhardyetham dhardyadhvam
etc.
etc.
etc.
etc.
etc.
etc.
Imperative persons with the ending tat occur: dharayatat (AV.) is 2d
sing.; gamayatat and cyavayatat (K. etc.), and varayatat (TB.) are used as
2d
pi.;
varayadhvcit
(K. etc.)
is
2d
pi.,
and the only noted example (see
above, 570).
22*
I
XIV. SECONDARY CONJUGATION.
340
5.
dhardyant
[1043
Present Participle.
Ttft
(f.
6.
^|(t(HIUI dhardyamana.
-yanfi)
Imperfect.
ddharayam ddharayava ddhurayama ddharaye ddharayavahi ddharayamahi
etc.
etc.
etc.
For a few forms in
Is
etc.
and
which
It
etc.
etc.
perhaps belong to the imperfect,
see below.
1044. As was above pointed out, the formations from the causative
stem in aya outside the present-system are in the oldest language very
limited. In RV. are found two forms of the future in syami, and ten infinitives in dhydi
in
five
itri),
;
also
one or two derivative nouns in
isnu, seven in
itnu,
and a few in a
tr
(bodhayitr, coday-
nidharayd,
(atiparayd,
vacaminkhayd, vi$vamejaya). In AV., also two s-future forms and four gerunds in tva; and a few derivative noun-stems, from one of which is made
a periphrastic perfect
(gamayam
cakdra}.
In the Brahmanas,
forms become more numerous and various, as will be
below.
tive
verbal deriva-
noted in detail
Perfect. The accepted causative perfect is the
periphrastic (1070), the derivative noun in 5TF a, in accusa1045.
tive form,
to
which the auxiliary
is
added,
being formed
from the causative stem: thus,
TT5[Ert
Of
gamaydm
of the
cjsfil^
dharayam cakara
STTfETt tT^IT
dharayhm
cakre.
perfect no example occurs in RV. or SV. or VS., only one
in AV., and but two or three in all the various texts
cakdra
this
Black Yajur-Veda, and these not in the mantra-parts of the text.
also by no means frequent in the Brahmanas, except in Qli-
are
They
(where they
abound
:
chiefly,
perhaps,
for
the
that this work uses
reason
in considerable part the perfect instead of imperfect as its narrative tense).
1046. Aorist.
is
The
aorist of the causative conjugation
the reduplicated, which in general has nothing to do with
the causative stem, but
It
made
is
Its association
with the
causative
in
root.
856 ff.).
is
doubtless founded on
it as a reduplicated
in the Veda it is
an original intensive character belonging to
form, and is a matter of gradual growth
made from a considerable number of roots
a third of its instances;
causative stem in aya.
from the
directly
has been already fully described (above,
AV., about a
:
(in
RV., more than
fifth)
which have no
CAUSATIVE.
1050]
The
causative aorist of
y
341
dhr. then,
J
is
as follows
:
ddidharam ddidharava ddldharama ddidhare ddldharavahi adidharamahi
etc.
etc.
etc.
etc.
etc.
etc.
1047. In a few cases, where the root has assumed a peculiar form before the causative sign
as by the addition of a p
or s (above, 1042 d if.)
the reduplicated aorist is made from
this form instead of from the simple root
thus, atisthipam from
:
Aorist-forms
sthap (stem sthapaya] for ystha.
from quasi-roots in ap are made
crap (above, 861)
is
bibhisas etc.
A
1048.
;
from
of
this character
hap, jap, and
the only other example from the older language
from
sthap, jnap,
bhis for ~\/bhi.
small number of Vedic forms having
causal stem are apparently
Is
and
It
making an
at
sporadic attempts
after y of the
fc-aorist
:
thus,
vyathayls (AV.), dhvanayit (RV.; TS. has instead the anomalous dhvanayit},
and ailayit (AV.). The two former are augmentless forms, used with ma
prohibitive (compare the denom. unayls, RV., also with ma).
1049. A precative is of course allowed by the grammarians to be made for the causative conjugation: in the
middle, from the causative stem with the auxiliary S i substituted
for its final
^ a;
from the form of
in the active,
the root as strengthened in the causative stem, but without
the causative sign: thus,
LntllHH dharyasam etc.
This formation
1050.
are
is
Futures. Both
made from
etc.
E-H^lUcfltl dharayisiya
doubtless to be regarded as purely fictitious.
the
futures,
causative
which takes the place of
its
with the auxiliary ^
stem,
final
with the conditional,
f
a.
t,
Thus:
xS'-Future.
dharayisyhmi etc.
^|^|6jo.6|
dharayisye etc.
Conditional.
M adharayisyam
etc.
fc||^|kj adharayisye
etc.
Periphrastic Future.
dharayit&smi etc.
M(KJcn<
dharayithhe etc.
The 5-future participles are made regularly
syant (fern, -ydnfi or -yatl), dharayisydmana.
:
thus,
dharayi-
XIV. SECONDARY CONJUGATION.
342
[1050
It has been mentioned above that RV.
and AV. contain only two
examples each of the s-future, and none of the periphrastic. The former
begin to appear in the Brahmanas more numerously, but still sparingly,
with participles, and conditional (only adharayisyat, QB.); of the latter, QB.
affords
two examples (parayitdsmi and janayitdsi).
Verbal Nouns and Adjectives. These
1051.
are
formed from the causative stem in the same manner
in part
as the futures
;
in part
namely, the passive participle in
and the gerundive and gerund in U ya (and the rootfrom the causatively strengthened root- form.
infinitive)
The auxiliary ^ i is taken in every formation which ever
cT
ta
admits that vowel.
Thus, of formations permitted in the
the examples taken from the earlier):
participle in ta : irita, vasitd, cravitd;
gerundive in
lhaksavitavya
<7
e7
tavya:
tarpayitavya,
later
language (but
kalpayitavya, gamayitavya,
;
f
gerundive in ya
:
sthapya, yajya
;
infinitive in turn: josayitum, dharayitum, janayitum,
parayittim;
gerund in tva: kalpayitva, sadayitvn, -arpayitvti (AV.: see
990), -rocayitva (TA.), crapayitva (AB.);
gerund in ya : -gharya, -padya, -vasya,
gerund in am: -sthapam (QB.).
Further, of formations found only
-sadya, -sthapya
in the older language
accusative: -sthapam (PB.);
infinitive in tavai : jdnayitavaf, tdrpayitavat,
;
:
root-infinitive,
-Ccotayitavaf (all
in dhyai:
infinitive
mandayddhyai,
syandayddhyai
isayddhyai,
madayddhyai.
(all
pdyayitavai, -kalpayitavaf,
$B.);
irayddhyai, tahsayddhyai,
risayddhyai,
vartayddhyai,
na$ayddhyai,
vajayddhyai,
RV.);
gerundive in ayya : panaydyya, sprhaydyya, trayaydyya (ytra : ?).
it will be noticed, follow the same rule as to accent with
All these,
the similar formations from the simple root, showing no trace of the special
accent of the causative stem.
1052.
From
the
Derivative or Tertiary Conjugations.
causative stem may be made a passive and a de-
siderative conjugation.
a.
Thus
The passive-stem
sive-sign
T
yd
is
:
formed by adding the usual pas-
to the causatively strengthened root, the caus-
ative-sign being dropped:
thus, STRTrT dharydte.
CAUSATIVE; DENOMINATIVE.
1055]
Such passives are not found
and
there throughout the
sadya-
(K.),
(TB.),
desiderative stem
addition of the sign
Veda, but they are met with here
Brahmana language
padya- (AB.), vadya-
The
b.
In the
^
isa,
343
examples
:
are jnapyd-
(TS.),
sthapya- (GB.), and so on.
is
made by
reduplication and
of which the initial vowel replaces
the final of the causative stem
thus, (^MI^fllMTH didharayisati
here and there in the Brahmanas and later:
These, too,
examples are pipayayisa (K.), bibhavayisa and cikalpayisa and lulobhayisa
(AB.), didrapayisa and riradhayisa and apipayisa (QB.), and so on.
As to causatives made from the desiderative stem, see above, 1039.
1053.
A
.
Denominative.
V.
its
:
found
are
denominative conjugation
is
one that has for
basis a noun-stem.
It is a view now prevailingly held that most of the presentsystems of the Sanskrit verb, along with other formations analogous with a present-system, are in their ultimate origin denominative
and that many apparent roots are of the same character.
The denominatives which are so called differ from these only in
;
that their origin is recent
1054.
The grammarians teach
that any noun-stem in
be
without
other addition than
converted,
may
a (as union-vowel enabling it to be inflected
the language
that of an
and undisguised.
f
second general conjugation) into a present-
according to the
stem, and conjugated as such.
As examples
kr swati,
'acts
kavayati,
crayati,
of
like
what
Krishna';
is
"plays the poet (kam)';
'resembles
Qri
allowed in this way, are given
'is like a garland
(mala)';
malati,
bhavati,
(goddess)';
'is
like the earth (bhuf;
pitarati,
'acts
the
father';
But such formations are at the best of
kingly'.
The RV. has a few isolated and
extreme rarity in actual use.
rajanati,
'is
clearest of which is bMsd&ti, 'he heals',
it is made like a form of the root-class
'physician'
abhisnak seems to be its imperfect according to the nasal class.
doubtful examples, the
from
bhisaj,
;
;
And
patyate, 'he rules', appears to be a denominative of pdti,
'master'.
Other possible cases are (Delbriick) isanas etc., krpdNone of
nanta, tarusema etc., vanusanta, bhurafanta, vdnanvati.
the other
Veda
or
Brahmana
texts has anything additional of the
same character.
1055.
In general, the base of denominative conjugation
I
XIV. SECONDARY CONJUGATION.
344
is
made from
the noun-stem by
means of the conjugation-
sign ET ya- which has the accent.
The identity of this ya with the ya of the
as
making with the
probable.
altogether
(VIII.),
final
What
so-called causative conjugation,
the noun-stem the causative-sign aya, is
relation it sustains to the ya of the t/a-class
a
and
of the passive,
[1055
of
of
the
derivative
intensive stem,
more open
is
to question.
1056. Intermediate between the denominative and causative
conjugations stands a class of verbs, plainly denominative in
Examples, beginning
origin, but having the causative accent.
to appear at the earliest period of the language, are mantrdyate
man -\-tra] and kirtdyati (from kirti, ykr 'praise').
(from mantra,
These, along with like forms from roots which have no other
present-system (though they may make scattering forms outside
that system from the root directly), or which have this beside
other present-systems without causative meaning, are reckoned
by the grammarians as a separate conjugation-class (above, 607).
y
Denominatives are formed
1057.
history of the language,
from the
at every period in the
down.
earliest
most frequent in RV.,
which
contains over a
They
hundred, of all varieties AV. has only half as many (and perfrom the rest, present
sonal forms from hardly a third as many
participles, or derivative nouns); AB., less than twenty; QB.,
In the later language
hardly more than a dozen; and so on.
are
;
:
general, they are far from numerous
which occur are "cwr-class" verbs.
in
The denominative meaning
1058.
uages, of the greatest variety
forms of
or treat
it
tion of,
fied
are:
'be like,
'cause to be.
as',
'desire,
wish
for,
;
and most of those
;
is,
as in other lang-
some of the most frequent
act as, play the part of,
make
into',
crave'
'use.
that
make
which
'regard
applicais
signi-
by the noun-stem.
The modes of treatment of the stem-final are also various
and the grammarians make a certain more or less definite assignment of the varieties of meaning to the varieties of form;
;
but this allotment finds only a dubious support in the usages
of the words as met with even in the later language, and still
less in the earlier.
Hence the formal classification, according
to the
final
to follow.
noun-stem, and the way in which this is
denominative sign yd, will be the best one
of the
treated before
the
DENOMINATIVE.
10631
From stems
1059.
stem
in a. a. The final a of a nounremains unchanged
thus, amitraydti, 'plays the
oftenest
is
enemy,
:
hostile';
Final a
b.
345
is
priyaydte, 'holds
'desires food'.
'cultivates the gods,
is pious'.
thus, aghaydti, 'plans mischief;
'seeks for horses'; acanaydti,
acvaydti,
devaydti,
lengthened:
dear';
In the Veda, forms of the same verb with short and long a before ya
sometimes exchange with one another.
c.
It is
forms the
to
changed
sacrifice';
or rarely
~i,
'is
tavislydti,
thus,
;
mighty';
adhvariydti,
'per-
piitriydti or putriy&ti,
'desires a son';
mahsiydti, 'craves flesh'.
Denominatives of this form show a special proclivity toward the mean-
ing 'desire'.
dropped (after n or r}: thus, turanydti, 'is rapid';
'performs the sacrifice'.
e. Other modes of treatment are sporadic
thus, the addition
of s, as in stanasyati, 'seeks the breast'; the change of a to e,
as in varcydti, 'plays the wooer'
d.
It
is
adhvarydti,
:
.
1060.
in
From stems
gopaydti,
but
it
the
'plays
in
Final a
a.
herdsman,
usually
remains, as
protects';
prtanayati, 'fights';
is sometimes treated in the other methods of an a-stem
:
thus, prtanyati,
1061.
'fights'.
From stems
(especially those in u,
and u before ya:
ularly
i
jury';
jamydti
(also
in
-my-),
and
i,
e,
much
u]
tt,
Such stems are
u.
common.
less
They show reg-
thus, aratiydti (also -tiy-}, 'plots in'seeks a wife';
'desires
sakhiydti,
'is
'acts the foe';
friendship';
catruydti,
rjuydti,
straight';
'
desires wealth'; asuydti, 'grumbles, is discontent': with
short u, gatuydti, 'sets in motion'.
vasuydti,
More
is
added:
i
rarely,
thus, dhunaydti,
thus,
is
treated
as
(or else is gunated, with loss of a y}:
Sometimes, as to a (above, e), a sibilant
a
'comes snorting'.
avisydti,
'is
vehement';
urusydti,
'saves'.
From
dhl,
RV.
is
said
makes dhiyaydte.
1062. From other
be changed to ri: thus,
use has been noted.
to
vowel-stems,
'is
pitriydti,
a.
fatherly':
Final r
no example in
The diphthongs, in the few cases that occur, have their
element changed to a semivowel thus, gavydti, 'seeks cattle,
b.
final
:
goes a-raiding'.
1063.
From consonant-stems.
usually remains before ya
cures';
thus,
uksanydti, 'acts like a bull';
'pays reverence';
'fights'.
:
sumanasydte,
'is
bhisajydti,
apasydti,
A
final
consonant
'plays the physician,
'is
active';
favorably disposed';
namasydti,
tarmydti,
XIV. SECONDARY CONJUGATION.
346
n
[1063
sometimes dropped, and the preceding vowel
'is kingly', fromro/an: vrsaydte
from vrsan is the only example quotable from the older language. Sporadic
cases occur of other final consonants similarly treated: thus, ojaydte from
But a
final
treated as a final
ojas
said to be
is
thus, rajaydte or rajlydti,
:
while, on the other hand, an a-vowel
;
a consonant before ya
:
thus, isaydti from
is
occasionally added to such
satvanayati from satvan.
10,
1064. By far the largest class of consonantal stems are
those showing a s before the ya; and, as has been seen above,
a sibilant is sometimes, by analogy, added to a final vowel,
or even, with a
making the denominative-sign virtually sya
also added after an i or w-vowel, asya; and this comes to be
recognised in the later language as an independent sign, forming
denominatives
that
desire
express
longs for honey';
dhvasyati,
:
ksirasyati,
thus, madhusyati
'craves milk'.
ma-
or
1065. The grammarians reckon as a special class of denominatives in
kamya what are really only ordinary ones made from a compound noun-stem
having kama as its final member thus, rathakamyati, 'longs for the chariot'
:
(K.:
son'
only example noted from the older language); putrakamyati, 'desires a
coming from the possessive compounds rathakama, putrakama. And
'declares
satyapayati,
true'
(from satya], is an example of yet another form-
ation declared to occur.
1066.
A
a.
number
of
denominative stems occur in the Veda
no corresponding noun-stems are found, although
related words appear: thus, ankuya, stabhuya,
ruvanya,
huvanya,
isanya;
ratharya,
makhasya, panasya, sacasya.
new
nings of a
b. Having
Those
for
which
for all or nearly all of
them
isudhya; dhisanya, risanya,
f ratharya,
saparya;
in anya, especially,
irasya,
dapasya,
look like the begin-
conjugation-class.
still
in aya, which in
more that aspect, however, are a Vedic group of stems
general have
allied themselves to present-systems of the
na-class (V.), and are found alongside the forms of that class: thus, grbhaydti
Of such. RV. has grbhaya, mathaya, prusaya, musaya,
beside grbhndti.
few others have no na-class companions:
$rathaya, skabhaya, stabhaya.
A
thus, damaya, camaya,
'rain'),
vasaya (yvas
(AV.); and panaya, nafaya, vrsaya
and perhaps afaya (j/ap 'attain').
tudaya
'clothe'),
(]/ur
1067. The denominative stems in RV. and AV. with causative accentRV. ankhdya, arthdya, isdya (also isayd)^ urjdya, rtdya, krpdya,
uation are
mantrdya,
susvayd);
:
mrgdya,
AV. adds
The accent
1068.
vavrdya,
vajdya
(also
vajayd),
kirtdya, dhupdya, paldya,
of dnniya
and hdstaya (RV.)
Inflection.
flected with regularity
vlldya,
susvdya
is
wholly anomalous.
The denominative stems
like the
throughout the present-system.
(also
virdya, sabhagdya.
are in-
other stems ending in
Forms
51
a
outside of that sys-
DENOMINATIVE.
1070]
347
except from the stems which are reckoned to the
tern
causative or cwr-class, and
rules for that class
In
RV.
which follow
occurs no form not belonging to
seems most
in all respects the
are of the utmost rarity.
md
the present-system, unless (as
is to be regarded as 2d
Unquestionable examples of this aorist are asuyit (B.),
2. 83
with md prohibitive) and avrsayisata (VS.).
pi.,
unayls
likely)
(with
prohibitive)
sing, of the to-aorist.
papayista (TS. iii.
The form dsaparyait (AV. xiv. 2. 20), with ai for z (555 b), might be aorist;
but, as the metre shows, is probably a corrupt reading; amanasyait, certainly
:
imperfect, appears to occur in TB.
(ii.
3.
S 3).
B. has the future gopayisyati,
participles kanduyisydnt and kanduyitd. From roots assimilated
to the causatives occur in the older language mantrayam asa (AB., GB.),
mantraydm cakratus and cakre (QB.), mantritd (QB., TA.), -mantrya (TB.),
and TS. the
and one
or
two other like forms.
The gerundival
adjectives saparyenya and
atasayya also are met with.
CHAPTER
XV.
PERIPHRASTIC AND COMPOUND CONJUGATION.
1069.
ONE
periphrastic formation,
has been already described
future,
become in the
al
later
conjugation,
tially periphrastic,
periphrastic
(942 fT.), since
it
has
language a necessary part of every verb-
and
it
the
though still remaining essenhas been so fused in its parts and alsince,
tered in construction as to assume
in considerable measure
the semblance of an integral tense-formation.
By
far
the
most important other formation of the
class is
The Periphrastic Perfect.
1070.
This (though almost
unknown
in the Veda,
coming only gradually into use in the Brahmai
tense widely made and frequently used in the
Sanskrit.
as)
and
is
a
classical
XV. PERIPHRASTIC AND COMPOUND CONJUGATION.
348
made by
It is
noun-stem in
1
'be
y^fc^as
a
TT
auxiliary verb
prefixing the accusative
and very
,
of
]/5fj
is
Even
is
of
used as auxiliary
MBh., bhu hardly
in
of an
often
'be'.
out below, kr
pointed
all.
tense
more
kr 'make',
rarely of ]/>T bhu,
In the older language, as
almost alone, and bhu not at
of a derivative
the perfect
to
(accented)
namely,
:
[1070
ever occurs
(Holtzmann).
The
1071.
a.
periphrastic perfect occurs as follows:
the perfect of the derivative conjugations
It is
desiderative,
tensive,
causative,
being made from
and denominative
;
in-
:
the
noun
present-stem which is the
thus, from j/SfT budh,
general basis of each conjugation
in ^T a
the
:
intensive
emsthiiH
o
*s
bobudhdm. desiderative SfarHM bubhutsdm.
oo
*s
bodhayam; denominative H^IUIH mantr ay-
causative SHMUIH
am.
The formation from
causative stems, and from those denominatives which
are assimilated to causatives, is
Most
b.
most frequent.
far the
by nature or long by position) make this perfect
and not the simple one thus, ^IHH asam from yETITT
lable
(long
only,
as,
by
roots beginning with a vowel in a heavy syl-
:
f^Fl^iksam
Excepted
from
yjjfi^iks;
are the
with a before two
roots ap
consonants
~S^\^ubjam from y3&!R
ubj.
and anch, and those beginning
(and taking an as reduplication:
788).
The
c.
formation
stems reckoned by the grammarians
syllable have their perfect of this
thus, T^CJU^J^ cakasam.
roots
:
(that is,
more than one
of
as roots)
But urnu (712) is said to form urnonava only, and jagr and daridra
(1020, 1024) to have a perfect of either formation.
d. A few other scattering roots
namely, ay, day, and kas
and optionally vid and us, and a few roots of the reduplicating
All these make the derivative noun
class, bhi, bhr, hu, and hri.
from their present-stem
thus, dayUm, vidhm, os&m, bibhayhm,
Juhav&m, bibhartim, jihrayhm (these with guna of the final vowel
:
,
:
before the
An
a).
is met with from other roots
thus, naydm from
hvayam from yhvd (pres.-stem hvaya).
occasional example
nl (pres.-stem naj/a);
1072.
The
:
periphrastic perfect of the middle voice
is
PERIPHRASTIC PERFECT.
1074]
made only with
the middle inflection
349
of y^\ kr ; that
the active, with any one of the three auxiliaries.
sive use, the auxiliaries 3R7 as
x
to take a
middle
and ^ bhu are
c\
of
For pas-
also allowed
inflection.
It is
unnecessary to give a paradigm of this formation, as
the inflection of the auxiliaries is the same as in their
independent use (for that of
of y'cw,
ykr, see 800 f) of ybhu, see 800 b
see 636).
;
The connection
;
noun and auxiliary is not so close that other
to come between them
thus, tdm patayam
prathamam asa, 'him he first made to fall'; prabhrancaydm yo naghusam
cakarn, 'who made Naghusha fall headlong' (both Raghuvanc.a).
of
the
words are not sometimes allowed
:
1073. The above is an account of the periphrastic formawith a derivative noun in am as it appears in the later
tion
earlier, its aspect is quite different
namely, as that
general, but quite infrequent, combination of such a
with various forms of the root kr.
Thus
language
:
;
more
of a
noun
:
Of forms with the
a.
perfect
of
the
auxiliary occurs
only
a single
whole body of Vedic texts (metrical): namely, gamaydm
cakara (AV. xviii.). In the brahmana parts of the Black Yajus texts are
found vidam cakara (TS., K., MS.) and viddm cakrma (K.), and ydjaydm
cakara (K.). In the Brahmanas, examples from causative etc. stems in aya
example in
the
begin to prevail over others, and in B. they are rather frequent. Examples
from desiderative stems have been noted only from QB.: they are cikramisdm,
From simple roots having the same formruruksam, dudhursdm, blbhatsdm.
ation
in the
later
language, occur viddm (TB., QB., GB.),
iksdm (B., GB.), edhdm (8.), juhavdm (AB., TB.,
and also laydm (nilaydm) from yil (CB.).
as
B.),
asdm
(QB., GB.),
bibhaydm ($B.);
b. Forms with the aorist of the auxiliary are in the oldest Brahmanas
numerous as those with the perfect. Thus, with akar occur ramayam
janayam and sadayam and svadayam and sthapayam
viddm (TS., MS., TB.). With the aorist optative
(K.),
akran,
(MS.);
or
and with
precative
has
been noted only pavaydrh kriyat (MS.).
C. Like combinations with other tenses are excessively rare, but not
entirely
unknown:
juhavam
so,
karoti (Qankh. Qr. Su.).
d. With
(AB.,
GB.;
any other auxiliary than ykr appears only mantraydm asa
in ^!B. the same noun is combined with ykr in mantrayarh
cakratus and
As
mantraydm cakre).
the examples show,
periphrastic future
:
945) has
the
its
noun
(as
in
the
case of the
independent accent.
Participial Periphrastic Phrases.
Combinations of participles with auxiliary verbs,
of condition or motion, forming phrases which have an office
1074.
XV. PERIPHRASTIC AND COMPOUND CONJUGATION.
350
[1074
unknown
analogous with that of verb-tenses, are not
in
any
period of the language.
They occur even in the Veda, but are far more common
and conspicuous in the Brahmanas, and become again of little
account in the later language.
1075.
A
a.
Examples of the various formations are
(usually
present)
as follows
with the tenses of the verb
participle
i.
.
'go'.
on the whole, of widest and most frequent occurThus yatha sucya vasah sarhdadhad iyad evam evai 'tabhir yajnasya
rence.
chidram sarhdadhad eti (AB.), 'just as one would mend [habitually] a garment
This
the
is
combination,
:
with a needle, so with these one mends any defect of the
idarh
dahann
vdifvdnaro
'surah
te
creation';
Asuras,
ait
Vaicvanara
dydvaprthivi updfrayan
took refuge with heaven and earth';
'the
pafdva upamurydmana lyuh (B.),
his
animals,
agnir va
sacrifice';
burning
kept
ydnto
pdrajitd
getting beaten,
'Agni
(PB.),
family,
(TB.),
this
'those
(
te
sya
grhdh
would be con-
tinually destroyed'.
still
b. The same with the verb car, 'go (continually or habitually)', signifying
more distinctly than the preceding a continued or habitual action. Thus
:
agndv agnfy carati prdvistah (AV.), 'Agni is constantly present in the fire';
adandyam dandena ghnantaf caranti (PB.), 'they make a practice of beating
with a rod what is undeserving of punishment'.
The" same with the verbs
c.
Thus, juhvata asate
meaning.
as,
(K.),
'sit',
and
stha,
'stand',
with a like
'they continue sacrificing'; te
l
pakramya
prativavadato 'tisthan (AB.), 'they, having gone off, kept vehemently refusing'.
In the later language, stha is the verb oftenest used, with predicates, of
make
a verbal phrase of continuance.
The participle is oftenest a
with as and bhu, 'be'.
future one; as only is used in the optative, bhu usually in other forms.
Thus: yah purvam ariijanah syat (AB.), 'whoever may not have made sacri-
various kind, to
A
d.
participle
samavad eva yajne kurvana asan
fice before';
(GB.),
'they did the
same thing
asan (MS.), 'they were playing about'; itara me
kena devatd upaptd bhavisyanti (AB.), 'wherewith shall the other deities be
won by me?' ydtra suptvd punar nh 'vadrasydn bhdvati (QB.), 'when, after
at the sacrifice'; parikridanta
sleeping,
(AB.),
he
'for
not going to
is
he
is
going to give';
may be about
fall
havyam
asleep again';
intending to cany the
sacrifice';
ytna vdhanena syantsydnt sydt
hi
vaksyan bhavati
(K.), 'may be
ddsyant syat
(QB.),
'with what vehicle he
to drive'.
Composition with Prepositional Prefixes.
1076.
All the forms, personal and other, of verbal conof
jugation
and even
to
both
primary
some extent
and secondary conjugation,
of denominative
(so
far
as
the
PREFIXES.
denominative stems have become
-
-
simple roots)
assimilated in value
occur very frequently in combination with
certain words of direction, elements of
(see
to
an adverbial character
the next chapter), the so-called prepositions, according
to the original use of that term,
or the verbal prefixes.
Practically, in the later language, it is as if a compounded root were
formed, out of root and prefix, from which then the whole conjugation (with
many derivatives below, chap. XVII.) is made, just as from the simple
:
even there (and still more in the older language: 1081), the
combination is so loose, and the members retain so much of their independent
value, that in most dictionaries (that of Monier Williams is an exception)
root.
Yet,
the conjugation of each root with prefixes is treated under the simple root,
and not in the alphabetic order of the prefix. Derivative words, however,
are by universal agreement given in their independent alphabetic place, like
simple words.
Those verbal
1077.
prefixes
which have value
as such
whole history of the language are given
below, in alphabetic order, with their fundamental meanings
throughout the
:
'across,
dtij
ddhi,
'above, over,
ami,
ctntdr,
lence)
close
'unto,
abhi,
to';
'between, among, within';
'away, forth,
dpi,
on
on,
along, toward';
'after,
dpa,
beyond, past, over, to excess';
'to,
unto,
off';
upon
or on';
against'
(often
with implied vio-
;
R
dva,
5TT
,
'down,
'to,
3^" ud,
3q
ft
'up,
upa,
ni,
FKT
'to,
crf^
'out,
m's,
pdri,
prdj
up
'to
off';
at';
forth or out';
unto, toward';
'down;
^^\ pdra,
"3
unto,
in,
into';
forth';
a distance, away, forth';
'round about, around';
'forward, onward, forth, fore';
XV. PERIPHRASTIC AND COMPOUND CONJUGATION.
352
reversed
'in
prdti,
back
direction,
1077
to or against,
against, in return';
|cf
m',
?PT sdm,
Some
a.
number
In order of frequency in the older language (as estimated by
which they are found used in RV. and AV.), they
of roots with
stand as follows: pra, a,
nis,
with, together'.
used much more widely and frequently
'along,
of these, of course, are
than others.
the
asunder, away, out';
-apart,
vi,
sam, abhi,
apa, para, adhi, api, antar.
ati,
ni,
Apt
is
arm, upa, prati, ava,
pari,
ltd,
of very limited use as prefix in
the later language, having become a conjunction, 'too,
b. The meanings given are only the leading ones.
much
the roots they undergo
also'.
In combination with
modification, both literal and figurative
yet
seldom in such a way that the steps of transition from the fundamental
sense are not easy to trace. Sometimes, indeed, the value of a root is hardly
perceptibly modified by the addition of the prefix.
infrequently given by pari,
vi,
An
intensive force
is
not
and sam.
essentially akin with the above, but more
and
of more restricted use, are these:
distinctly adverbial,
dcha (or acha\ 'to, unto': tolerably frequent in RV. (used
with over twenty roots), but already very rare in AV. (only two
1078.
roots),
and
avis,
bhu, as,
Prefixes
entirely lost in the later
'forth to sight, in view':
out of sight' hardly used except
'through, crossways
with
three or four others);
bhu
dha,
(in RV.,
purds, 'in front, forward': used with only half-a-dozen roots,
:
;
'kr,
dha,
especially kr,
pradus,
i;
'forth to view':
only with bhu,
A
still
;
and kr ;
tiros,
with
language
used only with the roots
few others, as bahia, 'outside', vina,
less removed from ordinary adverbs.
1079.
Of
adverb-value are
trad
'believe,
hin,
(or
still
as,
kr.
'without', saksat,
'in
view', are
more limited use, and of noun rather than
:
prat/i?),
only
with dha
(in
RV., once
also
with
kr}:
?raddha,
credit';
only with kr (and obsolete in the classical language): hinkr,
the sound hing, low, murmur'.
And beside these stand yet more
fortuitous
combinations:
see
'make
below,
1091.
1080. More than one prefix
root.
less
may be
set before the
Combinations of two are quite usual of three,
common; of more than three, rare. Their order
;
same
much
is
in
general determined only by the requirements of the meaning,
VERBAL ^PREFIXES.
1083]
353
each added prefix bringing a further
combination before which
it is set.
modification to the
But
5TT
a
is
never allowed
and only extremely rarely in the older,
be put in front of any of the others.
in the later language,
to
In classical Sanskrit,
1081.
the
stands
prefix always
immediately before the verbal form.
In the older language, however, of both Veda and Brahit may be
mana, its position is quite free
separated from the
verb by another word or words, and may even (much less often)
come after the form to which it belongs
it
may also stand
:
;
qualifying a verb that is understood,
another prefix one that is expressed.
alone,
Thus, sd devdn
or
conjointly
with
e 'hd vaksyati (RV.) 'he shall bring the gods
hither';
dyunsi tdrisat (AV.), 'may he lengthen out our lives'; tdv d yatam
tipa dravdt (RV.), 'do ye two come hither quickly
gdmad vdjebhir d sd nah
(RV.), 'may he come with gifts hither to us'; pdri mdm pdri me prajdm pdri
f
no,
pro,
1
;
nah pdhi ydd dhdnam (AV.), 'protect me, my progeny, and what wealth we
own'; ydtah sadyd d ca para ca ydnti (AV.), 'from whence every day they
advance and retire'; vy ahdrh sdrvena pdpmdnd [avrtam] vf ydksmena sdm
dyusd (AV.
myself] with
The
have separated from
'I
),
separation of the
much more
all ill-luck, from
disease, [I
have joined
life'.
difficult,
prefix
from a verbal
noun
or adjective is very
and of quite rare occurrence.
1082. As regards the accent of verb-forms compounded
with prefixes, only the case needs to be considered in which
the prefix stands (as always in the later language) immediately
before the verb
otherwise, verb and prefix are treated as two
entirely independent words.
;
A
personal verbal form, as has been seen above
before such a form, the prefix
has its own accent or, if two or more precede the same form,
the one nearest the latter is so accented, and the others lose
1083.
ordinarily unaccented
is
(592),
:
;
their accent.
however,
If,
the verb-form
is
accented,
the prefix or pre-
fixes lose their accent.
That
situated
is,
prefix
in
verb along with its normally
constitutes a unity that the
allowed to take but a single accent.
every
or
case,
prefixes
whole combination
is
so
the
far
J
Examples are: pare hi nari ptinar e 'hi ksiprdm (AV.),
J
woman come again quickly'; dthd stam vipdretana (RV.), 'then
;
your home'; samdcinusvd 'nusamprdyahi (AV.),
away
to
forth
together
after';
ydd grhdn upodatti (AV.),
Whitney, Grammar.
'gather
'go
away,
scatter ye
together, go
when he goes up
23
to the
'
XV. PERIPHRASTIC AND COMPOUND CONJUGATION.
354
1
house
;
'now
evd ca tvdrh sarama ajagdntha (RV.),
thus come hither
1
;
that you,
[1083
Saraina, have
yend "vistitah pravivefithd 'pah (RV.), 'enveloped
in
which
thou didst enter the waters'.
A
1084.
prefix,
however,
seldom has a more inde-
not
pendent value, as a general adverb of direction, or as a preposition
modern sense of that term), belonging to and
(in the usual
governing a noun
;
such
in
it
case,
not drawn in to form
is
The two
part of a verbal compound, but has its own accent.
kinds of use shade into one another, and are not divisible by
any distinct and fixed
line.
1085. In combination with the non-personal parts of the
verb-system, with participles, infinitives, and gerunds, the general
rule is that the prefix loses its accent, in favor of the other
member of the compound. But the prefix instead has sometimes
the accent
namely, when combined
f
:
with the passive participle in ta or na
thus, pdreta,
'gone forth'; antdrhita, 'concealed'; dvapanna, 'fallen'; sdmpurna,
a.
:
'complete'.
b.
with the infinitive in
sdmhartum,
'collect';
tu
1086.
in
all
cases
its
thus.,
:
cover
'of
up';
dvagantos,
accented dative in tavai retains its final
descending'; the doubly
accent, but throws the other back
'for following';
(972),
"to
dpidhatave,
dpabhartavai,
The closeness
upon
the prefix
:
thus, dnvetavai,
'for carrying off.
of combination
between the root and
indicated not only by their unity of accent, but
also by the euphonic rules (e. g. 185, 192), which allow the
mutual adaptations of the two to be made to some extent as if
the
is
prefix
they were parts of a unitary word.
1087
.
A
few special
irregularities call for notice
:
and ava, in connection with certain
vowel: namely, api with nah and dha,
a. In the later language, opi, adhi,
roots,
sometimes lose their
initial
In the Veda, on the other hand, is is in a
few cases found instead of nis with ykr,
b. The final vowel of a prefix, especially an i, is (oftenest in the older
adhi with stha, ava
with gah.
language) sometimes lengthened, especially in derivative words
nivrt, parihara, virtidh, adhlvasd, dpivrta, abhlvartd
In the Veda,
an
:
thus,
the initial of arm
is
anurudh
;
:
thus, pratlkara,
pravrs, upavasu.
sometimes lengthened after negative
ananuda.
C. In combination with yi 'go', the prefixes para, part, and pra sometimes
change their r to i.
In this way is formed a kind of derivative stem palay, 'flee', inflected
according to the a -class, in middle voice, which is not uncommon from the
Brahmanas down, and has
so lost the consciousness of its origin that
it
takes
VERBAL PREFIXES.
1090]
the augment prefixed
thus, apalayisthas ;
palayam cakre. The stem palyay, similarly
it
:
355
makes the periphrastic perfect
seems to occur only in
inflected,
and play has been found nowhere except in MS.
sometimes assumes (or retains from a more original
condition) an initial s after the prefixes sam, pari, and upa: thus, samskurute,
B.;
d. The root kr 'make
1
samaskurvan, sarhskrta, pariskrnvanti, pariskrta, upaskrta. And ]/fcr 'scatter'
said by the grammarians to add s in the same manner, under certain
is
circumstances, after upa and prati.
The passive
e.
participle
the abbreviated form tta
da
of the roots
after a prefix
of
and da
'give'
which the
-final
'cut'
has often
vowel, if
lengthened (compare the similar contraction with other elements, above,
and that
of the derivative in
from da
'give',
pratta, apatta
ti,
is
below, chap. XVII.). Thus, in AV. are found
:
in Brahmanas, from the same, atta,
vydtta, pdritta, dpratitta
from da
;
'cut',
dvatta, nirdvatta, samdvatta.
The AB. has once niniyoja
f.
i,
955 c,
(instead
of ni-yuyoja] from
ni -\~yyuj,
and udaprapatat; and in MBh. are found a few cases like vivyasa from
vi -\~yas (where, however, an intentional play on the word may be assumed:
Such unifications of
Delbriick); and anvasarhcarat (instead of anusamacarat)
.
and root, with treatment of the result after the manner of a simple
prefix
are extremely rare.
root,
Some
hold, however,
that certain of the
apparent roots of the language
are results of this unification: thus, dp from a-\-ap, vyac from in-j-ac, tyaj
from ati-(-aj,
The
g.
etc. (see
loss of
Weber, Ind. Stud., xiii. 61).
s of stha and stambh
the initial
after
the prefix
ud has
been noticed above (233 a).
Also (137 a,
vowel of a
initial
b),
certain peculiarities of combination of a prefix with the
root.
1088. As to the more general adverbial uses of the pre-
and
fixes,
their prepositional uses,
1089. The
adverbial prefixes
sw,
sometimes combined with verbal forms
see the next chapter.
'well',
;
and dus,
'ill',
are said to be
but no examples of such combination
are quotable from accentuated texts.
As
tamam
to
the addition of the comparative and superlative suffixes taram and
to verbs,
see above,
473.
Other Verbal Compounds.
1090.
It
has been seen
above that
some
of the preposi-
tional prefixes are employed in combination with only very small
classes of roots, namely those whose meaning makes them best
such as kr, 'make',
fitted for auxiliary and periphrastic uses
and that the first three
bhu and as, 'be', dha, 'put', i, 'go'
of these are widely used in combination with a derivative in
Such roots have also
am to make a periphrastic conjugation.
but with increasthe
of
earliest
the
from
language,
been,
period
ing frequency,
used in somewhat analogous combinations with
23*
XV. PERIPHRASTIC AND COMPOUND CONJUGATION. [1090
356
substantive and adjective as well as adverbial
and this has become, in part, developed finally into a regular
and indefinitely extensible method of increasing the resources of
other elements,
;
verbal expression.
1091. Most analogous with hin -\~ykr (1079) are a few other onomatocompounds in the Veda: akkhallkftya (RV.), 'making a crackling sound',
poetic
janjanabhdvant (RV.), 'flimmering', and alalabhdvant (RV.), 'making merry';
and (in AB.) bababakurvan, 'crackling'. And AV. has masmasd with ykr
(TS. and VS., masmasd),
'crush'.
Further, combinations of ykr with terms used at the sacrifice, as vdsat,
svaga: at first phrases only, and noun-compounds, but
combinations in which the prefixed word is treated like a
svadhd,
svdha,
-verbal
becoming
prefix: thus, svagakardti (B.: but svadhd
other prefixes are set before them, as anuvasatkuryat.
prepositional
kartiti,
TA.);
and
1092. a. The noun namas, 'obeisance, homage', in a still more purely
noun-value, becomes combined with ykr: in the Veda, only with the gerund,
in namaskrtya (beside hastagfhya and karnagfhya: above, 990.).
b.
dstam,
A
solitary combination with yi, 'go', is shown by the accusative
'home'; which, appearing only in ordinary phrases in RV., is in AV.
compounded with
in astamydnt, astamesydnt, dstamita
the participles
and in the
(with accent like that of ordinary compounds with a prefix)
Brahmanas and the later language is treated quite like a prefix thus,
:
astameti (QB.).
Other ordinary accusative forms of adjectives in combination with
and there in the older lan-
c.
verbal derivatives of kr and bhu are found here
guage
prtamkftya and
thus,
:
etc.
nambhdvuka,
(TS. et
nagnamkrtya (TS.); nagnambhdvuka, pama-
al.).
1093. In the early but not in the earliest language, a nounstem thus compounded with kr or bhu, in verbal nouns and
ordinary derivatives, and then also in verbal forms, begins to
assume a constant ending i (of doubtful origin).
There
vaiikard,
begin
to
is
to
is
1091)
is
no instance of this in RV., unless the I of akkhallkftya (above,
be so explained. In AV., besides the obscure vatikrta and
In the Brahmana language, examples
and mithum in TS.; these and phali,
three, with suphali, ekl, sin, brahmam, and
found only phallkdrana.
occur
occasionally
kruri, udvasl in TB.;
the
cyetl
first
The accent of the combination is in general
QB.; and so on.
accordance with the accent of compounds with the usual prefixes; and if the
prefixed stem takes the tone, this rests upon the final i. Sometimes a mere
daridri in
collocation takes place:
final,
as
thus,
mithum bhdvantis
(TS.), phali
kriydmananam
bhutvd (TA.). The I is variously treated now as an uncombinable
in fyeti akuruta and mithuni abhavan (TS.); now as liable to the
(TB.). vajri
:
ordinary conversions, as in mithuny enaya syam and svyakurvata (QB.).
The examples in accentuated texts, and especially those in which the
NOUN AND ADJECTIVE-COMPOUNDS.
1096]
verb
is
entitled to the tone, are too few to furnish
357
more than a fragmentary
illustration of the formation.
Out
rule
of such
beginnings has
grown
in
the later language the following
:
Any noun
1094.
or adjective stem
liable to
is
be com-
pounded with verbal forms or derivatives of the roots ]/5fi
kr and ^ bhu (and, it is said, of ETH as also but such ca;
ses,
if
they occur, are at least extremely rare), in the
ner of a verbal prefix.
is
it
i-vowel,
stem be an a or
If the final of the
to
changed
^ l\
if
man-
an w-vowel,
it
is
changed
to ^37 u.
It is
prescribed also that a final r become
and an be changed
n,
and that as
but no genuine examples appear to be
to t;
quotable.
Examples are stambhibhavati, 'becomes a post'; ekacittlbhuya, 'becoming
of one mind'; upaharikarosi, 'thou makest an offering'; nakhapraharajarjankrta,
:
'torn
to
pieces with
kundallkrta,
blows
of the
claws';
fithilibhavanti,
'become
loose';
'ring-shaped.'
1095. Of all the forms which constitute or are attached to
the verbal system, the passive participle is the one most closely
assimilated in its treatment as a combinable element to an or-
Next to it come the gerund and the gerundCombinations of the kind here treated of are especially
common with passive participles and gerunds.
dinary adjective.
ives.
CHAPTER
XVI.
INDECLINABLES.
1096.
THE
indeclinable words are less
distinctly divi-
ded into separate parts of speech in Sanskrit than
elsewhere in Indo-European language
to the fact
that the class of prepositions
existence,
but
which
to a greater
They
are
will,
usual heads.
is
represented by
however,
certain
is
especially
usual
owing
hardly has a real
adverbial words
or less extent used prepositionally.
be briefly described here under the
XVI. INDECLINABLES.
358
[1097
Adverbs.
Adverbs by Suffix.
1097.
are formed
times of considerable' extent,
suffixes especially to
of adverb-making
noun and
stems, but also to
There
manner
pronominal roots or
and the case-
suffixes
sometimes are used
this division
of cases.
With
1098.
and the adverbs of
;
by the addition
adjective stems.
no ultimate difference between these
is
endings in declension
in the
Classes of adverbs, some-
the
suffix
are made adverbs having an
an ablative construction. Such
tas
and not rarely
ablative sense,
are made
also
:
From pronominal
a.
in
roots,
dtas,
tdtas,
itds,
ydtas,
svatas (not found earlier); and from the pronominal stems in
the personal
pronouns
yusmattas.
b. From noun
nastds,
Cirsatds,
in
(once,
c.
and adjective stems
more
but
period,
later
freely
every
construction
ablative
But the
than
'older
jydyan (AV.),
from some region
are
tdtah
:
the earliest
rbhutds,
hrttas,
dntitas.
sasthdt (AV.),
kuta?
they';
asmattas,
daksinatds, abhipatds
:
of
since
class,
agratds,
sarvdtas,
anydtas,
or
tvattas,
V.),
RV., from a case-form: patsutds}.
a few prepositions
thus, abhttas, parttas,
tdto
'arriving
of
mukhatds,
thus,
:
pardtas,
yajustas,
From
Examples
sixth';
mattds (only example in
thus,
;
amutas,
d (494) of
ktitas,
t
cid
'from that
defad agatya
(H.),
or other'.
distinctive ablative
meaning
adverb has a more locative value
our presence'; dharmatas,
reference to the goat
'in
'in
is
not infrequently effaced, and the
'in front'
thus, agratds,
:
accordance with
;
asmatsamlpatas,
'with
chagatas (H.),
duty';
1
.
With
1099.
the
suffix
tra
(in
V.
often
tra)
are
made
adverbs having a locative sense, and occasionally also a locative
construction.
These adverbs are formed from pronominal
amtitra, asmatrd, satrd; and also
ktitra,
ydtra,
as anydtra,
purutrd, bahutrd.
stems,
The words
which satram
in
is
vi$vdtra,
'in the right hand';
yujyate
(H.),
As
value
:
the
'sovereignty
locative
adverbs
thus,
daksinatrd,
in
tatra
is
case
tra
except satrd, 'altogether'
:
suited to him'; ekatrapuruse (MBh.),
is
gacha,
'roads that go to the gods'.
(of
hdsta d daksinatrd
tatra 'ntare (H.), 'in that interval';
have
devatrd,
an alternative form).
of quasi-locative or locative construction are
Examples
the
from
martyatrd,
(accented) trd are Vedic only,
also given as
(RV.),
so
samandtra,
namely dtra, tdtra,
noun and adjective
roots,
used also
to
prabhutvam
'in a
tatra
single man'.
express the goal of motion (304),
accusative as well as a locative
sometimes an
'go there or thither';
pathd
devatrd ydnan (RV.),
ADVERBS BY DERIVATION
1103]
One
1100.
or two other suffixes of locality are
'where? and the Vedic vipvdlia
k-'tha,
:
1
a. ha, in zM, 'here',
104, end).
words having
(also vifvdhd,
'always' (compare below,",!
vifvcihd),
b.
359
which
tat,
added
is
to
a
already
or directive
local
value: thus, to adverbial accusatives, as prdktdt, tidaktdt; to adverbial ablaas
drattdt,
uttarattdt,
adhdstdt,
avdstdt,
pardstdt,
tives,
these
and
to
bahistdt.
:
as
adverbs,
prepositional
Apparently
the suffix has occasionally the form stdt
last,
C.
pardkattdt;
purdstdt,
analogy with
by
thus, updristat.
in uttarahi (QB.) and daksinahi (no occurrence).
hi,
1101. By the suffix tha are made adverbs of manner,
pecially from pronominal roots or stems.
es-
Thus, tdthd, ydthd; katha and ittha (by the side of which stand kathdm
And dtha (V. often dthd], 'so
itthdm}', and the rare imdthd and amuthd.
and
doubtless belongs with them.
then',
stems
sarvdthd,
vifvdthd,
as,
:
Further,
anydthd,
from a few adjective and noun
ubhaydthd,
itardtha,
yatamdthd,
urdhvdthd, rtutha, ndmdthd (once, AV.).
Yatha becomes usually toneless in V., when used
noun forming the subject
a
after
of comparison:
in the sense of iva
thus, tdydvo yathd (RV.),
'like thieves'.
One
1102.
a.
ti,
in
very
'thus',
are
brahmajdye ''yam iti ced dvocan (RV.), 'if they have said
Brahman's wife"'; tdrh devd abruvan vrdtya kim nu tisthasi 'ti
Examples
a
is
earliest
following the words quoted.
as particle of quotation,
period,
"this
manner are:
commonly used, from the
or two other suffixes of
iti,
:
1
'the gods said to him: "Vratya, why do you stand?"
Often, the iti
used more pregnantly thus, yah fraddddhdti sdnti devd iti (AV.), 'whoever
has faith that the gods exist'; tarn vydghram munir musiko 'yam iti pa?yati
(AV.),
is
:
sage
looks
upon
sidatha (H.),
'why
(lit'ly,
'the
(H.),
iti
that tiger
alleging
as being really a mouse';
what reason) do you
marks an onomatopoeia, or indicates a gesture
(AV.), 'let it come out of you with a "splash"';
'he
ploughs
first
this
then this way'.
way,
:
thus,
yuyarh kim
Or the
sit?'
bahfs
te
astu
ity dgre krsaty dthe
A
word made by
bal
'ti
iti
iti
iti
(^B.),
logically
predicate to an object is usually nominative: thus, svargo lokd iti yarn vddanti
(AV.), 'what they call "the heavenly world"'; vidarbharajatanaydm damayanti
'ti
viddhi
mam
(MBh.),
'know
by name'; but ajnam bdlam
With the
later
yvid
:
suffix of
iti
is
to
for the
dhuh
Vidarbha-king's daughter, Damayanti
'they call an ignorant man a child'.
(M.),
be compared that of tdti
and evd (in V.
as',
etc.
(519).
often
evd\ earlier
emphasizing the preceding word; for 'thus' is used
the related evam, which hardly occurs in RV., and in AV. only with
b.
'thus',
va in
me
ity
later a
as,
iva
(toneless),
'like,
particle
evdm vidvdn, 'knowing
In later Vedic (AV.
etc.)
iva
thus'.
more often counts
for only a single syllable.
1103. a. By the suffix da are made adverbs of time,
almost only from pronominal roots.
but
XVI. INDECLINABLES.
360
[1103
Thus, tadd, yadd, kadd, idd (only in V.); and sdda, beside which is
Besides these, in the older language, only sarvadd ;
found earlier sddam.
later a few others, as anyada, ekada, nityadd.
b.
By
C.
With
rhi are
The
suffix di,
danlm
the perhaps related
are
made iddnlm, taddnlm,
made, from pronominal
roots,
tdrhi,
etdrhi,
vifvaddriim.
kdrhi,
ydrhi,
amtirhi.
d.
found only in yddi,
'if,
perhaps related with da,
is
in form as in meaning.
1104.
the suffix dha are formed adverbs especially from
By
numerals, signifying '-fold, times, ways',
etc.
Thus, ekadhd, dvidhd (also dvfdha and dvedhd), trfdhd (in the old language usually tredhd), saddhd (also sodhd and saddhd), dvada^adhd, sahasradhd,
and so on. Also, naturally, from words having a quasi-numeral character
:
thus, tatidha, bahudha, purudha,
In a very
vifvddhd, facvadha, etdvaddha.
few cases, also from general noun and adjective stems
thus, mitradhd (AV.),
:
rjudhd (TB.), paristubdhd (PB.).
The particle ddha or ddha, a Vedic equivalent of dtha, probably belongs
here (purudhd and vifvddha, with shortened final, occur a few times in RV.);
priyadhd
(TS.),
also addhd, 'in truth'; and perhaps
sadha- in several Vedic compounds.
may be
sahd,
And
'with',
which has an equivalent
the other adverbs in ha
(1100 a)
of like origin.
1105. From
namely, dvfs,
numerals are made multiplicative adverbs with s:
a few
frfs,
and
cattir
The corresponding word
(probably,
for
for caturs).
'once',
is a compound rather than a
more evidently to pancakftvas,
and krtvas are regarded by the
safcft,
and the same character belongs
derivative;
still
navakftvas, aparimitakrtvas, etc., though krt
native grammarians as suffixes (AV. has dd$a krtvas and sapid krtvas).
110 6. By
the suffix cds are made, especially from numeral
adverbs of quantity or measure or manner,
or quantitative stems,
generally used distributively.
Thus, efcafas, 'one by one', patafds,
pacchas,
season',
'foot
by
foot',
'by
aksara^ds,
riufds,
hundreds',
'syllable
by
syllable',
'season
ganafds,
by
'in
stambafds, 'by bunches', pamppds, 'limb by limb', tdvacchds, 'in
such and such number or quantity': and, in a more general way, sarva$dsi
crowds',
mukhyafas,
'wholly',
1107.
By
'principally',
krchra$as,
the suffix vat are
'stingily'.
made with
great
every period of the language, adverbs signifying
ner of, like', etc.
'like Angiras',
Thus, angirasvdt,
'as of old',
This
makes
thee',
:
(RV.),
'as
Manu
did',
in
manjamad-
the manner of Jamadagni'; purvavdt or pratnavdt or purdnavdt,
kakatallyavat, 'after the fashion of the crow and the palm-fruit'.
'after
agnivdt,
accent
manusvdt
freedom,
'after the
is
really
below,
the
1 1 1 1 e)
certain adjective
mdvant,
'of
my
adverbially
used accusative
of the suffix vant
compounds
sort',
etc.
(with adverbial shift of
(next chapter), which in the Veda
of a similar
meaning
:
thus,
tvavant,
'like
CASE-FORMS AS ADVERBS.
1111]
1108. By the
made adverbs
suffix sat are
361
signifying 'into the condition
which are used along with verbs of becoming and of making.
Thus, agnisat -f- )//cr, 'reduce to fire, burn up'; bhasmasat -f- ybhu, 'turn
of,
to ashes';
'made one's own'.
atmasatkrta,
These derivatives are unknown in the
The
in the later.
s
with the following verb
is
not so
and not common
earlier language,
of sat is not liable to conversion into
to require the
close as
The connection
s.
use of the gerund
in ya: thus, bhasmasatkrtva (not -krtya: above, 990).
1109.
more
pratdr,
Suffixes,
less
or
and sanutdr, 'away'; in daksintt, 'with right hand', and cikitvtt,
in nwndm, 'now', and nandndm, 'variously'.
But the
'early',
'with
not of noun-derivation or inflection, may be traced with
in a few other adverbs.
Thus, for example, in
plausibility
consideration';
cases are in the main too rare and doubtful to be worth notice here.
The adverbs
never used prepohowever, are in many
of this division are almost
Those of the next
sitionally.
division,
instances so used.
Case-forms used
1110.
Adverbs. A large num-
as
ber of adverbs are more or less evidently cases in form,
made from stems which are not otherwise in use. Also
i
stems, pronominal or
used with an adverbial
are
ive,
known
cases of
many
value,,
noun
or adject-
being distinguished
from proper cases by some difference of application, which
is sometimes accompanied by an irregularity of form.
1111. The accusative is the case most frequently and
Thus:
widely used adverbially.
Of pronominal stems:
a.
'why,
fcfm,
Of
like
value,
kam(?),
(by
whether',
id,
are
apparently,
cid
(common
some regarded
as,
t/ad,
iddm,
etc.;
at
the
'if,
'now,
when,
that',
adds,
here';
(mostly Vedic)
every period),
particles
as still possessing pronoun-value),
Of noun-stems
b.
if
will,
and
(V.);
C.
'long';
you
please';
:
as,
noffto,
n'iktam,
'by
'then' etc.;
tad,
'yonder';
and so on.
kdd,
kdm and
smdd and sumdd, im and slm
Compounds with fd are ced, 'if, ncd, 'lest',
kucid ; with -kim, ndklm and makim, and aklm.
'at
etc.;
name';
'by night'; raftas,
-kirn.
svid,
stikham,
kuvfd
;
with
'happily';
'secretly';
cid,
kdmam,
osdm, 'quickly'
so on.
Of adjective stems,
in
great
nttyam, 'constantly'; bh&yas,
numbers
:
as,
satydm,
'truly';
cirdm,
'more, again'; and so on.
The neuter
singular is the case commonly employed in this way;
formed and used adverbially from a large class of compound stems
which do not occur in adjective use (the so-called avt/at/i&/iaua-compounds
1.
and
it is
:
below, chap. XVIII.).
XVI. INDECLINABLES.
362
But the feminine singular
2.
adverbial
so-called
of
endings
also
[1111
sometimes used; especially in the
taram and tamam, which are
is
comparison,
attached to particles, and even, as
is
it
claimed (473), to verb-forms
thus,
:
pratardm, pratamdm, uccaistaram, fanaistaram, jyoktamdm.
In the oldest language (RV. and AV.), the neuter instead of the feminine
form of these suffixes
almost alone in use: see 1119.
is
adverts of obscure form or connection are to be explained with
probability as accusatives of obsolete noun or adjective stems: examples are
Many
d.
'in
tusnim,
with
silence';
dram
(prep.)';
in the
manner
expectedly';
bahfs,
Madrtk
of
'at evening';
'sufficient'
of a prefix); prayas,
and so on.
and ninfk
etc.,
and
(in
'vainly';
sakdm, 'together,
the later language used with
'usually';
mtthu
'outside';
dlakam,
(in
Isdt,
'somewhat';
mtihu and muhus, jdtu,
mithds,
perhaps contracted forms
(407 ff.); and visundk and
with prthak and fdhak,
as
roots
of other
members
final
also
is
for
probable
anusthu and susthu,
dyusdk,
beside those in
yugapdt, etc.
Compare
1099, 1101, 11 03 a.
above,
5,
ykr
amnds, 'un-
RV.), are
having j/oe or anc as their final
may be of the same character.
adjectives
vfthak,
saydm,
or atom,
The presence
u^ddhak, anusdk and
also the forms in am
e. In (Vedic) dravdt, 'quickly', is to be seen a change of accent for
the adverbial use (pple drdvant, 'running'); and drahydt, 'stoutly' (RV., once),
may be another example. The comparative and superlative suffixes (above, c)
show a
like
change
and
;
it
to
also
is
be recognized in the derivatives with
vdt (1107).
1112.
The instrumental
adverbial value
:
Thus
in the plural.
a.
generally
the
in
is
very often used with
but sometimes also
also
singular,
:
Of pronominal stems
:
end and ayd,
as,
kdyd,
and,
amd,
sdna,
amuyd.
b. Of noun-stems
'especially';
'by night';
:
as,
ksanena, 'instantly'; afesena, 'completely'; vifesena,
distyd,
'fortunately'; sdhasd, 'suddenly';
aktubhis,
and so on.
Of adjectives,
C.
feminine
as,
'within';
cirena,
'afar';
More doubtful
:
'to
the south';
fdnais
'long';
tdvisibhis,
stanced as follows
(not distinguishable from masculine)
both neuter
ddksinena,
paracafs,
d.
:
'by day';
dtva,
'to
uttarena,
and fdnakais,
and so on.
the north';
'slowly';
uccafs^
'on
cases,
tirafcdta,
Adverbially used
high';
'mightily';
mostly from the older language, may be inbahtita, and sasvdrta (all RV.), hom-
devdta,
onymous instrumental from nouns in ta; dvitd, tadttna, irmd, mrsd,
sdca, asthd(?), mudha (not V.), adhund (Br. and later).
e.
and
antarena,
instrumental are
(in
the
older
language),
vftha,
oftener
than any other case, distinguished from normal instrumentals by differences
of form: thus, especially, by an irregular accent: as, amd and dfva (given
above); perhaps guha; apakd, asayd, kuhaydf?); naktayd, svapnayd,
adatrayd, rtayd, ubhayd, sumnaydf?); daksind, madhyd ;
in a few w-stems, by a y inserted
paced, tirafcd;
samand
pracd, uccd,
before the ending,
nicd~,
CASE-FORMS AS ADVERBS.
11181
which
is
accented
amuyd
thus,
:
(given
above),
and urviyd
dhrsnuya, anusthuyd, mithuyd ;
(for
363
acuyd, sadhuyd, raghuyd,
urvyd) and vfyvya (properly
vfcvayd] are more slightly irregular.
The dative has only very seldom an adverbial
1113.
are
Examples
'for
the
(from
the sake of; ahnaya,
later
only):
ciraya,
'long';
use.
arthaya,
'presently'.
1114. The ablative
Thus
language
not infrequently used adverbially.
is
:
Of pronominal stems:
a.
expectedly';
asmat
dt,
kdsmat, 'why?' akasmat, 'casually, unnormal forms, instead of the pronominal
as,
(V.:
ydt
tdt,
etc.).
Of noun-stems:
b.
as,
asdt,
Oftenest, of adjective stems
C.
ardt,
'near';
'afar';
kutu-
balat,
'forcibly';
nlcdt,
'below'; pafcdt,
'on the part of.
'emulously'; sakafat,
halat,
:
durdt,
as,
'afar';
samantat, 'completely'; acirat, 'not long'.
d. In a few instances, adverbially used ablatives likewise show a changed
accent in the early language
thus, apakdt, 'from afar'; amdt, 'from near
'behind';
'plainly, actually'
saksdt,
;
:
1
by
'from of old'
sandt,
;
(but instr. sdna); uttardt,
'from the north'; adhardt,
'below'.
The genitive
1115.
In the
older
The locative
Thus
1116.
value
night',
and
vdstos,
'by
day';
is
sometimes
used
with
adverbial
:
.
From noun and
abhisvare,
front';
'by
akttis,
'long'.
cirasya,
later,
almost never used adverbially.
is
occur
language
sthane,
composition),
the sake
1117. Even
verbial value in
a
1118.
of";
tike,
home';
fefs,
'near';
rt",
are
'without'
and
aparisu,
dure,
'afar';
dgre,
'in
(common
in
(prep.);
'immediately'; -arthe and -krte
'in after time'.
nominative form appears
(Vedic)
and mdkis, negative
'at
sapadi,
'suitably';
'for
stems:
adjective
astamlke,
'behind';
interrogative
to
particle,
be stereotyped into an adand its compounds ndkis
particles.
Verbal Prefixes and kindred words. The
verbal prefixes, described in the preceding chapter (1076
are properly adverbs, having a special
office
ff.),
and mode of
use in connection with verbal roots and their more immediate derivatives.
Their occasional looser connection with the verb has been
In the value of general adverbs, hownoticed above (1084).
ever, they only very rarely occur (except as dpi has mainly
changed its office from prefix to adverb or conjunction in the
but their prepositional uses are much more frelater language)
;
quent and important: see below, 1125.
XVI. INDECLINABLES.
364
[1118
In composition with nouns, they (like other adverbial elements) not infrequently have an adjective value: see below, chap. XVIII.
1110. Several of the prefixes (as noticed above, 473 4) form comparative and superlative adjectives, by the suffixes tara and tama, or ra and
ma
:
thus, uttara and uttamd ; ddhara and adhamd, dpara and apamd, dvara
and avamd, tipara and upamd ; and prathamd is doubtless of the same charAnd accusatives of such derivative adjectives
acter; also, dntara and dntama.
(for
and
the most part not otherwise found in use) have the value of comparatives,
rarely superlatives, to the prefixes themselves:
thus, sdrhfitam cit
sarhtardm sdrh fifadhi (AV.),
kramasva
quicken'; vitardrh v{
'whatever
(RV.),
naya pratardm vdsyo dcha (RV.),
ud enam uttardrh naya
'lead
vantage';
is
quickened, do thou still further
out yet more widely'; prd tdrh
'stride
(AV.),
him forward still further toward ad'lead him up still higher'.
Besides those instanced, are found also nitardm, avatardm, paratardm,
In the Brahmanas and later (above, 11 lie), the feminine
parastardm.
accusative
is
used instead:
thus,
pratitardm,
pratardm and pratamdm (and sarhtardm, RV.,
sarhtardm,
nitardm,
uttardm,
once).
1120. Kindred in origin and character with the verbal preand used like them except in composition with verbs, are
a few other adverbs: thus, avds, 'down'; adhds, 'below'; paras,
fixes,
'far
'near';
updri,
'along, with',
Vina,
'before'; antara (apparently, antdr-\-a), 'among';
'above': and sahd (already mentioned, 1104),
pura,
off";
dnti,
and
may be noticed with them.
appear to be related with vi.
sdca, 'together, with',
and
'without',
visu-,
'apart',
Inseparable Prefixes. A
1121.
small
number
of
adverbial prefixes are found only in combination with other
elements.
a.
Thus
:
The negative
prefix a or an
an before vowels, a before
consonants.
It is
more
combined especially with innumerable nouns and adjectives much
as aktitra and dpunar (RV.), dnadhas (TB.), akas;
rarely, with adverbs,
mat, asakrt; and, according to the grammarians, sometimes also with pronouns
(asas, anesas), and with verbs (apacati, 'does not cook'), but no such combinations appear to be quotable.
The independent negative adverbs, nd and md,
exceptional instances used in composition: see below,
are
only in rare and
1122b.
b. The comitative prefix sa, used instead of the preposition
sdm, and exchangeably with sahd, before nouns and adjectives.
c. The prefix of dispraise dus,
'ill,
badly' (identical with
ydus: 225).
It is
combined in the same manner
a verbal form,
(B.),
'behaves
at least a single
ill'
(BR.).
as a or an.
example appears
to
Of combinations with
be quotable^ dupcarati
ADVERBS.
1122]
365
d. The corresponding laudatory prefix *M, 'well', is in general so closely accordant in its use with the preceding that it is
best mentioned here, through it occurs not rarely as an inde-
pendent particle in the oldest language (in RV.
in the peculiar parts of AV.
hundred times
times], and even occasionally later.
;
No combination
more than two
only
fourteen
su with a verbal form appears to be quotable from
(though the worthless pada-text of AV. xix. reads
K. has na su vijnayete and na vai su viduh (or su-
of
any accentuated
text
su-dpdyati at 49.
10).
vijnayete
,
,
?).
The exclamatory and usually depreciative prefixed forms of the inter(506) are most analogous with the inseparable prefixes.
e.
rogative pronoun
1122.
Miscellaneous Adverbs.
adverbial character and office,
of the classes hitherto treated,
Asseverative particles
a.
hdnta,
kila,
khdlu,
Brahmana language
tu
may be mentioned
(in part,
in
(rare
only),
hi,
Other words of
not clearly referable to any
older language),
hind,
u,
as follows:
Vedic only): thus, angd,
vai,
vavd
(in
aha, ha, aha, samaha, sma,
bhala.
Of these, hdnta
is
a word of assent
and accents the verb with which
it
hi has
won
also
an illative meaning,
stands in connection
(595 d); sma some-
;
times gives a past meaning to a present tense (778 b); u is often combined
with the final a of other particles: thus, dtho, no, md, uto, upo, pro; but
The final o thus produced
also with that of verb-forms, as datto, vidmti.
is
pragrhya or uncombinable (138c).
Particles of kindred value, already mentioned above, are
cid, jdtu,
Some
fd,
kdm
or
kam,
evd.
of the asseverative
particles
are
much used
in the later artificial
poetry with a purely expletive value, as devices to help make out the metre
(padapurana, 'verse-fillers'); so especially ha, hi, tu, sma.
b Negative particles are
ma, signifying prohibition.
.
As
:
nd,
to the construction of the verb with
signifying simple negation
md, see above, 579
;
80.
In the Veda, nu (or nu : 248 a) has also sometimes a negative meaning.
For the Vedic nd of comparison, see below, d.
In nahf, nd is combined with M, both elements retaining their full
meaning; also with fd in ned. 'lest'. It is perhaps present in nanti and
In general, neither nd nor md is used
make negative compounds, but, instead, the inseparable
negative prefix a or an (1121 a): exceptions are the Vedic particles ndkis
and mdkis, ndkim and makim ; also naciram and maciram, and a few others.
cand, but not in
in composition
hind (RV., once).
to
c. Interrogative particles are only those already given
kdd,
Urn, kuvid, svid, nanu, of which the last introduces an objection
or expostulation.
:
XVI. INDECLINABLES.
306
Of
d.
particles
of
and yatha
toneless iva,
[1122
comparison have been mentioned the
toneless when used in the same
(also
Of frequent occurrence in the oldest language is also nd,
having (without loss of accent) the same position and value as
way).
the preceding.
are
Examples
<as
birds
to
the
tree';
This use
buffalo'.
is
generally explained as being a modification or adaptation
of the negative one:
thus,
'[although,
to be sure]
not [precisely] a thirsty
and so on.
buffalo';
Of particles of place, besides those already mentioned,
noticed kva (in V., always to be read Ma).
Particles of time are
nu, 'now' (also nu : nundm was
e.
may be
f
{sum nd srjata dvfsum (RV.), 'let loose your
enemy of the singer'; vdyo nd vrksdm (AY.),
gaur6 nd trsitdh piba (RV.), 'drink like a thirsty
rsidvfsa
:
an arrow at the
like
enmity
:
.
mentioned above, 1109) adyd and sadyds and sadivas (RV.,
'today, at once' (all held to contain the element div or
'yesterday',
hyds,
punar,
'long';
g.
may be
Of
qvds,
once),
dyu),
'tomorrow', jyok (also related with dyu),
'again'.
particles of
noticed
nuna,
manner, besides those already mentioned,
'variously' (for nanandm, its derivative,
see 1109); sasvdr (RV.), 'secretly'.
In the above classifications are included
and most of those of the later language
:
all
the Vedic adverbial words,
see the dictionaries.
for the rest,
Prepositions.
1123.
There
is,
prepositions (in the
words having
as already
stated,
modern sense of
no proper class of
no body of
that term),
for their exclusive office the
"government" of
nouns. But many of the adverbial words indicated above
are used with nouns in a way which approximates them
to the
If
more
fully developed prepositions of other languages.
one and another of such words
as vina,
in prepositional use, this is merely fortuitous,
rte
occurs almost solely
and of no consequence.
1124. Words are used prepositionally along with all the
noun-cases excepting the dative.
But in general their office is
directive only, determining more definitely, or strengthening, the
Sometimes, however, the caseproper case-use of the noun.
use is not easy to trace, and the noun then seems to be more
that is, to have
immediately "governed" by the preposition
its case-form more arbitrarily determined by its association with
the latter.
This is oftenest true of the accusative
and of the
;
PREPOSITIONS.
1128]
367
genitive, which, has, here as elsewhere
sion of its normal sphere of use.
suffered an exten-
(294),
1125. The adverbs by derivative form (1097 ff.) have
least
of a prepositional value (exceptions are especially a few made
with the suffix tas 1098).
Most of the verbal prefixes (exceptions are ud, ni, para,
pra: and ava and ni are almost such) have their prepositional
:
or quasi-prepositional uses with cases
in
the older time than in the later
:
;
much more widely
but
the
in
language the
classical
anu, and a.
words akin with the more proper presome of them
as saha, vina,
fixes are used prepositionally
freely, earlier and later.
upari, antara, pur a
is
usage
mainly restricted
Most of the
to prati,
directive
:
The case-forms used
adverbially are in many instances used
as was to be expected, with the
genitive; but frequently, and from an early time, with the accusative
more rarely with other cases.
prepositionally also
oftenest,
:
;
We
will
take up
now
the cases for a brief exposition, beginning with
those that are least freely used.
1126. The Locative. This case
name of preposition. Of
can claim the
ative
antard,
classical
meaning
'within,
(illustrated
yd apdm dpi vrate
amur yd Upa surye
'along with',
is
pitrdh sdca sail,
oftenest
used with words that
antdr and
added
to
derivin
the
above, 305);
'who are in the domain of the waters';
earlier.
'who are up yonder in the sun';
not rare in RV., but almost entirely unknown later:
'staying with her parents'.
[sdnti] (RV.),
1127. The Instrumental.
frequent),
and
[sdnti] (RV.),
as
The
directives
used with
almost only those which contain the associative pronominal
(most
its later
it,
Of frequent Vedic use with it are a
apt and upa are much rarer: thus,
language as well
and adhi
are
in',
is least of all
directives,
sakam,
sdca,
thus,
this case are
root sa
:
as saha
samam, samaya, saratham- and, in the
sumatlbhih sdm pdtnlbhir nd vrsano nasimahi
sardham,
Veda, the prefix sam : as, te
By
(RV.), ''may we be united with thy favors as men with their spouses'.
substitution of the instrumental for the ablative of separation (283), vina,
'without'
(not Vedic),
takes sometimes the instrumental
;
and
so,
in the Veda,
and much
more normally, construed. And adhi, in RV., is used with the instrumental
snuna and snubhis, where the locative would be expected.
'down', and paras,
avas,
'beyond',
1128. The Ablative.
In
with which the ablative
the
prepositional
is also,
constructions of the ab-
was pointed out and partly illustrated above, 293), the ablative
value of the case, and the merely directive value of the added particle, are
for the most part clearly to be traced.
Many of the verbal prefixes are more
lative
(as
or less frequently joined in the older language with this case:
oftenest, adhi
and pari; more sporadically, anu, apa, ava, prati, and the separatives nis
and vi.
The change of meaning of the ablative with a, 'hither', by which
XVI. INDECLINABLES.
368
it
comes
to
fill
the office of
Of
opposite,
the accusative, was sufficiently ex-
words akin with the prefixes, many
puras, avas, adhas, paras, pwra, -uma, and tzras, 'out of knowledge
plained above (293 c).
as bahis,
of
its
[1128
accompany
directive
case
this
by a perfectly regular
construction.
Also
the
case-forms arvak, prak, pafcdt, urdhvam, purvam, param, parena, prabhrti;
and rte, 'without', of which the natural construction with an ablative is-
predominant earlier. Antikam, 'near', is said
more normal companion the genitive.
to take the ablative as well as
its
1129. The Accusative.
Many
an accompanying accusative.
take
essentially the 'to'-case), those
thing
as abhi, prati,
:
(since the accusative i&
a motion or action toward any-
that express
arm, upa, a,
and related words
of the verbal prefixes
Most naturally
ati
and adhi in the sense of 'over on
to*
and antard when meaning 'between',
Examples are: ydh pradfyo abhf sUryo vicdste (AV.), 'what
or 'across, beyond', tiras, 'through', antar
'around'.
pan,
quarters the sun looks abroad unto'; dbodhy agnfli prdty dyatim usdsam (RV.),
'Agni has been awakened to meet the advancing dawn'; gached kaddcit
svajanam prati (MBh.), 'she might go somewhither to her own people'; imam
praksydmi nrpatim prati (MBh.), 'him I will ask with reference to the king';
mama cittdm anu cittebhir e '<a (AV.), 'follow after my mind with your
J
hy d nah (AV.), 'come hither to us'; tipa na e 'hy arvdn (RV.),
'come hither unto us'; yd devomdrtydn ati (AV.), 'the god who is beyond mortals';
adhisthdya vdrcasd 'dhy anydn (AV.), 'excelling above others in glory'. Also
minds'; e
abhitas and paritas, which have a like value with
and upari
'above'
:
accusative
constructions
vind, beside
which
with
situation
or
who
'those
is
the
the
accusative
as
below the
Less
seem more suited
same may be said
direction:
are
genitive).
the simple abhi and pari
accordant with ordinary,-
use of this case with
the
other cases which
And
particles.
with
(oftener
of
adhas, paras, puras,
to the
meaning
of those
most of the adverbial case-forms
Thus, a number of instrumentals of
JJ
varena "ditydm, ye pdrend
ditydm (TB.),
those
who
the
are
beyond
sun'; dntarena
sun,
is
used.
i
ye
J
womb'; te hi dam antarena sarvam (AB.), 'for all
between them'; fittarena gdrhapatyam (B.), 'to the north of
the householder's fire'; ddksinena vedim (^)B.), to the south of the sacrificial
ytinim (QB.),
'within the
this universe is
hearth';
'near
daksinena vrksavdtikdm (Qak.),
to'.
as an
'to
the right of the orchard'; nikasd,
urdhvam and purvam have an accusative object as well
and the same is true later of rte. Abhimukham, 'toward',
Similarly,
ablative;
has a more natural right to
samayd], 'through between',
is
construction with this case; and
analogous with antard and
1130. The Genitive. The words which
samdyd
(later
tiras.
are accompanied by the genitive
are mostly case-forms of nouns, or of adjectives used substantively, retaining
enough of the noun-character to take this case as their natural adjunct.
Such are the locatives agre, 'in front of, abhydce, 'near', arthe and krte,
'for the sake of, nimitte and hetdu,
'by reason of, madhye, 'in the midst
of; and other cases, as artham and arthdya, antikam and abhimukham (which
have also other constructions), kdrandt, sakdcdt,
hetos.
And
really,
although
CONJUNCTIONS.
1134
less
directly
and obviously,
of the
same character are other adjective cases
(some of them showing other constructions, already noticed): as adharena,
uttarena and uttarat, daksinena and daksinat, pafcat, urdhvam, anantaram,
saksat.
samaksam,
More questionable, and
looseness of use of the genitive, are
in the oldest language) with
derivative paritas,
paratas,
illustrations
rather of the general
constructions (almost wholly
its
unknown
more proper words of direction thus, with the
and antitas, and parastat and purastat (these
:
found in the Brahmana language
:
as,
'after a year';
sarhvatsarasya parastat,
'before the
suktasya purastat,
with upari, 'above'
hymn' [AB.]); with anti, adhas, auas, puras
(common later); and with antar.
;
Conjunctions.
The conjunctions,
1131.
a distinct class
as
also,
of
words, are almost wanting.
The combination of
very simple character
;
clauses
much
of
is
in Sanskrit in general of a
what in other Indo-European
languages is effected by subordinating conjunctions
aged by means of composition of words, by the
gerunds (994), and of iti (1102 a), and so on.
The
1132.
(1098 if.),
derivative
relative
adverbs,
properly be regarded as
may
here manuse of the
is
already given
and
conjunctions;
a few other particles of kindred value, as ced and ned (1111 a.
1133. Purely of conjunctive value are
SfT
vcij
'or'
tf
c#,
and never having the
(both toneless,
and
'and',
first
place
in a sentence or clause).
Of copulative
along with
value,
guage especially uta
finite use); and api,
and combinations of
(later
ca,
becomes a
it
is
in
particle
the
of
lan-
older
more inde-
him ca, with other particles
are used often as connectives of
tatha,
tatas,
particles,
clauses.
Adversative
less strongly,
is
u
tu,
'but'
(rare in the
older language);
also r
(toneless).
is hi,
'for'
(originally, and in great part at
every period, asseverative only): compare above, 1122 a.
To ca (as well as to its compound ced} belongs occasionally the meaning 'ifV
Of
illative
value
It is needless to enter into
the particles
regard to those uses which
detail with
more properly, called conjunctive than
already given, under the head of Adverbs.
be not less properly,
or
may
adverbial, of
Interjections.
1134.
The
utterances which
may be
jections are, as in other languages,
Whitney, Grammar.
classed as inter-
in part
voice-gestures,
24
XVI. INDECLINABLES.
370
in part onomatopoeias,
[1134
and in part mutilations and corrup-
tions of other parts of speech.
1135.
a,
ha,
a.
haha,
Of the
ahaha,
class of voice-gestures are,
he,
hai
(AV.), ayi,
aye,
for
example
haye (RV.),
:
aho,
bat (RV.), bata (RV.) or vata, and (probably) hiruk and huruk (RV.).
b. Onomatopoetic or imitative utterances are, for example
(in the
older language); cicca,
'whiz'
(of
an arrow
:
RV.);
kikira
(palpitation: RV.); bal and phat (phds ?) OT pMl, 'splash' (AV.);
bhuk, 'bow-wow' (AV.); cdl, 'pat' (AV.); as, Ms, as, and has
(PB.); and see the words already quoted in composition with
the roots kr and bhu, above, 1091.
c. Nouns and adjectives which have assumed an inter] ectional
character are, for example
bhos (for the vocative bhavas, 456)
are or re (voc. of ari, 'enemy'); dhik, 'alas!' (may be mere
voice-gesture, but perhaps related with ydih); kastam, 'woe is
:
me!'
distya,
excellent!'
;
'thank heaven!' svasti, 'hail!' susthu, sadhu, 'good,
of these are Vedic in interj ectional use.
None
CHAPTER
XVII.
DERIVATION OF DECLINABLE STEMS.
1136. THE formation from roots of conjugable stems
namely, tense-stems, mode-stems, and stems of secondary conjugation (not essentially different from one another, nor, it is
believed, ultimately from the formation of declined stems)
was most conveniently treated above, in the chapters devoted to
the verb.
Likewise the formation of adverbs by derivation (not
essentially different from case-formation), in the chapter devoted
to particles.
And the formation of those declinable stems
which
namely, of comparison, and of infinitives and participles
attach themselves most closely to the systems of inflection, has
also been more or less fully exhibited.
But the extensive and
intricate subject of the formation of the great body of declinable stems was best reserved for a special chapter.
Of course, only a brief and compendious exhibition of the subject can
be attempted within the here necessary limits: no exhaustive tracing out of
the formative elements of every period; still less, a complete statement of
the varied uses of each element; least of
a discussion of origins: but
all,
enough to help the student in that analysis of words which must form a part
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SUFFIXES.
1140]
371
of his labor from the outset,
giving a general outline of the field, and preparing for more penetrating investigation.
The material from accented texts, and especially the Vedic material,
be had especially in view (nothing that is Vedic being intentionally left
unconsidered); and the examples given will be, so far as is possible, words
found in such texts with their accent marked. No word not thus vouched
will
be accented unless the fact
for will
1137.
are
inal,
The
is
specifically pointed out.
themselves, both verbal and pronom-
roots
used in their bare form,
or
without any added
as declinable stems.
suffix,
As
to this use of verbal roots,
The pronominal
and hence, in
roots,
so-called,
see below, 1147.
are essentially declinable
;
their further treatment in derivation,
accordance with
other
declinable
stems,
they are in
and not with verbal
roots.
1138.
Apart from
And
suffix.
every such stem
this,
is
made by
a
these suffixes fall into two general classes:
A. Primary
suffixes,
which
or those
are'
added directly
to roots;
B. Secondary suffixes, or those which are added to derivative stems
(also to
and sometimes
pronominal
The. division of primary
and unadi
regular)
roots, as just pointed out,
to particles).
suffixes nearly
suffixes
regular)
(less
corresponds
of the
to
the
krt
Hindu grammarians
(more
the
;
secondary, to their taddhita-snfftxes.
1139.
But
theoretically
and
Suffixes
a.
which
this distinction,
practically,
come
to
is
though one of high value,
not absolute. Thus:
have the aspect and the use of primary
really contain a secondary element
that is to say,
the
words exhibiting them were made by addition of secondary suffixes to words already derivative.
earliest
Sundry examples of
suffixes,
origin
is
this will
be pointed out below: thus, the gerundival
uka and afca, tra, and others. This
tavya, anlya, etc., the suffixes
probable for more
possible for others which
cases
show no
than
admit of demonstration
;
and
it
is
distinct signs of composition.
b. Less often, a suffix of primary use passes over in part
into secondary, through the medium of use with denominative
"
roots" or otherwise: examples are yu, iman, lyas and istha.
1140.
Moreover,
primary suffixes are added not only
24*
XVII. DERIVATION.
372
generally with equal freedom, to ele-
to original roots, but,
ments which have come
of such, hy being
and even,
to
a
[1140
made
wear in the language the aspect
to
the basis of primary conjugation
certain extent,
the bases
to
of secondary
conjugation, the conjugation-stems, and the bases of tensethe tense-stems.
inflection,
a. The most conspicuous examples of this are the participles, present
and future and perfect, which are made alike from tense and conjugationstems of every form. The infinitives (968 ff.) attach themselves only in sporadic
instances
to
tense-stems,
and even from
sparingly earlier; and the same
b.
is
conjugation-stems
true of the gerundives.
are
made but
and nouns are somewhat widely made from consee below
General adjectives
jugation-stems, especially from the base of causative conjugation
the suffixes a, a, as, anz, u, ti, tr, tnu, snu.
:
From
tense-stems, the examples are far fewer, but not unknown:
present-stems, occasional derivatives in a (1148. 3b), a (1149),
u (1178e,g,h), ta (1176e), tu (1161c), tra (1185d), ru (1192), vin (or
c.
thus, from
in:
1232,
end);
from stems in a
and gerundives),
infinitives
s
apparently of aoristic character (besides
derivatives in a (1148. 3 b),
ana
occasional
am (1159b), an (1160a), ana (1175), as (1151. 1 b),
(1184), u (1178e), us (1154), tr (1182c), in (1183).
(1150.2b),
1141.
The primary
added also
suffixes are
istha
to roots as
compounded with the verbal prefixes.
Whatever, namely, may have been
originally and strictly
of production of the derivatives with prefixes, it is
throughout the recorded life of the language as if the root and
the
mode
its prefix or prefixes constituted a unity, from which a derivative is formed in the same manner as from the simple root, with,
that modification of the radical meaning which appears also in
the proper verbal forms as compounded with the same prefixes.
Not derivatives of every kind are thus made; but, in the
main, those classes which have most of the verbal force, or
which are most akin in value with
infinitives
and
participles.
derivatives with prefixes, and their accent, will
be noted under each suffix below.
They are chiefly (in nearly the order of
The occurrence
of
such
their comparative frequency),
in tar
and
tra,
and in
in,
besides root-stems,
ya,
van and man,
i
those in a,
and u,
as,
in ana, in
and a few
to',
others.
1142. The suffixes of both classes are sometimes joined
that is to
primitives by a preceding union-vowel
say, by one which wears that aspect, and, in our uncertainty as
to its real origin, may most conveniently and safely be called
by that name. The line between these vowels and such as deto
their
PRIMARY DERIVATIVES.
1144]
serve to be ranked
of
as
373
character
suffixal
organic
cannot be
sharply drawn.
Each
for
itself,
now
two great classes will
particular consideration.
of the
more
A.
Form
1143.
primary suffix
taken up by
Primary Derivatives.
of root.
added
is
be
is
The form
more
to
liable
of root to
which a
or less variation.
Thus:
a. By far the most frequent is a strengthening change, by
The former may occur under all
guna or vnfr/^z-increment.
circumstances (except, of course, where ywmz-change is in general
forbidden: 235. 240): thus, veda from yvid, moda from y mud,
vdrdha from ]/ vrdh : ay ana from y i, sdvana from
su, sdrana
from y sr ; and so on. But the latter is only allowed under
such circumstances as leave long a as the resulting vowel that
is, with non-final #, and with a final i or w-vowel and r, before
a vowel: thus, nadd from ynad, grabhd from y grbh or grabh,
vahd from yvah, nay a from y m, bhavd from ybhu, hard from
ykr; such strengthening as would make vaida and mauda is
y
:
unknown in primary derivation.
No general rules can be given as to the occurrence of strengthening
it must be left to be pointed out for each suffix.
derivation
entirely
in
:
b. Other vowel changes are more sporadic, and will be noticed in detail
below: thus, occasional abbreviation of a root, as in ukti from yvac ; change
of final r to ir and ur ; the loss of final a, or its conversion to an i-vowel
;
and
so on.
The reversion
c.
noticed (216).
A
of
final
n
final palatal or h to a guttural
a
m
or
is
has been already
occasionally lost, as in formations already
considered.
After a short
vowel
sometimes added a
t :
namely, where a
and before a following y or v
of van (1169), vara and van (1171), yu once (1165 a), and ya (1213).
The presence of t before these suffixes indicates an original secondary
d.
final
stem without
root is used as
derivation from derivatives in
The
e.
root
oftenest before
(ana,
vana,
uka and
Ifca,
1144.
z,
is
suffix (1147),
ti
and
tu.
sometimes reduplicated rarely in the use without suffix
a, u; in only a few cases each, also before other suffixes
is
van and
ma,
varl,
vani,
vi,
vit,
accent
Accent.
In
are
ani,
in,
aw,
tnw, ia,
ti,
tr,
tra,
ya}.
No
general laws governing the place of
each suffix must in this
be recognized
respect be considered by itself.
the
:
:
to
connection with a very few
;
suffixes
is
to
be
recognized a certain
XVII. PKIMARY DERIVATION.
374
degree of tendency to accent the root in case
of a
[1144
nomen
actionis or infini-
and the ending in the case of a nomen agentis or participial
derivative: see the suffixes a, ana, as, an, and man, below, where the extival derivative,
amples are considered.
are
suffix
also
suffixes as
Differences
occasionally
accent
of
connected
in
words made by the same
with differences
of
gender
see
:
the
and man.
1145.
Meaning. As
regards their signification, the priclasses, the one indicating
the action expressed by the verbal root, the other the person or
the
thing in which the action appears, the agent or actor
The one class is ablatter, either substantively or adjectively.
All other
stract, infinitival; the other is concrete, participial.
derivatives fall into
mary
two great
meanings may be viewed as modifications or specializations of
these two.
Even the words
indicating recipience of action, the
are, as their use also
words of agency.
as
neuter or reflexive shows,
The gerundives
are,
as
passive participles,
modified
only notably
was pointed out above (961), sec-
ondary derivatives, originally indicating only 'concerned with the action'.
1146. But these two classes, in the processes of formation,
are not held sharply apart.
There is hardly a suffix by which
action-nouns are formed which does not also make agent-nouns
or adjectives; although there are not a few by which are made
In treating them in detail below, we will first
only the latter.
take up the suffixes by which derivatives of both classes are
made, and then those forming only agent-nouns.
To follow an alphabetical arrangement, although in some respects more
seems too
convenient,
practically
connection.
The Index
will
give
artificial,
what help
and
is
destructive
of
all
natural
needed toward finding any
particular suffix which is sought.
1147.
Stems without
suffix:
Root-words. These
words and their uses have been already pretty fully considered above (323, 348 ff., 383 ff.. 400, 401).
a.
They
are used especially
(in
the later language, almost
compounds, and have both fundamental valas action-nouns
and as
ues,
(frequently as infinitives
971),
agent-nouns and adjectives (often governing an accusative 27 le).
solely)
as finals of
:
:
As
they are chiefly feminines (384 in many instances, however, they do not occur in situations that determine
action-nouns,
:
the gender).
b. In a small number of words, mostly of rare occurrence,
the reduplicated root is used without suffix.
The Vedic cases
(irregular,
for
susrut],
are:
with
didyd and
simple
didytit,
reduplication,
juhu,
sasydd,
dfe/t,
sasrut
and perhaps pffM; with in-
STEMS IN
1148]
375
a.
-nenf, jogU, yamytidh, vdnlvan (with the intensive
usual radical accent).
In ddridra is seen a transfer to the
AsusQ is probably to be understood as a compound, asu-sfi.
tensive reduplication,
instead
of
the
a-declension.
c. If the root end in a short vowel, a t is regularly and
usually added (383 b).
Examples, and the exceptions found to occur, have been given at the
place just quoted.
Words
d.
of this form in combination with verbal prefixes
The accent rests (as in combination of the
numerous.
are very
same with other preceding elements) on the root-stem.
In a single instance, crtitkarna (RV.),
e.
this class occurs as prior
1148.
51 a.
member
With
of a
'of listening
ears',
a
stem of
compound.
^
the suffix
a
is
made a very
large
and heterogeneous body of derivatives, of various meaning
and showing various treatment of the root ^^-strengthening, vrddM-strengthening, retention unchanged, and redu:
plication.
In good part, they are classifiable under the two usual genbut in part they have been individualized into more
eral heads
;
special senses.
1
sible
.
:
With ^wmj-strengthening of the root (where that is posThese are the great majority, being more
235, 240).
than twice as numerous as
a.
Many nomina
actionis
:
all
'movement', veda, 'knowledge', hdva,
Many nomina
b.
'impelling', jivd,
sarpd,
'brook',
'weariness', grdha,
'cair,
krodha, 'wrath',
'seizure',
jo'sa,
aya,
'enjoyment*,
'emission'.
'crossing', sdrga,
tdra,
others together.
prdma,
as,
agentis
'living',
'serpent',
:
as,
meghd,
area,
ksamd,
'patient', svajd, 'constrictor',
'cloud',
coda, 'inciting', plavd,
'boat',
hinvd,
sard,
'radiant'.
c. Of the examples here given, those under a accent the radical syllable,
and those under b the ending. And this is in a majority of cases the fact
as regards the
two classes of derivatives
kindred facts as to other suffixes,
it
a general tendency of the language.
of the
same form having the one
thus, esa, 'haste', esd,
are
feama,
as,
ana,
fafea,
an,
;
so that,
indicates such
A
taken
a.
in connection with
difference of accent as
few sporadic instances are met with
or the other value according to its accent:
fdsa, 'order', fasd, 'orderef (other examples
compare a similar difference with other derivatives
But exceptions are numerous
thus, for example,
'hasting';
pofea):
man;.
and
jayd, javd, smara, action-nouns; frdva, mdgha, Mnsa, agent-nouns
the subject calls for a much wider and deeper investigation than it has yet
received, before the accentuation referred to can be set up as a law of the
language in derivation.
2.
With ^^'-strengthening
of the root
but only where
XVII. PRIMARY DERIVATION.
376
a
the resulting radical vowel
that is,
(most often), u or u, i or i (rare'.
is
[1148
medial
of
:
and of
a,
final r
a.
action-nouns
of
Examples
are:
kama, 'love', bhagd, 'share', nada,
Hardly any forms of clear derivatior
and meaning are quotable with accent on the root-syllable.
b. Examples of agent-nouns are: grabhd, 'seizing',
vahd,
davd,
'noise',
tard,
'fire',
'crossing'.
'carrying',
1
'lover
nayd, 'leading', jard,
.
With unstrengthened
3.
yuga, 'yoke',
'lean',
A
a.
number
the
root,
examples
are quite few: thus,
fcrpd,
sruvd, 'spoon', priyd, 'dear', vrd, 'troop', cued, 'bright'.
of words of this class, especially as occurring in com-
position, are probably results of the transfer of root-stems to the a-declension
:
thus, -raja, -ghusa, -sphura.
A
b.
few Vedic examples are made
from conjugational stems
:
thus,
kupaya and tdnaya and mrgraj/a(?), -Inkhaya,
-ejaya, -dhdrayd, -parayd; from present-stems of the nit-class (IV.), or secondary roots made from them (716), hinvd, -mud, -jinvd, -pinvd, -sinvd,
from
causative
the
stem,
-sunvd-j from others, -prnd, -mrnd, -pacyd, -mam/a, -dasya,
-trsya, -jighrd, -piba;
from aorist-stems(?), yesd, nesa
-jurya, -ksudhya,
nesatama, RV., once).
(in
With reduplicated root, the derivatives in the older language are a
some extent. They are made in a few instances with the simple
4.
of
class
uaura,
'hiding';
'movable'
cacard,
thus,
reduplication:
much more
reriM, 'licking', vevijd, 'hasting',
caracard and calacald, 'movable',
varlvrtd,
(?),
cicayd,
'inciting',
with the intensive
often,
-roruda,
kanikradd,
sasrd,
'weeping', -canfcrama,
'noisy',
'flowing',
reduplication
panispadd,
:
thus,
'striding',
'quivering',
'rolling'.
Only a single
fipndtha,
where than on the
example
of an
action-noun
with accent on the root.
'attack',
has
been
noticed,
namely
Other examples of accent else-
suffix are only the stems (of doubtful
meaning
or derivation)
carcara and gargar a.
5. Derivatives with this suffix from roots as compounded
with the verbal prefixes are quite common, in all the modes of
formation (in each, in proportion to the frequency of independent words)
constituting, in fact, considerably the largest body
of derivative stems with prefixes.
They are of both classes as
The accent is, with few exceptions, on the endto meaning.
and that, witlftmt any reference to the value of the stem
ing
as action-noun or agent-noun.
:
Examples
are
:
sarhgamd,
'assembly', nimesd,
'wink', abhidrohd,
anukard, 'assistance', wdand, 'inspiration', pratyacravd, 'response';
'enmity',
paricara,
1
'wandering',
udard,
sarhjayd,
'victorious',
'inciting, elevated', uttudd,
'crushing',
vibodhd,
'rousing',
'wakeful',
samgird,
atiyajd,
'over-pious
,
'swallowing', adardird,
adhicankramd, 'climbing'.
The only
definable
class
of
exceptions in regard to accent appears to
be that of the adverbial gerunds in am (above, 995). which are accented
on the root-syllable. A very few other stems have the same tone: for ex-
STEMS IN
1150]
ana.
a.
a,
377
ample, utpata, 'portent'; apresa, 'plague'. A few others, mostly agent-nouns,
have the accent on the prefix: for example, vybsa (i. e. vf-osa), 'burning',
'neighbor', dbhaga, 'sharing'; but also sdrhkufa, 'appearance'.
For the remaining compounds of these derivatives, with the inseparable
It may be merelyprefixes and with other elements, see the next chapter.
mentioned here that such compounds are numerous, and that the a-derivative
prdtivefa,
has often an active participial value, and
form, oftenest the accusative.
is
frequently
preceded by a case-
Many words in the language appear to end with a suffix a, while yet
they are referable to no root which can be otherwise demonstrated as such.
1149.
5TT
a.
This suffix has.
for
the most part,
the
subordinate office of making corresponding feminines (especially adjective]
to masculines in
%
a
which
in
of
use,
course,
might be open to question whether we should
not regard it rather as an element of secondary character.
it
It is
comparatively
little
employed independently.
There are, however, a considerable number of feminine
nouns in a in the language to which no corresponding masculines exist
and many of them are distinctly traceable to roots.
The latter are especially action-nouns, accented on the suffix
and such derivatives in u form a distinct class, being made sometimes from simple roots, but especially, and at will, from
conjugational stems, desiderative, causative, and denominative.
;
:
Examples from simple
roots
are
ifa,
:
'lordship', Ifcndd,
'play',
jara,
:
'old
age
nindd, 'reproach'.
Examples from desiderative stems are very few in the oldest language,
,
but common later: thus, jigisd and bhiksd (RV.); the
blbhatsd (VS.); in
Brahmana language,
pipasa,
latter
and virtsd (AV.);
mimahsa,
bubhuksa,
$iksa or
Ciksd, etc.
From
example is gamayd (compare the
1148. 3 b); but the formation becomes common
The
later, in the making-up of the periphrastic perfect (above, 1070ff.).
made
derivatives from present-stems
thus, vidd, edhd, juhavd, etc.
causative stems, the only Vedic
derivatives in -at/a,
above,
for a similar
have been mentioned in connection with
office,
this
perfect
(1073).
From denominative
stems, the older
example, afvayd, sukratuyd, apasyd,
Their y is not resolved into i.
1150.
ed
many
ing,
R
ana.
derivatives,
With
instances
urusyd,
are more
asuyd,
this suffix (as
numerous
afanayd,
with
5[ a)
specializations.
for
are form-
of both the principal classes of
and with not infrequent
:
jwanasya.
The
mean-
root has
XVII. PRIMARY DERIVATION.
378
usually <7^#-strengthening,
and in a few cases
it
[1150
but sometimes vrddhi instead;
remains unstrengthened.
Derivatives
and
of this formation are frequent from roots with prefixes,
also in composition with other elements.
The normal and
greatly prevalent accent
is
upon the root-
without regard to the difference of meaning but cases
occur of accented final, and a few of accented penult (which last
are possibly to be referred to another suffix of the same form
but of a different origin).
The action-nouns are in general of the neuter gender. The
feminine of adjectives is made either in a or in 1 (for details,
And a few feminine action-nouns in ana and am
see below).
occur, which are to be ranked as belonging to this suffix.
1.
With strengthened and accented root-syllable. Under
this head fall, as above indicated, the great mass of forms.
syllable,
:
With ^Una-strengthening
a.
rdksana,
hdvana,
'protection',
bhtijana,
'call',
of agent-nouns, tdpana,
The
:
examples of action-nouns are sddana,
ddna, 'giving', cdyana,
'enjoyment', kdrana,
'burning', cetana,
'collection',
'deed',
'visible',
'seat',
vedana, 'property',
vdrdhana, 'increase';
co'dana,
'impelling'.
dUsana and -mdrjana have the same irregular strengthappears in their present-systems (627, 1042 a), and other
derivatives
ening which
formations from the same roots.
as
b. With weZd/u'-strengthening (only in such circumstances that a remains
syllable): examples (all that have been noted in the
vowel of the radical
mddana, -vdcana, -vdsana, -vdhana, sddana, -spd?ana, svddana, -dyana, -ydvana, -srdvana, -pdrana, vdrana.
c. From roots with prefixes, the derivatives of this formation are very
older language) are -cdtana, ndfana,
numerous, being exceeded in frequency only by those made with the suffix
a (above, 1148.5).' A few examples are: akrdmana, 'striding on', udydna,
nidhdna, 'receptacle', prdnana, 'expiration', vimocana, 'release' and
'upgoirig',
'releasing',
samgrdmana, 'assembly' and 'assembler', adhivikdrtana,
'cutting
avaprabhrdh$ana, 'falling away down'.
For other compounds of these derivatives, showing the same accent (and
the same feminine stem), see the next chapter (below, 1272).
off',
A
few exceptions occur:
vicaksand,
upariyayand,
and
the
feminines
pramandani and nirdahani.
d. The adjectives of this formation,
simple or compound, make their
feminine usually in 1: thus, cddanl, pfyani, spdranl, jdmbham ; prajndnl,
prtiksani, sarhgrdham, abhisdvanl, vidhdrani (cetarii is of doubtful meaning
:
2 a).
An adjective compound,
below,
member, makes
sddvidhana,
2
.
'of
however, having a noun in ana as final
feminine in a: thus, supasarpand, 'of easy approach',
sextuple order', anapavacand, 'not to be ordered away'.
its
The more
irregular formations
may be
classed as follows
:
STEMS IN ana,
1151]
a.
With accent on the
as
jectives,
rocand,
'shining',
fcrofemd,
a small
final:
'active'
karand,
svapand,
'yelling',
These, unlike the more regular
tvarana, spandana, etc.
form: jarand, dyotand (?
And
RV.
123.
doubtful character: arsant, cetarii
b.
'sleepy',
make
ksayand, 'habitable'.
fvetand (and compare kapand, rafand).
cetana, taparil
:
mandna,
'milking',
ad-
'hasting',
their feminines in a: thus,
hdyani (with hdyand), rajanl, tedaril.
accent on the penult
a very small
dohdna,
tvarand,
a few feminines in ani,
(to
With
and
of agent-nouns
{'act'),
few feminine action-nouns have the same
4),
may be mentioned
Beside these
vrjdna),
class,
a very
i.
number
kdrana,
(against
379
as.
'considerate',
(to
number
manddna,
of
more
or less
tdpana), vrjaril (with
of adjectives
'rejoicing',
:
as
saksdna,
'overcoming', and perhaps
smaller
vaksdnd, 'carrying' (with aoristic s); and a still
neuter action-nouns: dansdna, 'great deed', vrjdna, 'enwith the
town', krpdna, 'misery' (against krpand, 'miserable'),
number
closure,
of
masculine kirdna,
'dust'.
The only noticed example of a feminine is in a : turdna. And a few
feminine nouns have the same form
as jardnd,
bhanddnd, kanydna,
vaksdna, etc. (and compare the anomalous masc. name ufdna: 355 a).
c. Without strengthening of the root are made a very small number of
derivatives
namely (besides those already noted, krpdna and krpand, vrjdna
:
:
bhurana, -stivana and bhuvana (compare the
sasuva and babhuva, without the usual strengthening 789 a) kfyana, pffana, vrsana are doubtful.
d. A few isolated cases may be here mentioned jagarand and pdlpulana
and
vrjaril,
kirdna,
turdna),
same
perfects of the
roots,
:
:
:
from
root-forms
reduplicated
;
sdmana
apparently
from
the
sam;
prefix
anhurand apparently from ahhurd; yosana, 'woman' (beside ydsan, y6sa,
and pftana,
1151.
'fight',
etc.),
are the only feminines with accented root-syllable.
By
EfH^s.
suffix
this
are
made
(usually
with
<7W^a-strengthening of the root-vowel) especially a large class
of neuter nouns,
assuming
language, a few agent-nouns and
erable
number
but some-
mostly abstract (action-nouns),
a concrete value;
times
and
also,
adjectives,
in the
older
and a consid-
of infinitives.
The accent
in words of the first class is on the root, and
on the ending
and in a few instances words of
the two classes having the same form are distinguished by their
accent; the infinitives have for the most part the accent on the
in the second
suffix
;
.
a.
1.
Examples of the
'aid, favor', tdpas,
grdvas, 'fame',
cetas
A
and principal
'warmth, prdyas,
ddhas,
'milking',
and mdnas, 'mind', cdkms,
b.
first
few words of this class
'pleasure',
class are:
tejas,
karas, 'deed', prathas,
avas,
'splendor',
'breadth',
'eye', sdras, 'pond', vdcas, 'speech'.
are of irregular formation
thus, without
:
XVII. PRIMARY DERIVATION.
380
strengthening of the root, juvas,
mfdhas,
'contempt';
and
strengthening, -uacas,
aoristic
vdsas,
'quickness'
(beside jdvas],
be compared;
to
is
'head',
vdhas; -svadas,
uras,
perhaps
-hayas;
'breast\
with vrddhi-
with
an
'missile'.
hesas,
s,
pfras,
[1151
After final a of a root is usually inserted y before the
thus, dhhyas, ghyas.
(258)
But there are in the oldest language apparent remains of a formation
c.
suffix
in
:
which as was added directly
to radical
a: thus, bhas and -das (often
to
be pronounced as two syllables), jrias, mas; and -jas and -dhas and -das,
from the roots ja and dha and da (Benfey, Abh. Gott. Ges. xxiii., 1878).
The
instances
in
which
an
agent-noun is differentiated by its
and apds, 'active'; ydfas,
'work',
'beauty', and j/apds, 'beauteous'; fdras, 'quickness', and tards (SV., once),
'lively' (?);
'quick'; dtivas,
'worship', and duvds,
mdhas, 'greatness', and
2.
a.
accent from
an action-noun are
:
dpas,
mahds, 'great'; between rdksas, n., and raksds, m., both meaning 'demon',
and between tydjas, n., 'abandonment' (?), and tyajds, m., 'descendant' (?),
the antithesis
is
much
less clear.
b. Adjectives in as without corresponding abstracts are: tavds, 'strong',
vedhds, 'pious', probably ahands, 'heady'; and a few other words of isolated
occurence, as uepas, dhvards. From a denominative stem is made mrgayds,
'wild animal' (RV. once).
c. But there are also a very few cases of abstract nouns, not neuter,
}
accented on the ending:
also havds,
'call',
and
thus, jards, 'old age', bhiyds,
tvesds.
'impulse'.
The feminine
'fear';
usds,
and doubtless
'dawn', might
belong either here or under the last preceding head.
d. Apparently containing a suffix as are the noun upas, 'lap', and certain
proper names dngiras, nodhds, bhalands, arcanands. The feminine apsards,
'nymph', is of doubtful derivation.
:
The
formation of some
irregular
of
words of this division will be
the
noticed, without special remark.
3.
The
infinitives
made by
the suffix as have been explain-
show various treatment of the root, and
various accent (which last may perhaps mark a difference of
gender, like that between saJias and jards}.
ed above (973)
4.
:
they
The formation
fixes is very restricted
tive
in as
occurs
of derivatives in as from roots
if,
indeed,
with a prefix;
it
is
nor any
to
compounded with pre-
be admitted at
action-noun;
all.
No
infini-
and the adjective
combinations are in some instances evidently, and in most others apparently,
possessive compounds of the noun with the prefix used adjectively: the most
probable exceptions are -nybkas
accent is always on the prefix.
office
ilant.
As
in these examples, the
connection with this, the most common and important
ending in s, may be best treated the others, kindred in
and possibly also in origin, which end in the same sib-
In
suffix
and wfspardhas.
1155
STEMS IN
1152. cTR
^H
tas,
made an extremely
tas ETC.,
as,
W$
nas,
small
sas.
number
us,
381
With
these suffixes are
is,
Thus
of action-nouns.
With tas are made retas, 'seed', and srotas, 'stream'.
b. With nas are made dpnas, 'acquisition', amas, 'wave',
:
a.
is
-bharnas,
and in drdvinas, 'wealth', and pdrlnas, 'fulness',
be seen the same suffix, with prefixed elements having the
reknas,
'offering',
'riches';
apparently to
value of
union-vowels.
present
same
the
Probably
true
is
of
ddmunas,
'house-friend'.
C.
With
sas
mentioned with
1153.
perhaps made vdpsas,
is
it
With
is.
^FT
'beauty' (?);
and tdrusas may be
(rather tarus-a?}.
the suffix
is
formed a small num-
is
ber (about a dozen) of nouns.
in part nouns of action, but most are used conradical syllable has the $wm-strengthening, and
is on the suffix
(except in jyotis, 'light', vyathis (?),
They are
The
cretely.
the accent
and amis, 'raw
'light',
hams,
The forms
in a few
vartis,
and cods,
rods,
arcis,
:
/track'.
and surabhis- appear inorganically
tuvis-
compounds
1154.
Examples are
meat').
'oblation',
for tuvi
and
surablii
or derivatives.
3HKus. With
this suffix
made
are
a few words,
of various meaning, root-form, and accent.
are
They
A
and agent.
words signifying both action
few have both
meanings, without difference of accent: thus, tapus, 'heat' and
'wound' and 'sore'; cdksus, 'brightness' and 'seeing, eye'; vdpus,
and
The nouns
'wonder'.
syllable;
exceptions
are:
are mostly
in
regard
to
and accented
neuter,
accent, jantis,
'hot';
drus,
'wonderful'
on the rootin
'birth';
regard to
gender, mdnus, 'man', and nahus, proper name. Of adjectives, are accented
on the ending jaytis, vanus, vidus (which alone shows an unstrengthened
root), and daksus,
'burning' (which appears to attach itself to the aoriststem)
.
1155.
body of
line
^
*.
With
derivatives,
agent-nouns,
They show
reduplicated.
of all genders:
feminine
a various
formed a considerable
this suffix are
adjectives
abstracts,
form of the root: strong,
Their accent
is
and mascu-
and a few neuters.
weak,
and
also various.
Many words in i have meanings much specialized and many
(including most of the neuters) are hardly to be connected with
any root elsewhere demonstrable.
;
1. The feminine action-nouns
weak root-form, ruci, 'brightness',
are
of
tvtii,
very
various
'sheen';
krst,
thus,
with
'ploughing',
rtrtf,
form:
XVII. PRIMARY DERIVATION.
382
yudhf,
'dance',
with ptma-strengthening (where possible), ropi,
vanfand sanf, 'gain';
with vrddhi-
'fighting;
rdndhi, 'subjection', poof, 'heat
'pain',
strengthening, grdhi,
1042
:
,
'course',
dkraji,
'seizure',
dusi (compare dusayati,
[1155
a).
The
ajf,
'race';
from ydus comes
variety of accent, which seems reducible
no rule, is illustrated by the examples given.
The few infinitively used words of this formation (above, 975)
weak root-form, with accent on the ending.
to
The adjectives and masculine agent-nouns exhibit the same variety. Thus
With unstrengthened root: fuci, 'bright', bhrmi, 'lively' (ybhram],
2.
:
a.
'container'.
grbhi,
With strengthened
b.
mdhi,
'enemy',
root
arcf,
'great',
root
(or
drapf,
'mantle',
raft'
With reduplicated
c.
'heap', pani,
jdghri
(yghar),
pdpri,
This
root.
of quite various form.
class,
sdsri,
incapable
praniK,
show an
'beam',
some words, of obscure connections,
thus,
have a
Thus:
of
'knot',
gruna-change)
kridi,
apparent
:
'playing';
dri,
and
vrdd/u-increment
:
etc.
'hand',
is in the older language a considerable
with weak or abbreviated root, cdfen,
-mamrz,
babhrf,
jdgmi,
vawrf,
jdghni,
sdsni,
and, with displacement of final a (or its weakening to the
semblance of the suffix), dadf, papf, yayf (with a case or two from yayi],
-fifvi;
susvi,
dddhi
-jey'fii,
from the wr-form of roots in changeable
;
with simple reduplication,
pdpuri;
yuyudhi, vfvici;
r,
jdguri,
tdturi,
with strengthened
reduplication, -cacali, tdtrpi, dddhrsi, vdvahi, sasaM, tutuji and tutujt, yUyuvi,
And karkart. 'lute', and dundubhi, 'drum', have the
yuyudhi; and jarbhdri.
aspect of belonging to the same class, but are probably onomatopoetic.
The
be noticed, is most often on the reduplication, but not seldom
elsewhere (only once on the root).
accent,
will
it
was noticed above (271
It
f)
that
these
reduplicated
derivatives
in
i
especially often take an object in the accusative, like a present participle.
d.
all
Formations in
numerous.
abhidrohf,
They
i
from the root compounded with prefixes are not at
accented usually on the suffix.
Examples are:
are
vyanavt, nijaghnf, paradadf, visasaht; but also ajdni, amtiri,
ayaji,
vfvavri.
As compounded with other preceding words, the adjectives or agenti
are not rare, and are regularly accented on the root
see the next
chapter, 1276.
e. From ydha comes a derivative -dhi, forming many masculine comnouns in
:
pounds, with the value both of an abstract and a concrete:
antardhf, uddhi,
fixes,
nidhi,
etc.
paridhf,
thus, with preOpinions are divided as to whether
is to be regarded as formed with the suffix
with weakening of a to i.
it
3.
afcsi,
Neuter nouns in
'eye',
dsthi,
1156.
i.
'bone',
The
i
are few,
dddhi,
in general the office of
stem.
Thus
:
displacing the radical a, or
and of obscure derivation:
'curds',
suffix
i,
t,
making
examples are
etc.
like
ETT
(above, 1149), has
a feminine from a masculine
STEMS
1157]
383
ti.
i
',
from consonant-stems in general
from some stems in u: 344;
Especially,
ar):
IN
376 a;
from stems in r
:
(for details, see the various suffixes ending in a):
have corresponding feminines in I : an example is krmi (masc. kfmi),
In the oldest language, a few masculines also are made in final
have been noticed, and their inflection described, above (355
1157.
fH
I:
they
ff.).
forms a large class of fre-
feminine nouns
used
quently
This suffix
ti.
(or
from many stems in
stems in i very rarely
and
of action;
a few
also
agent-nouns (masculine) and adjectives. The root has in
general the same form as before the suffix rT to, of the passive
that
participle (952 ff.)
is
a weak, and often
to say,
a weakened or abbreviated, form.
The accent ought, in analogy with that
upon the suffix and it does
to rest always
of
so
;
majority of words quotable from accented texts
In the few words used
ceptions are numerous.
on the suffix only.
(975), the accent is
a.
1.
ritf,
'stream'
dhautf,
'motion', fdnti,
'offering'
tsti,
bhutf,
'praise',
stuff,
'fame', purtf,
kirtf,
of the normal formation are:
Examples
'flow',
rait,
(ydhav
:
pple dhauta);
;
dfti,
pple
'division'
zsfd),
itf:
'gift',
'progress',
pezfctf,
'power',
'drink' (|/pa; pple pita],
ditd],
(yvac
'speech'
as infinitives
with accented
and,
(yda; pple
-ukti,
but the ex-
;
'bearing',
bhrtf,
'bestowal', maff, 'thought', pitf,
'repose',
(yyaj
'prosperity',
the participle,
the (small)
in
:
trpti,
pple
root,
gdti,
'satisfaction',
wfefd),
vfddhi,
'increase'.
b. The roots which
i
before
also
from
uditd,
ti
:
thus,
j/uad).
A
form their participle in
only gupt i,
-drpti
(but
ita
AV.
(956) do not have tho
has once tiditi, beside
few roots having their participle in na instead of
ta
(957), form the abstract noun also in ni (below, 1158). And from the roots
tan and ran occur tdnti and rdnfi, beside the more regular tati and rati;
From roots having the form da, the
also dhanti (once, VS.) beside dhati.
in
derivative
bhdyatti,
vdsutti,
is
sometimes
various
maghdtti
(all
-tfa,
-tti
(for
above,
ddti
955c):
with
loss
of
radical
thus, niravatti (K.),
RV.).
A
c.
name
composition
compare the participle-form
vowel:
few derivatives are made from reduplicated roots
their accent is
thus, carfcrff, didhiti and -diditi. jfyarti, and perhaps the proper
:
;
yaydti.
Derivatives from roots with prefixes are numerous, and have (as in
the case of the participles in fa, and the action-nouns in tu) the accent on
The
the prefix
examples are dnumati, abhlti, dhuti, nfrrti, vykpti, sdmgati.
d.
:
only exceptions noticed are dsaktt and asuti.
In other combinations than with prefixes, the accentuation
the same
2.
:
is
in general
see the next chapter.
The
adjectives
and agent-nouns
which, as masculines, are to be
XVII. PRIMARY DERIVATION.
384
connected with these instead of
thus,
various,
dhuti,
few others, of more or
'footman'; and a
is
feminine abstracts
\\ith the
'eager',
vdsti,
'putrid',
pUti,
[1157
less
are very few
jnatf,
'shaker',
'relative',
:
pattf,
The accent
dubious character.
as in the other class.
3. A few words show the same suffix ti preceded by a vowel, in which
no organic character seems recognizable, and which may therefore pass for a
another with i is saniti
"union-vowel".
One, uditi, has been quoted above
(RV., once); and snihitl and snehili, notwithstanding their long final, may be
;
With
mentioned with them.
action-nouns
the
anhatf,
and
rjiti
vasatf
and the agent-words
dmati, -dhrajati;
Iti,
made
ati are
drfatf,
In
ddbhiti.
a few,
aratf,
the Brahmanas
variously accented
ramdti,
'nest',
khalatf,
thus,
:
amdti and
vratdti,
With
rdmati.
vrkdti,
appear occasional derivatives from
The
stems, like jdnayati (TS.) and agamayiti (K. xxviii. 6).
feminine yuvati, 'young (adj.), maiden', is of isolated character.
4. In some of the words instanced in the last paragraph, ti is perhaps
conjugational
applied
as
a
suffix.
secondary
A
numeral derivatives from pronominal
as vihcatf,
sastf,
etc.;
kindred character belongs
roots,
kdti,
tdti,
with panktf (from pdfica);
to
it
in
the
and from numerals,
and in addhatf, from the
ydti,
particle addha.
This suffix agrees in general in its uses
and in the form of its derivatives with the preceding; but
1158.
it
ft
ni.
makes a much smaller number of words, among which
the feminine abstracts are a minority.
1. As was noticed above (1157. Ib), a few
making
their passive
in ni instead of
jurnf,
'heat';
ti.
occur glani,
later
verbs
(ending in
in
jirni,
and others.
bhurni,
'excited', prenf,
other
Certain
nouns of concrete meaning occur: thus, jdni, 'woman', etc.
2. Examples of words of the other class are: vdhni,
'hasty',
vowels)
na instead of ta make their action-noun
From the Veda are quotable only -jyani, 'injury', and
participle
feminine
'carrying',
fwrni,
vrsnf and vfmi, 'virile'.
from is seen a strengthening of the root,
'loving',
In prem, y6ni, meni, freni,
such as does not appear among the derivatives in ti.
Derivatives in ni from roots with prefixes do not appear to occur.
In the words ending in ani, the a has probably the same value with
1157.3); but ani has gained a more independent status,
and may be best treated as a separate suffix.
that of ati (above,
The words made by this suffix have
same double value with those made by the preceding
1159.
the
ani.
Their accent
ones.
a.
ofa
is
Thus:
various.
Feminine action-nouns, sometimes with concreted meaning
'impulse',
pardm,
'missile', variant,
'injury',
'track',
dyotani,
djani (a-djani
'brightness',
:
ksipanf,
:
as,
'blow',
isani,
apam,
the only example with prefix), 'goad'.
STEMS IN
1161]
b.
and
Adjectives
other
agent-words
;
caksani,
'enlightener',
vaksdni,
are
385
tu.
an,
ani,
ni,
ti,
such
as
cardni,
'movable',
From a reduplicated rootstems are made ruruksdni, sisasani,
small number of words appear to
strerigthener'.
form comes -paptani. From desiderative
and (with prefix) a-pufuksdni.
And a
attach themselves to an s-aorist stem:
It
3.
is
thus, parsdni, saksdni, carsant.
questionable whether the infinitives in sdni (978) are to be
put here, as accusatives of a formation in am, or under the next
locatives of a formation in an, from roots and stems increased by an
1160.
ER
Not many words appear
an.
a suffix of this form, and of these
be connected with
still
The accent
is
in
action-nouns in an are mahdn,
Examples
vfsan,
virile,
prefixes,
and
A
filling
'ox';
:
'depth' (VS.,
play'
'water
(dtidivan,
r<f?an, 'king',
1
,
cdksan,
AV.,
with
'eye':
perhaps a bad
is
'superior'.
running
parallel
with those in other suffixes
out their declension, were mentioned above (429
are
(?),
once).
masc. tdksan, 'carpenter',
neut. wddn,
'antagonist at
few stems in an,
1161.
ation
wfesdn,
pratidivan,
reading), vibhvdn,
d.
of agent-nouns are
bull',
mahhdn
'greatness',
(RV., once: compare rdjan; the accent-relation
'authority'
the reverse of the usual one), and gdmbhan,
c.
various.
are all given above (978).
other
rajdn,
'liberality',
is
which admit of being referred to this suffix, as locative
am, of which the sibilant appears to be the final of a
They
The
b.
be made with
fewer are plainly to
infinitives
are those
cases,
tense-stem.
s.
of action; the rest are
masculine and neuter agent-nouns.
The
as
aoristic
Certain rare neuters (along with
roots.
the doubtful infinitives) are nouns
a.
to
suffix,
rT tu.
The
ff.).
great mass of the words of this formaccusatives
the infinitives
in
the later lan-
guage, in the earlier likewise datives and ablative-genitives
see above, 970 b, 972.
ently,
as
But a few
:
are also used independ-
action-nouns or with concreted meaning; and an
extremely small number, of somewhat questionable characThey are of
ter, appear to have the value of agent- words.
all
genders, but chiefly masculine.
The
root has the guna-
strengthening.
infinitive words are accented on the radical syllable
accent but
simple, and most of the others have the same
a few have the tone on the ending.
The
when
a.
;
Examples
'element', rndntu,
are:
of the regular formation,
'counsel';
Whitney, Grammar.
fern,
vdrtu,
masc., gdntu,
'morning';
'way',
neut. vdstu,
25
dhdtu,
'abode';
XVII. PRIMARY DERIVATION.
386
with accent on the ending, jantu,
'cause',
fcetoJ,
'drink',
pita,
'banner'
(all
and
'way'
gatti,
'song',
hetit,
with unstrengthened root, rtu, 'season',
with vrddhi- strengthening, vdstu (above).
masc.);
'birth';
sfttu,
'being',
[1161
-tdritu
The infinitives in tu have (972) often the union-vowel i before the
and this in a few cases is lengthened to I. In other use occur also
and -dhdrltu (both with dus); turphdritu seems of the same formation,
but
obscure.
b.
suffix,
is
infinitives, when made from roots with prefixes, have (as was pointed
But the same words, when used
out above, 972) the accent on the prefix.
(not infinitivally) in further combination (with su and dws), retain the radical
The
which
accent
the
to
belongs
simple
word
:
thus,
duratyetu,
durniyGmtu,
dusparihdntu, suprattu.
c. In a few instances, the suffix tu appears to be added to a tense- or
thus,
conjugation-stem in a
The accent of the
sisasdtu.
last is paralleled
which
in
further exceptional
is
and vahatu
edhatti
:
;
tanyatu and tapyatu
only by that of jivdtu,
showing a long a;
it is
,-
and
'life',
used sometimes in
the manner of an infinitive.
1162.
^
This suffix forms a comparatively small
nu.
body of words generally masculine, and having both the
abstract and the concrete value.
,
The accent
usually on
is
the
and the root un-
ending,
strengthened.
Examples are
bhanu, 'light' (later 'sun'),
ddnu (with irregular accent), m. 'demon', n.
:
vagnti,
'sound',
'drop, dew';
grdhnu, 'hasty', dhrsnti, 'bold'.
This also (like <u), appears sometimes with a prefixed a
and nadanti,
instance with prefix),
1163.
most
nabhanu (and
'roaring',
without
of a
is
'fountain',
The words made with
exception action-nouns
assumed a concrete
root
f.),
:
'son',
'cow';
f.,
thus, krandanu
vibhanjanti
(only
'breaking to pieces'; and perhaps krfdnu belongs here.
ilia.
51
-nti,
sunu,
dhenii,
weak
value).
(or
They
this suffix are al-
(though
some have
are of all genders.
The
even weakened) form, and the accent
usually on the suffix.
a.
Examples
are
:
masc.
bhrthd,
'offering',
'going'; neut. ukthd, 'saying', nithd, 'song',
or
n
is
lost in -gathd
the same roots: 637,
A
final:
Final
is weakened to i in -githd and -plthd.
and hdtha (as sometimes in the verbal inflection of
834 b).
few examples of combination with prefixes occur, with accent on the
thus, nirrthd,
'destruction',
sarhgathd,
'union',
more common in the older language
which has become prefixed an a, which is probably
b.
-itha,
gatha,
Radical a
nitha, 'way'.
'song',
m
'making',
fern, (with a)
-ferffta,
tlrthd, 'ford';
Still
is
etc.
a form of this suffix to
of thematic origin,
though
STEMS IN nu. tha. thu, yu
1168]
become
Thus
a union-vowel.
ma, mi, man.
1
masc. cardtha, 'mobility', yajdtha,
:
1
capdtha,
ravdtha,
'cry
viddtha,
'ordering'.
,
final
is
'breath',
With
avasathd,
thus,
:
treated as
a prefix,
accent
the
pravasathd,
'abode',
is
'speech',
thus, faydtha,
thrown forward
prandtha,
'absence';
root.
Isolated combinations of tha with other preceding vowels occur: thus,
c.
vdrutha, 'protection', with another doubtful case or two
1164.
2T
'offering',
ucatha,
sometimes guna:
pran were an integral
if
neut.
'praise';
a root has
this,
'vehemence'.
tvesdtha,
'couch',
upon the
stavdtha,
'curse',
Before
387
tha,
51
O
thu.
'
This suffix has an
above),
makes, appears only as
5fST
The only Vedic examples
standthu,
T
and matutha (yman ?).
a attached
to it (like
derivatives
which
V
it
dthu.
are
ejdthu, 'quaking', vepdthu, 'trembling',
Later cases are nanddthu (TS.), vamathu, cvayathu, etc.
'roaring'.
1165.
[
in the very few
and.
;
yu.
With
this suffix are
made
a very few nouns,
both of agent and of action, with unstrengthened root and
Thus
various accent.
Abstracts (masc.)
a.
:
are
manyv,
'wrath',
mrtyti,
'death'
t
(with
added
to the short final of the root).
b. Adjectives
etc. are bhujyu, 'pliable', yundhyti, 'pure'; ydjyu, 'pious',
ddsyu, 'enemy', and one or two more.
For other derivatives ending in yu, see the suffix
below, 1178g,h.
sdhyu,
'strong',
,
1166.
almost
all
13
The action-nouns made by
ma.
masculine
this suffix are
and they are of various root-form and
;
accent, as are also the agent-nouns and adjectives.
a.
of
Examples
the former class are
:
ajmd,
'course',
ema, 'progress', bhdma, 'brightness', sdrma,
'flow',
s(dma, 'song of praise'.
b.
Examples
of the
fagmd, 'mighty'; idhmd,
reduplicated root
is
latter
'fuel',
class are
yudhmd,
:
tigmd,
'warrior'.
'sharp',
A
gharmd,
bhimd,
'heat';
'terrible',
single instance from a
tutumd, 'powerful'.
1167. FT mi. A very small number of nouns, masculine
and feminine, formed with mi, may be conveniently noticed here.
Thus, from r-roots, urmf, 'wave', -kurmi,
from others, jamf (?), 'relation', bhUmi or bh&mi,
also probably rafmf,
1168.
R
'line,
man.
'action',
f.,
surrm,
'earth',
f.,
laksmi,
'tube';
'sign';
ray'.
The
derivatives
made with
this suffix
s.
are almost only action-nouns
.
The
great majority of
them
and accented on the root-syllable; a much smaller number
and accented on the suffix. The
are neuter,
are masculine,
few agent-words
are,
if
nouns,
masculine,
and have the
25*
XVII. PRIMARY DERIVATION.
388
latter accent
[1168
in several instances, a neuter
and a masculine,
of the one and the other value and
accent, stand side by
side.
The root has in general the
:
^^-strengthening.
a.
1.
jdnman,
'birth',
'sacrifice',
b.
of
Examples
regularly
formed
ndman, 'name', vdrtman,
-dytitman,
Examples
neuters
'track',
are:
kdrman,
'action',
vefman,
'dwelling',
homan,
ojmdn,
'strength',
jemdn,
'splendor'.
of
masculine
abstracts
are:
svddmdn, 'sweetness'.
'conquest',
Corresponding neuter action-nouns and masculine agent-nouns are
'gift', and daman, 'giver';
c.
:
brahman, 'worship', and brahman, 'priest'; ddman,
dhdrman, 'rule', and dharmdn, 'orderer'; sddman,
Very few other agent-nouns occur; and
all,
'seat',
and sadmdn,
except brahman,
'sitter'.
are
of
rare
occurrence.
On the other hand, varsman and svadman (and variman) have the difference of gender and accent without a corresponding difference of meaning.
The noun dfman,
'stone', though masculine, is accented on the radical
and two or three other questionable cases of the same kind occur.
syllable;
The derivatives in man used as infinitives (974) have for the most part
the accent of neuters: the only exception is vidmdne.
A
d.
bhuman
few words,
'earth',
of either
class,
have an irregular root-form
thus,
:
syuman; bhumdn 'abundance', slmdn, bhujmdn, vidmdn; and
kdrsman, bhdrman, fdkman.
Derivatives in
e.
man
from roots with prefixes are not numerous.
are usually accented on the prefix, whether action-nouns or adjectives
prdbharman,
'forthbringing',
prdydman,
'departure';
the exceptions, vijaman, prativartmdn,
sessive formation.
after'
:
They
:
thus,
dnuvartman, 'following
visarmdn, are perhaps of pos-
The same suffix, though only with its abstract-making
number of cases before it a union-vowel, i or
I; and imdn comes to be used as a secondary suffix, forming
abstract nouns (masculine) from a certain number of adjectives.
2.
value, has in a
a.
to
the
The neuters
in
iman and Iman
older language: thus,
ticed above);
are all primary formations, belonging
jdniman and variman
(beside variman,
as
no-
and ddrlman, dhdrlman,
pdriman (and pdreman, SV., once),
Those in
bhdrlman, variman, sdrlman, stdrlman, sdvlman, and hdvlman.
Iman are hardly met with outside the Rig- Veda.
b. The masculines in imdn are in the oldest language less frequent
than the neuters just described
they are jarimdn, prathimdn, mahimdn,
variman (beside the equivalent variman and variman), varsimdn (beside the
equivalent varsman and varsman), harimdn, and draghimdn (VS.) beside dragh:
mdn (RV.). Some of these, as well as of the derivatives in simple man,
attach themselves in meaning, or in form also, to adjectives, to which they
seem the accompanying abstracts
comparatives and superlatives
:
compare the similar treatment of the primary
468): such are papmdn (to papa,
(above,
STEMS IN man. van. vana, vani, vanu.
1170]
drdghmdn
pdpiyas, etc.);
etc.
dirghd,
(to
vdrsman
Then
etc.
(to
vdrslyas
etc.);
Brahmana language
K.), dradhiman (K.:
in the
man (TS.,
lohitiman (KB.); and
5R
agent-words,
Yowel
is
still
suadw,
(to
to
drdhd,
drddhlyas,
etc.),
Mrz
etc.
(to
or ftan'ta);
svddlyas,
are found further examples:
root
added a
is
rT t
suffix
this
By
tfaft.
most always on the
their
etc.
(to
etc.).
thus, dhumri-
iaruniman
(K.),
later
and nouns,
adjectives
The
culines.
svddman
harimdn
;
such as laghiman; while ksepiman (to ksiprd,
and krsniman, and so on, are allowed by the grammarians.
kseptyas, etc.)
1169.
vdriman
drdghlyas, etc.);
urn, vdrlyas, etc.); prdthiman (to prthu, prdthistha)
389
made almost only
are
the latter mostly mas-
unstrengthened,
and
root,
to
a short final
The accent
before the suffix.
is
al-
both in the simple words and in
compounds.
The insertion of t is an
inally made by the addition
indication that the words of this form are origof
an
to derivatives in
u and tu; yet van has
and must be treated
the present value of an integral suffix in the language,
as such.
1.
a.
of the
Examples
usual
formation are:
masc. ydjvan,
'offering',
drtihvan, 'harming', fdkvan, 'capable', -rikvan, 'leaving', -jttvan, 'conquering',
sfitvan,
'pressing',
(j/san),
'warrior',
neut. pdrvan,
b.
kftvan, 'active', -gdtvan (like -gat, -gatya), 'going', sdtvan
drvan (only example with strengthened root), 'courser';
dhdnvan, 'bow'.
'joint',
Examples from
'excelling',
upahdsvan,
roots with prefixes
(which are not rare) are: atitvan,
sambhrtvan, 'collecting'; and probably vivasa compound with governing preposition (1310).
'reviler',
van, 'shining': abhfsatvan
is
For the compounds with other elements, which, except in special cases,
have the same accent, see below, 1277.
C. The stem musivdn, 'robber' (RV.,
once), is the only one with a
of
union-vowel, and is perhaps better regarded as a secondary derivative
which a few are made with this suffix: see below, 1234.
d.
From
a reduplicated root are
made rdravan and
cikitvdn (and possibly
vivdsvan}.
2.
small
:
The number
namely,
finitives (974),
as infinitive
of
davdn,
action-nouns made, with the suffix van
'giving',
and bhurvdn,
is
extremely
and turvdn, 'overcoming', both used
'unrest'
(?):
likewise dhurvan,
'injury',
as in-
also
used
(unless this is rather dhurv-an).
The feminines corresponding
to adjectives
(apparently) directly from this suffix, but
end in vari; see below, 1171 b.
made
1170.
made with
SR
vana.
3H
these suffixes
vani.
may
cR
vanu.
in van
from
are
vara,
not
and
The very few words
best be noticed here, in con-
XVII. PRIMARY DERIVATION.
390
3R van
nection with
[1170
which the others
(of
are probably sec-
ondary extensions).
a.
With vana
made vagvand,
are
With vani
b.
bhurvdni,
'restless'
reduplicated
fUfukvdni,
1171.
atives, of
is
made
'excelling',
and
from
tuturvdni,
obscure.
made
this suffix are
having
'daring',
and,
'tone, noise'.
only vagvanti,
genders,
is
(beside
'shining'.
turvdni,
arharisvdni
'praising':
With
cTf vara.
all
roots
dadhrsvdni,
'shining',
and jugurvdni,
With vanu
wukvand,
turvdn and bhurvdn, just above);
(compare
roots,
'striving after',
c.
made from simple
are
'warrior'
satvand,
'talkative',
sdtvan, above); and, from a reduplicated root,
for
a few deriv-
the most part the value
of agent-nouns and adjectives.
Much more common
which, from the
vari,
in
A
stems in
of^t
serve as the corres-
few masculine adjectives in vara occur, formally accordant (except
with
accent)
-sadvard,
the feminine
to the masculine stems in 3Ff van.
ponding feminines
a.
are
earliest period,
the
'sitting',
feminines:
ifvard,
'ruler,
thus,
itvard,
-advard,
'going',
and with
lord';
'eating',
them doubtless belongs
'knowing' (with I for r).
b. The feminines in van accord in treatment of the root and in accent
vidvald,
with the masculines in van to which they correspond
sftvari,
and
-yavari,
-$ivari,
RV.); from a reduplicated root,
6.
A
very small number of neuters
thus, kdrvara,
on the penult
'deed',
:
gdhvara,
'thicket';
'field',
and urvdrl,
urvdra,
:
thus, ydjvari, -jttvari,
on (about twenty-five such formations in
-f if van.
so
occur,
with accent on
the root:
and a feminine or two, with accent
'tow' (both of doubtful etymology).
We
take up now the suffixes by which are made only stems
having the value of agent-nouns and adjectives beginning with
a brief mention of the participial endings, which in general have
;
been already
sufficiently treated.
The office of this suffix, in
%R[^ant (or ETcT^).
and
future
present
participles active, has been fully
1172.
making
explained above, in connection with the various tense-stems
and conjugation-stems (chaps. VIII. XIV.), in combination
with which alone it is employed (not directly with the root,
unless this
is
also
used as tense-stem).
With
the same or a formally identical suffix are made from
And ddvayant, 'not
pronominal roots lyant and kiyant (517).
double-tongued' (RV. once), appears to contain a similar form,
STEMS IN vara, ant, vans, mana, ana,
1176]
from the numeral dm
ation
we
unless
391
ta.
assume a de-
are to
nominative verb-stem as intermediate.
Here may also be best mentioned the words
the so-called suffix anta
fers
anta or
(fern,
anti],
made with
being evident trans-
of stems in ant to the a-declension.
(Prakritic)
Extremely few such words occur in the oldest language
'draught'
vasantd,
(RV.),
beside
(RV.:
'spring'
it
also
:
namely, pdnta,
hemantd,
'winter');
(AV.; QB. ve$dnta], jivanti, a certain healing
plant (RV.j; and probably the proper name tarantd (RV.). A few others are
instanced as admitted later
thus, nandanta and nandayanta, gadayanta,
'tank'
vefantd or ve$anti,
:
jayanta, jaranta, prananta, etc.: all are said to be accented on the final.
A different extension of the same suffix is exhibited in the proper
names dhvasdnti and pucantf
1173. 3"fa vans
ticiples
with which may be mentioned purusdnti.
(RV.),
For the
(or cfH vas).
made with this
see
suffix,
(perfect active) par-
above,
chaps.
X. and
XIV., and 458 ff.
A
few words of irregular and
were noticed
questionable formation
462, above. Also, apparent transfers to a form us or usa.
The oldest language (RV.) has a very few words in
relations:
fbhvas,
'seizing',
and
'skilful'
ffkvas,
(beside
vas,
at
of doubtful
words in va and
and perhaps khidvas (ykhad). The neuter abstract vdrivas, 'breadth,
room' (belonging to urti, 'broad', in the same manner with variyas and varimdn],
van],
is
quite isolated.
The unique tatan'usti (RV., once)
and connected with this suffix.
1174.
JTH mana.
as has
been seen,
are,
The
is
possibly to be
divided tatanus-ti,
having this ending
present and future only, and have
participles
the middle,, or the derived passive, value belonging in general to the stems to
^H
1175.
of middle
The
perfect,
suffix is attached.
participles ending in
and passive value,
either present,
like
TR ana
those just noticed,
are
and
or (partly with the form $TH sana:
aorist.
above, 897)
A
ana.
which the
few other words ending in the same manner in the old language may
The RV. has the adjectives vdsavana, 'well-endowed' r
evidently made on the model of participial stems.
be mentioned here.
and urdhvasand,
'uplifted',
Also the proper names dpnavana, pfthavana,
Pdr$ana,
'abyss',
1176.
is
rT ta.
ciples directly
and cydvana and cydvatana.
doubtful.
The use of
from the
this
root, or
suffix in
forming parti-
from a conjugational (not
XVII. PRIMARY DERIVATION.
392
made
passive in value
are in part intransitive, but in great part
made by
those
(like
much
but in
fixes,
The par-
was explained above, chap. XIII.
a tense) stem,
ticiples thus
[1176
the two preceding suf-
and more
larger measure,
decidedly:.
For the frequent use of the connecting vowel
A
a.
few
drdhd
drdhd:
(for
224 a),
Examples are:
dutd,
'firm';
jatd,
'kind',
The
'behavior.'.
caritd,
'dear',
is
a single
a reduplicated root.
stems
derivatives in
are
ita
the
in
adjective-stems, having the
and the
like (compare
A
c.
gdrta
'mortal',
nafcta,
(?),
'endowed with, affected by, made
rathita,
'wind';
hdrita,
to
as horned,
very doubtful: such are dsta,
is
and with them
may be mentioned
'hand'.
d. Several adjectives denoting color end in
kindred meaning: thus, palitd,
'red',
ed,
'furnished with a chariot', etc.
ita,
ible with roots of
lohita,
in
accented on the radical syllable, and
derivatives
vdta,
hdsta,
'night',
are
fa are
the participial
to
mdrta,
language made directly from noun and
of
the similar English formation
few words ending in
their relation
'home',
later
meaning
Examples
barefooted, bluecoated).
and
shows anomalous
,
Vavdta,
(216).
,
Doubtless after the example and model of participles from denomin(of which, however, no instances are quotable from the Yeda),
b.
ative
be',
i
'sharp
(RV.),
1
rtd,
'dance', fivitd,
'gambling', nrttd,
dyutd,
adjective tigitd
'cold
citd,
'charioteer';
sutd,
are
meaning,
'rough',
trsta,
'messenger',
reversion of palatal to guttural before the
example from
with the
ita,
participle.
'ghee',
ghrtd,
'right',
'life',
general
of this
adaptations
see also chap. XIII.
adjectives, or nouns with concrete
form,
its
making
suffix,
'green';
but are hardly connect'black', rtihita
dsita,
'gray',
akin with them are eta,
'variegated',
cyetd,
'white'.
The feminines
rohinl and
and
dsikni,
are
not to
A
e.
number
small
of
adjectives
in the
in part gerundive.
is
They
and pafyata, 'seen, to be seen, worth
The y of pafyata and haryatd
bharatd.
also is
that of
relation to
yraj
1177.
^ na
thus, enl
present tense-stem.
a
words
are:
seeing';
indicates
Rajatd,
and cyenl
;
also occurs);
in
fa,
although their
pacatd,
'cooked', dar$atd
and
yajatd,
so
haryatd,
pretty plainly that the a
'silvery',
is
of
more obscure
'color'.
^ na
(and ^T ina,
3^
una}.
The use
of the suffix
in forming from certain roots participles equivalent to
those in
cT ta,
either alongside the latter or instead of them,
was explained above, chap. XIII.
a.
:
language ending in ata
older
be separated from the participial
meaning
specific
of these stems are in part irregular
and hdrinl (but the corresponding masc. hdrina
pdliknl, and hdriknl,
lohirii,
With the same
suffix are
made
a
(957).
number
of
general adjectives, and
STEMS IN
1178]
of
nouns
the root.
fvitna,
of various
A
gender (fern, in
few examples are umd,
:
masc.
'white';
uarna,
'color',
trena,
'thirst',
prapnd,
svdpna,
yacnd,
'ear',
and
yajna,
parnd,
'right',
An
roots.
antithesis
dharuna,
ghrnd,
'jewel'
on
'heat',
fern,
(?);
accent is seen in
of
few words ending in ina are perhaps
and one or two others
related with these
vrjind,
'violent',
'crooked',
of questionable etymology.
clearly referable to roots: thus, fcart/na,
-cetuna,
'bearing',
'showing';
'white', tdruna,
drjwna,
In meaning and in accent they vary like the de-
'Varuna'.
'young', vdruna,
rdtna,
or
'eared'.
Of the words in wna, few are
c.
'action',
'offering',
'wing',
(perhaps rather with those in ana): thus, amind,
ddksina,
on the suffix
is
But many of the stems ending in na
'supplication'.
fcarnd,
b. The very
The accent
puna, 'fortunate', dpna, 'ravenous',
'question',
not readily connectible with
are
fedrna,
na).
'hot',
neut.
'sleep';
393
na, u.
ta,
rivatives in ana.
These are
the proper participial endings of the language.
and earlier, are in so great part evident
secondary formations, that they will be noticed farther on, under the head of secondary derivation.
all
The gerundives,
We
later
up now the other
will take
suffixes forming agent-nouns
with those which have more or less
and
adjectives, beginning
a participial value.
1178.
3
u.
With
made
suffix are
this
a considerable
body of derivatives, of very various character
and agent-nouns of
the root, and with
all
adjectives,
genders, with different treatment of
different
accent.
It is especially
used
with certain conjugational stems, desiderative (particularly
later) and denominative (mainly earlier), making adjectives
with the value of present participles; and in such use
wins in part the aspect of a secondary suffix.
The root has oftenest a weak (or weakened) form
but
;
is
sometimes vriddhied
least
;
it
it
(when capable of guna], it
without any apparent con-
often
has the ^wna-strengthening
all
nection with either accent or meaning or gender.
After final
few
radical a is usually addded y (258) before the suffix.
A
derivatives are
made from
Many words ending
roots
;
a.
prtJiu,
'good';
dhayu,
examples
will
in
u
the reduplicated root.
are not readily, or not at
Examples' of ordinary adjectives
'broad',
jayu,
mrdu,
'soft',
'conquering',
'thirsty',
all,
connectible with
be given only of those that have an obvious etymology.
payti,
sadhu,
darti,
'good',
'bursting';
'protecting'.
suffix in -sthu (susthu, anusthu).
are
Final
:
wrti,
svadti,
'wide',
'sweet',
pat/tJ,
rju,
tdpu,
'lying',
a appears to be
'straight',
'hot',
reku,
vdsu,
'empty';
lost before
the
XVII. PRIMARY DERIVATION.
394
b. Examples of nouns are
dsu,
'wind-god',
sfndhu
mdnu,
'life',
(also masc.),
'river';
masc.
:
tanu,
ah$u,
Manu';
'man,
'ray',
[1178
'deceiver',
ripu,
isu (also masc.),
fern,
vayii,
'arrow',
'body'.
from reduplicated roots are: cikitu, jigyu, sisnu. -tatnu
is made with nu or tnu], ydyu or yayu and yfyu (with final a
this
(unless
-didhayu; and babhru, -raru (araru), malimlu (?)
lost), pfpru (proper name),
c. Derivatives
have the aspect of being similar formations.
A
d.
few derivatives are made from roots with prefixes, with various
for example, upayu, 'on-coming', pramayu, 'going to destruction',
vikUndu, a certain disease, a&Tifpw, 'rein (director)', sdmvasu, 'dwelling to-
accentuation
:
gether'.
From tense-stems,
e.
(with aoristic
f.
s)
Participial
of their final a)
adjectives in
are
sufficiently
made
are
apparently,
ddksu and dhdksu
u from
cikitsti,
every desiderative.
titiksu, piplsu,
mumuksu,
These adjectives, both
(stems with loss
the ancient language (RV. has
so many) to show that the form-
in
at will
Examples
fifliksu;
and
earlier
and
desiderative "roots"
numerous
more than a dozen of them, AV. not quite
ation was already a regular one, extensible
may be made from
'thundering',
tanyu,
RV.J.
(all
;
and
later
(older)
such adjectives
are:
ditsu,
dipsu,
and, with prefix, abhidipsu.
later, may take an object in
the
accusative (27 la).
g.
atives
A
few similar adjectives are made in the older language from caus-
dharayu ('persistent'), bhajayu, bhdvayu,
cramayii; and mrgayu from the caus.-denom. mrgdya.
:
thus,
mahhayu, mandayu,
h. Much more numerous, however, are such formations from the more
denominatives, especially in the oldest language (RV. has toward
proper
AV. only a quarter as many, including six or eight
of them;
which are not found in RV.; and they are still rarer in the Brahmanas). In
a majority of cases, personal verbal forms from the same denominative stem
eighty
are in use
sanisyii,
thus, for example, to aghayu, aratlyu, rjuyu, caranyu, memasyw,
urusyu, saparyu; in others, only the present participle in ydnt, or
:
abstract noun in yd (1149), or nothing at all. A few are made upon
denominative stems from pronouns
thus, tvayu (beside tvaydnt and tvayd},
yuvayu or yuvayfi, asmayu, svayu, and the more anomalous ahamyti, and
the
:
kirhyu.
Especially
where no other denominative forms
jective, this has often the aspect of being
made
directly
accompany the adfrom the noun with
the suffix yu, either with a meaning of 'seeking or desiring', or with a more
general adjective sense: thus, yavayti, 'seeking grain', varahayu, 'boar-hunting',
'desiring the breast';
stanasyti,
urnayti,
'woolen',
yuvanyti,
'youthful',
bhimayti, 'terrible'. And so the "secondary suffix yu" wins a degree of standing
and application as one forming derivative adjectives (as in aharhyu and kimyii,
above, and doubtless some others, even of the RV. words). In three RV.
cases, the final as of a
noun-stem
is
even changed to o before
beside duvasyd], dskrdhoyu.
None of the words in yu show in the Veda resolution into
ahhoyti, duvoyti (and
it:
duvoyd
iu.
namely,
STEMS IN
1181]
1179.
The long u
u.
"37
u, uka^
w,
is
395
aka.
a vastly rarer suffix than
the other long simple vowels, already described (1149, 1155
It
makes a small number
feminines
of
.
corresponding to
u, a very few independent feminines, and
two or three very rare masculines
as to all which, see
above, 355 c.
masculines in
:
1180.
With
uka.
3Sfi
suffix are
this
made
derivatives
having the meaning and construction (271 g) of a present
The
participle.
root
strengthened, and has the accent.
is
uka are hardly known in the Veda; but they become
frequent in the Brahmanas, of whose language they are a marked characterand they are found occasionally in the later language. In all probistic
The
derivatives in
;
they
ability,
suffix
fca
are
and properly obtained by adding the secondary
u; but they have gained fully the char-
originally
to a derivative in
(1222)
and in only an instance
acter of primary formations,
two
or
is
there found
in actual use an w-word from which they should be made.
The
root is only so far strengthened that the radical syllable is a
and
one;
(79)
has
it
the
accent,
whether the derivative
simple root or from one with prefix.
from the Brahmana
a. Examples,
upakrdmuka,
haruka,
kstidhuka,
RV. has
prapdduka,
fiksu],
upasthdyuka
:
vydyuka,
heavy
made from
vdduka,
veduka,
a
ndfuka,
bhdvuka,
alambuka, yiksuka (GB.:
samdrdhuka, ddn?uka,
vdrsuka,
pramayuka
are
language,
(258),
is
(SB. has pramayu}.
b. Exceptions as regards root-form are: nirmdrguka (with urdd/u'-strengthis usual with this root
627) -kasuka. AV. accents sdrhkasuka
ening, as
((^B.
:
,
has
the
of
example
and
Afandyuka (PB.
A
if it
:
;
vasukd
;
et al.)
formation in
be mentioned here
RV. has sdnukd (which is its only
be one AV. has also ghdtuka from ytian,
vikasuka
formation,
dpramdyuka)
c.
and
sarhkdsuka)
:
is
(TS. et al.) is probably of another character.
the only example noticed from a conjugation-stein.
uka
namely,
suffix of
(a
from
like origin,
reduplicated
perhaps, with uka}
roots,
jdgaruka,
dandafwfca, 'biting', ydyajuka, 'sacrificing much', vdvaduka
salaluka
is
to
'talkative';
questionable.
1181.
seem
(later),
may
'wakeful',
fi
aka.
Here,
as
in the
preceding case,
we
have a suffix made by secondary addition of 3fi ka
for the same reason as
f a; but it has,
to a derivative in
the other,
the
a right to be
manner
that of uka;
of a primary
it
mentioned here.
suffix
is
of
still
Its
free
use in
later date
than
has very few examples in the older language.
XVII. PRIMARY DERIVATION.
396
a. In
RV.
found (besides pavakd,
is
which has
[1181
and
a different accent,
which, as the metre shows, is usually to be pronounced pavaka] only sdyaka,
But in the
'missile'; AV. adds piyaka and vddhaka, and VS. abhikr<S$aka.
later
such
language
derivatives
are
bodhaka
pdcaka,
grdhaka,
dravaka,
declared
by the
grammarians
to
usually with
common,
root-syllable by strengthening to heavy quantity
but
;
have
:
raising of
the
thus, nayaka, ddyaka (258),
janaka, khanaka. They are
accent on the radical syllable.
also
the
They often occur in copulative composition with gerundives of the same
thus, bhakayabhaksaka, 'eatable and eater',
'designated
vacyavacaka,
and designation', and so on.
root:
That the derivatives in aka sometimes take an
pointed out above (27 Ic).
The corresponding feminine
more usually in ika:
made sometimes
is
accusative object was
aka or in
in
aki,
but
ndyikd (with ndyakd), pacika, bodhika, dravika;
compare secondary aka, below, 1222 d.
b. Derivatives in aka are said to be made from a few roots thus,
thus,
:
found in the Veda (unless in "pavaka":
see above), and appear to be very rare at every period. With dku is made
in RV. mrdaydku, from the causative stem pfdaku and the proper name
jalpdka, bhiksdka; but they are not
:
fksvaku are of obscure connection.
Derivatives in
ika
and Ika
in connection with
be treated below,
will
those in ka (1186).
1182.
as
suffix,
uses,
above
at
cT tr
The
(or rT|" tar}.
regards both their
derivatives
mode
made by
and
of formation
this
their
have been the subject of remark more than once
(see 369 ff., 942 if.).
Agent-nouns are formed with it
every period of the language; these in the oldest lang-
uage are very frequently used
ject in the accusative (271 d)
participially,
;
governing an ob-
later they enter into
combin-
ation with an auxiliary verb, and, assuming a future meaning,
make
a periphrastic future tense (942).
Their corresponding feminine is in tri.
The root has uniformly the ^tma-strengthening. A unionvowel i (very rarely, one of another character) is often taken
as regards its presence or absence in the periphrastic future
forms, see above (943).
a.
:
"Without grwna-change
is only ustr, 'plough-ox' (no proper agent-noun
compare the nouns of relationship further on). The root
as usual, I
thus, -grahitf ; and the same appears in -taritf
apparently uks-tf
grah has,
and -maritf.
An
:
:
u- vowel
sdnutr; long in varutr
;
is
taken instead by tdrutr
and
tarutf,
strengthened to o in man6tr and manotf.
duplicated root comes vdvdtr.
dhdnutr, and
From
a re-
STEMS IN aka,
1183]
397
in.
tr,
b. The accent, in the older language, is sometimes on
the suffix and sometimes on the root
or, from roots combined
;
with prefixes,
sometimes on the
suffix
and sometimes on the
prefix.
In general, the accent on the root or prefix accompanies the participial
use of the word; but there are exceptions to this: in a very few instances
word with accented
a
(four),
an
has
suffix
accusative
very
object;
much
more often, accent on the root appears along with ordinary noun value.
The accent, as well as the form, of mano'tr is an isolated irregularity.
Examples are: jeta dhdnani, 'winning treasures'; yuydm mdrtarh frtitarah,
'ye listen
a mortal';
to
good
'bestowing
on the
but,
on
things
the
other
pious';
yarhtd vdsuni
hand,
and jeta jdndndm,
vidhate,
'conqueror of
peoples'.
The formation
c.
of these
nouns in
tr
from conjugation-stems, regular
and frequent in the later language, and not very rare in the Brahmanas, is
met with but once or twice in the Veda (bodhayitf and codayitri, RV.). In
nestr, a certain priest
(RV. and
later),
is
apparently seen the aoristic
s.
d. The words of relationship which, in whatever way, have gained the
aspect of derivatives in tr, are pitf, mat/, bhrdtr, ydtr, duhitf, ndptr, jdmatr.
Of
only
these,
mdtf and ydtr are in accordance with the ordinary rules of
the formation in
tr.
Instead of
e.
tr
found tur in one or two RV. examples:
is
j/amttfr,
sthattir.
Apparently formed by a suffix r (or ar) are usr, savyasthr, ndnandr,
words of relationship. For other words ending in
f.
dew, the last two being
r, see 369.
1183. ?T
in.
This
another suffix which has assumed
is
a primary aspect and use,
while yet evidently identical in
real character with the frequent secondary suffix of the
form denoting possession (below, 1230).
How far it had gained a primary value in the
easy to determine.
Most
explainable as possessives
it is
distinctly suggested
dnamin, vivyadMn; with
;
in
many
thus,
:
early language, is not
the words in in occurring in
of
the other value
kevaladfa,
same
is
RV. and AV.
possible,
are
and in a few
bhadravadin, nitodtn, dfdrdisin,
with reduplication, niyayin.
aoristic 8, saksfn; and,
indicate, composition, both with prefixes and with other
frequent; and, in all cases alike, the accent is on the suffix.
Later, the primary employment is unquestionable, and examples of it,
As the examples
elements,
is
chiefly in composition,
ened,
a
medial
unchanged.
mano/mrm,
are frequent.
a being
Thus,
satyavddin,
'soul-winning'.
future meaning:
The
radical syllable is usually strength-
sometimes lengthened
la
'about to be'.
'truth-speaking',
bhdvin has
and
sometimes
abhibhasin,
established
itself
remaining
'addressing',
a
prevailingly
XVII. PRIMARY DERIVATION.
398
The use
of an
accusative
[1183
was noticed above
with words in in
object
(271 b).
and
from
J$ istha. These, which,
forming
^TJH lyas
intensive adjectives corresponding to the adjective of root-form,
have come to be used, within somewhat narrow limits, as suffixes of adjective comparison, have been already sufficiently treat1184.
ed above, under the head of comparison (466
It may be further noticed that jyestha has in the
470).
older language (only
two or three times in RV.) the accent also on the final, jyestha ; and that
pdrsistha is made from a secondary from of root, with aoristic s added.
When
is
never
to
the comparative suffix has the abbreviated form yas (470)
be read in the Veda as i.
,
its
y
No other suffixes make derivatives having participial value
otherwise than in rare and sporadic cases
those that remain,
therefore, will be taken up mainly in the order of their fre;
quency and importance.
^
1185.
With, this suffix
tra.
formed a very few
number
and a considerable
adjectives,
are
of
nouns,
mostly
neuter, and often having a specialized meaning, as signifying the means or instrument of the action expressed by
The latter has usually the ^^-strengthening, but
sometimes remains unchanged.
The accent is various, but
more often on the radical syllable.
the root.
ally
Here, as in certain other cases above, we have probably a suffix originsecondary, made by adding a to the primary tr or tar (1182); but its
use
is
like that of a
Examples
,a.
'bond', vdstra, 'garment',
'cup',
ytiktra,
'song
of praise',
ksetra,
'field',
have
final
'kingdom',
primary suffix.
nouns are
of neuter
potrd,
m<atra,
fasfra,
hotrd,
'urine',
an
often
of
'vessel';
abstract
'doctrine',
gdtra,
:
prcftra,
pdttra,
'limb',
'ear';
astra,
'wing', pdtra,
stotrd,
'missile',
more general meaning, ddttra, 'gift',
'sacrifice'.
The words accented on the
meaning:
thus,
fesatra,
'sacrificial session'
sattrd.
'authority',
rastrd,
(also jnatrd,
'know-
ledge').
b. Masculines are: ddhstra,
'devourer', ustra,
'friend',
rm'fra,
neuters
'buffalo,
putra,
'tusk',
camel',
vrtrd,
'son',
even in the Veda,
and
mantra,
and a few
'foe'.
'prayer', attra (or atrd:
232,
of questionable etymology,
Mitrd and vrtrd are
mitra comes
later to
as
sometimes
be regularly of that
gender.
Feminines
C.
rifice'
(in tra)
(beside hotrd),
are
danstrd
:
astra,
(later,
'goad',
matra,
'measure',
for ddhstra}; nastrd,
d. Not seldom, a "union- vowel" appears before the
not usually the equivalent of the union-vowel used with
ftdfra,
'sac-
'destroyer'.
suffix;
tr
but this
(above,
is
1182 a).
STEMS IN iyas, istha,
1188]
For the words in
khanttra,
have the accent on
itra
'shovel', pavftra,
'sieve'; janttra,
i:
399
ya, ra.
ka,
tra,
thus,
'impelling,
arttra,
santtra,
'birth-place',
'gift',
oar',
etc.:
the combination lira has almost
The preceding vowel
ent-stem)
:
won the character of an independent suffix.
sometimes a (sometimes apparently of the pres-
also
is
thus, ydjatra,
'venerable', krntdtra, 'shred', gayatrd (L
pdtatra, 'wing'; but also dmatra,
'deadly
and
weapon',
varatrd,
-krtatrd,
'violent',
Tarutra,
'strap'.
-trl),
'song',
vddhatra,
'cutting-place',
corresponds
'overcoming',
to tarutr.
The words
used as adjectives in tra are mostly such as have unionA single example from a reduplicated root is
still
vowels before the
johutra,
'crying out'.
A
e.
suffix.
word or two in
and
tri
kindred formation with those in tra
fdtru (fdttru: 232),
1186.
ly
The
here, as perhaps of
suffix
^
ha
common
of very
is
(below, 1222); whether
derivation
secondary
added
may be added
tru
thus, dttri, 'devouring', arcdtri, 'beaming';
'enemy'.
ka.
3fi
:
to roots is almost questionable
at
any
few primary derivatives are made with it.
The words which have most
roots are fuska,
'dry',
floka (j/fru,
distinctly
'hear'),
:
it
is
directly
extreme-
rate,
the aspect of being
'noise, report', etc.,
use in
made from
and -sphaka,
'teeming'; and
stuka, 'flake', and stokd, 'drop', seem to belong together to
Other words in ka are of obscure connections, for the most part.
a root stu.
But ka
enters, in its value as secondary, into the composition of certain
suffixes reckoned as primary:
A
are
really
of
a
'aspect',
(above,
:
'grace',
'beaming';
and,
1187.
1180, 1181).
to
a root,
though they
formation with the preceding, may be most convethus, vrfdka (jAmifc), 'scorpion'; dnlka (?), 'face', dffifca,
mrdlkd,
Compare secondary
vrdhlkd,
from
suffix
ET yet"
It
'increased,
a$arlka and ufpcwifca,
reduplicated root,
parpharika,
'gripes',
'scattering'
(?).
ka (below, 1222).
is
altogether probable that a part of the
suffix are not less entitled to be rank-
made with this
primary than many
derivatives
ed as
and uka
kindred
niently noticed here
-rjlka,
see aka
few words in which ika and Ika seem added
of those which are above so reckoned.
Such, however, are with so much doubt and difficulty to be
separated from the great mass of secondary derivatives made with
the same suffix that it is preferred to treat them all together under
the head of secondary formation
1188.
number of
^ ra.
With
adjectives,
(below,
this suffix are
1210
made
13).
a considerable
almost always with weak root-form,
and usually with accent on the
suffix.
used as nouns, of various gender.
Also, a few words
XVII. PRIMARY DERIVATION.
400
[1188
In some cases, the suffix is found with a preceding vowel,
having the aspect of a union-vowel.
a.
of adjectives in ra of obvious derivation are
Examples
ksiprd, 'quick',
:
chidrd, 'split', turd, 'strong', bhadrd, 'pleasing', paferd, 'mighty', pwfera, 'bright',
J
'injurious
hihsrd,
with accent on the root, grdhra, 'greedy', dhira, 'wise'
;
(secondary?), vfpra,
From
b.
roots with prefixes conie only an
Nouns
in ra are, for
neut.
pura,
'hero';
stira,
'intoxicating drink'.
The forms
here, although
thus, niczra,
masc. vird, 'man', vajra, 'thunderbolt',
:
riprd,
fern,
'defilement';
preceding vowel
may
dhdra,
'stream',
best be considered
them have nearly gained the value
of
:
of
independent
:
patard,
ning',
example
'milk',
suffix with
of this
some
Thus
d. With ara
endings.
ksird,
example or two
on'.
nimrgra, 'joining
'attentive',
c.
'inspired'.
gambhdra,
are
made
tdsara,
'depth',
a few rare words
(with
'flying'.,
sdnara,
'shuttle',
doubtless of secondary formation
:
w/ocard,
prefix)
the adjectives dravard, 'runand the neuters
'suiting';
'gain':
bharvard and vasard are
and the same thing may be plausibly con-
;
jectured of others.
With
e.
thus,
cy'ird,
made
ira are
'quick',
isird,
a few words,
'lively',
some
madird,
of
which are in common use
'pleasing', dhvasird,
:
'stirring up',
badhird, 'deaf; perhaps sthdvira, 'firm'; and sthird, 'hard', and sphird, 'fat',
with displacement of final radical a; also sarird, 'wave' (usually salila), and
one or two other words of obscure derivation.
With
ira are
made gabhird
or gambhird,
'profound',
and pdumi, 'mighty';
and perhaps pdnra, 'body'.
f. With ura are made a few words, of which the secondary character
is still more probable:
thus, ahhurd (an/m-ra?), 'narrow', dsura (dsw-ra?),
'living',
vithurd,
With
1189.
yddura,
'tottering',
wra, apparently,
^T la.
is
made
'embracing'.
sthurd,
This suffix
is
'stout'
(compare sthdvira).
only another form of the
exchanging with it in certain words, in others
prevalently or solely used from their first appearance.
preceding,
Conspicuous examples of the interchange are
-micla,
cithila,
Examples
(or am'to),
on the
of
'wind',
final),
cukld,
sthuld,
salild.
the
more independent use are: paid, 'protecting', dnila
'joyous'; later capala and tarala "(said to be accented
trpdla,
and harsula
(the same).
Many words ending
in la are of obscure
etymology.
1190.
made with
^
va.
Very few words of
clear
derivation are
few to be worth classifying.
They are of various meaning and accent, and generally show
a
weak
this suffix
root-form.
too
STEMS IN ra.
1195]
are
Examples
urd/iud,
'joyful',
'quick,
The words
fjfcud,
'ripe',
urud,
'twisting';
'spoon';
va exhibit only in sporadic cases resolution
in
ranvd,
'artful',
sruvd,
'stall',
401
sna.
snu,
vi,
eva,
'horse'.
dfua,
course',
vdkva,
'lofty':
ru,
pakvd,
'praising',
rfcrd,
:
va, ri.
la,
of the
ending
into ua.
1191.
with preceding
for
Thus,
With
ri.
f^"
this suffix are
:
or
'abundant'; and, with un,
:
4
pious
,
sdhuri, 'mighty'; angfiri (or anguli], 'finger'.
This suffix makes a few adjectives and
ru.
"^
directly
of derivatives.
bhuri,
'beautiful',
fubhrf,
jdsuri, 'exhausted', ddpuri,
1192.
number
a small
u,
example
formed,
neuter nouns, either directly or with a preceding vowel.
Thus: dharu.
a-vowel
causative
with preceding
doubtful meaning).
1193.
Two
I
m.
fcf
for
patayalu,
r]
maderu,
e,
By
'praising',
piyaru,
'flying',
'rejoicing',
this suffix are
'firm'
didivi,
(and perhaps jvvri,
'worn
cikitvti
out',
(RV.,
'desiring'
(late);
and peru
'obtaining',
(of
made:
:
jdgrvi, 'awake', dddhrvi,
and a very few other words
'shining';
Here may be mentioned
suffix vit
'scoffing',
sprhaydlit,
saneru,
or three derivatives from reduplicated roots
'sustaining',
dhruvf,
vandaru,
'flying',
with
stem,
with preceding
and (from
-sucking', bhiru, 'timid', cdru, 'pleasant';
patdru,
:
;
ghrsvi,
'lively',
for jirvi: BR.).
once),
apparently made with a
from a reduplicated root-form.
1194.
vowel, are
T
With
snu.
made
this suffix,
with or without a union-
a few adjective derivatives from roots, but
more from causative stems.
still
From simple
a.
bhusnu,
vowel
'thriving',
camnw,
i,
roots:
direct,
'rescuing',
down',
rocisnu,
'wandering',
-marisnu, 'mortal', pra-janisnti,
b. From causative stems:
motion', parayisnu,
jianti,
'sitting
ni-satsm'i,
danksnti,
'victorious',
sthasnu,
'shining',
gamisnti
'biting',
with union-
'fixed';
(TB.),
'going',
'generating'.
for
example,
posayimu,
'attacking with heat', pra-janayisnu
(K.),
cyavayisnti
(AV.),
'setting
in:
'causing to thrive', abhi-focayisnti.
'generating'.
seems not unlikely that the s of this suffix is originally that of a
Such a character is still apparent in kravisnv
stem, to which nu is added.
'craving raw flesh (ferain*)'; and also in vadhasnu, 'murderous', and vrdhasnu (?), 'thriving'.
c.
It
1195.
^
sna.
Extremely few words have
this ending.
It is seen in tlk&na, 'sharp', and perhaps in flaksnd, and -ruksna; and
Unless in the last, it is not
desnd (usually trisyllabic: ddisna), 'gift'.
found preceded by i; but it has (like snu, above) a before it in vadhasnd,
in
'deadly weapon', fcardsna,
Whitney, Grammar.
'fore-arm'.
26
XVII. PRIMARY DERIVATION.
402
1196.
This suffix
eT tnu.
[1196
used nearly in the same way
is
^
with
snu (above, 1194).
As used with simple roots, the
a.
sidered the adscititious
thus,
fcrfniJ,
ated
roots,
t
'active', hatnti,
jigatnu,
'deadly',
"With causative stems
'intoxicating',
and kavatnu,
'miserly'
for
:
a,
in
to
which nu
'stretching';
jighatnu,
:
but also dartnti,
'harming';
-amayitnu,
piyatnu,
then added
is
and, from reduplic-
'running'.
example, dravayitnu,
'thunder',
stanayitnti,
With preceding
C.
and
'hasting',
-tatnu,
Also, with union-vowel, drauifntJ,
'bursting'.
b.
generally capable of being con-
is
t
after a short root-final,
'hasting',
madayitnu,
'sickening'.
a-rujatnu,
'scoffing',
'breaking into';
(obscure derivation).
1197. H sa. The words ending in suffixal H sa, with or
without preceding union-vowel, are a heterogeneous group, and
few examples are
in considerable part of obscure derivation.
A
With
a.
n.,
sa simply: jesd,
bhisd,
'fountain';
'mighty', 6/iama(?),
tavisd
'overcomer',
5RH
1198.
made with
addition of
Thus,
a
i
asi.
titsa,
arusd
:
(f.
mdnusa
mahisd
'strong',
(f.
ma/im),
'devotion'.
f.,
artm),
apt/sa,
'ravenous',
plyusa,
'biestings'.
'red',
'man';
(-us-a?),
few words in the oldest language are
having this form (perhaps made by the
as}.
dharnasf,
'firm',
sanasi,
'winning';
and dhasf,
'station'.
f.,
1199.
P7 ablia.
A
few names of animals,
part of obscure derivation,
Thus, vrsabhd and rsabhd,
ferabha,
'shining';
A
'vagabond',
atasf,
'drink',
ptirusa and
suffix
to
tavisl],
(f.
'seeking booty'; manlsd,
With preceding w-vowel
C.
tarasa,
:
ruksd,
?),
(rather from the secondary root bhis}.
'fear'
With preceding i-vowel:
b.
m.,
f.,
'winning' (aoristic
show
this ending.
'bull',
farabhd,
a certain snake, gardabhd
and rasabhd,
a
the
for
most
certain fabulous
'ass'.
AV. has
animal,
the adjective
sthulabhd, equivalent to sthuld.
1200.
a.
35fr^a#,
^V,
3rT^M^,
Wf
rt.
All the words with
these endings were mentioned above (383d). They have tracethose in at are probably reable root-connection only in part
lated to the participles in ant.
b. 5T^ ad. The words in ad are also given above (ibid.).
:
c.
given
(s{
at the
ajj
3s{
uf.
(to
The words with
be added
is
bhisdj,
these endings were
'healer',
of which
disputed)
trsndj appears to be a secondary defrom trma, 'thirst'.
the etymology
rivative,
SsT if,
same place
A
is
:
number of other primary suffixes are either set
the grammarians and supported with examples of questionable value, or doubtfully deducible from isolated words traceable
to known roots, or from words of obscure connection.
1201.
up by
STEMS IN tnu. sa,
1204]
A
abha.
asi.
at,
403
ETC.
few such may be mentioned here anda in karanda and vdranda and
unquotable words (prakritized a-forms from the present participle);
:
certain
era and ora in unquotable words, and elima (above, 966 d: perhaps a further
derivative with secondary ima from era); mara (ma or man with secondary
ra added) in ghasmara etc.;
sara in matsara, fcara in ptiskara and other
(
obscure words, pa in piispa and a number of other obscure words; and so on.
Secondary Derivatives.
B.
Words
1202.
of secondary derivation are
addition of further suffixes
to
made by
the
stems already ending in evi-
dent suffixes.
But also, as pointed out above (1137 8), to pronominal
and to verbal prefixes and a few other indeclinable words.
roots,
1203.
the suffix
Changes
added
is
of the stem.
is liable to
The stem
which
to
certain changes of form.
Before a suffix beginning with a vowel or with y (which
in this respect is treated as if it were i], final a and /-vowels
are regularly lost altogether, while a final w-vowel has the gunastrengthening and becomes av; r and o and au (all of rare occurrence) are treated in accordance with usual euphonic rule.
a.
An
w-vowel
A
sometimes remains unstrengthened.
also
variously treated, being sometimes retained
even along with a preceding a; and sometimes an a is lost, while the n remains thus, vrsanvant, vrsana,
Of a stem ending in ant, the
vrsa, vrsatva, vrsnya, from vrsan.
weak form, in at, is regularly taken thus, vaivasvata (vivasvant).
b.
final
and sometimes
n
is
lost,
:
:
Other alterations of a
1204.
final are sporadic only.
The most frequent change
in secondary derivation
is
the vrddhi-sti'eiigthening of an initial syllable of the stem
to
which a
suffix is added.
The strengthened
al,
of a prefix,
acmna
(aqvin),
is
usually vriddhied, as
As
were
to
i
:
thus,
amitrd (amitra),
maifravarund (mitravdruna) ,
a consonant
if it
radic-
:
saukrtya (sukrtd),
(uccaihcravas).
see the next paragraph.
a. If a stem begins with
vowel
may be of any character
member of a compound
first
saumyd (soma), parthiva
samrajya (samraj),
auccaihcravasd
syllable
or of the
(prthivi),
the
accompanying accent,
followed by y or v,
or u,
the
and the resulting
semi-
ai or
au
has y or v further added before the succeeding vowel.
as nz,
This is most frequent where the y or v belongs to a prefix
from
vowel:
initial
S
u
a
before
altered
thus,
naiyayika
following
uij
26*
XVII. SECONDARY DERIVATION.
404
nyaya
(as if
niydyaj,
svdfva
(as if
suvafva);
vaiya?vd from vyfyva (as if vfyacva], sauva^vya from
but it occurs also in other cases, as sauvard from
svdra, fauva from pt>an, against
AV. has
[1204
svayambhuva (svayambhu), and
irregularly kaverakd from kuvera
(as if
so on.
from kvera, without the
euphonic y inserted).
b. This strengthening takes place especially, and very often, before the
suffixes a and ya ; also regularly before i, ayana (with ayani and kayani],
eya (with ineya], and later lya; before the compound oka and ika, and later
aki ; and, in single sporadic examples, before no, ena, ma, ra, and frua(?):
see these various suffixes below.
C.
the
In a few exceptional cases, both members of a compound word have
initial
-ufddTw-strengthening
:
thus,
for
example,
saumapausnd
(VS.:
somapusdn), kaurupdncala (QB., GB.: kurupancald), caturvaidya (caturveda),
dihalaukika (ihaloka).
Again, the second member of a compound instead of
for example, $atd?arada (RV., AV.),
the first is occasionally thus strengthened
pancafdradiya (TB. etc.), 'somardudra (TS.), trisahasri, da$asahasra, purva:
varaika (not quotable), caturadhyaya, gurulaghava.
The 0tma-strengthening (except of a final tt-vowel: above, 1203 a) is
nowhere an accompaniment of secondary derivation for an apparent exception
:
or two, see
1209h,i.
1205. Accent. The derivatives with initial vrddhi- strengthon either the first or the last
And usually, it is laid, as between these two situasyllable.
tions, in such a way as to be furthert removed from the accent
of the primitive; yet, not rarely, it is merely drawn down upon
the suffix from the final of the latter; much less often, it remains upon an initial syllable without change. Only in the case
of one or two suffixes is the distinction between initial and final
accent connected with any difference in the meaning and use of
ening always have their accent
the derivatives
(see below, suffix eya: 1216).
other general rules as to accent can be given. Usually
the suffix takes the tone, or else this remains where it was in
the primitive
quite rarely, it is thrown back to the initial syl-
No
;
lable
(ta:
in derivation with initial vrddhi)
and in a single case
1237), it is drawn down to the syllable preceding the suffix.
(as
;
1206. Meaning. The great mass of secondary suffixes
are adjective-making
they form from nouns adjectives indicating appurtenance or relation, of the most indefinite and varied
character.
But, as a matter of course, this indefiniteness often
:
undergoes specialization so, particularly, into designation of procedure or descent, so that distinctive patronymic and metronymic and gentile words are the result
or, again, into the deMoreover, while the masculines and
signation of possession.
feminines of such adjectives are employed as appellatives, the
neuter is also widely used as an abstract, denoting the quality
:
;
1208!
STEMS IN
405
a.
expressed attributively by the adjective and neuter abstracts are
with the same suffixes made from adjectives.
There are also
:
special suffixes 'very few) by which abstracts are made directly,
from adjective or noun.
A few suffixes make no change in the part of speech of
the primitive, but either change its degree (diminution and comparison), or make other modifications, or leave its meaning not
sensibly altered.
1207.
The
suffixes will be taken
up below in the follow-
First, the general adjective-making suffixes, begining order.
ning with those of most frequent use (a, ya and its connections,
#a); then, those of specific possessive value (in. vant and mant,
and their connections) then, the abstract-making ones (ta and
,
;
tva,
and
and
finally,
then, the suffixes of comparison etc.;
those by which derivatives are made only or almost
their connections);
only from particles.
1208.
With
5f a.
this suffix are
made
a very large class
of derivatives, from nouns or from adjectives having a noun-
Such
value.
ives,
and especially adjector connection (of the most
derivatives are primarily
denoting
'having a relation
various kind) with' that] denoted by the more primitive word.
But they are
and feminine
used substantively; the masculine
as appellatives, the neuter,
as abstract.
quently,
ile
also freely
especially
and
fre-
Often they have a patronymic or gent-
value.
The regular and greatly prevailing formation is that which
accompanied with vrdtf^i-strengthening of the first syllable of
the primitive word, simple or compound.
Examples of this
is
formation are
:
From
primitives ending in consonants with the usual shift of accent,
ayasd, 'of metal' (dyas], manasd, 'relating to the mind' (mdnas), saumanasd,
'friendliness' (sumdnas], brahmand, 'priest' (brdhmari), haimavatd, 'from the
a.
:
angirasa, 'of the Angiras family' (dngiras}; hastina,
with
mdruta, 'pertaining to the Maruts' (martit);
accent thrown forward from the final upon the suffix, farada, 'autumnal',
Himalaya'
(himdvant),
'elephantine'
vairajd,
(hastfn],
'relating
'son of Girikshit':
The
suffix
is
the
viraf, pausnd, 'belonging to Pushan'; gairiksitd,
with accent unchanged, mdnusa, 'descendant of Manus'.
added (as above instanced) to the middle stem-form of
to
stems in vant; it is added to the weakest in mdghona nnd vartraghna; the
ending in remains unchanged; an usually does the same, but sometimes loses
its
SECONDARY DERIVATION.
XVII.
406
as in
a,
pdusnd, trdivrmd, dd^ardjnd
;
[1208
and sometimes
in brdhmd,
its n, as
duksd, bdrhatsdma.
From
b.
primitives in r :' jattra,
'relating to Tvashtar',
tvastrd,
From
c.
savitrd,
primitives in u:
Danu'
'child of
artavd, 'concerning the seasons'
'from the
saindhavd,
(cZanw),
or jetr,
(jetf
'conqueror'),
(savitf).
usually with puna-strengthening of the w, as
'relating to the Vasus',
vasavd,
'victorious'
'descendant of the sun'
ddnavd,
but some-
(f*w),
Indus' (sfndhu};
times
without, as madhva, 'full of sweets' (mddhu\ pdr^vd, 'side' (pdr$u,
paidvd, 'belonging to Pedu', tdnva, 'of the body' (tanU}.
d. From primitives in i and *, which vowels are supplanted by the
'rib'),
added
suffix:
aindragnd,
pdrthiva,
(panfcif), nairrtd,
From
e.
'of
'earthly'
to
'belonging
'belonging to NfrrtC:
the Yamuna', saraghd,
(kanina,
in
large
of
a,
number
(nearly as
which the
the usual shift of accent,
lessness'
pautra,
many
'five-fold'
from
(if
a-vl}.
'natural child'
from primexample, with
as all the rest together)
'inimical'
amitrd,
by the
suffix
(amitra,
:
for
'enemy'),
vdrund,
'of
the gods' (vifvddeva), ndirhastd, 'hand'descendant of Vyacva'; gdrdabha, 'asinine'
vaiya^vd,
dafva, 'divine' (devd),
(ntrhasla),
(garddbhd),
'grandchild' (putrd,
'son'),
'of Vadhryac,va's race';
all
mddhyandina, 'meridional'
satibhaga,
(madhydndina],
'good fortune' (subhdgd), vddhry-
with unchanged accent (comparatively few),
vasantd, 'vernal' (vasantd, 'spring'), maitrd, 'Mitra's', atithigvd,
race',
Sarasvati',
manner disappears: yamund,
(sardgha, 'bee'), kanind,
final is replaced
'belonging to
Varuna', vaifvadevd,
afva,
like
the
pdnkta,
'girl').
A
f.
itives
'honey' etc.
'of
(indrdgni);
but dvayd, 'barrenness'
which in
in a,
primitives
[sdrasvatd,
(prthivi),
and Agni'
Indra
'of
Atithigva's
dafooddsa, 'Divodasa's'.
The
derivatives of this form are sometimes regarded as
made by
internal
change, without added suffix.
Considering, however, that other final vowels
are supplanted by this suffix, that a disappears as stem-final also before
various other suffixes of secondary derivation, and that no examples of derivation without suffix are quotable from primitives of any other final than a,
seems far too violent to assume here a deviation from the whole course of
it
Indo-European word-making.
1209.
The
derivatives
made by adding 5f a without
vrddhi-
change of the initial syllable are not numerous, and are in
of inorganic make, results of
an a-declension of words of other finals.
considerable part^ doubtless,
the transfer to
a.
A number
above (399).
The
of
examples of stems in a made by transfer were noticed
of such transition occur most frequently in com-
cases
thus, further, apa- (for ap or dp, 'water'), -rca, -nara, -patha,
-gava, -diva; from stems in an, -adhva, -astha, -aha, -vrsa, but also -a/ma
and -vrsna and vrsana; from stems in i, -angula and -rdtra; from the
position:
weakest forms of anc-stems (407) wcca, nicd, pardcd.
b. Also occurring especially in composition, yet likewise as simple words
STEMS IN a
1210]
1
407
ya.
often enough to have an independent aspect, are derivatives in a from norms
in as (rarely
is,
example, tamasd, rajasd, payasd, brahmavar-
for
thus,
us}:
sarvavedasd, devdinasd, parusd, tryayusd.
c. Similar derivatives from adjectives in in are reckoned by the grammarians as made with the suffix ina: thus, malina, 'polluted', frngina,
casd,
The only Vedic instance noted is paramesthtna (AV.).
(not quotable).
From emc-stems (407) are made a few nouns in ka: thus, dnuka,
'horned'
d.
dpaka, upaka, prdfika, parakd, etc.
e. From stems in r, nestrd, potrd, prafastrd, from titles of priests.
Other scattering cases are
f.
savidyutd, avyusd, virudha, kdkuda,
:
kakubhd.
The Vedic gerundives in tva (tua) have been already (966 a) pointed
made by addition of a to abstract noun-stems in tu.
h. Trayd and dvayd come with grwna-strengthening from numeral stems;
ndva, 'new', perhaps in like manner from nti, 'now'; and dntara from antdr (?).
g.
out as
i.
Bhesaid,
'medicine', is from bhisdj,
perhaps devd, 'heavenly,
avayd, above,
One
or
god',
in
'healer',
like
with
^wna-change; and
manner from
div
(compare
1208 d).
two cases have been noticed above, in which the addition
made
to another suffix has
1210.
of a
a seemingly independent suffix.
With
T yet"
class of words,
The
divine,
suffix
this
are
made
hoth in the old language and
a very large
later.
ya exhibit a great and perplexing variety of form,
connection, and application; and the relations of the suffix to others conderivatives
in
are also in part
iya, lya, eya, ayya, eyya, enya
In the great majority of instances in the oldest language, the ya when it follows a consonant is dissyllabic in metrical value,
or is to be read as ia.
Thus, in RV., 266 words (excluding compounds)
taining a t/a-element
obscure and difficult.
have
ia,
now with
46 are to be read now with ia and
and only 75 have ya always
As might
ya, but many of these have ya only in isolated cases.
;
ia is more frequent after a heavy syllable
thus, in
RV., there are 188 examples of ia and 27 of ya after such a syllable, and
that is
78 of ia and 96 of ya after a light syllable (the circumfiexed ya
the
resoas
will
be
out
liable
to
more
to say, ia
below,
pointed
being,
be expected, the value
lution than ya or yd).
:
It
must be
left for further researches to
decide whether
ya are not included more than one suffix, "with different accent, and
different quantity of the i-element; or with an a added to a final i of the
in the
primitive.
It is also
as a secondary suffix
matter for question whether there is a primary as well
the suffix at least comes to be used as if primary,
;
ya
in the formation of gerundives
:
derivatives into two such classes,
treat
them
all
but
it is
and
it
quite impossible to separate the
has seemed preferable therefore to
together here.
made with ya may be first divided into those
which do and those which do not show an accompanying vrddhiincrement of the initial syllable.
The
derivatives
XVII. SECONDARY DERIVATION.
408
1211. Derivatives in
ya with initial vrddhi-stiengthenin form and meaning, the analogy
7J
ing follow quite closely,
of those in
less
Examples
pdlitya,
fice'
a (above, 1208).
f
common than
are
with the usual
:
They
are, however, decidedly
about
three fifths as many).
(in Veda,
the latter
shift of
'cervical'
grdtvya,
'grayness' fpalitd),
[1211
accent,
ddivya,
(grivd),
'divine'
(devd),
'priestly of-
drtvijya,
'householder's' (grhdpati), janardjya,
gdrhapatya,
'kingship'
sarhgrdmajitya, 'victory in battle' (sarhgrdmajti), sduvafvya, 'wealth
(rMj),
(janaTaj),
in horses' (svdpva), dvpadrastrya, 'witness' (upadrastr); ddityd, 'Aditya' (dditi),
1
to so-met
sdumyd, 'relating
'belonging
dtithyd, 'hospitality' (dtithi), prdjdpatyd,
,
vdimanasyd, 'mindlessness' (vimanas), sdhadevya, 'descendant
of Sahadeva';
with accent thrown forward from the final upon the ending,
to Prajapati',
Idukyd,
the world' (lokd), kdvyd, 'of the Kavi-race', drtvyd, 'descendant
'belonging to the wind' (vayu), rdivatyd, 'wealth' (revdnt):
'of
of Ritu', vayavyd,
with unchanged accent (very few), ddhipatya, 'lordship' (ddhipati), frdfsthya,
'excellence'
patiihsya,
it is
dual
(frestha),
'belonging
vdfyya,
to
the
third
class'
(vff,
'people'),
'manliness' (ptims).
The AV. has once ndirbddhya, with circumflexed final 4 if not an
doubtless made through ndirbddha; vdisnavydii (VS. i. 12) appears
error,
to
be
of vdisnavi.
fern,
1212. Derivatives in
T
ya without
initial vrddhi-stiQiigth-
ening are usually adjectives, much less often (neuter, or,
in TT ya, feminine) abstract nouns.
They are made from
every variety of primitive, and are very numerous
three or four times as
The general mass
many
(in
Veda,
as the preceding class).
of these words
may be best divided accordWords retaining the accent of the
a.
ing to their accent, into
c. Words with acute
primitive b. Words with retracted accent
circumflexed
Words
with
d.
ya (ia). Finally may be
yd (id);
considered the words, gerundives and action-nouns, which have
:
;
;
the aspect of primary derivatives.
a.
Examples
of derivatives in
are: d$vyct, 'equine' (dfva), dngya,
(mukha,
'mouth'),
people' (vfy),
In the
ka,
1222 C,
compound
:
'of
dtiryct,
(vrsan), svardjya,
vifvddevya,
dvya,
'of all
last
'ovine'
ya retaining the accent of their primitives
(dnga), mtikhya, 'foremost'
gdvya, 'bovine' (g6), vfyya, 'of the
'of the limbs'
(dm),
the door' (dur), ndrya,
'autocracy' (svardj), suvirya,
'manly' (nf), vfsnya,
the gods' (vi$vddeva), mayurctfepya, 'peacock-tailed',
word, and in a few others, the ya appears
2; ya,
'virile'
'wealth in retainers' (suvTra),
1212 d,
so suhdstya
masya, mifrddhdnya.
5)
(beside
as a suffix simply helping to
the equivalent suhdsta),
to
be used
make
(like
a possessive
mddhuhastya, ddfa-
STEMS IN ya.
1212]
Examples with
b.
of the
retraction
409
accent
the
to
first
syllable
(as
in
derivation with vrddhi-increment] are: kdnthya, 'guttural' (kanthd),
skdndhya,
'humeral' (skandhd), vrdtya, 'of a ceremony' (vratd), meghya, 'in the clouds'
,
(meghd),
the Fathers'
'of
pftrya,
(pitr),
'adverse'
prdtijanya,
(pratijand).
Hiranyaya, 'of gold' (hfranya), is anomalous both in drawing
forward, and in retaining the final a of the primitive.
Examples with acute accent on the
c.
(div),
'true' (sdnt),
satyd,
the
'of
gramyd,
village'
'earthly' (bh&mi),
accent
1
are:
suffix
the
'heavenly
divyd,
vyaghryd, 'tigrine' (vydghrd), kavyd, 'wise' (kavf);
(grdma), somyd, 'relating to the soma
bhumyd,
,
'headship of a family'
sakhyd, friendship' (sdkhi), jaspatyd,
(jdspati).
Of derivatives ending in circumflexed ya (which
numerous than all the three preceding
d.
in
considerably more
examples are
as follows
Veda
the
:
From consonant-stems:
1.
vi$yh, 'of the clan' (RV.: vfp), hrdya, 'of the
the lightning' (vidytit), rdjanya, 'of the royal class'
'of the arm' (dosdn),
firsanya, 'of the head' (flrsdnj,
heart' (hid), vidyutya,
(rdjan),
dosanyh,
'active'
karmanya,
'of
(kdrman), dhanvanya,
'of
the plain' (dhdnvan),
namasya,
'reverend' (ndmas), tvacasytt, 'cuticular' (tvdcas), barhisya, 'of barhts
'giving
are
classes together),
life'
From w-stems
'arrow'
f.,
:
(fdru,
Under
aryamya
prdcyh,
,
ayusyb,
'eastern'
'intimate' (aryamdn).
vayavyh, 'belonging
(hdnu),
'relating to arrows' (isu);
(pw&), isavya,
'navigable stream': nat/,
head belong,
this
(bhasdd),
and there may be added nauya, 'navigable'
do.);
(especially in fern., naut/3,
is
the jaws'
'of
hanavyci,
'relating to cattle'
to Vayu', pa?avya,
faravyh,
the buttocks'
Of exceptional formation
(prdnc), etc.
2.
'of
bhasadytt,
(dyus),
1
'boat').
was pointed out above (chap. XIV., 964).
as
in tavya (later tdvya], as made by the addition of
yh to the infinitive noun in tu. They are wholly wanting in the oldest language, and hardly found in later Vedic, although still later tavya wins the
the so-called gerundives
value of a
prdfavyh,
primary suffix, and makes numerous derivatives. The RV. has
be partaken of (pra -\- Yaf), without any corresponding noun
'to
prdfu; and also urjavyb,
nourishment' (urj), without any intermedi-
'rich in
ate urju.
3.
From
and z-stems hardly any examples are
i
dundubhya from dundubhi.
4. From a-stems
svargyh,
(devdtd),
prapathyft,
be quoted.
'heavenly' (svargd), devatyh,
:
deity'
to
'guiding'
(prapatha),
budhnyfr,
VS. has
'relating
to a
'fundamental'
(budhnd), jayhanyh, 'hindmost' (jaghdna), varunyti, 'Varuna's', viryh, 'might'
(vir&), udaryh, 'abdominal' (uddra), utsyh, 'of the fountain' (6tsa); and from
a-stems, urvaryct,
clamation svdha
'of
cultivated land' (urvdrd),
svahya,
'relating
to the
ex-
1
.
The circumflexed yh
forms of the suffix
is
thus, in
more generally resolved (into
RV. it is never to be read
and even
ending with a consonant
more than three quarters of the examples.
syllable
in
:
5.
;
after a
There are a few cases in which yh appears
fa)
light
to
than the other
ya after a heavy
one it becomes fa
as
be used to help make
XVII. SECONDARY DERIVATION.
410
a
compound with governing preposition (next
upapaksya, 'upon the
'about the arm-pit',
[1212
chapter, 1310): thus, apikaksyft,
udapya, 'up stream'; arid
perhaps upatrnyh, 'lying in the grass' (occurs only in voc.). But, with other
accent, dnvdntrya, 'through the entrails', tipamasya, 'on each month'; abhi'up to the clouds', ddhigartya,
nabhyd,
sides',
'on the chariot floor'.
The
derivatives in TJ ya as to which it may be
whether
questioned
they are not, a least in part, primary
derivatives from the beginning, are especially the gerundives, together with action-nouns coincident with these in
1213.
form ; in the
comes
963)
to
In RV.
a.
accordant form
mdrjya,
syllable
the gerundive-formation (above,
later language,
be practically a primary one.
occur about 40 instances of gerundives in ya, of tolerably
the root usually unstrengthened (but cetya, bhdvya, -hdvya,
:
also
y6dhya;
-mddya, -vdcya,
when the word
is
or
simple,
the
bhavyd);
accent on
the radical
compounded with prepositions:
thus,
prafdsya, upasddya. vihdvya (but usually on the final after the negative prefix
thus, anapyd, anapavrjyd)
exceptions are only bhavyd and the doubt:
ful
akayya
the ya resolved into ia in the very great majority of occurrences ;
t (in -ttya, -krtya, -tr&tya, -stutya, and the
;
a final short vowel followed by
reduplicated carkrtya, beside carkrti
ed
to e
(in
-deya
only).
not in ndvya and -havya), and a changthey might be made with
:
If regarded as secondary,
ya, in accordance with other formations by this suffix, in part from the root-
noun, as anukft-ya, in part from derivatives in
a,
as
bhavyd (from bhava).
The AV. has a somewhat smaller number (about 25) of words of a
formation
but also a considerable group (fifteen) of derivatives in ya
b.
like
;
with the same value
samapya,
'to
:
thus, for example, adya,
be obtained',
'to
atitarya,
'eatable',
karya, to be done',
be overpassed', nivibharya, 'to be
These seem more
be first worn'.
carried in the apron', prathamavasya, 'to
and especially such forms as parivargya, 'to
markedly of secondary origin
be avoided', avimokyd, 'not to be gotten rid of, where the guttural reversion clearly indicates primitives in ga and fca (216.6).
:
c.
stract
Throughout the older language are of common occurrence neuter abnouns of the same make with the former of these classes. They are
AV., only cttya and steya
rarely found except in composition
(in
and
after
are often used in
Examples
abhibh&ya,
are
:
the
dative,
brahmajyeya,
vasudeya,
the
manner
bhagadheya,
as simple),
dative
infinitive.
purvapeya,
fataseya,
of a
karmakftya, vrtraturya, hotrvurya, ahiOf exceptional form
brahmacdrya, nrsdhya.
devah&ya,\ mantracrtitya,
hdtya, sattrasddya, firsabhidya,
(y~vad) and saha$eyya (]/p); of exceptional accent, sadhdstutya.
has one example, ranya, with circumflexed final.
Closely akin with these, in meaning and use, is a small class of fem-
are rtddya
And AV.
d.
inines
others.
in
yd:
thus,
krtyd,
vidyd,
ityd,
mustihatyd,
devayajyd,
and a few
1216
STEMS IN ya, iya, lya, eya.
41 1
There remain, of course, a considerable number of less classifiable
both nouns and adjectives, of which a few from the older language
e.
words,
may be mentioned, without
fern. suryfj
discussion
}
ajya, pusya, ndbhya
,
;
of their relations:
thus,
s&rya (with
yujya, gfdhya, frya, aryd and drya, mdrya,
madhya.
The suffixes apparently most neatly akin with ya
be next taken up.
1214.
This suffix
<ft iya.
is
virtually
may
best
identical with
the preceding, being but another written form of the same
It
thing.
used only
is
two consonants,
after
where the
ya would create a combination of
direct addition of
difficult
utterance.
It
has the same variety of accent with ya
With accent lya
a.
(abhrd),
b.
iyd
(later,
(=
yd):
'sense':
Thus
:
'from the clouds'
example, agriyd, 'foremost' (dgra), in-
for
fndra),
With accent on the primitive
C.
.
abhrfya,
(lititra).
With accent
'Indra's'
driyd,
fa or ya): for example,
'having authority' (ksatrd), yajntya, 'reverend' (yajnd), ho-
ksatrtya,
'libational'
trfya,
(=
'of
ksetriyd,
:
the
field'
(ksetra).
'learned' (frotra),
$r6triya,
1215. ??I ~iya- This suffix also is apparently by origin a ya
(m) of which the first element has maintained its long quantity
by the interposition of a euphonic y. It is accented always on
the
I.
In RV. occur, of general adjectives, only arjikiya and grhamedhiya,
later Vedic are very few: e. g. parvatiya, 'mountain-
a.
and examples in the
ous'
(AV.,
beside
ives from phrases
In the Brahmanas, a number of adjectwords of verses and the like) are made iniya: thus,
RV. parvatyh}.
(first
kaya$ubhiya, svaduskiliya apohisthiya, etc.
b. It was pointed out above (965) that derivative adjectives in lya
from action-nouns in ana begin in later Veda and in Brahmana to be used
,
gerundivally,
and are a recognized formation
as
gerundives in the
language.
Derivatives in lya with initial vrddhi are
c.
later
language
:
e.
g.
classical
sometimes made in the
svasrlya, parvatlya.
The pronominal possessives madiya etc. (516) do not occur either
Veda or Brahmana; but the ordinals dvitiya etc. (487: with fractional
d.
in
trtlya
and turlya: 488), are found from the
1216.
^TT eya.
crement of an
With
initial
earliest period.
this suffix,
syllable, are
along with vrddhi-\n-
made
adjectives,
having a patronymic or metronymic value.
is sometimes used as abstract noun.
often
Their neuter
XVII. SECONDARY DERIVATION.
412
The accent
and on the
a.
first
Thus,
[1216
rests usually on the final in adjectives of descent,
syllable in others.
arseya,
'descendant of a sage'
(rsi),
sarameyd,
'of
Sarama's
catavaneyd, 'Qatavani's descendant', rathajiteyd, 'son of Rathajit'; dsnet/a, 'of the blood' (asdn), vdsteya, 'of the bladder' (vastf), pauruseya, 'comrace',
ing from man' (purusa), etc.
A more than usual proportion of derivatives in eya come from primitives in i; and possibly the suffix first gained its form by addition of ya to
a gunated
though afterward used independently.
i,
The gerundive
etc.
derivatives in ya (above,
1213) from
a-roots
end in
eya; and, besides such, RV. etc. have sabheya from sabhd, and didrkseya,
'worth seeing', apparently from the desiderative noun didrksd, after their
analogy.
b. Derivatives in the so-called suffix ineyd
as saubhagineyd, kalyanare doubtless made upon proximate derivatives in
ineyd (neither quotable)
-ini (fern.).
C. In
1213 c),
eyya (i. e. eyia) end, besides the neuter abstract sahafeyya (above.
the adjective of gerundival meaning stuseyya (with aoristic s added
and fapatheyya, 'curse-bringing'
to the root),
^T
1217.
origin,
enya. This suffix
made by
suffix; but,
the addition of
(or
is
TJ
'accursed'),
from capdtha.
doubtless secondary in
ya
like others of like origin,
to derivatives in a nait is
applied in some
measure independently, chiefly in the older language, where
it has
nearly the value of the later aniya (above, 1215 b),
as
making gerundival
The y
is
adjectives.
of this suffix is almost always to
be read as vowel, and the accent
(except in vdrenya) on the e: thus, -enia.
The gerundives have been
all
given above, under the different conjuga-
which they attach themselves (1019, 1038, 1068); except Idenya,
and vdrenya, 'desirable', they are of only isolated occurrence
'praiseworthy
(once or twice each). The RV. has also two non-gerundival adjectives, virenya,
tions
to
1
,
'manly' (vird),
and
(abhicasti); vijenya
kirtenya,
is
(RV.)
'famous'
(kirtij,
and TS.
has
anabhicastenyd
a word of doubtful connections.
5TW <*>yya- With this suffix are made gerundival
almost only in RV.
They have been noticed above
The ending is everywhere to be read as hyia.
1218.
adjectives,
(966 c).
A
occur
:
few adjectives without gerundival value, and neuter
thus, bahupdyya,
'protecting many', nrpdyya,
abstracts,
also
'men-guarding'; kunda-
pdyya and purumdyya, proper names; purvapdyya, 'first drink', mahaydyya,
and rasdyya, 'nervous', and uttamdyya, 'summit', contain no
'enjoyment';
verbal root.
Aldyya is doubtful; also akayya, which its accent refers to a
different
formation,
along
with prahdyya (AV.:
vayya (AV.), of doubtful value.
}//'),
'messenger',
and pra-
STEMS IN eya
1222]
:
enya, ayya, ay ana, ayt,
mVF\ ay ana. In the Brahmanas and
1219.
413
ka.
i,
later,
patro-
nymics made by this suffix are not rare. They come from
stems in 5f a, and have t'n&^-strengthening of the first
syllable,
AV.
and accent on the
final.
In RV., the only example of this formation is kanvayana (voc.: kdnva};
has in metrical parts daksayand and the fern, ramayam ; and amus-
The RV. name uksanydyana
yayana, 'son of so-and-so' (516), in its prose.
is of a different make, elsewhere unknown.
1220.
tJltfi
ayi.
Only one or two words are made with
'Agni's wife', and vrsakapayt,
this suffix, namely agnhyl (agnij,
'wife of Vrishakapi'.
They seem
increment of the
1221.
5
be feminines of a derivative in a made with vrddhi-
to
final
i
of the primitive.
Derivatives
t.
made with
The accent
this suffix are patro-
rests on the
nymics from nouns in a.
has
which
the
syllable,
#rcfo^-strengthening.
a.
nivefi,
In RV.
are
found half-a-dozen patronymics in i: for example, dgsdmvarani; AV. has but one, prdhradi; in
prdtardani,
patirukutsi,
the Brahmanas they are more
arum,
janafei,
b.
A
etc.
is
(sardtham)
initial
single
common:
word
of
thus, in
other
AB.
,
sauyavasi, janarhtapi,
value
sarathi,
'charioteer'
found from RV. down.
The words made with the
cendant of Vyasa',
are
so-called suffix aki
as vaiyasaki,
doubtless properly derivatives in
i
'des-
from others in ka
or oka.
That the secondary suffix ika is probably made by addition of ka to a
i is pointed out below
(1222 e.
c. RV. has tdpusi, apparently from tdpus with a secondary i added.
derivative in
1222.
Sfi
ka.
This
is
doubtless
originally one
of the
And
forming adjectives
that value it still has in actual use; yet only in a small
minority of occurrences. It has been, on the one hand,
class of suffixes
specialized into an
of appurtenance.
element forming diminutives
the other hand, and
much more
element without definable
;
and,
on
widely, attenuated into an
value,
added
to
a great
many
nouns and adjectives to make others of the same meaning
this last is, even in the Veda, and still more in the later
language,
its
Hence,
chief office.
ka easily
associates itself with the finals of deriv-
XVII. SECONDARY DERIVATION.
414
atives to
which
is
it
[1222
and comes to seem along with
and is further used as such.
Of this
was seen above (1180, 1181), the souka and aka ; and likewise the secondary
attached,
them an
integral suffix,
are doubtless, as
origin
called primary suffixes
suffix ika
(below,
The accent
e).
of derivatives in ka varies
apparently without rule, save that the words most plainly of diminutive character have the tone usually on the suffix.
a. Examples (from the older language) of words in which the suffix has
an adjective-making value are dntaka (dnta), 'end-making', bdlhika (bdlhi),
'of Balkh', andika (andd), 'egg-bearing', sudka (suci), 'stinging', urvarukd,
:
the gourd' (urvaru),
'fruit of
paryayikd (paryayd),
asmdka,
yusmdka,
'ours',
from numerals,
'strophic';
the third day'; from pronoun-stems,
'yours', mdmaka, 'mine' (516;; from prepositions,
'of
ekakd, dvakd, trikd, dstaka; trtiyaka,
dntika, 'near', dnwfca, 'following' (later, ddhika, utka, dvaka)-, and, with accent
dstaka and tftiyaka,
retracted to the initial syllable (besides
already given),
rupaka (rupd), 'with form', bdbhruka (babhrii, 'brown'), a certain lizard.
b. Of words in which a diminutive meaning is more or less probable
afvakd,
'little
padakd,
'birdling'.
utive:
521
kaninaka and kumarakd,
'nag',
for
'little
putrakd,
foot',
'boy',
son',
kanmakd
rajakd,
or
kaninika,
:
'girl',
fakuntakd,
'princeling',
Sometimes a contemptuous meaning is conveyed by such a diminformations with this value from pronominal stems, see above,
another example is anyakd (RV.).
The diminutives in ka have the gender of their primitives.
c. The derivatives in ka with unchanged meaning are made from primitives of every variety of form, simple and compound, and have the same
;
variety of accent as the adjective derivatives (with which they are at bottom
Thus
From simple nouns and
identical).
1.
mdksikd,
:
'fly',
avikd,
dhenuka (dhenu),
vamrakd,
tive',
arbhakd,
'ant',
patayimukd,
Such derivatives
adjectives:
isukd,
'arrow',
ndgnaka (nagnd),
'cow',
'trembling',
ejatkd,
'ewe',
the
in
'naked',
pifwfcd,
'small',
'home', ndsika,
dstaka,
durakd,
'nostril',
sarvakd,
'distant',
'all',
bdddhaka (baddhd), 'cap-
amyaska,
'young',
'finer',
'flying'.
later
language are innumerable:
from almost
any given noun or adjective may be made an equivalent, ending in ka or ka
(according to the gender).
2.
From
compound
primitives:
svalpakd,
'very
viksinakd, 'destroyed'.
In the Brahmanas and later,
fea
is
vfmanyuka,
small',
'removing wrath', viksinatkd, 'destroying', pravartamanakd,
'moving forward',
often added to a possessive adjective
compound ^1307), sometimes redundantly, but usually in order
more manageable
stem
'skinless',
aretdska,
with
head',
the
vasativarika,
'one
for
inflection
'without seed',
ekagayatrika,
thus,
vyasthaka,
'containing a
who has taken
spouse', abhinavavayaska,
:
yesterday's
'of youthful age',
anaksika,
'boneless',
single
water',
to obtain a
atvdkka,
'eyeless',
gayatrl-versQ\
sapatriika,
angusthamatraka,
'along
safiraska,
'of
grhltd-
'with
thumb
his
size'.
STEMS IN ka, ana, ma, ena. ETC.
1223]
d.
aka
The vowel by which the ka
and
acter;
415
is preceded has often an irregular charfeminine in ika is common beside a masculine in
a
especially,
the case with the so-called primary aka
above, 1181).
In RV. are found beside one another only
iyattakd and iyattikd ; but
AV. has several examples, and they become much more numerous later.
(as is
:
Two
e.
and ika
made up
suffixes
are given
of
ka and a preceding vowel
by the grammarians
namely, aka
as
independent secondary suffixes,
of the primitive.
Both of them are
requiring initial vrddhi-stiengihemng
doubtless in reality made by addition
of ka to a final
i
though com-
or a,
ing to be used independently.
1.
Of vrddhi- derivatives in aka no examples have been noted from the
older language (unless mamaka, 'mine', is to be so
regarded); and they are
not common in the later: thus, aumaka (not quotable), 'flaxen', mdnojnaka
(not quotable),
'attractiveness', ramaniyaka, 'delightfulness'.
Of wddfa'-derivatives in ika, the Veda furnishes a very few cases
2.
vasantika,
'vernal',
'of
vdrsika,
the rainy season', haimantika,
'wintry'
:
(none
them in RV.); AV. has kairatikd, 'of the Kiratas', apparent fern, to a
masc. kairataka, which is not found till later. Examples from a more reJ
cent period (when they become abundant) are
vaidika, 'relating to the Vedas
of
:
dharmika,
ahnika,
'religious',
,
vainayika,
'daily',
dauvarika,
'well-behaved',
'versed in the Nyaya'.
'doorkeeper', naiyayika,
1223. Several suffixes, mostly of rare occurrence and quescontain a ^T n as consonantal element, and may
tionable character,
be grouped together here.
a. With ana are made, apparently,
a pair
in
of derivatives
RV. from
primitives in u: thus, bhfgavana, vdsavana.
With anl (which
b.
number
wife-names
of
:
perhaps the corresponding feminine) are made a
varunani (these, with ufindrani, pu-
is
thus, indrani,
rukutsani, mudgaldnl,
are found in RV.),
cle's
'wife of a kshatriyd
rudranl, matulani,
'maternal un-
1
wife',
C.
ksatriyanl,
The feminines
in
m
and kni from masculine stems in
already noticed above (1176d).
is
pdtni, both as independent
compound
thus, devdpatnl,
:
the Indus as master'.
And
final
anc (407
but sometimes on the
final
From
word,
have been
ta
'master, husband', the feminine
pdti,
and
'spouse',
as
final
of an
adjective
'having a god for husband', sfadhupatnl, 'having
the feminine of parusd, 'rough', is in the older
language sometimes pdrusrii.
d. With Ina are made a
words with
(not quotable).
full
series
of
adjective
derivatives
from the
accented usually upon the penult,
and the same word has sometimes both accents
ff.)
I
they
are
:
;
example, apacina, nlcina, pradna, arvadna and arvacmd, pratlcma and
Besides these, a number of other adjectives, earlier and
praticmd, samicmd.
for
later
:
examples are sarhvatsanna,
vi<;vajanina,
'traveller'
e.
'of
all
(ddhvan,
With ena
is
people',
'way'),
'yearly',
jnatakulina,
pravrsina,
'of
known
'of
the rainy season',
family',
adhvamna,
a^vlna, 'day's journey on horseback' (dfva, 'horse'
made samidhend, from samfdh, with
initial
.
strengthening.
XVII. SECONDARY DERIVATION.
416
A
f.
m
few words in ma, having possessive meaning
be accented on the
(said to
(1230)
1245d,
are
final)
to the a-declension
The
g.
[1223
;
compare 1209c.
made with simple na
adjectives
except the almost isolated
strengthening
(its
1224.
as malina, ?rngina,
doubtless transfers of adjectives in
fall
paumsna, occurs
correlative,
made
are
number
a small
*T
m may
be similarly
of adjectives from
'made by digging', krtrima,
thus, khanttrima,
with initial
stri,
late).
Certain suffixes containing a
grouped.
a. With ima
under another head (below,
'woman's', from
strat'na,
nouns in tra:
putrfma,
'artificial',
'purified'.
Also agrimd, 'foremost', (RV. the ma having perhaps an ordinal value).
The uses of simple ma in forming superlatives (474) and ordinals
to.
:
(487) have been already noticed, and the words thus made specified; adimd
given by the grammarians, but is not quotable until a very recent
is further
period.
C. A few neuter abstracts end in mna: thus, dyumnd, 'brightness',
nrmnd, 'manliness'; and, from particles, nimnd, 'depth', and sumnd, 'welfare'.
The suffix comes perhaps from man with an added a.
For the words showing a
d.
1225.
rjTT
may
final
With
a.
1231.
min, see below,
this suffix are
formed adjectives
signifying 'made or composed or consisting of.
The accent is always on the penult. Before the m, the
primitive is
in general treated as in
'made of earth' (mrd), vanmdya,
external combination
consisting
of
utterance'
'made up of brightness', adomdya, 'of the nature of what
but in the Veda are found manasmdya and nabhasmdya.
which
'of
is
:
allowed in the later language alongside ayomdya.
(sti,
'well'), and fczmmdya, 'made of what?'
final
of the
thus,
mrnmdya,
(vac),
tejomdya,
is
yonder'
(QB.);
with ayasmdya,
RV. has sumdya,
good make'
The
suffix
maya
position, but it
has
is
at
perhaps by origin a derivative noun (yVna) in comany rate the full value of a suffix from the earliest
period of the language.
1226.
^
this suffix.
A
ra.
few derivative adjectives are made with
Accent and treatment of the primitive are va-
rious.
With simple addition
a.
-frira
(also
madhura
-(lila)
(late),
in
of ra are made, for
example
dhumrd,
'dusky'
afrird,
'ugly',
thus, dgnldhra,
b.
medhira,
'tusked';
pahsurd, 'dusty',
(dhumd,
'smoke'),
'sweet'.
In an example or two, there appears
ening:
:
'of
the
to
fire-kindler'
be accompanying
(agnidh),
With an inorganic vowel before the ending
karmdra
'wise',
rathird, 'in a chariot;
y
and others of obscure connections.
initial strength-
fankurd,
are
'stake-like'
made, for example,
dantura (late),
'smith';
STEMS IN ma,
1230]
The use
C.
m
of
in
may a,
ra,
va,
la,
fa,
417
in.
forming a few words of comparative meaning was
made were given.
noticed above (474, and the words so
This and the preceding suffix are really
but two forms of the same. In some words they exchange
1227.
T
l<*
with one another, and
form in use.
later
are:
Examples
bhlmala,
'sweet',
with
but not always, the
5T la is usually,
a,
'talkative'
vacala,
u,
vatula
is
a
and vatula,
somewhat
The
bahuld, 'abundant',
jiuald,
'fearful',
(late:
vdta);
irregular formation from mair,
later language has a
(later
axilla
with?, phenila,
(late);
'windy'
madhuld
'lively',
madhura] and madhula,
(and
'wretched;
with
aprird),
'foamy' (late: phena)',
and matula,
'maternal
uncle',
'mother'.
few adjectives in
lu,
as
krpalu
and dayalu,
'compassionate'.
1228.
3T
A
va.
small
ending (accented, added
a.
'slippery',
b.
arnavd,
Thus,
fantivd,
to
'billowy',
number
kepavd,
'tranquillizing',
of adjectives have this
an unaltered
'hairy';
fraddhivd,
primitive).
rasnavd, 'girded';
anjivd,
'credible'.
There are a very few adjectives in vala and vaya which may be
'peasant' (krsi, 'ploughing'), fikhavala and dan-
noticed here; thus, krslvald,
'wooden
tavala (late); druvdya,
c.
With vya
thus, pttrvya,
1229.
'paternal uncle',
A
$\ $a.
or three
words from names
bhrdtrvya,
'nephew, enemy'.
of relationship
very few adjectives appear to be
by an added ending of
Thus, rorna$d or lomafd,
'brownish', yuva$a,
dish'.
made two
are
:
made
this form.
'hairy',
etafa,
'hasting',
babhlu^d or babhrufd,
'youthful'.
Many of the adjective derivatives already treated have sometimes a possessive value, the general meaning of 'being concerned with, having relation to' being specialized into that of
'being in possession of. But there are also a few distinctively
and some of these, on account of the unpossessive suffixes
limited freedom of forming them and the frequency of their occur;
rence, are very conspicuous parts of the general system of deriThese will be next considered.
vation.
1230. ^T in. Possessive adjectives of this ending may
almost unlimitedly from stems in ^ a or TT a>,
formed
be
and are sometimes (but very rarely) made from stems with
other finals.
A
final
vowel disappears before the
Whitney, Grammar.
suffix.
The accent
27
is
XVII. SECONDARY DERIVATION.
418
always
As
in.
to the inflection
of these
[1230
adjectives see above,
the older lan-
438 if.
They are to be counted by hundreds in
guage, and are equally or more numerous in the
a.
Examples
'v.ealthy',
from
a-stems
are
:
afvfn,
'possessing
later.
horses',
dhanfn,
paksfn, 'winged', baltn, 'strong', bhagfn, 'fortunate', vajrfn, 'wield-
ing the thunderbolt', cikhandfn, 'crested', hastfn, 'possessing hands', sodatfn,
'of sixteen', gardabhanadfn, 'having an ass's voice', brahmavarcastn, 'of eminent sanctity',
'having luck at play', kucidarthfn, 'having errands
sadhudevfn,
from a-stems, manlsfn, 'wise', fikhfn, 'crested', rtayfn, 'pious'.
The examples from other stems are only sporadic: thus, from i-stems,
everywhither';
b.
abhimaMn,
'plotting against',
arcm, 'gleaming', wrmfn, 'billowy', kJtadfn,
and perhaps atitMn. 'wandering'; in surabhtntara, the nasal is
rather a euphonic insertion, to break the succession of light syllables
'spangled',
;
from stems in an,
probably varctn, n. pr.:
seed',
from
varmfn, 'cuirassed';
stems in
as,
retfn,
'rich in
and favastn and sahasin (unless these come
through stem-forms in -so],
C. It was noticed above (1183) that derivatives of this form often have
a value equivalent to that of present participles; and that the suffix is used,
later, in the manner of a primary suffix, making words of
such value directly from roots.
The originally secondary character of the
whole formation is shown, on the one hand, by the frequent use in the same
manner of words bearing an unmistakably secondary form, as prapntn, garbMn,
both earlier and
jurntn, dhumtn, paripanthfn, pravepanfn, matsarfn; and, on the other hand,
by the occurrence of reverted palatals (216j before the in, which could only
be as in replaced a: thus, arkin, -bhangfn, -sangfn, and -roktn.
..4.
d. In three or four sporadic cases, a y, preceded by a, appears before
in: thus, svadhaytn (VS.: TB. -vfn; the y is here evidently an insertion:
258), srkdy-Cn, dhanvaytn, and atatayin (VS.: TS. -vin), which is found also
in the later language. RV. has only maraytn (value?) and rtayfn (apparently
To assume for these
through a rtayd [1149] from the denominative rtay).
a suffix yin
is
1231.
small
quite needless.
frpf
number
With
min.
this suffix are
made an extremely
of possessive adjectives.
mm
In the old language, the words in
have the aspect of derivatives
nouns in ma, although in two or three cases
imfn, rgmfn,
krudhmin in RV., vagmfn in QB.
no such nouns are found in actual use
in in from
beside them.
In the later language,
a very few words
'master, lord'
:
thus, gomin,
(wo,
at
all
with those in
is
used as independent element in
'own').
1232. fiR vin.
also not
mm
'possessing cattle', svamin (Sutras and later),
The
adjectives
numerous.
^
The RV. has ten
made with
They have
the
this suffix are
same meanings
in.
adjectives in vin
(ayudhvfn,
so-called,
is
doubtless a
STEMS IN m, min, vin, vant.
gerund in
for
tvl
:
a-yudh-tvi]
signs of
much
are
it
a similar origin to those in
yin
'heated',
tejasvfn,
as:
after
by lengthening)
(sometimes,
namasvfn,
thus,
Though
mm
(above),
'reverential',
and fatasvfn,
by analogy with them. Others
yafasvfn,
'brilliant',
'possessing hundreds' (RV.), has an inserted
have a
later.
and
less clearly traceable.
The majority have vin added
tapasvin.
common
they become rather more
;
them may be suspected
419
s,
'beautiful';
medhavfn, mayavfn, astravtn,
'obedient to the goad', dvayavfn, 'double-minded', ubhayavin, 'possessing of
both kinds'. More rarely, vfn is added after another consonant than s; thus,
vagvfn. dhrsadvtn. The doubtful word vya$nuvtn (VS., once: TB. vydfniya)
appears to add the ending
1233.
made by
effi
thus,
:
with euphonic
(or in,
v)
present tense-stem.
to a
Very numerous possessive adjectives are
from noun-stems of every form, both
vant.
this suffix,
in the earlier language
and in the
later.
The accent generally remains upon the primitive, without
but an accent resting on a stem-final, if this be anychange
thing but a or a, is in the majority of cases thrown forward
;
the suffix.
upon
A
in
in
final
the
an
is in many words lengthened
oftenest a, very rarely u
Nouns
language (247) before this ending, as in composition.
vowel
older
retain the n.
a.
normal formation
putrdvant,
'hairy',
'rich
punddrikavant,
the
of
Examples
kefavant,
in
a
'having
are
Mranyavant,
lotuses',
:
with
unchanged
prajdnanavant,
son',
'rich
in
accent,
'procreative',
gold',
apupdvant,
'having cakes'; prajdvant, 'having progeny', urnavant, Svooly', ddksindvant,
'rich in sacrificial gifts'; sdkhivant, 'having friends', saptarsivant, 'accompanied
by the seven sages'; fdcwant, 'powerful', tdvisivant, 'vehement', pdtriivant,
'with
dhivant, 'devoted', dydvaprthivivant (94), 'with heaven and
visnuvant, 'accompanied by Vishnu'; awftvant, 'hither turned', afirvant,
spouse',
earth';
'mixed with milk', svhrvant, 'splendid', farddvant,
'full of years', pdyasvant,
tdmasvant, 'dark', brdhmanvant, 'accompanied with worship', romanvant,
with accent on the suffix,
'hairy'; but also Itimavant and vrtrahavant (PB.);
'rich',
agnivdnt,
feet',
'having
b.
With
rayivdnt,
'wealthy', nrvdnt, 'manly', padvdnt,
final
'having a mouth', ?irsanvdnt,
stem-vowel lengthened:
for
example,
'having
'headed'.
d^vuvant
(beside
'having soma expressed', vrsnyavant,
cases occur in V.); cdktwant, 'mighty',
'possessing horses', sutdvant,
d^vavant),
'of
fire',
'with nose', asanvdnt,
nasvdnt,
virile force'
(about
thirty
such
svddhitwant, 'having axes', ghrnlvant,
A
'hot';
visuvdnt, 'dividing' (vfau,
'apart').
mdrasvant, with s added
with
accent
anomalous
'pearl')
primitive krfandvant,
(if from fcr?ana,
from particles, antdrvant, 'pregnant', and visuvdnt (just quoted).
C.
few special
irregularities
are
:
;
d.
jectives
By
the same suffix
in
which
resembling'.
is
are
made from pronominal
shown another
roots
to
the
and,
and stems ad-
meaning, that of 'like to,
be added are ivant and kivant).
specialized
They were given above (517:
to
;
27*
XVII. SECONDAEY DEEIVATION.
420
[1233
And
derivatives from nouns in the older language are perhaps occasionally
be understood in the same way: e. g. fndrasvant, 'like Indra'.
It has also been pointed out (1107) that the adverb of comparison in
vat is doubtless to be understood as accusative neuter of a derivative of
to
this class.
e. In vivdsvant or vfvasvant,
'shining' (also proper name), is seen a
side-formation to vivdsvan (1169), having the aspect of a primary derivative.
For the derivatives in vat from prepositions, which appear to have
f.
nothing to do with this suffix, see below, 1245f.
None
the
of
suffixes
beginning with v show in the Veda resolution of
V tO M.
1234. SR van. The secondary derivatives in this suffix belong to the older language, and are a small number, of which
extremely few have more than an occurrence or two.
They have the aspect of being produced under the joint influence of
A final short vowel is usually lengthened
primary van and secondary vant.
The accent is various, but oftenest on the penult of the
before the suffix.
The feminine
stem.
is
(like
that of the derivatives in primary van:
1169, end)
in varl.
The Vedic examples
are
from a-stems, rnavdn or rnavdn, rtdvan (and f.
and maghdvan; from a-stems,
:
-van), fghavan, dhitdvan, satydvan. sumnavdri,
svadhdvan
sunftavari,
frusfivdn,
muswdn,
(and
f.
-van);
and krslvan
(only
from
in the
z-stems,
amatlvdn,
arativdn,
further derivative karslvana)
;
from consonant-stems, dtharvan, samddvan, sdhovan (bad AV. variant to RV.
Somewhat anomalous are sahavan and sahasavan, tndhanvan (for
sahdvan).
The only words of more than
fndhanavan?), and santtvan (for sdnitivan?).
sporadic occurrence are rtavan, maghdvan, dtharvan.
1235.
JTrT
mant.
This
their derivatives
1233);
a twin-suffix tocTrT vant (above,
is
have the same value,
some extent exchangeable with one another.
ives
i
JTrT
inant are
much
less frequent
about a third as many),
guage,
made from
and
(in
are
and are
to
But possessthe older lan-
only very rarely
a-stems.
If the accent of the primitive word is on the final, it is in
the great majority of instances (three quarters) thrown forward
otherwise, it maintains its place unupon the added suffix
final vowel before the suffix is in only a few caschanged.
;
A
es
made
a.
vamantj
long.
Examples are
With the accent
'rich
in
barley'
of
:
the primitive
(these
alone from
unchanged: kdnvamant, and yda-stems, and the former only
occurring once), dvimant, 'possessing sheep', afdnimant, 'bearing the thundervd&mant, 'carrying an axe', vdsumant,
bolt', 6sadhimant, 'rich in herbs',
STEMS IN van, mant,
1238]
good
'possessing
'rich in sweets', tvdstrmant, 'accom'provided with priests', dyusmant, 'long-lived',
mddhumant,
things',
panied by Tvashtar', hotrmant,
of brightness';
'full
jyotismant,
ulkusimant,
prasumant, 'having young
pilumantf?),
421
tat.
tati,
ta,
'accompanied
shoots',
'rich
gro'mant,
kudmant, 'humped', vidytinmant (with irregular assimilation
also
with meteors',
in kine', ka-
of
VS.
t:
has
kakunmant], 'gleaming', virukmant, 'shining', havfsmant, 'with libations'.
b. With the accent thrown forward upon the ending: agnimdnt, 'having
isudhimdnt, 'with
fire',
a quiver',
pa$umdnt,
'possessing
vayumdnt,
cattle',
'with wind', pitrmdnt (AV. pitrmant h
'having a mother'; no long final
'accompanied by the Fathers', matrmdnt,
vowels are found before the suffix in this
division, and only once a consonant,
Protraction
C.
mant
of a final
vowel
in dasmdt
in jyotislmant is irregularly inserted an
;
(RV.. once).
seen in
is
Mslmant,
(after the
I
dhrdjlmant, Mrlanalogy of tdvisi-
mant).
1236.
has been seen above (especially in connection with
It
the suffixes a and ya] that the neuter of a derivative adjective
is frequently used as an abstract noun.
There are, however,
which have in the later language the specific office
nouns from adjectives and nouns and these
are found also, more sparingly used, in the oldest language,
each having there one or two other evidently related suffixes
two
of
suffixes
abstract
making
beside
;
it.
For derivatives of the same value made with the
suffix iman,
see above,
1168.2.
1237.
cTT
With
ta.
this suffix are
made feminine abs-
tract nouns, denoting 'the quality of being so and so', from
both adjectives and nouns.
The form of the primitive is unchanged, and the accent is
uniformly on the syllable preceding the
Examples
(from the older language) are:
devdta,
'divinity', virdta,
purusdta, 'human nature', bandhtita, 'relationship',
liness',
nagndta,
'nakedness',
descendants', agtita,
suvlrdta,
'wealth
in
retainers',
vastita,
anapatydta,
'lack
'lack of devotion',
'poverty in cattle', abrahmdta,
'man-
'wealth';
of
apra-
'absence of progeny'; also doubtless sunfta (from sunara), although the
a few times used as an adjective (like famtati and satyatati: see
jdsta,
word
suffix.
is
next paragraph).
1238 e
and the
In RV.
cilfri
is
tali,
found avirata, with exceptional accent.
These
rTTrT tat.
suffixes
are Vedic
only,
RV.
Their relationship to the preceding is evident, but opinions are at variance as to its nature.
The accent is as in the derivatives with ta.
latter is limited to
The quotable examples
mdtati,
'freedom
'supremacy',
in tati
from disease',
devdtati,
'divinity',
are:
arishtdtati,
grbhltdtati,
vastitati,
'the
'uninjuredness',
ayaks-
being seized', jyesthdtati,
'wealth',
fdrhtati,
'good-fortune',
XVII. SECONDARY DERIVATION.
422
[1238
sarvdtati,
'completeness'; and, with exceptional accent, dstatati,
ddksatati,
'cleverness'.
Two words
and AV.
fdmtdti (RV., twice;
(RV., once: voc.).
by apposition?):
satyatdti
The words
1239.
made by abbreviation from
mentioned above (383d. 2).
The neuter
all
With
pT tva.
same value
of the
xix. 44. 1, in MSS.),
in tat (apparently
in a case or two: they were
this suffix are
as the
'home', and
in tati are used adjectively (inorganically,
tati)
and
occur only
made neuter nouns,
feminines in cH ta (above, 1237).
abstracts in tva
are in the older language con-
siderably more common than the feminines in ta, although themselves also not very numerous. The accent is without exception
on the suffix.
Examples (from the older language)
fucitvd,
'long
are
amrtatvd, 'immortality', devatvd,
:
subhagatvd, 'good-fortune', ahamuttaratva,
'divinity',
'purity',
life',
patitvd,
$atrutvd,
'husbandship',
'enmity',
'struggle for precedency',
taranitvd,
'energy',
dirghayutvd,
bhratrtvd, 'brotherhood', vrsatvd, 'virility', sat-
matvd, 'soulfulness', maghavattvd, 'liberality', raksastvd, 'sorcery'. In anagdstvd and aprajastvd, there is a lengthening of the final syllable of the primitive; and in sduprajdstvd (AV., once) this appears to be accompanied by
initial vrddhi (sdubhagatvd is doubtless from sdubhaga, not subhdga). In vasativaritvd (TS.) there
In
'human
isitatvdta
quality',
is
(RV.,
shortening of final feminine
appears to
before the suffix.
I
and purusatvdtd (RV., twice),
be a combination of the two equivalent suffixes
once),
'incitedness',
tva and ta.
The v
of tva is to be read in
Veda
as
u only once
(raksastud).
ppf tvana. The derivatives made with this suffix are,
like those in tva, neuter abstracts.
They occur only in RV.,
and, except in a single instance (murtiatvand) have beside them
The accent is on the final, and
equivalent derivatives in tva.
the tva is never resolved into tua.
1240.
,
The words are kavitvand, janitvand, patitvand, martiatvand, mahitvand,
vasutvand, vrsatvand, sakhitvand.
:
1241.
A
few suffixes make no change in the character as
part of speech of the primitive to which they are added, but
either are merely formal appendages, leaving the value of the
word what it was before, or make a change
troduce some other modification of meaning.
of degree,
or
in-
The
suffixes of comparison and ordinal suffixes
have for the most part been treated already, and need only
1242.
a reference here.
a.
rT^ tara and rFT
of adjective comparison
:
tama are the usual secondary suffixes
respecting their use as such, see above,
STEMS IN tea, tvana, tara, tama, ETC. ETC.
1245!
471
487
423
3; respecting the use of tama as ordinal etc. suffix, see
respecting that of their accusatives as adverbial suffixes to
;
prepositions etc.,
it
mrdaydttama,
(1309
composition
tamd (B.)
is
1111
see
c.
RV., once: perhaps an
is drawn forward to the
In vrtrntdra
;
an ordinal;
of a certain
anomalous; in
is
participle,
as often in
(RV.) has the ordinal accent; sarhvatsaradfvatara (RV., once: an error?) is an ordinary
the day'; in a$vatard,
milk', the application of the suffix
name
the accent
final of the
$a?vattamd
'of
adjective,
error)
it
saman,
is
'mule',
is
and dhenustari,
and obscure
peculiar
'cow losing her
in rathamtara,
;
the same.
b. ^ ra and *T ma, like tara and tama, have a comparative
and the latter of them forms ordinals
and superlative value
see above, 474, 487.
c. ST tha, like tama and ma, forms ordinals from a few
numerals see 487.
:
;
:
titha forms words of an ordinal character from bahu
'many-eth') and tavant (with loss of a t in the combination tavatitha, 'so-many-eth')
and, it is said, from other
words meaning 'a number or collection' (gana, puga, samgha).
d.
\^\
(bahutitha,
:
;
1243. Of diminutive suffixes there are none in Sanskrit
The occasional emwith clearly developed meaning and use.
ployment of ka, in a somewhat indistinct way, to make diminutives, has been noticed above (1222).
1244. Of the ordinary adjective-making suffixes, given above,
some occasionally make adjectives from adjectives, with slight or
The only one used to any
imperceptible modification of value.
considerable extent in this
A
1245.
certain limited
ka:
as to which,
see 1222.
few suffixes are used to make derivatives from
and special classes of words, as numerals and
Thus
particles.
is
way
:
cUT taya makes a few adjectives, meaning 'of so many
divisions or kinds' (used in the neuter as collectives), from numerals
thus, dvitaya, tritaya, cdtustaya (AV.), saptdtaya (QB.),
a.
:
astataya
b.
ddcataya
(AB.),
fTT
tya
(RV.).
a few
makes
nitya,
'own',
nistya,
neut.
noun),
'descendants',
tatratya
rians,
(late),
ihatya
The y
c.
adjectives
amatya,
from particles
'companion',
'evident',
avistya,
'belonging there'; and,
:
thus,
dpatya
sdnutya,
according to the
(as
'distant',
gramma-
and kvatya.
of tya is in
rT ta
'strange',
RV. always
forms dvitd and
apparently avatd,
'well
to
be read as
tritd,
(for water)'.
i
after a
also muhurtd,
heavy
syllable.
'moment', and
XVII. SECONDARY DERIVATION.
424
d.
With
T na are
and perhaps samand,
made pur and,
'ancient',
[1245
visuna,
'various',
'like'.
^
With rpT tana or
tna are made adjectives from adthus, pratnd, 'ancient', nutana or nutria,
especially of time
'present', sanatdna or sandtna, 'lasting', pratastdna, 'early', divae.
verbs,
:
gvastana (late), 'of the morrow' PB. has
'belonging to thee'. In the late language the sufused sometimes with an adjective of time
thus, ciratna.
tana
(late),
also
tvattana,
fix
is
'of the day',
;
:
^rT vat makes from particles of .direction the feminine
nouns mentioned above (383d. 1).
f.
^I
g.
kata,
properly
a
noun
in composition,
by the grammarians as a suffix in utkata,
(RV., once, voc.), and samkata (all said
reckoned
is
nikata, prakata, vikata
to be accented on the
final).
Occasional derivatives made with
h.
of primary
the
ordinary
suffixes
and secondary derivation from numerals and
particles
have been noted above: thus, see ana (1150. 2di,
(1172), u (I178h), ayya (1218), ka (1222aj,
maya (1225), vant (1233 c).
ant
CHAPTER
ti
(1157.4),
mna
(1224),
XVIII.
FORMATION OF COMPOUND STEMS.
1246.
THE
frequent
combination of declinable stems
with one another to form compounds which then are treated
as if simple, in respect to accent, inflection,
tion,
is
a conspicuous feature
and construc-
of the language,
from
its
earliest period.
There is, however, a marked difference between the earlier
and the later language as regards the length and intricacy of the
combinations allowed.
In Veda and Brahmana, it is quite rare
that more than two stems are compounded together
except
that to some much used and familiar compound, as to an inteBut the later
gral word, a further element is sometimes added.
the period, and, especially, the more elaborate the style, the
more a cumbrous and difficult aggregate of elements, abnegat-
CLASSES OF COMPOUNDS.
1247]
425
ing the advantages of an inflective language, takes the place of
the due syntactical union of formed words into sentences.
1247.
classes
Sanskrit
compounds,
are syntactically coordinate
which
one of words
into
in
principal
are
krtakrtdm,
'done and undone', devaganand Gandharvas and men and
dharvamanusoragaraksasas
serpents and demons'.
decompound
,
'gods
of such a
more than two.
two members
compound may obviously be of any number, two
No compound of any other class can contain more than
of which,
(below,
however,
either
or
both
member
is
may be compound,
or
1248).
Determinative compounds,
II.
'and'.
'Indra and Varuna', satyanrte,
'truth
The members
which
indravdrunau,
Examples
and falsehood',
:
of
a joining together
:
an uncompounded condition
would be connected by the conjunction
or
three
into
fall
or aggregative
Copulative
I.
members
the
compounds
:
syntactically
of which the former
dependent on the
latter,
as its de-
a noun
being either,
limiting it in a case-relation, or, 2. an adjective or adverb
And, according as it is the one or the other,
describing it.
may be distinguished the two sub-classes A. Dependent
termining
or qualifying adjunct:
1.
:
compounds; and B. Descriptive compounds
ence
;
their differ-
not an absolute one.
is
Examples are
of dependent compounds, amitrasenft, 'army
'water for the feet', ayur'dh, 'life-giving',
'made with the hands'; of descriptive compounds, ma:
of enemies', padodaka,
hdstakrta,
harsi,
krta,
'great sage', priyasakhi,
'well done'.
'dear friend', amltra, 'enemy', su-
These two classes are of primary value
they have undergone no unifying modification in the process of composition
their character as parts of speech is determined by their final
member, and they are capable of being resolved into equivalent
phrases by giving the proper independent form and formal means
That is not the case with the
of connection to each member.
remaining class, which accordingly is more fundamentally distinct
from them than they are from one another.
;
;
III
.
Secondary adjective
compounds, the value
of
XVIII. COMPOSITION.
426
which
[1247
not given by a simple resolution into their com-
is
but which, though having as final member a
noun, are themselves adjectives. These, again, are of two
ponent
parts,
A.
sub-classes:
B.
added,
them
turning
from
nouns into
which the second member
in
Compounds
dependent on the
tactically
are
noun-
of the preceding class, with the idea of 'possess-
compounds
ing'
Possessive compounds, which
first:
namely,
1.
is
adjectives;
a
noun syn-
Prepositional
compounds, of a governing preposition and following noun;
2.
Participial compounds
and
ticiple
The
its
sub-class