Principles of Research
in Education
By
Soji Oni (Ph.D)
Udida, Lucy A. (Ph.D)
1
© 2012 Soji Oni & Lucy Udida
Soji Oni (Ph.D)
Department of Educational Foundations,
University of Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria.
Udida, Lucy A. (Ph.D)
Department of Educational Administration and Planning
University of Calabar ,Calabar - Nigeria
ISBN :
Except for quotation of brief passages in criticism and research,
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Foreword
This book discusses research from a progressively pragmatic
viewpoint that sees a research as a scientific procedure of arriving
at a trustworthy line of investigation through a systematic
collection, analysis and interpretation of data. The book spells out
the aims and objectives of research, types of educational research
including historical research; descriptive research such as case
studies, surveys, developmental studies, follow-up studies,
documentary analyses, trend analyses, and correlation studies;
experimental research; philosophical research; aesthetic research
and quasi- experimental research.
The book is in thirteen units. The second unit after the
types of research in education discusses the research process
comprising selection of a problem, review of literature,
formulation of hypotheses and/or research questions, research
design, collection of data, organization and analysis of data,
interpretation of data, drawing of conclusions and writing of the
report. The third unit elaborates on how to review relevant
literature by examining the functions and methods of literature
review. The fourth unit briefly discusses the formulation of
hypotheses while the fifth unit dwells on the design of a research
with emphasis on One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design, Two
Groups, Randomized Subjects, Post-Test Only Design, Two
Groups, Statistic, Two Groups, Randomized Matched Subjects
Post Test Only Design, Randomized Groups, Pretest–Posttest
Design, Solomon Three–Groups Design, Solomon Four–Group
Design, Simple Fractional Design, Nonrandomized Control–
Group, Pretest-Post Test Design, Counterbalanced Design, One
Group Time Series Design and Control–Group Time–Series
Design. The sixth unit explains how to collect data with emphasis
on primary and secondary data collection procedures. While unit
seven discusses in unit eight of the book, the authors discuss at
length, the interview, the questionnaire and the observational
techniques for data collection.
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The book moves from the hard investigational skills to the
statistical aspects of investigation in unit seven where it carefully
discussed the organization, analysis and interpretation of data
using the t-test table, the Chi-square table, the Pearson Product
Moment Correlation Coefficient, Standard Normal Distribution,
Spearman Rank Order Correlation Coefficient, and the F–Ratio
table. Unit nine of the book contains how to write a research
report with respect to the preliminary pages such as the title page,
the acceptance page, dedication, acknowledgements, the abstract,
table of contents, list of tables, list of figures. This ninth unit also
discusses what should be in each chapter of a research report. For
instance, it explains that chapter one or the introductory chapter
should contain the background to the study, theoretical
framework, statement of the problem, purpose of the study,
research questions, hypotheses, significance of the study, scope of
the study and definition of terms while chapter three or the
methodological chapter should contain the research design,
population,
sample/sampling
techniques,
instrumentation
[comprising validity and reliability], procedure for data collection
and data analysis procedure. The book does not leave out what
students of research are expected to know on research proposal,
common errors and ethical issues in research. The book ended
with chapter thirteen about what research students and supervisors
need to know in assessing students’ research projects.
Judging from the simplicity, comprehensiveness, currency
and coherency of this book on research in education, I do not
hesitate to recommend it for undergraduate and postgraduate
students in education in Africa. By all standards, the book is credit
worthy.
Joel B. Babalola
Professor of Educational Management
and the Founding President of Higher Education
Research and Policy Network [HERPNET]
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Preface
Principles of Research in Education is written principally but
not exclusively for Education students and lecturers. Both novices
and specialists in education research, economics, sociology,
psychology, management business and social research in general
will find it very useful.
The booklet is presented in a way that it will generate
interest and motivate the learning of appropriate principles of
research methods, particularly as it applies to education. The
booklet is simply an attempt by the authors to help researchers and
lecturers see the end of research from the beginning. It has been
written with particular consideration for those who may undertake
research in the context of limited library resources or interaction
with other researchers, as is commonly the case in Africa. It is
designed to be used as an introductory text and as a focused guide
for students who are beginning to develop and conceptualize their
topics, proposal and final research reports, while supervisor of
research will also find some hints useful in the booklet about how
best to assess their students’ research work.
It is the hope of the authors that the handbook will form a
necessary and useful tool for students (and other researchers)
working on their research projects for the first time and those that
needed to update their knowledge about research methods.
It would not be out of place for the authors to express their
sincere thanks to all those who have been instrumental, openly or
covertly, in the realization of this handbook. There are friends and
colleagues, without whose varied nature of support, this guide
would not have been written. We are particularly indebted to Mrs.
Titilayo Soji –Oni, Dr. TPL A. A. Udida, Dr. Blessing Adeoye,
Prof. Joel Babalola, and all our past and present students at the
Faculty of Education University of Lagos and University of
Calabar, for their useful guidance and support. And there are many
more others to whom we are heavily indebted for their
encouragement and useful advice.
Soji Oni & Lucy Udida
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Table of Content
Foreword ................................................................................... 3
Preface ....................................................................................... 5
Unit One: Nature and Significance of Research ......................... 7
Unit Two: The Research Process ............................................. 14
Unit Three: Review of Literature ............................................. 21
Unit Four: Formulation of Hypotheses ..................................... 25
Unit Five: Design ..................................................................... 28
Unit Six: Collection of Data...................................................... 32
Unit Seven: Interpretation of Data ............................................ 33
Unit Eight: Methods of Collecting Data ................................... 36
Unit Nine: The Research Report ............................................... 40
Unit Ten: Research Proposal .................................................... 43
Unit Eleven: Common Errors in Research Reports ................... 54
Unit Twelve: Ethical Issues in Research ................................... 56
Unit Thirteen: Guidelines for Assessing Students’
Research........................................................... 69
References ............................................................................... 73
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Unit One
Nature and Significance of Research
What is Research?
To the layman, research may be termed as the ways in which we
find out facts about something. In simple term, research means the
process of arriving at dependable solutions to problems through
planned and systematic collection analysis and interpretation of
data. Research is different from theoretical conclusion this is
because anybody can make use of theories and concepts to deduce
some fact, the facts deduced or the methods employed are in loose
forms.
Many advanced countries in the world carried out
scientific research that enabled them achieve the rapid
development; in essence the idea of research makes one
progressive. Likewise in academics one should either publish or
perish, this implies that one should continually carry out research
to develop himself and contribute to knowledge.
It can also be noted that the application of routine activities
to already known facts cannot be regarded as research. Research is
also different from syllogisms or predictions. Some syllogisms
may be true or false depending on the premise. If the premise is
wrong the whole idea or statement will be wrong. For example,
Titilayo is from Ondo, Titilayo is a nice girl. All Ondo girls are
nice. This is what research is not because a simple sample cannot
represent the whole Ondo.
Educational research can be defined as a systematic and
scholarly application of the scientific method, interpreted in its
broadest sense, to the solution of educational problems.
Educational research should is limited to systematic studies and
designed to provide educators with more effective means of
attaining worthwhile educational goals. Educational research
equally employ the scientific methods, such as; the use of
observation, experiments, use of questionnaire and other
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appropriate techniques that are suitable for research findings. The
educators make use of achievement scores and other relevant
variables to shape and modify the behaviour of students. Research
in general helps to promote the science of behaviour.
Aims and Objectives of Research
The aims and objectives of research are embedded in its meanings.
In the first instance, it enables us widen our knowledge as
educators and at the same time helps in the enhancement of better
academic attainment. It enables us to identify some of the
problems of living and also suggests adequate methods of coping
through research findings. It also aims towards the discovery of
the relationship that was among phenomena of the world in which
we live. Theory helps us to synthesize isolated data into a boarder
conceptual scheme at wider applicability and predictability. It
helps to translate empirical data into more meaningful
information.
Educational Research
Methods of research according to Scates (1941) may be classified
from many points of view; the field to which applied education,
history, philosophy, sociology, psychology, biology etc.; purpose:
determination of status etc.; place where it is conducted: in the
field or in the laboratory, application; pure research or applied
research; data gathering method employed; tests, rating scales,
questionnaire, etc.; nature of data collected; objective, subjective,
quantitative, qualitative etc.
Educational research therefore is the application of the
scientific approach to the study of educational problem. Travers
(1969) defined it as “an activity directed towards the development of
an organised body of scientific knowledge about the events with which
educators are concerned.”
The goal of educational research is to discover general
principles or interpretations of behaviour that can be used to
explain, predict, and control events in educational situations. It is
also the duty of educational research to provide educators with
more effective means of attaining worthwhile educational goals. It
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employs scientific methods such as the use of observations,
questionnaires, tests and other instruments sin the conducting
research.
Research experts have highlighted different types of research in
the field of education. These are:
(1) Historical research
(2) Descriptive research
(3) Experimental or Empirical research
(4) Philosophical research
(5) Aesthetic research
(6) Quasi- experimental research.
Our concern here is on the first three types mentioned above. One
question that may ponder minds is “Why researches in
education?” after all there are already enough theories in
psychology, sociology, philosophy and allied areas. Researches
will still have to go on in the field of education for the following
reasons:
(1) They help to provide solution to educational problem
(2) They are means of updating knowledge in the field of
education
(3) They help to prove or disprove existing knowledge
(4) They help in the replication of studies and the relevance to
one’s own environment.
(5) They help in the formulation of theories which can be
useful in the teaching-learning process.
(6) They also aid the recommendation of different methods of
teaching and learning and test their effects on achievement.
(7) They help to establish causal relationship between
dependent and independent variables in education.
With the above cogent reasons, researches in education are highly
important, hence unavoidable.
We now proceed to the three major types of educational research.
9
Historical Research
Historical research per se is an attempt to establish facts and arrive
at conclusions concerning the past. This is done through a
systematic and objective location, evaluation and interpretation of
evidence from which the past can be learned from. Based on the
available evidence gathered, conclusions regarding the past can be
drawn in order to increase knowledge of how and why past events
occurred and the process by which the past became the present.
In the historical research, there is no control over
treatment, measurement and sampling. Sampling cannot be
controlled because the researcher does not decide whom he is
going to study. The historical research is past-oriented. The
information needed for the research study is already in existence
and does not call for any control. In investigating the contribution
of a school in a named local government to the development of
education, for instance, a set of data on number of teachers,
quality of staff by grade and a host of others are needed. When
interviewing subjects within the vicinity of the school, the
researcher can decide which questions to ask and what is to be
measured. Historical research studies help to shed more light on
the current situation and also offer accurate accounts of the past.
In conducting a historical research, the following stages are
followed:
(1) The problem is properly defined
(2) Data are gathered from all available sources
(3) The validity of such data in ascertained
(4) The data are interpreted based on the hypotheses already
generated.
Descriptive Research
Descriptive research studies are designed to obtain information
concerning the current status of phenomena. The attempt in this
type of research is to determine the nature of a situation as it exists
at the time of the study. The aim is to describe “What exists” with
respect to the variables or conditions in a situation.
The following studies may be classified as descriptive.
(1) Case studies
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(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Surveys
Developmental studies
Follow-up studies
Documentary analyses
Trend analyses
Correlation studies.
The process of conducting descriptive research is summarized
below:
(1) Statement of the problem
(2) Identification of information needed to solve the problem
(3) Selection and development of instruments for gathering
data
(4) Identification of the target population needed for the study
and the choice of the required sampling procedure
(5) Design of the procedure for data collection
(6) Collection of data
(7) Analyses of data
(8) Writing the report.
With these steps identified, this is a convenient point to proceed to
the most sophisticated type of research.
Experimental Research
The experimental research is the most sophisticated type of
research suitable for testing the hypothesis. The experimental
research aims at questioning the relationship between two or more
variables. This aim is based on assumed relationship which may
finally be rejected or accepted.
The whole process of experimental research involves the
introduction of changes into the natural order of things and a
consequent observation of the effects of such changes. It is the
hypothesis which expresses the expected consequences of such
changes which are introduced within the course of the experiment.
This, we refer to as “manipulation of variables”. An experimental
research has three general characteristics. These are:
(1) Manipulation of independent variable
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(2) Dependent variable(s) in held constant
(3) Observation of the effect of the manipulation.
Let us proceed to discuss the three areas where an experimental
researcher is actively involved.
Control
The experimental research rests on two assumptions about
variables. If two situations are equal in every respect except for a
factor which manipulated, any difference appearing between the
two situations can be attributed to that factor. The other
assumption emphasizes that if two situations are not equal but they
can be demonstrated that more of the variables are significant in
producing the phenomenon under investigation, or if significant
variables are made equal, any difference occurring between the
two situations after the introduction of a new variable to one of the
systems can be attributed to the new variable.
For instance, let us assume that we wish to test the
hypothesis that students taught by the Montessori method (Group
A) achieve higher in Mathematics than those taught by the
inductive method (Group B). This implies that we wish to study
the relationship between teaching method (independent variable)
and the achievement in Mathematics (dependent variable). To
draw a rational conclusion here, we will need to control for the
effects any extraneous variables such as reading ability,
motivation, and general intelligence.
If however no relationship is known to exist between two
things such as colour of the eyes and achievement in Mathematics,
there would be no need for the researcher to effect any control for
colour of the eyes.
Manipulation
This is a deliberate action carried out on an independent variable.
The researcher imposes a predetermined set of varied condition on
the subjects. The different conditions are designed to represent
two or more values of the independent variable. One may
manipulate a single variable or a number of variables
simultaneously.
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Observation
The researcher is interested in the effect of the manipulation he
has done on the independent variable on a response/dependent
variable. These observations, which conventionally are
quantitative in nature, are the dependent variable. Though learning
per se cannot be measured in research, the scores in a test which
are observed can be estimated.
Steps in the Conduct of an Experimental Research in
Education
The following are the steps to be taken when conducting an
experimental/empirical research.
1. Identification of the problem
2. Identification of an appropriate research design for the
study
3. Selection of the samples for the experiment
4. Assignment of subjects randomly to experimental and
control groups.
5. Determination of the entry behaviours using the
appropriate pre-test instruments.
6. Application of treatment condition to the experimental
groups while the control group is subjected to known
conditions.
7. Post-testing of the two groups.
8. Subject the results of the pre-post test to statistical analysis
to accept or reject the hypothesis already generated.
Conclusively, we identify some weaknesses of the Experimental
Research below:
(1) The experimental research leads to relatively small effects
from the manipulated independent variable.
(2) It requires sensitive statistical tests for testing
(3) Experimental conditions are artificial and they hardly exist.
(4) Results of an experimental research are tentative and
therefore need to be retested under non-laboratory
conditions.
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Unit Two
Research Process
In conducting an investigation into any problem of interest, a
research needs to follow some guidelines which form the
standards for such a study. Hence, the investigator will need to do
the following:
(i)
Select a problem
(ii)
Review the Literature
(iii) Formulate hypotheses or research questions
(iv)
Decide a research design
(v)
Collect data
(vi)
Organize and analyse data
(vii) Interpret data
(viii) Draw conclusions
(ix)
Write the report.
Selection of a Problem
John Dewey in his book “How We Think” described the selection
of problem as the recognition of a felt difficulty, an obstacle which
“irritates” the researcher. This stage, because of its importance in
conducting a research, often takes some time to conclude. A
research cannot start until a problem is recognized, thought
through and formulated in a useful way.
To accomplish this, the investigator decides on the broad area of
interest. Often, this may be personal to the researcher but the fact
remains that he must feel “irritated” enough to arouse curiosity.
But how does he decide on what area of interest to investigate?
His past experience, his level of intelligence and sundry
circumstances usually determine which decision is of the optimal
value. For instance, a student researcher in a College of Education
may make his choice based on his knowledge of the course
“Primary Education Studies or his experience about early
14
childhood education to select a problem on the funding of Primary
Education and its effect on the quality of education at that level.
The political situation in a country can also be a source of problem
selection for a researcher. In the field of education, for example, a
researcher may be interested in the effect of the 1999 constitution
provisions on the rights and duties of a secondary school teacher
vis a vis the secondary school students.
At this point, we must point out that there is on dearth of
researchable problems in the field of education for researchers to
investigate. The heart of the matter is that the researcher knows
very little about the process of conducting an investigation at the
time he is supposed to select and formulate a problem. In selecting
a problem, beginner-researchers should note that even experienced
researchers review continually before arriving at a researchable
problem. Consequently, beginner-researchers would have to be
open minded in the process of research problem selection. The
argument here is that a problem might seem researchable at first
glance but would become infeasible on closer examination. For
instance, how does one investigate the emotional development of a
nursing graduate as a function of her nursing training? No doubt
the problem here is interesting, especially in the Nigerian context.
Is it measurable? The researcher will therefore ask himself a lot of
questions before he arrives at a researchable problem. Therefore,
once a problem is selected and a question clearly formulated, one
of the most difficult phases of the research is accomplished.
A useful but necessary digression is desirable here. What makes a
good problem? Better still, what are the criteria for selecting a
problem? To this, we will now consider.
Criteria for Selecting a Researchable Problem
The following are the criteria which should guide a potential
researcher in the selection of a problem particularly in the field of
education.
(1) The problem selected must be capable of generating a
solution which will be additive to the body of knowledge
in the field of education. There is no doubt that even in
most advanced country of the world, there are problems in
15
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
the practice of education. These problems which call for
solutions are open to research studies. An investigator
should therefore select a problem which will produce a
solution to solve any or some of these problems. Ary et al
(1979) listed some of the rhetories a researcher should be
interested in as:
Would the solution of the problem make any difference to
education?
Would the findings be useful in an educational decision –
making situation?
Would other educators be interested in the findings?
Would they have wide generalizability?
There is a need to have affirmative answers to these questions
before the problem can be chosen. In other words, trivial problems
should be avoided. For instance, of what educational value is the
relationship between the shape of one’s nose and one’s ability in
fraction operations in Mathematics?
(1) The problem should be one which will generate further
research. The incidence of slippery problems in the
research world is very high. The solution to a researchable
problem, very often, generates, or at best, results in further
problems. For example, an investigation into the
relationship between residence type and academic
achievement may lead to another to another investigation
into residence – psychomotor skills achievement
relationship.
(2) The problem should be one in which the researcher is
interested. The researcher should select a problem whose
solution is personally important to him. This criterion
underscores the need for the problem to be meaningful and
interesting in order to sustain the interest of the
investigator.
(3) The problem must be feasible in the situation in which the
researcher finds himself. The required facts/data for the
study and the subjects to be used as sample should be
available for the investigation. To gather data on finance in
16
Nigerian Education industry for instance is often a difficult
task. Therefore, potential researchers into the field of
educational finance would have to ensure that the hard data
are available and open to investigation before selecting the
problem.
(4) The problem should be cognisant of the time dimension.
Often, researchers select problems which cannot be
accomplished before the time allotted for the study by the
controlling authority lapses. In conducting an investigation
into the relationship between a variable and academic
performance at the West African School Certificate
Examination. For example, the researcher should
remember that the examination takes place once in a year
and the results are released about four months later (except
for unforeseen circumstances).
(5) The problem should investigate the relationship between
two or more variables. While one could have a problem
with two variables as “The Effect of Reinforcement on
Academic Achievement in Fraction Operations in
Mathematics”; “Two Factors in Programmed Instruction:
Verbalization and Reinforcement” investigates three
variables – Reinforcement and Verbalization as two
independent variable.
(6) The problem must be ‘massive’ enough for the level at
which the study is being conducted. The critical mass (or
size of study) of a study should be appropriate for the
level. For instance, the level of education of a researcher
(N.C.E. University’s First Degree, Postgraduate) should
reflect the problems to be selected.
How a problem is being stated in a research work is of paramount
importance. Hence, after a careful selection of the problem has
been made, the researcher would then state it. In doing this, he
must ensure that the statement clarifies succinctly the problem
which demands solutions. He must also ensure that the study’s
scope is reduced to a specific question. It is desirable to have the
problem in a question form in order to limit the scope of the study
17
to the researcher’s focus. For example: What is the effect of the
structural approach of teaching English Language as a second
language on the performance of SSS II students in Yaba Local
Government Area of Lagos State?
In stating the problem, another important consideration is
given to the different variables – dependent and independent – in
the study. The researcher should define the variables operationally
(that is citing a working definition for each of the variables). In
studying the “Effect of individualized and group oral drills on
Ijesa students’ proficiency in spoken English. For instance,
knowledge drill can be defined as the reading of a paragraph of a
passage written in English, while proficiency in Spoken English
can be the marks scored by a subject (student) in a test organized
by the researcher, after a treatment of the independent variables
(knowledge and Group oral drills) in the subjects within the
defined sample.
Not only must that, in stating the problem, a convenient
balance be achieved, the problem must not be too broadly stated in
order to avoid vagueness. It must not also be too narrow in order
to avoid triviality. For example, the research problem “What are
the effects of the use of Modules on Students’ performance in
Science at the University of Lagos?” is too broad. Rather, the
research problem should be “What are the effects of the use of
modules on 200 level students’ performance in chemistry at the
University of Lagos”?
We have pointed but here that the selection and the
statement of the problem is an important step in the process of
conducting, a research. Once the problem has been properly
defined, the solution to it would be forthcoming.
Evaluating the Problem
Before the proposed research problem can be considered
appropriate, several searching questions should be raised. Only
when those questions are answered in the affirmative can the
problem be considered a good one.
1.
Is this the type of problem that can be effectively solved
through the process of research? Can relevant data be
18
gathered to test the theory or find the answer to the
question under consideration?
2. Is the problem significant? Is an important principle involved?
Would the solution makes any difference as far as
educational theory or practice is concerned? If not, there
are undoubtedly more significant problems waiting to be
investigated.
3. Is the problem a new one? Is the answer already available?
Ignorance of prior studies may lead students to spend
time needlessly on a problem already investigated by
some other researchers. However, although novelty or
originality is an important consideration, the fact that a
problem has been investigated in the past does not mean
that it is no longer worthy of study. There are times when
it is appropriate to replicate (repeat) studies to verify its
conclusions or to extend the validity of its findings to a
different situation or population. For instance, research
with non handicapped children might be of great
importance to replicate with mentally retarded children.
Similarly, much cross-cultural research consists of
replicating research conducted in one country with
samples in another country. Kohlberg's (1969) theory of
moral reasoning has been shown to be valid in a number
of countries, thereby supporting the universality of the
theory.
4.
Is research of the problem feasible? After a research
project has been evaluated, there remains the problem
of suitability for a particular researcher. The student
should ask: Although the problem may be a good one, is
it a good problem for me? Will I be able to carry it
through to a successful conclusion? Some of the questions
the students should consider are the following:
Am I competent to plan and carry out a study of this type?
Do I know enough about this field to understand its
significant aspects and to interpret my findings?
19
Am I skillful enough to develop, administer, and
interpret the necessary data-gathering devices and
procedures?
Am I well grounded in the necessary knowledge of
research design and statistical procedures?
Are pertinent data accessible? Are valid and reliable
data-gathering devices and procedures available?
Will school authorities permit me to contact the students,
conduct necessary experiments or administer necessary
tests, interview teachers, or have access to important
cumulative records?
Will I be able to gel the sponsorship necessary to open
doors that otherwise would be closed to me?
Will I have the necessary financial resources to carry on this
study? What will be the expense involved in datagathering equipment, printing, test materials, travel, and
clerical help? If the project is an expensive one, what is
the possibility of getting a grant from a philanthropic
foundation or from such governmental agencies as the
NUC, ETF etc.?
Will I have enough time to complete the project?
Will there be time to devise the procedures, select the
data-gathering devices, gather and analyze the data, and
complete the research report? Since most academic
programmes impose time limitations, certain worthwhile
projects of a longitudes type are precluded.
Will I have the courage and determination to pursue the
study in spite of the difficulties and social hazards that may
be involved?
Will I be willing to work aggressively when data are
difficult to gather and when others are reluctant to
cooperate? Sex education, racial integration, and other
controversial problem areas, however, may not be
appropriate for a beginning research project.
The next stage is the review of related literature.
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Unit Three
Review of Literature
It has been stated earlier on in this paper that one’s study has to be
related to the body of organized knowledge already in existence.
To make it become related, one has to go through the series of
literature on the problem. This is called “review of related
literature”. The emphasis here is on ‘related’ because there are
series of literature, which may not be related to the study. These
are not relevant and therefore they should be avoided. The review
of literature involves effective use of the library resources in order
to ascertain which information is relevant to the research study at
hand. The review process could be on research topic and
problems, relevant theories, methodology, and results and
discussions.
Generally, type of questions that guide the evaluation of literature
review includes;
a. What is the magnitude of the literature review?
b. How empirical and up to date is it?
c. Does it bear on the variables of the study?
d. Does it bear on the hypotheses? That is the possible
linkages among the variables?
e. How organized is the whole literature? That is, any
introduction, subheadings, summary etc?
f. Can the whole literature be effectively summarized in a
clear and understandable form, in a paragraph of few
sentences?
Functions of Literature Review in a Research Work
(1)
The review of literature helps to define the boundaries
of the research work. The researcher is able to identify
21
(2)
(3)
(4)
where previous research works started from, and where
they stopped, in order to identify where he can
commence his own study. He is able to evaluate the
threshold of the contributions of the various
researchers in his own field of interest to the existing
knowledge, and subsequently identify gaps where his
own study can be of great value.
The instruments (questionnaires, observation rating
scale etc.) which were used by previous researchers
when identified, can be reviewed for relevance to
current research and consequent modification to suit
the environment, and the population of the study. For
example the TJSI (Teacher Job Satisfaction
Instrument) used to measure teachers’ job satisfaction
level in Canada, could be modified to suit Nigeria’s
local needs in a research study on the job satisfaction
of a Nigerian teacher.
Review of literature also aids the researcher to relate
his study to the affirm or reject a theory after one has
conducted a study into it. Affirmation or rejection can
only come after a careful review of such theory has
been made.
The review of related literature is also capable of
preventing unintentional replication of previous
research studies. Researchers who develop a ‘lunch’ or
interest for particular studies may later find out that the
studies are a replication of previous studies. A
thorough review of literature will help to avoid this.
Occasionally however, a replication may be necessary
on account of generation, setting or the population for
the study.
Having settled with the importance of related literature, we now
proceed to the methodology of such review.
22
Methods of Reviewing Literature
Related literature comprises materials from:
(1)
Previous research works in journals and thesis form
(2)
Theoretical works in texts
(3)
Interviews recorded in cassettes – audio and audio
visual
The review of related literature section in a research work should
be divided into subsections. These subsections should reflect the
subtopics under the problem area. Previous studies, whether
theory, research or oral, which bear some relevance to the sundry
subtopics under the study should be brought together to form
subsection. To demonstrate this, one example would suffice. In
studying the “Effects of the provisions of the National Policy on
Education (NPE) on Primary School Pupils” for instance, one
might need to divide the NPE into subsections vis a vis what
previous studies said about is as:
(a)
Provisions:
Comments on provisions
Research works into provisions
Philosophical background if any.
(b)
Effects:
Theoretical background
Research works into effects.
Osuala (1982) pointed out the merits of this head-subhead
approach to organizing the related literature review section:
“… References may be made in difference places to the same
study … giving a more systematic, complete picture of the ‘state of
the art’ …”
Ary (1979) outlined certain guidelines in the organization of the
related literature review:
(1) Begin with the most recent studies in your field and then
work backward through earlier volumes.
(2) Read the abstract or summary section of a report first to
determine whether it is relevant to your question.
(3) Before taking notes, skin the report quickly to find those
sections that are related to your question.
23
(4) Make notes directly on file cards as they are easier to sort
and organize than sheets of paper, backs of envelopes and
so on.
(5) Write out a complete bibliographic reference for each
work.
(6) To facilitate sorting and organizing, do not put more than
one reference on each card.
(7) Be sure to indicate which parts of the notes are direct
quotations from the author and which are your own
paraphrases.
On a final note, the review of literature is a review and not a
photocopy. Therefore, for research works, findings and
methodology should be summarized, while in books, free
comments should be paraphrased. Having an unnecessarily wieldy
review would only create a bulk work of a research project report.
24
Unit Four
Formulation of Hypotheses
In this section, we dispose with possible semantic difficulties:
A hypothesis is a proposition or logical assumption, which relates
two or more variables. One of these variables is the Independent
variable. The independent variable is that variable (can take
different values) which is the antecedent or which leads to the
dependent variable (consequence). An example of a hypothesis is
“There is no significant relationship between assignment
of homework and performance in Mathematical fraction
among senior secondary school students in Kosofe Local
Government Area of Lagos State”.
This is called a Null Hypothesis (Ho) claiming no
relationship.
One might ask: of what importance is the
hypothesis?
Hypotheses and research questions are two alternatives and
it is best to use one at a time except in situations where it is
necessary to combine them but without duplication.
However, it should be stated here that not all studies
require hypotheses, although most experimental and
correlational studies have them as will some descriptive
studies.
The Hypotheses
(1) Provides a tentative explanation of phenomena and
facilitates the extension of knowledge in an area.
(2) Serves as a bridge between the problem and the
solution
(3) Provides direction to the research
25
(4) Provides the researcher with a statement which
tests relationships, thus, facilitating easy
manipulation of the independent variable, and
consequent measurement of the dependent variable.
(5) Helps to determine the statistical technique to be
used in a research. If, for instance the hypothesis
underscores the difference between performances
of different groups in a test or of a group in
different tests, the t-test is used to compare.
(6) Helps to determine the design of the study. Here
the hypothesis helps to know the facts, the methods
to use and the appropriate samples to be used for
the study.
(7) Is used as a framework for drawing conclusions
since irrelevant (irrelevant to the stated hypothesis)
ideas should not be reported in the conclusion.
For a hypothesis to be usable, certain conditions have to be
met. These are:
(1) The hypothesis must have explanatory power. This
can be described as the possible explanation of
what it is attempting to explain. To illustrate this, a
hypothesis stating that the student will not pass the
examination because of her manner of crossing the
legs when she sits is not a possible explanation.
(2) The hypothesis must state the expected relationship
between variables. This has been explained earlier
on in this paper.
(3) A hypothesis needs the criterion of testability.
(4) A hypothesis should be consistent with the existing
body of knowledge.
(5) A hypothesis should be simply and concisely
stated.
A hypothesis can be directional or non directional. It is
directional, if it specifies the direction of the assumed
findings. For example, “Students who have the knowledge
26
of results would perform better in subsequent test than
those who did not.” Hypotheses are typically stated in null
form for statistical testing, although directional hypotheses
are acceptable.
27
Unit Five
Design
This section provides a description of the type of research
design to be used- descriptive, experimental, correlational,
ethnographic etc. – and includes a brief overview of the
methodology and a rationale for the selected approach. The
design of a research therefore refers to the conceptual
framework within which the research is conducted. The
concept of research design can be explained in terms of the
plan, structure and strategy operated by the researcher to
aid the provision of solution to a research problem through
effective control of variance; systematic variance;
extraneous variance; and error variance, A good research
design is expected to maximize systematic variance,
control extraneous variance and minimize error variance.
In other words, the design defines the procedure which the
researcher will follow in testing his hypothesis. A
convenient starting point here is to give an example which
can gradually be expatiated upon.
In “Programmed versus Non programmed
Instruction and their effects on the verbal Ability of
selected senior secondary students in Shomolu Local
Government Area of Lagos State”,
The following sketch can be made:
E
X1
X3
01
X5
03
C
X2
X4
02
X6
04
Where
E - Experimental Groups – 100 students (50 males, 50
females)
C – Control Groups – 100 students
X1 – Pretest X3 Pretest
28
X3 – Intelligence Quotient Test (Bakare-Under Test)
X4 - Intelligence Quotient Test
01 – Observation – Use of Programmes Instruction Result
02 – Observation – Use of Non Programmed Instruction
X5 – Post Test – Verbal Ability Test
X6 – Post Test – Verbal Ability Test
03 – Observation – Results
04 – Observation – Results
In the example above, the sample (200 students for both
experimental and control Groups) is defined. Two Pretests (X1 and
X2) are used to ensure that the subjects of the experiment are
within the same socio-economic group. X3 and X4 are further used
to test the intellectual differences among the subjects. This will
further help to ascertain that none of the subjects is disadvantaged
or exceptional. X5 and X6 are Post Test (recall the problem of the
study above) while 03 and 04 are the results of the Verbal Ability
Test for the two samples.
From the demonstration already given above, the design performs
two basic functions. These are:
(1) Establishing a basis for the comparisons required by the
hypothesis of the research.
(2) Enabling the researcher through statistical analysis of the
data to make a meaningful interpretation of the results of
the study.
For these functions to be performed, the design must meet the
following criteria:
(1) It must be appropriate for the research. There is no use
making a design sophisticated without recourse to the
suitability.
(2) The design must also provide adequate control to ensure
that the effect of the independent variable alone is what is
being measured.
29
If for instance in the example cited above, the design did not
include X3 and X4, the researcher might be making a great mistake
since the subjects’ ability would affect their performance in X5
and X6. The results 03 and 04 would therefore not be reliable.
Campbell and Stanley (1963) have highlighted areas which need
to be controlled in the design. These are:
History: Those incidents which occur between the first and
second measurements if the subjects to produce changes in the
dependent variable must be controlled. This implies that factors
other than the one which we are testing, which may affect the
results must be controlled.
Maturation: Where the subjects have certain processes which
operate within them such that may affect the results, they (these
processes) must be controlled. These include age, hunger, fatigue,
and motivation.
Measuring Instruments: Where the measuring instrument
changes, the results may be affected. For instance in the example
above, using X3 (Bakare – Under Test) for the Experimental of X4
for the Control group would be wrong. X5 and X6 differential may
be as a result of such a change in instrument.
Differential selection of subjects: This refers to a situation where
there are significant differences between the groups even before
the application of the treatment (‘Treatment’ means application of
the instrument on subjects) if for instance in our example above,
the first set of 100 subjects in ‘E’ group were superior to the
second set ‘C’ group, the former might perform better in X5.
At this juncture, we can proceed to have a look at the different
design (though not in detail) already advanced by Kempthorne
(1961). These include:
(1) One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design
(2) Two Groups, Randomized Subjects, Post-Test Only Design
(3) Two Groups, Statistic
30
(4)
Two Groups, Randomized Matched Subjects Post Test
Only Design
(5) Randomized Groups, Pretest – Posttest Design
(6) Solomon Three – Groups Design
(7) Solomon Four – Group Design
(8) Simple Fractional Design
(9) Nonrandomized Control – Group, Pretest-Post Test Design
(10) Counterbalanced Design
(11) One Group Time Series Design
(12) Control – Group Time – Series Design
31
Unit Six
Collection of Data
The collection of data is an important step in the research process.
Scientific problems can only be solved using scientific means. The
only scientific means open to a researcher is able to draw valid
conclusions, which are bias-free. Osuala (1982) asserted that it is
not wise to select a topic, no matter how adequate, if the data
required for its solution are not available. In the developing
countries for instance, data on finances though are available are
not released to prospective researchers for fear of being exposed.
There are two types of data. These are:
(1) Primary Data (2) Secondary Data
Primary data are series of information collected for a specific
purpose. In calculating repeater rate in secondary schools for
instance, the educational researcher needs some information on
the number of students enrolled, the number who dropped out and
the number retained within the system. All these form primary
data.
On the other hand, secondary data are data collected for some
other purposes, which could be administrative. Here, the real
reliability index is very low in that the researcher does not gather
the information himself. He depends on data expressed by another
body. In the example given above, for the repeater rate researcher
may gather some data from the National Population Commission
on School Age Population by Local Government from which he
extracts the data on enrolment. In your data collection, you need
to describe how the data will be collected, when it will be
collected and who will collect it.
32
Unit Seven
Organization, Analysis and
Interpretation of Data
Organization and Analysis of Data
Describing data which have not been arranged in some kind of
order is very difficult. We should recall that data are usually in
form of junk until a researcher is ready to organize them.
Collecting information on the performance of students in a paper
in the West African School Certificate Examination cannot be the
end of it all. One will need to organize such information using
some guiding principles. In descriptive statistics, there are two
common ways of doing this. These are:
(1) Arranging the measures/scores into frequency distributions
(2) Presenting them in graphic form
However as stated earlier in this book, data are usually found and
collected in a junk. The duty of the researcher is to organize and
analyse such data. When a careful analysis has been made, the
researcher proceeds to the interpretation of such data. For
instance, a careful use of the Mean Statistic may lead to an
interpretation of the relative performance of a student within the
group.
We should however point out here that the researcher
needs to be vast in the statistical instrument and the method of
interpreting the information from such instrument if his work is to
be successful. It is only when he knows how to interpret that the
statistic he has chosen can be useful. At this juncture, let us draw
the reader’s attention to certain tables which are found in statistics
called Statistical Tables. From these tables, the Critical Values can
be ascertained and later compared with the Calculated Values (the
results of an analysis of the instrument used).
Such statistical tables include:
• The t-test table
33
•
•
•
•
•
The Chi-square table
The Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient
Standard Normal Distribution
Spearman Rank Order Correlation Coefficient
F – Ratio Table
We should also reiterate here that an interpretation which is well
made helps a researcher to fix the knowledge gathered from the
project into the general body of knowledge in the field.
A careful thought out plan expressed as a thorough and
complete proposal can be expected to generate results, which can
be early and meaningfully interpreted. Once the purpose has been
approved and the research work set in motion, the study must be
carried out exactly as planned.
It is unethical in research to manipulate the results because
they seem ‘unfavourable’ or ‘disagree’ with one’s ideas. Just as
this is unethical, it is equally wrong to abandon independent or
dependent variables that do not seem to be “working out” or add
promising ones. Such changes must be left for future studies. The
interpretation of a study requires certain caution:
• Interpretation should not go beyond the information
available.
• Interpretation, if a need be, should include negative results
• Interpretation of unhypothesized relationships can also be
made.
However, it should be noted that for for quantitative studies,
researcher need to describe methods of scoring data, the scales of
measurement to be used, how scoring reliability will be
determined, and the statistical methods and tools to be used. Be
sure to provide a very detail description of the analysis procedures
to be used in qualitative studies.
Conclusion
This section takes its direction from the data already analyzed and
interpreted. In other words, the conclusions to be drawn must be
based on available results and not on the bias of the researcher.
34
Not only that, the section should also incorporate all the results in
brief such that any interested reader would clearly see the results
of the investigation.
35
Unit Eight
Methods of Collecting Data
A major task performed by researchers is to select dependable
measuring instruments for the purpose of qualifying the
behaviours and attributes to be studied. Many research questions
require the development of dependable devices which can measure
sundry qualities. In these sections, some of the methods used for
collecting data in educational research are discussed.
1. Interview
An interview can be in the form of:
(1) Face-to-face or (2) Telephone
This method is well-established since the researcher can easily
elaborate on questions already asked if the respondent find it
ambiguous. The interview method has the following advantages:
(1) Larger proportions of the sample elements are reached.
This is because the investigator can leave one respondent
for the other.
(2) Cooperation from respondents is easier. The researcher can
enjoy the cooperation of the respondents through a rapport
he maintains with them.
(3) Response rate is increased because of the “on the spot”
dialogue the researcher engages in.
(4) Quality of response is better because of the presence of the
interviewer.
(5) Falsification of responses is reduced to minimum.
The interview method has the following shortcomings:
(1) It is capable of encouraging a subjective evaluation of
responses.
(2) The interview method may be too cumbersome when the
interviewer has a lot of subjects to interview
36
(3) The interview method may also elicit dishonest responses
from the interviewed. By this we mean that an intervenes
may “pact up” an unusual attitude because of the presence
of the researcher.
The crux of the matter here is that whatever the short comings of
the interview method of collecting data, it has and will continue to
serve as a source for data collection. Seeing, they say, is believing.
The researcher and the respondent can see each other or at worse
hear each other. We now proceed to another method often used in
research, which is the questionnaire technique.
2. The Questionnaire
The direct contact with respondents involve in interviewing is
time consuming and expensive. The same set of information can
be gathered by means of a written set of questions which is
designed to elicit various responses from the respondents. This is
called a questionnaire.
A questionnaire can be:
(1) Structured/Closed (2) Unstructured
A structured questionnaire is a type which does not allow for free
responses from the subjects. He is better told to ‘check ( ) his
reactions or mark (X) an example of this is:
etc.
Agree
Disagree,
Indifference
1. Item
The
induction
method of teaching
is the best
In the structured questionnaire, the answers provided for each
question should be exhaustive of all possible responses and at the
same time mutually exclusive. The shortcoming of this type of
questionnaire is that it forces subjects to choose one of a number
of preselected alternative answers to questions, for which they
might felt they do not have clear answers.
37
On the other hand, the unstructured questionnaire is that
which does not involve suggested answers to the set of questions.
Instead, the respondent is given a “blank cheque” to elicit his
responses. Here, the respondents freely reveal their opinions and
attitudes. However this method leads to a difficulty in processing
and analysis of data gathered. Apart from that, subjects may omit
important information or emphasize things which are of disinterest
to the researcher or of no importance to the purpose of the
researcher.
The types of questionnaires are capable of bearing
questions which are misinterpreted by the respondents. It is
extremely difficult, but possible to formulate a series of questions
whose meanings are crystal clear to every respondent.
Basic Guidelines for Designing and Organizing a
Questionnaire
(1) The introductory section should contain what the study is
about.
(2) Instructions on how to complete the questionnaire must
also be included.
(3) Researcher should give sample items to show how the
completion should be done.
(4) The questions should proceed from easy items to difficult
ones.
(5) The language to be used should be simple and
unambiguous to aid easy comprehension.
(6) The questionnaire should be as brief as possible so that a
minimum time is required for the completion.
(7) The questions should be such that will avoid bias or
prejudice that might predetermine a respondent’s answer.
(8) All possible alternatives on the issue at stake must be
included.
(9) Questions which might elicit embarrassing or suspicious
reactions should be avoided.
(10) Questions should be logically arranged so that tabulation
and interpretation are easy.
38
(11) A cover letter addressed to the respondent by name and
title must accompany the questionnaire.
3. The Observation Method
Systematic direct observation remains one of the most desirable
methods of collecting data. This is because the researcher is able
to watch the effect of his introduced manipulation on the
independent variable.
In a study “Behaviour Changes Result from a Study of Traditional
Cultures in Lagos State” for instance, there might be two groups –
Experimental and Control. The Experimental group might be
taught the traditional cultures for a specified period while the
Control group is not taught. At the end of the course, the
researcher found out from observation that the Experimental group
members had started to put up traditional behaviour such made of
dressing change, greeting pattern etc. while the members of the
control group changed very little in the realm of traditions.
In using this method, one can suggest five important preliminary
steps to be taken. These are:
(1) The aspect of behaviour to be observed must be selected.
(2) The behaviours falling within the chosen category must be
clearly defined.
(3) The people who will carry out the observations must be
trained.
(4) A system for quantifying observations must be developed
(5) Detailed procedure for recording the behaviour must be
developed.
The observation method saves time. It can also be used to check a
lot of variables together. We should however point out that it can
be affected by the “halo effect”. The observer might be too strict
in his assessment leading to severity or too lenient.
39
Unit Nine
Research Report
The results of a research study are of little value if others are not
made to be aware of them. The purpose of this unit is to highlight
in general term, the organization and presentation of a report as
well as identify the common errors in such an important exercise.
In a research report, the investigator communicates both
the procedures and the findings of the research. The implications
of the findings and their relationship to other knowledge in the
same field are also discussed.
A good research report should be as concise as possible.
Anecdotes and stones of personal experiences and arguments are
irrelevant to a report.
Not only that, the research report should bear an
impersonal tone. This implies that first person pronouns – singular
and plural should not be used. Thus, it is wrong to write.
“I randomly assigned subjects to the two treatment groups”
This statement should have been
“Subjects were randomly assigned to the two treatment
groups”
The format of a research report presented below shows that it
follows logically the steps in research process presented earlier on
in Unit 2. We should however point out here that different
approaches are required for a thesis, a journal and a conference
paper. Though the format presented below is general, it contains
the important parts of the presentation.
I.
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
Preliminary Pages
Title Page
Acceptance Page
Dedication
Acknowledgements
Abstract
Table of Contents
40
G.
H.
List of Tables
List of Figures
Chapter One
Introduction
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Background to the Study
Theoretical Framework
Statement of the problem
Purpose of the study
Research Questions
Hypotheses
Significance of the study
Scope of the study
Definition of terms
Chapter Two
Review of Literature
Subtitles
Summary
Chapter Three
Methodology
• Research Design
• Population
• Sample and Sampling Technique
• Instrumentation
• Validity
• Reliability
• Procedure for Data Collection
• Data Analysis.
Chapter Four
Results
Discussion of findings
41
Chapter Five
Summary, Conclusion and Recommendation
References
Appendix
42
Unit Ten
Research Proposal
A proposal is a written presentation of an intended research
specifying the problem, the purpose, sope, methodology and the
budget of the study. It is an overview of an intended research
describing the proposed project, its design, financial requirements
(where applicable) and its potential contribution to the existing
body of knowledge. A well-prepared research proposal acts as an
efficient and effective guide to the researcher while conducting
the study.
Thus, the preparation of a research proposal is an
important step in the research process. Many institutions require
that a proposal be submitted before any project is approved. This
provides a basis for the evaluation of the project, and gives the
advisor a basis for assistance during the period of his or her
direction. It also provides a systematic plan of procedure for the
researcher to follow.
The proposal is comparable to the blueprint, which the
architect prepares before the bids are let and building
commences. The initial draft proposal is subject to modification in
the light of the analysis by the student and his or her project
advisor. Because good research must be carefully planned and
systematically carried out, procedures that are improvised from
step, to step will not suffice. A worthwhile research project is
likely to result .only from a well-designed proposal.
The eight-part proposal format presented here should not
be considered the only satisfactory sequence. Many institutions
suggest other formats for the research proposal.
Part 1: Background to the Study or Introduction. The essence of a
good background to the problem is its ability to convince readers,
particularly those not convinced by the title alone, that a problem that
is worth solving through research has been identified. Within the
43
background, the researcher is expected to argue convincingly on why
time and efforts should be spent investigating the problems
associated with the title. In doing this the researcher can fall on
available literature, personal experiences and observations of
significant others, societal needs, etc. The essence of these is to
convincing the readers that a researchable problem exists. A good
background according to Okpala (1995) should also bring into focus
all the variables the study is interested in and how they are likely to
be matched in the course of the research methodology. The
background supposes to provide everything that would shed light on
the problem and its nature without stating the problem. It should be
such that with a good background qualified readers should be able to
state the research problem. The background should not be too
lengthy. Readers should be made to see the research problems stated
as soon as possible. Specifically, you must build a strong case that
justifies to the reader the need for the study by clearly describing the
problem and including important background information with
citations. Be sure to identify the theoretical or conceptual base that
the study will build upon. Think of the introduction as a mini
literature review.
It should also be noted that the background has four main
dimensions; the historical, the theoretical, the conceptual and the
contextual dimensions. The first to be written is the historical
background; here the researcher describes in a short and precise
paragraph the relationship between variables in the study in a
historical perspective. That is a brief history of the issues being
investigated is very important, issues that have been discovered or
believed to be true about the topic should be summarized. The
researcher should start with global history and narrow down to
historical issues in the area of study.
The second is the theoretical basis of the background. In the
theoretical background, the researcher describes the theory (or
theories) on which the study will be based. It describes the “any”
discovered relationships between the variables in the study and the
theory to be used. The researcher should briefly describe the theory
(theories) and justify how it relates to the variables under
investigation.
44
The third dimension of a research background is the conceptual basis
of the background. In the conceptual background, the researcher
provides the definition of terms in the topic. There are three main
definitions
1. Literal Definition: This informs the reader of the literature
meaning of the terms of variables in the study, so that the
reader understands their usual meanings. They may be
referred to as books or directory definitions. They are the
descriptions of those terms as provided by other authors or in
literature.
2. Working Definition: This is when different authors provide
differing definitions to the same terms. To ensure that the
researcher keeps along with the reader, the researcher should
provide a working definition. A working definition is the
literal meaning of the term adopted by the researcher for the
study.
3. Operational Definition: Since a concept may have more
than one meaning in different context, it is important to
clarify exactly what meaning a researcher attaches to a
concept in the context of the study. An operational definition
provides the descriptions of the variables in observables and
measurable characteristics(i.e. the ‘operations’ needed to
measure the variable) it indicates how or by what means the
researcher is going to manipulate the independent variable
and by what means he or she will observe the dependent
variable
Part 2: Statement of the problem. This is usually a declarative
statement but may be in question form. This attempt to focus on a
slated goal gives direction to the research process. It must be
limited enough in scope to make a definite conclusion possible.
The major statement may be followed by minor statements. The
problem areas that previously have been listed in this chapter are
not statements of problems. They are merely broad areas of
concern from which problems may be selected. Statement of the
problem must be stated preferably in a sentence or most two
sentences. The statement of the problem presents a very concise
45
description of what you intend to study. It is written in terms
which are understandable to someone who is relatively
uninformed in the area of the problem.
A problem suggests a specific answer or conclusion.
Usually a controversy or a difference of opinion exists. A causeand-effect relationship may be suggested upon the basis of theory
or previous research findings. Personal observation and
experience may be the basis of a problem. Some examples of
problem statements are as follows: (1) Children who have had
kindergarten experience might demonstrate greater academic
achievement in the first grade than those who have not had this
experience. (2) Participation in high school competitive athletics
may be detrimental to academic achievement. (3) Racial
segregation may have a damaging effect upon the self-image of
minority group children. (4) Knowledge of participation in an
experiment may have a stimulating effect upon the reading
achievement of participants. These problem statements involve
more than information gathering. They suggest answers or
conclusions and provide a focus for research activity.
Usually, questions of this nature are posed when evaluating
statement of a research problem
a. Is it stated as early as possible? In typical research articles,
it is ideal if the problem is stated on the first page
b. Is the problem workable? No matter what, if the
workability is very low the study might be implemented.
c. Has the problem attained a critical mass? Is it substantial?
Can more problems be added, perhaps as sub problems?
The size of the problem must be substantial to justify the
study implementation.
d. Does the problem generate and sustain enough interest in
the researcher?
e. Hs the problem high theoretical value? To what extent has
the researcher tied the problem to theoretical base
considering the relevant or existing studies in the
discipline?
f. What is the practical value of the problem? How does the
practitioner, consumer or tax payer benefit from the
46
provision of the solution to the problem? Is solution to the
problem to be provided just as a mental exercise for the
subscriber?
Part 3: The significance of the problem. It is important that the
researcher point out how the solution to the problem or the
answer to the question can influence educational theory or
practice. That is, briefly describe how the study will add to
current understanding or lead to change in educational practice.
The emphasis here is in terms of practical gains or benefit to be
derived from the study particularly as it concerns consumers or
practitioners. In writing the significance of the study, attention
should be focus on each hypothesis or research questions as the
researcher attempts to provides answers to the basic question;
what are the gains or benefits to be derived from the results
associated with each hypothesis or research questions. That is,
the researcher must demonstrate why it is worth the time, effort,
and expense required to carry out the proposed research. Careful
formulation and presentation of the implications or possible
applications of knowledge helps to give the project an urgency,
justifying its worth. It is therefore important to present the
significance of a study using convincing words or argument and
supportive literature.
Failure to include this step in the proposal may well leave
the researcher with a problem without significance - a search for
data of little ultimate value. Many of the tabulating or "social
bookkeeping" research problems should be abandoned if they do
not pass the critical test of significance. Perhaps university library
shelves would not groan with the weight of so many unread and
forgotten dissertations, if this criterion of significance had been
rigorously applied. With so many gaps in educational theory, and
so many areas of education practice in need of analysis, there is
little justification for the expenditure of research effort on trivial
or superficial investigations.
Part 4: Definitions, assumptions, limitations, and delimitations. It is
important to define all unusual terms that could be misinterpreted.
47
These definitions help to establish the frame of reference with
which the researcher approaches the problem. The variables to be
considered should be defined in operational terms. Such
expressions as; academic achievement and intelligence and useful
concepts, but they cannot be used as criteria unless they are
defined as observable samples of behaviour. Academic grades assigned by teachers or scores on standardized achievement tests
are operational definitions of achievement. A score on a
standardized intelligence test is an operational definition of
intelligence. Only terms that their meanings or methods of
obtaining measurement data are subject to ambiguity are to be
defined, such definitions usually are in terms of concepts or
measurement technique
i. Assumptions are statements of what the researcher
believes to be facts but cannot verify. A researcher may
state the assumption that the participant observers in
the classroom, after a period of three days, will
establish rapport with the students and will not have a
reactive effect on the behaviour to be observed. You
need to know that not all studies require assumptions
but those that have assumptions are merely statements
that the researcher assumes to be true in terms of
theoretical propositions relative to the populations,
sample responses, instruments etc.
ii. Limitations are those conditions beyond the
control of the researcher that may place
restrictions on the conclusions of the study and
their
application
to
other
situations.
Administrative policies that preclude validated, or the
inability to randomly select and assign subjects to
experimental and control groups is examples of
limitations. Most if not all, studies have some
inherent limitations and should be made clear in
this section.
iii. Delimitations/Scope of the study. This is defined in
terms of sample, variables, time, subject matter,
variable matching, location, etc. They are also the
48
boundaries of the study. Scope is not the same as
limitation. A study of deviant behaviour of
secondary school students in Lagos may be
concerned only with SSS students, and conclusions
are not to be extended beyond this population
sampled.
Part 5: Review of related literature. A summary of the writings
of recognized authorities and of previous research provides
evidence that the researcher is familiar with what is already
known and what is still unknown and untested. Since
effective research is based upon past knowledge, this step
helps to eliminate the duplication of what has been done and
provides useful hypotheses and helpful suggestions for
significant investigation. Citing studies that show substantial
agreement and those that seem to present conflicting
conclusions helps to sharpen and define understanding of existing knowledge in the "problem area, provides a
background for the research project, and makes the reader
aware of the status of the issue. Parading a long list of
annotated studies relating to the problem is ineffective and
inappropriate. Only those studies that are plainly relevant,
competently executed, and clearly reported should be
included.
In searching literature, the researcher should note certain
important elements:
1. Reports of studies of closely related problems that
have been investigated
2. Design of the s t u d y including procedures employed
and data-gathering instruments used
3. Populations that were sampled and sampling methods
employed
4. Variables that were defined
5. Extraneous variables that could have affected the
findings
6. Faults that could have been avoided
7. Recommendations for further research
49
Capitalizing on the reviews of expert, researchers can be
fruitful in providing helpful ideas and suggestions. Although
review articles that summarize related studies are useful, they
do not provide a satisfactory substitute for an independent
search. Even though the review of related literature is
presented here in unit ten as part 4 in the finished research
proposal, the search for related literature is one of the first
steps in the research process. It is a valuable guide to defining
the problem, recognizing; its significance, suggesting
promising data-gathering devices, appropriate study design,
and sources of data.
Part 6: The. Hypothesis. It is appropriate here to formulate a
major hypothesis and possibly several minor hypotheses. This
approach further clarifies the nature of the problem and the
logic underlying the investigation, and gives direction to the
data-gathering process. A good hypothesis has several basic
characteristics:
1. It should be reasonable.
2. It should be consistent with known facts or theories.
3. It should be stated in such a way that it can be tested
and found to be probably true or probably false.
4. It should be stated in the simplest possible terms.
The research hypothesis is a tentative answer to a question. It
is an educated guess or hunch, generally based upon prior,
research and/or theory, to be subjected to the process of
verification or discontinuation. The-gathering of data an d the
logical analysis of data relationships provide a method of
confirming or disconfirming the hypothesis by deducing its
consequences.
It is important that the hypothesis be formulated
before data are gathered. Suppose that the researcher gathers
some data and, on the basis of these, notes something that
looks like the basis for an alternative hypothesis. Since any
particular set of observations may display an extreme
50
distribution, using such observations to test the hypothesis
would possibly lead to an unwarranted conclusion.
The formulation of the hypothesis in advance of the datagathering process is necessary for an unbiased investigation.
It is not inappropriate to formulate additional hypotheses after
data are collected, but they should be tested on the basis of
new data, not on the old data that suggested them.
Part 7: Methods. This part of the research proposal usually
consists of three parts: subjects, procedures, instrumentation
and data analysis.
i.
The subject: This section details the population from
which the researcher plans to select the sample.
Variables that are frequently included, depending on
the type of project proposed, include: chronological
age, grade level, socio-economic status, sex, race, 1Q
(if other than average), mental age (if significantly
different
from
chronological
age),
academic
achievement level, and other pertinent attributes of
the targeted population. The number of subjects
desired from the population and how they will be
selected are also indicated in this section. The reader
should be able to understand exactly from where and
how the subjects are to be selected. The population
should describe the population from which the sample
will be drawn and include a detail description of the
sampling procedures to be used to select the sample.
Provide a rationale for your sampling procedures.
ii.
The procedure: This section outlines the research
plan. It describes in detail what will be done, how it
will be done, what data will be needed, and what
data-gathering devices will be used.
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iii.
Instrumentation: In this section, a researcher is
expected to:
a. Describe the instrument such that a qualified
person can identify it among other instrument.
That is, describe what instrument will be used,
how they will be developed
b. Indicate whether the instrument was adopted,( if so,
acknowledge the source) adapted (if so, indicate
the modifications and acknowledge the source) or
developed (if so, indicate the process of
development)
c. Indicate how validity and reliability of the
instrument will be addressed.
iv.
Data Analysis: The information given in the dataanalysis section should be specific and detailed enough
to demonstrate to the reader exactly what is planned.
No detail should be left open to question. Researcher
should endeavour to use the simplest proper statistics that
will ensure a comprehensive analysis of the data with
respect to the hypothesis or the research questions. The
choice of statistical procedures should be done with
respect to each hypotheses and research question. A
researcher can also employ different statistical methods
for different research questions or hypotheses that make
up a research problem.
The following questions are used in evaluating the statistical
analysis of a research.
a. Were statistics used? If yes, what type, what are
their names?
b. Were the statistics the most suitable ones( with
respect to the research questions and hypotheses,
design, type of data)?
c. Was their use clearly described?
d. Should the researcher have used simpler statistics
to achieve the same results?
52
e. Is there a need for additional statistics? If yes name
them.
Part 8: Time schedule. Although this step may not be required
by the study advisor, a time schedule should be prepared so
that the researcher may budget his or her time and energy
effectively. Dividing the project into manageable parts and
assigning dates for their completion help to systematize the
study and minimize the natural tendency to procastinate.
Some phases of the project cannot be started until other
phases have been completed. Such parts of the final research
report as the review of literature can be completed and typed
while waiting for the data-gathering process. If the project is
complicated, a flow chart or time-task chart may be useful in
describing the sequence of events. Since academic research
projects usually involve critical time limitations and definite
deadlines for filing the completed report, the planning of
procedures with definite date goals is most important. From
time to time the major professor or advisor may request a
progress report. This device also serves as a stimulus, helping
the researcher to move systematically toward the goal of a
completed project.
53
Unit Eleven
Common Errors in Research Reports
In dealing with the common errors, we shall start from the title of
the study to the findings presentation.
Title:
(a)
The title may be too long without reflecting the problem to
be solved.
(b)
The problem may not have two or more variables, thus,
making the consequences of manipulation impossible.
Problem
(a) The problem, definition and purpose of the study may be
scantily presented that it is difficult to determine what
problem the researcher set out to solve.
(b) The problem may be too big for a feasible solution due to
financial constraints.
(c) The problem may be wordy and therefore ambiguous
(d) Definitions of terms used in the study may be massive thus
leading to misinterpretation of researcher’s ideas.
Related Literature
(a) Some items stated here may not be related
(b) There may be no organization of thoughts since there is no
classification into subtitles.
(c) Bibliographic information on the texts used may be
omitted.
Methodology:
(a) The method used for the investigation may not be
thoroughly reported.
(b) The sampling procedure, though appropriate, may not be
reported adequately.
54
(c) The sampling procedure, though appropriate, may not be
reported adequately.
(d) The appropriateness of the methods of research used may
be open to question.
(e) The nature of the data used in the solution of the problem
may not be described.
(f) Tests for amount, validity and reliability of data may not
be undertaken.
(g) The process of interpreting the data and in drawing
conclusions may be omitted.
(h) Factors may not be properly controlled in empirical
studies.
Findings
(a) Findings reported may not be based on data accounted
from the study
(b) Findings may be excluded though data on which they may
be based exist.
(c) Bias of the researcher may be evident
(d) Generalizations may be based on the related literature
rather than on the findings of the study.
55
Unit Twelve
Ethical Issues in Research
Ethics according to Obomo (2005) is the study of things as they
ought to be, or the normative order of things. Derived from the
Greek word; ethika meaning character or custom, it deals with
customary and universal ways of acting and relative judgments as
to the rightness or wrongness of human conduct. Hence,
Ethics studies human conduct; it is concerned with
questions such as “when is an act right?” “When is an act
wrong?” and “What is the nature or determining standard of
good and bad?” (Microsoft Encarta Premium Suite, 2004)
The subject matter of ethics therefore embodies the analysis,
evaluation and development of normative moral criteria for
dealing with moral problems since “man is born a moral man, an
ethical man” and “he is born with inherent moral faculties
(powers, abilities or capabilities) embedded in his brain”
(Dzurgba, 2005:5). Thus, when people think of ethics (or morals),
they think of rules for distinguishing between right and wrong,
such as the Golden Rule;” Do unto others as you would have them
do unto you", a code of professional conduct like the Hippocratic
Oath; “First of all, do no harm", a religious creed like one of the
Ten Commandments; “Thou Shall not kill...". This is the most
common way of defining "ethics": ethics are norms for conduct
that distinguish between or acceptable and unacceptable behavior.
(Neuman, 2000)
Most people according to Berns, (1993) learn ethical
norms at home, at school, in church, or in other social settings.
Although most people acquire their sense of right and wrong
during childhood, moral development occurs throughout life, and
human beings pass through different stages of growth as they
mature. Ethical norms are so ubiquitous that one might be tempted
56
to regard them as simple commonsense. On the other hand, if
morality were nothing more than commonsense, then why are
there so many ethical disputes and issues in our society?
One plausible explanation of these disagreements is that all
people recognize some common ethical norms but different
individuals interpret, apply, and balance these norms in different
ways in light of their own values and life experiences.
Most societies also have legal rules that govern behavior,
but ethical norms tend to be broader and more informal than laws.
Although most societies use laws to enforce widely accepted
moral standards ethical and legal rules also use similar concepts.
However, it is important to remember that ethics and law are not
the same. Buttressing this view Mac Phail and Campbell (2000)
submitted that an action may be legal but unethical or illegal but
ethical. And we can also use ethical concepts and principles to
criticize, evaluate, propose, or interpret laws. Indeed, in the last
century, many social reformers urged citizens to disobey laws in
order to protest what they regarded as immoral or unjust laws.
Another way of defining 'ethics' focuses on the disciplines
that study standards of conduct, such as philosophy, theology,
law, psychology, or sociology. For example, a "medical ethicist" is
someone who studies ethical standards in medicine. One may
therefore define ethics as a method, procedure, or perspective
for deciding how to act and for analyzing complex problems and
issues.( Marshall,1994). For instance, in a complex issue like
global warming, one may take an economic, ecological, political,
or ethical perspective on the problem. While an economist might
examine the cost and benefits of various policies related to global
warming, an environmental ethicist could examine the ethical
values and principles at stake in the issue.
Many different disciplines, institutions, and professions
have norms for behaviour that suit their particular aims and goals.
These norms also help members of the discipline to coordinate
their actions or activities and to establish the public’s trust of the
discipline. For instance, ethical norms govern conduct in
medicine, law, engineering, and business. Ethical norms also serve
the aims or goals of research and apply to people who conduct
57
scientific research or other scholarly or creative activities, and
there is a specialized discipline, research ethics, which studies
these norms.
The foregoing explains that every scientific investigation
whether in the natural or social sciences, has an ethical dimension
to it. Thus, there are several reasons why it is important to adhere
to ethical norms in research. First, some of these norms according
to Schutt (2001) promote the aims of research, such as
knowledge, truth, and avoidance of error. For example,
prohibitions against fabricating, falsifying, or misrepresenting
research data promote the truth and avoid error. Second, since
research often involves a great deal of cooperation and
coordination among many different people in different disciplines
and institutions, many of these ethical standards promote the
values that are essential to collaborative work, such as trust,
accountability, mutual respect, and fairness. For example, many
ethical norms in research, according to Neuman (2000) explained
such as guidelines for authorship, copyright and patenting policies,
data sharing policies, and confidentiality rules in peer review, are
designed to protect intellectual property interests while
encouraging collaboration. Most researchers want to receive credit
for their contributions and do not want to have their ideas stolen or
disclosed prematurely. Third, many of the ethical norms help to
ensure that researchers can be held accountable to the public.
Fourth, ethical norms in research also help to build public
support for research. People most likely to fund research project
if they can trust the quality and integrity of research. Finally,
many of the norms of research promote a variety of other
important moral and social values, such as social responsibility,
human rights, and animal welfare, compliance with the law, and
health and safety.
One could therefore see that when ethical standards are not
followed in research, the lapses can significantly be harmful to
human and animal subjects, students, and the public. For example,
a researcher who fabricates data in a clinical trial may harm or
even kill patients and a researcher who fails to abide by
regulations and guidelines relating to radiation or biological safety
58
may jeopardize his health and safety or the health and safety of the
staff and students.
Codes and Policies for Research Ethics
The direct personal involvement of a researcher in the social lives
of other people raises many ethical dilemmas. The dilemma arises
when a researcher is alone in the field and has little time to make a
moral decision. Although he or she may be aware of the general
ethical issues before entering the field, they arise unexpectedly in
the course of observing and interacting in the field. Thus given the
importance of ethics for the conduct of research, it should come as
no surprise that many different professional associations,
government agencies, and universities have adopted specific
codes, rules, and policies relating to research ethics. East Carolina
University (ECU) has a variety of policies pertaining to research,
which you will review in this short course. Many government
agencies, such as the National Institutes of Health (NIH), the
National Science Foundation (NSF), the Food and Drug
Administration (FDA), the Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA), and the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) also have
ethics rules for funded researchers, which we will also mention in
this course. Other influential research ethics policies include the
Uniform Requirements (International Committee of Medical
Journal Editors), the Chemist's Code of Conduct (American
Chemical Society), Code of Ethics (American Society for Clinical
Laboratory Science) Ethical Principles of Psychologists
(American Psychological Association), Statements on Ethics and
Professional
Responsibility
(American
Anthropological
Association), Statement on Professional Ethics (American
Association of University Professors), The Nuremberg Code and
The Declaration of Helsinki (World Medical Association).
American Sociological Association (ASA), American Educational
Research Association (AERA).The following according to
Neuman, (2000); Schutt, (2001) and Shamoo and Resnik (2003)
is a rough and general summary of some ethical principles that
various codes address:
59
Honesty/Openness
Openness about research procedures and results go hand in hand
with honesty in research design. Openness is also essential if
researchers are to learn from the work of others. In spite of this
need for openness, some researchers may hesitate to disclose their
procedures or results to prevent others from building on their ideas
and taking the credit. Thus, there is the need for researchers to
strive for honesty in all scientific communications. Honesty in
report data, results, methods and procedures, and publication
status is very important. Researchers must not fabricate, falsify, or
misrepresent data. Do not deceive colleagues, granting agencies,
or the public. In other words researchers must share data, results,
ideas, tools, resources and be open to criticism and new ideas.
The summary of this according to Schutt (2001) is that researcher
must provide an honest account of how the research was carried
out and where any changes or amendment was made.
Autonomy
This refers to the obligation on the part of the researcher to respect
each participant as a person capable of making an informed
decision regarding participation in the research study. The
researcher must ensure that the participant has received a full
disclosure of the nature of the study, the risks, benefits and
alternatives, with an extended opportunity to ask questions. The
principle of autonomy finds expression in the informed consent
document.
Objectivity
Researchers should strive to avoid bias in experimental design,
data analysis, data interpretation, peer review, personnel decisions,
grant writing, expert testimony, and other aspects of research
where objectivity is expected or required. Avoid or minimize bias
or self-deception. Disclose personal or financial interests that may
affect research.
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Carefulness
Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and critically
examine your own work and the work of your peers. Keep good
records of research activities, such as data collection, research
design, and correspondence with agencies or journals.
Respect for Intellectual Property
Honour copyrights, and other forms of intellectual property. Do
not use unpublished data, methods, or results without permission.
Give credit where credit is due. Give proper acknowledgement or
credit for all contributions to research. Never plagiarize.
Confidentiality
Researcher must guarantees the participants’ confidentiality, they
are assured that identifying information will not be made available
to anyone who is not directly involved in the study.
Anonymity
The stricter standard is the principle of anonymity which
essentially means that the participant will remain anonymous
throughout the study -- even to the researchers themselves.
Clearly, the anonymity standard is a stronger guarantee of privacy,
but it is sometimes difficult to accomplish, especially in situations
where participants have to be measured at multiple time points
(e.g., a pre-post study). Increasingly, researchers have had to deal
with the ethical issue of a person's right to service. Good research
practice often requires the use of a non-treatment control group -a group of participants who do not get the treatment or programme
that is being studied. But when that treatment or programme may
have beneficial effects, persons assigned to the no-treatment
control may feel their rights to equal access to services are being
curtailed.
Beneficence
This refers to the obligation on the part of the researcher to
attempt to maximize benefits for the individual participant and/or
61
society, while minimizing risk of harm to the individual. An
honest and thorough risk/benefit calculation must be performed.
Non-Discrimination
Researcher should avoid discrimination against participants on the
basis of sex, race, ethnicity, or other factors that are not related to
their scientific competence and integrity.
Justice
This demands equitable selection of participants, i.e., avoiding
participant populations that may be unfairly coerced into
participating, such as prisoners and institutionalized children. The
principle of justice also requires equality in distribution of benefits
and burdens among the population group(s) likely to benefit from
the research.
Competence
Maintain and improve your own professional competence and expertise
through lifelong education and learning; take steps to promote
competence in science as a whole. The participant must be competent
to give consent. If the participant is not competent due to mental
status, disease, or emergency, a designated surrogate may provide
consent if it is in the participant's best interest to participate. In
certain emergency cases, consent may be waived due to the lack of
a competent participant and a surrogate.
Legality
Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and governmental
policies.
Disclosure
The potential participant must be informed as fully as possible of
the nature and purpose of the research, the procedures to be used,
the expected benefits to the participant and/or society, the
potential of reasonably foreseeable risks, stresses, and
discomforts, and alternatives to participating in the research. There
should also be a statement that describes procedures in place to
62
ensure the confidentiality or anonymity of the participant. The
informed consent document must also disclose what compensation
and medical treatment are available in the case of a researchrelated injury. The document should make it clear whom to
contact with questions about the research study, research subjects'
rights, and in case of injury.
Understanding
The participant must understand what has been explained and
must be given the opportunity to ask questions and have them
answered by one of the investigators. The informed consent
document must be written in layman’s or simple language,
avoiding any technical jargon.
Voluntariness
The participant's consent to participate in the research must be
voluntary, free of any coercion or promises of benefits unlikely to
result from participation.
Consent
The potential human subject must authorize his/her participation
in the research study, preferably in writing, although at times an
oral consent or assent may be more appropriate.
Human Subjects Protection
When conducting research on human subjects minimize harms and
risks and maximize benefits; respect human dignity, privacy, and
autonomy; take special precautions with vulnerable populations;
and strive to distribute the benefits and burdens of research fairly.
There are other deviations" from acceptable research practices,
which Shamoo and Resnik (2003) highlighted as;
• Publishing the same paper in two different journals without
telling the editors
• Submitting the same paper to different journals without
telling the editors
• Not informing a collaborator of your intent to file a patent
in order to make sure that you are the sole inventor
63
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Including a colleague as an author on a paper in return for
a favour even though the colleague did not make a serious
contribution to the paper
Discussing with your colleagues data from a paper that you
are reviewing for a journal
Trimming outliers from a data set without discussing your
reasons in paper
Using an inappropriate statistical technique in order to
enhance the significance of your research
Bypassing the peer review process and announcing your
results through a press conference without giving peers
adequate information to review your work
Conducting a review of the literature that fails to
acknowledge the contributions of other people in the field
or relevant prior work
Stretching the truth in order to convince reviewers that
your project will make a significant contribution to the
field
Failing to maintain research data for a reasonable period of
time
Making derogatory comments and personal attacks in your
review of author's submission
Making significant deviations from the research protocol
approved by your institution.
Not reporting an adverse event in a human research
experiment
Sabotaging someone's work
Stealing supplies, books, or data
Rigging an experiment so you know how it will turn out
Making unauthorized copies of data, papers, or computer
programs
In agreement with the above highlight, Schutt, (2001) identified
several ethical issues that must be considered when designing
research that will utilize participants who are human beings.
• The primary concern of the investigator should be the
safety of the research participant. This is accomplished by
64
•
•
•
carefully considering the risk/benefit ratio, using all
available information to make an appropriate assessment
and continually monitoring the research as it proceeds.
The scientific investigator must obtain informed consent
from each research participant. This should be obtained in
writing (although oral consents are sometimes acceptable)
after the participant has had the opportunity to carefully
consider the risks and benefits and to ask any pertinent
questions. Informed consent should be seen as an ongoing
process, not a singular event or a mere formality.
The investigator must enumerate how privacy and
confidentiality concerns will be approached. Researchers
must be sensitive to the fact that information should be
protected from unauthorized observation, but also
participants may be notified of any unforeseen findings
from the research that they may or may not want to know.
The investigator must consider how adverse events will be
handled; that is, who will provide care for a participant
injured in a study and who will pay for that care.
In addition, before enrolling participants in an experimental trial,
the investigator should be in a state of "equipoise," that is, if a new
intervention is being tested against the currently accepted
treatment, the investigator should be genuinely uncertain which
approach is superior. In other words, a true null hypothesis should
exist at the onset regarding the outcome of the trial.
We have seen that the ethical concern in research reporting
is to be honest. This honesty should include providing a truthful
accounting of how the research was carried out, maintaining a full
record about the research, using appropriate statistics and graphs,
acknowledging the research literatures and being sensitive to the
perspectives of other researchers.
Good critical skills are also important when evaluating
research report however; ethical research reporting should not
mean ineffective reporting. Thus the need to develop sensitivity,
caring and the determination not to harm others must be
emphasized in research,
65
Researchers must be educated to treat their subjects as they
would be treated. Researchers need to realize that the rights of the
individuals are more important than science and that some
research just cannot be done. Qualitative researchers especially
must learn to provide “sharp, accurate, loving descriptions, more
in the line of connoisseurship than criticism”. However, it should
be noted that the key to ethical demands of research is flexibility
and a case-by case approach to decision making.
The need exists to know, and ethical research permits us to
know, without harm to our subjects and, we hope, with benefits to
society, the need also exists for clearer guidelines for doing
research, especially social or behavioural research.
Submitting a Research Proposal to Funding Agency
Seasoned researchers may plan to submit research proposals to
foundations or "government agencies for financial support. Thus,
the following may be helpful to understand the detailed type of
information that a foundation or agency would expect to receive
before committing its funds.
1.
Write the proposal very carefully. A carelessly written
proposal suggests to the evaluators that the research
project would be carelessly done. It is also useful to follow
the format recommended by the agency in writing the
proposal.
2.
Pay attention to stated goals and priorities of the foundation
or agency. It is important to point out how your study
would be relevant to these goals.
3.
Slate your problem in such a way that the proposal
evaluators, who are capable and experienced in judging
research proposals but know nothing about your project,
will be able to judge its worth and the likelihood of its
contributing to a significant area of knowledge.
4.
Indicate how your study will add to or refine present
knowledge.
5.
State your hypothesis or hypotheses in both conceptual
and operational terms and in both substantive and null
form.
66
6.
Indicate that you are completely familiar with the field of
investigation and are aware of all recent studies in the
problem area.
7.
Indicate how you propose to test your hypotheses,
describing your research design and the data-gathering
instruments or procedures that you will use, indicating
their known validity, and reliability.
8.
Describe your sampling procedures, indicating how you
will randomly select and randomly assign your subjects or
observations.
9. Indicate the extraneous variables that must be recognized
and explain how you propose to minimize their influence.
10. Explain the statistical procedures that you will employ,
indicating the computer application that you will use.
11. Prepare a budget proposal estimating the funds required
for: (a.) wages, including any fringe benefits (b) purchase
or rental of special equipment or supplies (c) travel
expenses (d) clerical expenses (e) additional overhead
expenses that may be involved (f) publication costs
12. Provide some tangible evidence of your competence by
listing: (a) research projects that you have carried on or
actively participated in your scholarly journal articles,
including abstracts of your studies (b) your academic
training and other qualifications.
Academic research projects are usually required in partial
fulfillment of the requirements of a course or a degree
program. The motivation is not always a genuine desire to engage
in research. In addition, limitations of time, money, and
experience usually preclude the consideration of problems that
could make significant contributions to educational theory and
practice.
The choice of a suitable problem is one of the most
difficult tasks facing the beginning researcher. Students tend to
define problems that are too broad in scope or that deal
with too fragmentary aspects of the problem. Consultation with the
course instructor or advisor is in identifying a problem that is
67
manageable and significant enough to justify the time and effort
that will be required.
Problems are found in the teachers' daily classroom,
school, and community experiences. Technological and social
changes call for research evidence to chart new courses in
educational practice. Graduate academic experience helps to
promote problem awareness through classroom activities, the
reading of research studies, and interaction with instructors, advisors, and fellow students.
A good research problem has the qualities of significance,
originality, and feasibility. The researcher should evaluate a
proposed problem in the light of his or her competence, the
availability of data, the financial demands of the project, the
limitations of time, and the possible difficulties and social hazards
involved.
A research proposal is required by many institutions and
services as a useful basis for -the evaluation of a project as well as
a guide for the researcher. The proposal contains a clear and
concise statement of the problem; the hypothesis or hypotheses
involved; a recognition of the significance of the problem;
definitions of important terms; assumptions, delimitations, and
limitations; a review of related literature; an analysis of proposed
research procedures; a reference list; and a time schedule. Some
advisors request a progress report from time to time to evaluate
the progress of the investigation.
One way to learn about research is to conduct a study in
connection with the beginning research course. Another way is to
write a research proposal which may involve all the steps in the
research process, except the gathering and analysis of data and the
formulation of conclusions. Either of these exercises gives a focus
to the discussion about research and may help in developing
competence and the research point of view. It may even
encourage some teachers to conduct modest studies in their own
schools, during or after the completion of their graduate
programmes.
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Unit Thirteen
Guidelines for Assessing Students’ Research
Every year, a fairly large number of project reports are written by
students across the academic departments of Faculties of
Education. While scores awarded these reports are subjects to
some forms of external moderations, individual supervisors, of
course do the initial assessments of them. Without some
guidelines for awarding scores to the different sections of a
project, one cannot but expect some degree of subjectivity in
supervisors’ grading.
It may not be possible to completely eliminate this
subjectivity, but it could be minimized to a certain extent. It is this
purpose, that these guidelines attempt to serve and provide a
framework for awarding scores to the different sections of a
project report that would minimize the subjectivity in grading such
reports. The different sections identified here are those that a
typical project is expected to contain. Their identification has been
guided by standards that are somewhat international, and are used
for assessing similar works in reputable universities ( Best &
Khan, 1989).
It is recognized that there may be slight variations in the
context structures of research reports, depending on the precise
disciplines in which the research is carried out, and of course the
nature of the research itself. For examples, a report on a quasiexperimental study would be different in some ways from a
historical/philosophical study. What we have attempted here is to
provide guidelines that could be applied to a large number of
projects that students typically carry out, but which could also be
modify and applied to not-so- typical studies. Invariably, room is
provided here for the individual supervisor’s imagination.
69
Assessment Criteria
1. The Title and Abstract
a. Are they clear and concise?
3
b.
Do they define a scope that could be covered in
such a study?
2
2. The Background, Problem and Hypotheses, ( The
Introductory Section)
a. Is the problem clearly stated?
2
b. Is the problem properly delimited?
2
c. Is the significance of the problem recognized?
2
d. Are hypotheses clearly stated and are they testable?
2
e. Are assumptions, limitations and delimitations
stated?
1
f. Are important items defined? 1
3. Review of Literature
a. Is it adequately covered?
6
b. Are important findings noted?
c. Is it well organized?
3
4
d. Is an effective summary provided?
3
e. Is the literature cited directly relevant to the
problem and hypotheses?
2
f. Are current works cited?
2
4. Methodology
a. Is the research design described in details?
2
70
b. Is it adequates?
2
c. Are the samples described in details 2
d. Are relevant variables recognized?
2
e. Are appropriate controls provided to establish
experimental validity?
2
f. Are the instruments for data collection adequately
described and appropriate? 2
g. Are the validity and reliability of the instruments
established?
2
5. Results
a. Is the statistical treatment appropriate?
b. Are tables and figures appropriately used?
5
5
c. Is the analysis of data relations logical, perceptive
and objective?
4
6. Discussion
a. Is the discussion clear and concise? 4
b. Are
the
problems
/hypotheses
appropriately?
c. Is the discussion analytical? 2
restated
2
d. Are the findings and conclusion justified by the
data presented?
4
7. Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations
a. Is a concise summary of the whole work provided?
3
b. Are the conclusion and recommendations
consistent with the major findings?
2
71
8. References
a. Are references listed at the end of the report in the
appropriate referencing style?
5
b. Are all works cited in the body of the work listed in
the references section?
5
9. Mechanics
a. Does the report contain well laid-out title page,
certification, dedication acknowledgement, table of
content, and appendices?
2
b. Is the overall writing of the report clear, concise
and objective?
4
c. Are all parts of the report properly related to each
other?
2
d. Is the report well typed and properly bound?
2
Breakdown of Scores According to Groupings of Major
Sections
a. Title/Abstract
5
b. Background/Problem/Hypotheses/
delimitations/definitions of Terms
10
c. Review of Literature
20
d. Methodology/Results/Discussion
40
e. Summary/Conclusion/Recommendations
5
f. References
10
g. Mechanics
10
GRAND TOTAL
100
Note: Scores indicated are the maximum possible for each line
item
72
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