SURVEY OF
AFRO-ASIAN
LITERATURE
LAARNIE G. BALIN
Instructress
0918-611-0189
laarniegbalin@gmail.com
JAPANESE LITERATURE
Nara Period
710-794
Japanese literature traces its beginnings to oral traditions that were first recorded in written form in the early
eighth century after a writing system was introduced from China. The Kojiki (Record of Ancient Matters)
and Nihon shoki (Chronicle of Japan) were completed in 712 and 720, respectively, as government projects.
The former is an anthology of myths, legends, and other stories, while the latter is a chronological record of
history. The Fudoki (Records of Wind and Earth), compiled by provincial officials beginning in 713, describe
the history, geography, products, and folklore of the various provinces.
The most brilliant literary product of this period was the Man'yoshu (Collection of Ten Thousand Leaves), an
anthology of 4,500 poems composed by people ranging from unknown commoners to emperors and compiled
around 759. Already emerging was a verse form comprising 31 syllables (5-7-5-7-7) known as tanka.
In 905 the Kokin wakashu or Kokinshu (Collection of Poems from Ancient and Modern Times) was published
as the first poetry anthology commissioned by an emperor; its preface paid high tribute to the vast possibilities
of literature.
Heian Period
794-1185
In the resplendent aristocratic culture that thrived early in the eleventh century, a time when the use of the
hiragana alphabet derived from Chinese characters had become widespread, court ladies played the central
role in developing literature. One of them, Murasaki Shikibu wrote the 54-chapter novel Genji
monogatari (Tale of Genji) [in early 11 century, ca 1008 ?], while another, Sei Shonagon, wrote Makura no
soshi (The Pillow Book), a diverse collection of jottings and essays [around 996 ]. Others also wrote diaries
and stories, and their psychological portrayals remain fresh and vivid to present-day readers. The appearance
of the Konjaku monogatari (Tales of a Time That Is Now Past) around 1120 added a new dimension to
literature. This collection of more than 1,000 Buddhist and secular tales from India, China, and Japan is
particularly notable for its rich descriptions of the lives of the nobility and common people in Japan at that time.
Kamakura-Muromachi Period
1185-1573
In the latter half of the twelfth century warriors of the Taira clan (Heike) seized political power at the imperial
court, virtually forming a new aristocracy. Heike mono-gatari (The Tale of the Heike),which depicts the rise
and fall of the Taira with the spotlight on their wars with the Minamoto clan (Genji), was completed in the first
half of the thirteenth century [before 1219 ]. It is a grand epic deeply rooted in Buddhist ethics and filled with
sorrow for those who perished, colorful descriptions of its varied characters, and stirring battle scenes. In
former times the tale was narrated to the accompaniment of a Japanese lute. The Shin kokin wakashu (New
Collection of Poems from Ancient and Modern Times), an anthology of poetry commissioned by
retired Emperor Go-Toba, was also completed around this time [ca 1205 ?] ; it is dedicated to the pursuit of a
subtle, profound beauty far removed from the mundane reality of civil strife.
This period also produced literature by recluses, typified by Kamo no Chomei 's Hojoki (An Account of My
Hut) [1212] , which reflects on the uncertainty of existence, and Yoshida Kenko 's Tsurezuregusa (Essays in
Idleness) [ca 1330 ] , a work marked by penetrating reflections on life. Both works raise the question of spiritual
salvation. Meanwhile, the profound thoughts and incisive logic of the Shobogenzo (Treasury of the True
Dharma Eye) [before 1237 ] , one of the first Buddhist texts written in Japanese rather than Chinese, marked a
major development in Zen thought. The Taiheiki (Chronicle of the Great Peace), depicting the 50 years
from 1318 to 1367 when two rival imperial courts struggled for power, is a valuable historical record, while
the noh plays perfected by Kan'ami and his son Zeami are of great literary value. Zeami 's Fushi kaden (The
Transmission of the Flower of Acting Style) [1400] is a brilliant essay on dramatic art.
Edo Period
1603-1868
Around this time the function of literature as a means of social intercourse broadened.
Composing renga (successive linked verses by several people forming a long poem) became a favorite
pastime, and this gave birth to haikai (a sort of jocular renga) in the sixteenth century. It was the renowned
seventeenth century poet Matsuo Basho who perfected a new condensed poetic form of 17 syllables (5-7-5)
known as haiku, an embodiment of elegant simplicity and tranquility.
In the Genroku era (1688-1704) city-dwelling artisans and merchants became the main supporters of literature,
and professional artists began to appear. Two giants emerged in the field of prose: Ihara Saikaku, who
realistically portrayed the life of Osaka merchants, and Chikamatsu Monzaemon, who wrote joruri, a form of
storytelling involving chanted lines, and kabuki plays. These writers brought about a great flowering of
literature. Later Yosa Buson composed superb haiku depicting nature, while fiction writer Ueda
Akinari produced a collection of gothic stories called Ugetsu monogatari (Tales of Moonlight and
Rain) [1776] .
Meiji Period to present
In the Meiji era (1868-1912) unification of the written and spoken language was advocated, and Futabatei
Shimei 's Ukigumo (Drifting Clouds) [1887] won acclaim as a new form of novel. In poetry circles the influence
of translated foreign poems led to a "new style" poetry movement, and the scope of literary forms continued to
widen. Novelists Mori Ogai and Natsume Soseki studied in Germany and Britain, respectively, and their works
reflect the influence of the literature of those countries. Soseki nurtured many talented literary figures. One of
them, Akutagawa Ryunosuke, wrote many superb novelettes based on his detailed knowledge of the Japanese
classics. His suicide in 1927 was seen as a symbol of the agony Japan was experiencing in the process of
rapid modernization, a major theme of modern Japanese literature.
Naturalism as advocated by Emile Zola dominated Japan's literary world for the first decade of the twentieth
century. This school of literature, as represented by Shimazaki Toson, is noted for the "I novel," a style of novel
typical of Japan. A number of pre-World War II literary currents, such as proletarian literature and neosensualism, petered out during the war but later regained strength, generating a diverse range of works.
In 1968 Kawabata Yasunari became the first Japanese to win the Nobel Prize for literature, and Oe Kenzaburo
won it in 1994. They and other contemporary writers, such as Tanizaki Jun'ichiro, Mishima Yukio, Abe Kobo,
and Inoue Yasushi, have been translated into other languages. In the last few years works by the remarkably
active postwar-generation writers Murakami Ryu (who won the Akutagawa Prize), Murakami Haruki, Yoshimoto
Banana, and others have also been translated into many languages and have gained tremendous popularity.
THE JAPANESE HAIKU
Haiku, unrhymed poetic form consisting of 17 syllables arranged in three lines of 5, 7, and 5 syllables
respectively. The haiku first emerged in Japanese literature during the 17th century, as a terse reaction to
elaborate poetic traditions, though it did not become known by the name haiku until the 19th century.
The term haiku is derived from the first element of the word haikai (a humorous form of renga, or linked-verse
poem) and the second element of the word hokku (the initial stanza of a renga). The hokku, which set the tone
of a renga, had to mention in its three lines such subjects as the season, time of day, and the dominant
features of the landscape, making it almost an independent poem. The hokku (often interchangeably called
haikai) became known as the haiku late in the 19th century, when it was entirely divested of its original function
of opening a sequence of verse. Today the term haiku is used to describe all poems that use the three-line 17syllable structure, even the earlier hokku.
Originally, the haiku form was restricted in subject matter to an objective description of nature suggestive of
one of the seasons, evoking a definite, though unstated, emotional response. The form gained distinction early
in the Tokugawa period (1603–1867) when the great master Bashō elevated the hokku to a highly refined and
conscious art. He began writing what was considered this “new style” of poetry in the 1670s, while he was in
Edo (now Tokyo). Among his earliest haiku is
On a withered branch
A crow has alighted;
Nightfall in autumn.
Bashō subsequently traveled throughout Japan, and his experiences became the subject of his verse. His
haiku were accessible to a wide cross section of Japanese society, and these poems’ broad appeal helped to
establish the form as the most popular form in Japanese poetry.
After Bashō, and particularly after the haiku’s revitalization in the 19th century, its range of subjects expanded
beyond nature. But the haiku remained an art of expressing much and suggesting more in the fewest possible
words. Other outstanding haiku masters were Buson in the 18th century, Issa in the late 18th and early 19th
centuries, Masaoka Shiki in the later 19th century, and Takahama Kyoshi and Kawahigashi Hekigotō in the late
19th and early 20th centuries. At the turn of the 21st century there were said to be a million Japanese who
composed haiku under the guidance of a teacher.
A poem written in the haiku form or a modification of it in a language other than Japanese is also called a
haiku. In English the haiku composed by the Imagists were especially influential during the early 20th century.
The form’s popularity beyond Japan expanded significantly after World War II, and today haiku are written in a
wide range of languages.
YOUR TEXT:
The Tale of Genji was written shortly after the year 1000 in Japan's Heian era, when the capital was situated
at Heian-kyo.
Genji, the hero of the Tale, is the son of the emperor and his favourite concubine, Kiritsubo. A Korean sage
predicts a brilliant future for Genji but his mother suffers the jealousy of rivals at court, becomes ill and dies.
The distraught emperor becomes obsessed with the tragic story of Yang Kwei-fei, but eventually finds another
concubine, Fujitsubo, who reminds him of his former love.
Since Genji lacks backing at court, the emperor makes him a commoner, assigning him membership of the
non-royal Genji clan. The eldest son of the emperor and Lady Kokiden is made crown prince.
Genji becomes an uncommonly handsome and gifted young man, admired by all but feared by Lady Kokiden
and her family. The first part of the Tale follows his amorous exploits with a variety of ladies in and around
Heian-kyo, his friendship with To no Chujo and arranged marriage to To no Chujo's sister Aoi, the birth of his
son and his budding relationship with the young Murasaki.
Meanwhile, the old emperor dies and is succeeded by Lady Kokiden's son. Genji's amorous intrigues cause a
scandal at court and he is forced to leave the capital and live in Suma for several years. During this second
part of the Tale, Genji meets the ex-Governor of Harima and his daughter The Akashi Lady.
Genji returns to the capital and the emperor abdicates in favour of Fujitsubo's (and secretly Genji's) son.
Genji's position at court is restored and the Akashi Lady has a baby girl. Genji then goes on a pilgrimage to
the Sumiyoshi Shrine to give thanks to the deity for protecting him during the storm at Suma. After his return to
the capital he settles down with Murasaki and several other ladies at his Rokujo Mansion. During this long
section of the Tale, Genji's influence at court increases steadily and he is preoccupied with the advancement of
his children and grandchildren at court. Genji is persuaded to marry the Third Princess, who gives birth to a
son and soon after becomes a Buddhist nun.
In the last 10 chapters, the action shifts to the wild mountain area of Uji and the adventures of Genji's "son"
and grandson, Kaoru and Niou, who are friends and rivals in love. The complex plot centres on the daughters
of Genji's religious half-brother, the Eighth Prince, and the impetuous Ukifune.
Synopsis of Chapters 1-5
Chapter 1: The Paulownia Court
The emperor's favourite lady, Kiritsubo, has no strong family backing at court and suffers greatly from the
insults of jealous competitors. She bears the emperor a beautiful son, which makes matters worse as he may
one day be a rival to the future crown prince, the emperor's eldest son. Kiritsubo falls ill and dies, so the child is
taken in by his grandmother. The emperor is distraught and asks for the boy to be sent back. Eventually he
returns to the palace and the grandmother dies shortly afterwards. Korean ambassadors arrive in the capital
and predict a brilliant future for the six-year-old boy.
Although of royal blood, the boy has no maternal relatives to support him as a prince at court and is instead
made a member of the non-royal Genji clan, henceforth being known as "Genji." The emperor's eldest son by
Lady Kokiden is made crown prince and the emperor subsequently finds a new concubine, Fujitsubo, who
resembles Kiritsubo but has better family connections. By the end of the chapter, Genji is married off to the
daughter of the Minister of the Left, Princess Aoi.
Chapter 2: The Broom Tree
The first part of this chapter is the famous "Appraisal of Women on a Rainy Night" scene. Genji and his
brother-in-law To-no-Chujo meet at Genji's palace and compare notes about women. They are joined by a
guards officer and other friends. The guardsman casually suggests there may be a beautiful unknown woman
hidden away somewhere because her family has fallen upon hard times. Genji then falls asleep as his
companions discuss several types of women, all of whom he will meet later in the Tale. After Genji wakes,
Chujo tells the story of a lover - who is later revealed to be Yugao - who bore his daughter but was discarded
because of her meek and forgiving nature. Shikibu, a young man from the Ministry of Rites, tells the gathering
of a lady who was too scholarly, preferring the rather masculine Chinese language to Japanese, and whose
breath on one occasion had smelled of garlic. The friends decide that the perfect woman should be loyal and
cultured, but passive and willing to feign ignorance when the situation requires.
The scene then shifts to Sanjo, where Genji is visiting his wife Aoi, but he finds her distant and cold. Since his
home lies in an unlucky direction, Genji is invited to Kii-no-kami's house. Kii-no-kami's father has married a
young lady, and Genji overhears her apparently discussing himself. Genji also meets an attractive young boy,
her brother, and Kii-no-kami's stepuncle. When everyone is asleep, Genji breaks into the lady's apartment and
carries her off to his room. Leaving the next day, Genji employs the boy as a page and has him deliver
messages to his sister, but the lady discourages any further relationship. Genji manages to visit her once more
but is rebuffed, leaving him to write a poem about the inhospitable broom tree and sleep with her young brother
instead.
Chapter 3: The Shell of the Locust
Hurt by the rejection, Genji is unwilling to give up his pursuit of Utsusemi ("the lady of the locust shell"). Her
young brother sympathizes and resolves to help him try again. Wearing plain clothes, Genji sneaks into her
rooms and spies her playing Go with a lively companion, Nokiba-no-ogi. After the game, Genji prepares to
surprise Utsusemi but she catches the distinctive scent of his robes and flees, leaving one of her own outer
robes behind. Genji mistakenly breaks in on her companion and is forced to improvise. He then returns home
sulking and pens a poem comparing Utsusemi's robe to a cast-off cicada shell.
Chapter 4: Evening Faces
On his way to visit Lady Rokujo, Genji learns that his old nursemaid, who has since become a Buddhist nun, is
sick and may be near death, so he goes to visit her with her natural son, Koremitsu. At a nearby house, they
are admiring the beautiful flowers called yugao ("evening faces"), when a little girl comes out with a scented
white fan for Genji to take a flower on.
They then go in to visit the nun, and she shows an even greater attachment to Genji than to her own son. On
his way out, Genji's curiosity is aroused by whoever might be in the house of yugao, so he sends Koremitsu to
investigate, who reports back that To-no-Chujo had been there and that a lady evidently resided within. Genji
cannot resist, so he disguises himself and arranges a secret meeting through her maid, Ukon.
Yugao is a very frail, submissive beauty, and Genji is reminded of To-no-Chujo's rainy night story. Unlike To-noChujo, however, Genji is attracted by this gentility, and resolves to take her away. Unable to resist, and very
frightened, Yugao is rushed off with Ukon to a deserted mansion. That night, Genji dreams of a jealous lady
resembling Lady Rokujo, and when he wakes he sees an apparition by Yugao's pillow. He tries to wake her,
but she is no longer breathing. Genji panics, wakes Ukon and Koremitsu, but it is too late, she is dead.
Koremitsu sends Genji back to his palace at Nijo and takes her body to a nunnery in the eastern hills for
funeral rites.
At Nijo, Genji is unsettled by recent events and cannot appear at court. He sets out on horseback with
Koremitsu to see Yugao's body, but on the return journey he feels ill and falls off his horse. The illness lasts for
quite some time, and when he recovers he confirms with Ukon that Yugao was in fact To-no-Chujo's mistress.
Genji retains Ukon and asks her to find Yugao's daughter, intending to raise her himself. The chapter end with
a final poetic exchange with Utsusemi, whom Genji also loses.
Chapter 5: Waka Murasaki
Genji is sick and decides to seek help from a holy man living in a cave in the northern hills. He goes there and
receives treatment from the recluse. While recovering, his attendants tell him the story of a Governor
of Akashi who became a lay priest and retired there with his daughter, for whom he had great expectations.
During his convalesence in the hills, Genji wanders to a nearby house and catches a glimse of a beautiful 10year-old girl, who reminds him of Fujitsubo, the favourite concubine of his father, the emperor. The priest at the
villa invites Genji to visit, during the course of which he discovers that the child Murasaki is in fact Fujitsubo's
niece. Genji - already smitten with Fujitsubo - seeks to adopt the child but is not taken seriously.
When fully recovered from his illness, Genji asks again about adopting Murasaki, but is again refused. To-noChujo and some friends from court arrive to escort him back. Back at court, Genji's father-in-law arrives and
takes him to meet Aoi, who turns out to be cold and unreceptive. Genji sleeps and dreams of the little girl. The
next day he renews his request to adopt Murasaki, this time by letter, but without success.
Fujitsubo leaves court due to an illness and, through her maid Omyobu, Genji arranges a secret visit and stays
the night. Fujitsubo becomes pregnant, but the emperor is unaware of Genji's role in this. Meanwhile, the little
girl is made available for adoption because her grandmother, the nun, has died. However, Murasaki's father,
Prince Hyobu, decides to take charge of her and Genji is forced to kidnap her before he does so. Back at his
Nijo palace, Genji begins her education.
Note: For a copy of the complete text, visit http://public-library.uk/ebooks/39/11.pdf
References:
https://www.kanzaki.com/jinfo/jliterature.html
http://www.taleofgenji.org/summary.html
KOREAN LITERATURE
Korean literature is usually divided chronologically into a classical and a modern period. But the basis for such
a division is still being questioned. Great reforms swept Korea after the mid-19th century as its society actively
absorbed Western things.
Korea's classical literature developed against the backdrop of traditional folk beliefs of the Korean people; it
was also influenced by Taoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism. Among these, Buddhist influence held the
greatest sway, followed by enormous influences from Confucianism - especially Song Confucianism - during
the Choson period.
Modern literature of Korea, on the other hand, developed out of its contact with Western culture, following the
course of modernization. Not only Christian thought, but also various artistic trends and influences were
imported from the West. As the "New Education" and the "National Language and Literature Movement"
developed, the Chinese writing system, which had traditionally represented the culture of the dominant class,
lost the socio-cultural function it had previously enjoyed. At the same time, the Korean script, Han-gul was
being used more and more frequently, resulting in the growth and development of Korean language and
literature studies. With the advent of the "new novel" (shinsosol) came a surge in novels written in the Korean
script. Music and classical poetry, formerly fused together in a kind of a song called ch'anggok, were now
viewed as separate endeavors. New paths opened up for the new literature. While Korea was importing
Western culture via Japan or China, it was also carrying out literary reforms from within.
Linguistic expression and manner of transmission are issues of utmost importance in the overall understanding
of Korean literature. Korean literature extends over a broad territory: literature recorded in Chinese; and
literature written in Han-gul. These two aspects of Korean literature greatly differ from each other in terms of
their literary forms and character.
Korean literature in Chinese was created when Chinese characters were brought to Korea. Because Chinese
characters are a Chinese invention, there have been times in Korea's history when efforts were made to
exclude literature written in Chinese from the parameters of what constitutes Korean literature. But in the Koryo
and Choson cultures, Chinese letters were central to Koreans' daily lives. We also cannot overlook the fact that
the literary activity of the dominant class was conducted in Chinese. While Chinese-centered ideas and values
are contained in this literature - a feature shared by most of East Asia during this period - they also contain
experiences and thought patterns that express the unique way of life of the Korean people.
The use of the Korean script began during the Choson period with the creation of the Korean alphabet
(Hunmin Chong-um). The creation of the Korean alphabet in the 15th century was a crucial turning point in
Korea's literary history. Compared with the literature written in Chinese which was dominated by the upper
classes, Korean script made possible the broadening of the literary field to include women and commoners.
This expanded the social base of Korean writers and readers alike. The Korean script (Han-gul) assumed its
place of leading importance in Korean literature only during the latter half of the 19th century. After the
Enlightenment period, the use of Chinese letters swiftly declined and the popularity of Korean letters greatly
increased. As soon as the linguistic duality of "Chinese" and "Native" within Korean life was overcome,
literature in the Korean script became the foundation upon which the national literature developed.
Korea's Classical Literature
Hyangga from the Shilla period
The Hyangga poetry of the Shilla period signaled the beginning of a unique poetic form in Korean literature.
The Hyangga were recorded in the hyangch'al script, in which the Korean language was written using "sound"
(um) and "meaning" (hun) of Chinese characters. Fourteen poems in the Hyangga style from the Shilla period
have been preserved in the Samguk yusa (Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms). This poetic form was passed
down to the Koryo Dynasty, and 11 poems from that period are preserved in the Kyunyojon (Tales of Kyunyo).
Observing the form of the extant poems, we see a variety of formal characteristics: 4-line, 8-line, and 10-line
poems. The 4 line poems have the character of folk ballads or nursery songs. The 10-line poems, with the
most developed poetic structure, are divided into three sections of 4-4-2.
It is difficult to make general determinations about the personalities of the Hyangga poets. But it is thought that
the 4-line poems with their ballad-like attributes may indicate that the poets came from a broad range of
backgrounds. Most of the 10-line poems were written by priests like Ch'ung Tamsa, Wol Myongsa, Yung
Ch'sonsa, Yongjae and Kyunyo; they were also composed by the Hwarang ("flower warriors"), including Duk
Ogok and Shin Chung. These warriors were the backbone of the Shilla aristocracy. The 10-line poems reflect
the emotions of the aristocrats and their religious consciousness. From among the Hyangga, Sodong-yo (The
Ballad of Sodong) is characterized by its simple naivet'e; the Chemangmaega (Song of Offerings to a
Deceased Sister) and Ch'an-gip'arangga (Song in Praise of Kip'arang) boast a superb epic technique, and give
fine expression to a sublime poetic spirit. These examples are accordingly recognized as the most
representative of Hyangga poetry.
The Koryo Kayo (Koryo Songs)
The literature of the Koryo period is marked by an increased use of Chinese letters, the disappearance of
Hyangga, and the emergence of Koryo kayo (Koryo songs) which continued to be transmitted as oral literature
until the Choson period. The transmission of the Hyangga literature of Shilla was continued until the early part
of Koryo but, as in the eleven verses of Kyunyo's Pohyon shipchung wonwangga (Songs of the Ten Vows of
Samantabhadra), these were mostly religious prayers with no secular or artistic flavor.
The new poetic form introduced by writers of the Koryo period was the Koryo kayo called pyolgok. The
identities of most of the Koryo kayo authors are unknown. The songs were orally transmitted; only later in the
Choson period were they recorded using the Korean script (Han-gul). This poetry has two forms: the "shortstanza form" (tallyonch'e) in which the entire work is structured into a single stanza; and the "extended form"
(yonjangch'e) in which the work is separated into many stanzas. Chong Kwajonggok (The Song of Chong
Kwajong) and Samogok (Song of Maternal Love) are examples of the short-stanza form, but the more
representative Koryo kayo, including Ch'nongsan pyolgok (Song of Green Mountain), Sogyong pyolgok (Song
of the Western Capital [P'yongyang]), Tongdong and Ssanghwajom (Twin Flower Shops), are all written in the
extended form, and divided into anywhere from four to thirteen stanzas.
The Koryo Kayo are characterized by increased length and a free and undisciplined form. The bold, direct
nature of the songs make them distinctive. They deal with the real world of humankind. But because the songs
were transmitted orally over a long period and recorded only after the beginning of the Choson period, there is
a strong possibility that they have been partially altered.
Shijo and Kasa
The creation of the Korean alphabet in the early Choson period was one of the turning points in the history of
Korean literature. In the process of creating the Korean alphabet (Han-gul) and investigating its practicality,
akchang (musical scores) were written in the Korean script, such as Yongbioch'bon-ga (Songs of Flying
Dragons Through the Heavens) which celebrates the foundation of the Choson Dynasty(1392-1910), and
which is complete with musical notation and instrumentation. These were written by the Hall of Worthies
(Chiphyonjon) scholars who served the court officials. King Sejong also wrote Worin Ch'on-gangjigok (Songs of
the Moon Lighting the Rivers of the Earth), a compilation in song of the life history of the Sakyamuni (Gautama
Buddha), extolling praise for the Buddha's grace. These series of poems were written in forms that had not
existed in previous ages. They provided a great stimulus in the development of poetic literature.
The shijo ("current tune") is representative of Choson period poetry. Its poetic form was established in the late
Koryo period, but it flourished to a greater extent under the Choson period's new leading ideology, Song NeoConfucianism. The fact that a majority of the shijo poets were well versed in Confucianism, and that these
poems of the late Koryo and early Choson periods for the most part dealt with the theme of loyalty, helps us to
understand the historical function of the shijo.
The shijo has a simple, three-stanza structure: first, middle and last. Its three-stanza form is related to the
structure of its poetic meaning, a fundamental requisite which prescribes its formal aesthetic. It is constructed
in four feet, with each line containing three-to-four syllables, to make a total of about 12 feet. It is characterized
by moderation in form and a slow, leisurely elegance. Despite its formal simplicity, its expressions are poetic
and the poems achieve an esthetic wholeness. To this end, we may suppose that the shijo was widely loved by
both the commoners and the yangban(gentry) class.
Centered around such authors as Maeng Sa-song, Yi Hyon-bo, Yi Hwang and Yi I, the shijo of the early
Choson period represented "natural literature," or kangho kayo, in which Confucian ideals were expressed
using themes from nature. Following the style of Chong Ch'iol, Yun Son-do and others, the greatest shijo poets
of their time, there emerged in the later Choson period poets like Kim Ch'mon-t'aek and Kim Su-jang who
paved the way for the creation of new kind of poetry which incorporated elements of satire and humor.
Collections of shijo were also compiled, such as Ch'eonggu yong-on (Enduring Poetry of Korea) by Kim Ch'
on-t'aek and Haedong kayo (Songs of Korea) by Kim Su-jang.
In the late Choson period, sasol shijo ("current tunes explained in words") were developed to give simple form
to the unaffected emotions of the commoners. The sasol shijo departs from the form of the original three-
stanza p'yong ("flat") shijo, in which the middle and final stanzas are arranged into four feet, and is
characterized by increased length. Hence, the sasol shijo is also called the changhyong ("long form") shijo.
The sasol shijo is distinct from the moderate from of the p'yong shijo in that it pursues a free and undisciplined
form, and expresses the joys and sorrows of the commoners, as well as satirizes reality, making it comical.
It is said that the kasa and the shijo make up the two greatest forms of the Choson period poetry. The kasa is
properly placed in the category of verse, but its content is not limited to the expression of individual sentiment.
It often includes moral admonitions, and the subjects regarding "the weariness of travel" and "grief." The kasa
form is a simple verse form, with a "twin" set of feet of three to four syllables each, which are repeated four
times. Because of the varying nature of its contents, there are some who view the kasa as a kind of essay, as
in early Choson period kasa like Chong Kuk-in's Sangch'un-gok (Tune in Praise of Spring); Song Sun's
Myonangjongga (Song of Myonangjong Pavilion); and Chong Ch'iol's Kwandong pyolgok (Song of Kwandong),
Samiin-gok (Song in Recollections of a Beautiful Woman) and Songsan pyolgok (Song of Mt. Songsan), and
so on. These kasa have, as their main subject matter, the following themes: contemplation of nature for
spiritual enlightenment; the virtues of the great gentleman who espouses anbin nakto (being content in poverty
and delighting in following the Way); and the metaphor of love between a man and a woman to express loyalty
between sovereign and subject. Later, following Pak Il-lo's Sonsangt'an (Lament on Shipboard) and Nuhangsa
(Words of the Streets), we find in the late Koryo period kasa themes like "travel abroad" as in Kim In-gyom's
Iltong chang-yuga (Song of a Glorious Voyage to the East of the Sun) and Hong Sun-hak's Yonhaengga. Also,
there were the naebang kasa (kasa of the women's quarters) written by women. These gained wide popularity.
In particular, the kasa of the latter period underwent changes in form, becoming both longer and prosaic.
The Classical Fiction
The first appearance of the classical fiction in Korea include Kim Shi-sup's Kumo shinhwa (Tales of Kumo)
which was written in Chinese characters and Ho Kyun's Hong Kil-tong chon (Tale of Hong Kil-tong) written in
Han-gul. After the turn of the 17th century, fictions like tale of Kumo shinhwa came to be even more actively
produced, and a large-scale readership was formed at that time. Especially popular was the p'ansori (story-insong), which appeared in the late 17th and early 18th centuries. A performance art, the p'ansori is rooted in
heightened musical expressiveness. As its contents were "fictionalized" it also made great contributions to the
development of the classical fiction. In the 18th and 19th centuries, the quality of these classical fictions
increased in variety as well as in quantity. Also, book rental business thrived with the advent of commercial
publishing .
The characters appearing in Kumo shinhwa embody the concept of chaejagain ("talented young man and
beautiful woman"). It also employs to an extreme degree the style of aesthetic expression used in Chinese
letters. Along with these characteristics, Kumo shinhwa also shows aspects of the mysterious fiction (chongisosol) in that its contents are of a mysterious nature and distant from reality. In the mid-Choson period, works
with parable-like characteristics were published, such as Im Je's Susongji (Record of Grief) and Yun Kye-son's
Talch'on mongnyurok (Record of a Dream Adventure to Talch'on). But with the coming of the late Choson
period, authors like Pak Chi-won and Yi EOk wrote realistic fictions in Chinese. Pak Chi-won's Hosaengjon
(The Tale of Scholar Ho), Yangbanjon (A Yangban Tale), Hojil (The Tiger's Roar) and Yi's Shimsaengjon (Tale
of Scholar Shim), for example, all depart from the orthodox conventions of classical Chinese literary studies
and introduce a variety of characters such as merchants, men of wealth, thieves and kisaeng (female
entertainers). They are sharply critical of a manifold social problems and often ridicule various aspects of daily
life. This kind of fiction, together with the fiction in Han-gul of the later Choson period, opened up new paths for
fiction writing.
After the creation of the Korean alphabet, an abundance of fictions were written in Han-gul, beginning with Ho
Kyun's Hong Kil-tong chon and including works like Kim Man-jung's Kuunmong (Dream of the Nine Clouds)
and Sassi namjonggi (Record of Lady Sa's Southward Journey). Hong Kil-tong chon strongly opposes the
ruling class' discrimination of children born of the union between a yangban and a concubine. It shows a high
level of social concern and criticizes the absurd aspects of the everyday reality of the times.
In the late Choson period, the p'ansori fiction (p'ansori gye sosol) emerged, based on the orally transmitted art
form. P'ansori fictions like Ch'unhyangjon (Tale of Ch'un-hyang), Shimch'oongjon (Tale of Shimch'yong), and
Hungbujon (Tale of Hungbu) do not deal with superhuman characters, but make use of human stereotypes of
the period. Most of these fictions center around casual relationships from real-life experience, rather than
coincidence. In addition to being a mixture of verse and prose, the writing style also combines refined classical
language and the vigorous slang and witticisms of the common people. Throughout these works, we are given
a broad picture of the social life of the late Choson period. In addition to these works, other Choson period
fictions record the private affairs of the court, such as Inhyon Wanghujon (Tale of Queen Inhyon) and
Hanjungnok (Record of Leisurely Feelings).
The Modern Literature of Korea
The Literature of the Enlightenment Period
Korean modern literature was formed against the background of the crumbling feudalistic society of the
Choson Dynasty, the importation of new ideas from the West, and the new political reality of rising Japanese
imperial power in East Asia. The first stage in the establishment of Korea's modern literature extends from the
mid-19th century to the early 20th century, and is designated as the literature of the Enlightenment (kaehwa
kyemong) period.
The change from traditional to modern literature during the Enlightenment period was largely due to the effects
of the New Education and the Korean Language and Literature movement. After the Kabo Reforms of 1894, a
new brand of education was enforced, new Western-style schools were established, and new textbooks for
teaching Western knowledge were published. The literature of the Enlightenment Period secured its social
base through newly emerged media like newspapers. Most newspapers, including the Tongnip Shinmun (The
Independent), Hwangsong Shinmun (The Imperial City Newspaper), Taehan maeil Shinbo (Korean Daily
News), Cheguk Shinmun (Imperial Newspaper), Mansebo (The Forever Report), Taehan minbo (The Korean
People's Report) all published serial novels, as well as shijo, and kasa. It was at this time that a class of
professional writers also began to form. Commercial publishing of literary works became possible with the
introduction of new printing techniques and the emergence of publishing companies.
In this period, the ch'angga (new type of song) and the shinch'eshi (new poetry) were hailed as the new poetic
forms. They contributed greatly to the formation of the modern chayushi (free verse poem). Receiving their
influence from free verse poetry, the shinch'eshi abandoned the fixed meter of traditional poetry, thus making
new genres possible in poems like Ch'oe Nam-son's Hae egeso sonyon ege (From the Sea to the Youth)
(1908), Kkot tugo (Laying Down the Flowers) and T'aebaeksan shi (Poems of Mt. T'aebaeksan). But despite
the novelty of the new forms, there were also many instances where the poetic voice was politicized, a sharp
contrast to the lyric poetry of old, which gave primary expression to individual sentiment and feeling.
This period also saw the emergence of many biographical works based on enlightenment tastes, designed to
cultivate patriotism and awaken the national consciousness. Representative works include, Aeguk puinjon
(Tale of the Patriotic Lady) (Chang Ji-yon, 1907) and Elchi Mundok (Shin Ch'ae-ho, 1908). The biographies
presented images of the kind of hero called for by the realities of the period. An Kuk-son's Kumsu hoeuirok
(Notes From the Meeting of the Birds and Beasts) (1908) is the representative of this kind of work: it centers
around the orations of animals who criticize the human world's moral depravity.
While a professional class of writers began to be formed by men like Yi In-jik, Yi Hae-cho, Ch'oe Ch'an-shik
and Kim Ko-je, a new literary form called the shinsosol (new novel) secured a popular readership base. Yi Injik's Hyoluinu (Tears of Blood) (1906) and Ensegye (The Silver World) (1908), were followed by Yi Hae-cho's
Kumagom (The Demon-Ousting Sword) and Chayujong (The Freedom Bell). Ch'oe Ch'an-shik's Ch'uwolsaek
(The Color of the Autumn Moon) (1912) is also a well-known work. The shinsosol, all written in Han-gul,
achieved mass popularity. These novels portrayed Enlightenment ideals against the background of the realities
of contemporary life, and the unrealistic, transcendental worlds of old are not found in their plots. It was in the
shinsosol that "time reversal" was first applied as a structural technique. The authors also adopted a
vernacular prose style that brought them closer to the form of the modern novel. However, in the wake of the
Japanese takeover of Korea in 1910, the character of the shinsosol began to change. The later works gave
more weight to the fates of individual characters, and commonplace love-struggles became more prominent.
Literature of the Japanese Colonial Period
Korea suffered a great deal under Japanese colonial rule (1910-1945). Coercing the Korean government to
conclude the Korean-Japanese Annexation Treaty, Japan then installed a Governor-General in Korea and
enforced military rule. Restrictions governing speech and publications were especially severe. As a result,
Korea's spirit of self-reliance and independence, together with its will to proceed with the Enlightenment ideals,
no longer could find expression in its literature.
The Korean literature of the Japanese colonial period began with the March First Independence Movement of
1919. It was during this period that the Korean people began to exhibit a more positive attitude in coping with
their national situation. Strengthened by feelings of national self-awakening which had been stirred up by the
March First Independence Movement of 1919, the literature of that period began to show an interest in themes
of self-discovery and individual expression, as well as an increased interest in concrete reality. Literary coterie
magazines emerged, like Ch'angjo (Creation) (1919), P'yeho (The Ruins) (1920), and Paekcho (White Tide)
(1922), and literary circles formed. With the publication of magazines like Kaebyok (The Opening) (1920),
creative literary efforts also began to become more actively developed. In particular, the publication of national
newspapers, like the Dong-A Ilbo and the Chosun Ilbo, contributed toward establishing a broad base of support
for artistic endeavors.
In the early 1920s, the base support for Korea's modern literature began to expand as people experienced a
renewed self-awakening and recognition of their national predicaments in the wake of the March 1919 uprising.
The novels of this period describe the sufferings of the intellectual who drifts through reality, and expose the
pathetic lives of the laborers and farmers. Yi Kwang-su's short story Sonyonui piae (The Sorrow of Youth) in
which he writes of the inner pain of the individual, was followed by his full-length novel Mujong (Heartlessness)
(1917), the success of which placed him at the center of Korean letters. Mujong was not thoroughgoing in its
apprehension of colonial period reality, but as a novel combining the fatalistic life of the individual with the
Zeitgeist of the period, it is recognized as being modern in character. With Paettaragi (Following the Boat)
(1921) and Kamja (Potatoes) (1925), Kim Tong-in also contributed greatly to the short-story genre. In it, he
minutely describes in realistic detail the shifting fates of man. Hyon Chin-gon's Unsu choun nal (The Lucky
Day) (1924) is also a work which employs superb technique in describing people coping with the pain of their
reality. Yom Sang-sop's P'yobonshilui ch'nonggaeguri (Green Frog in the Specimen Gallery) (1921) deals again
with the wanderings and frustrations of the intellectual; and in Mansejon (The Tale of Forever) (1924), Yom
gives expression to the colonial realities of a devastated Korea.
The poetry of this period also established a new and modern Korean poetry as it borrowed from the French
techniques of vers libre. Both the free verse of Chu Yo-han's Pullori (Fireworks) (1919) and Kim So-wol's
poetry collection Chindallae kkot (Azaleas) (1925) made enormous contributions toward establishing the
foundations of modern Korean poetry. Kim reconstructed the meter of the traditional folk ballad, successfully
giving poetic shape to a world of sentiment. Yi Sang-hwa, in his works entitled Madonna (Madonna) and
Ppaeatkin Turedo pomun onun-ga (Does Spring Come to Those Who Have Been Plundered?), attempted to
come to terms with the suffering of the age and the agony of the individual, through the poetic recognition of
the realities of colonialism. Based on Buddhist thought, Han Yong-un, in his Nimui ch'immuk (Thy Silence)
(1926) sang of "Thou" as an absolute existence, and tragically compared the reality of Koreans' loss of their
nation to that of the loss suffered by a woman who must endure the separation of her loved one or husband.
In the mid-1920s, Korean literature was divided into national and class literatures, in accordance with the
democratic and socialist ideals that were popular that time. By 1925 the class literature movement began to
solidify with the organization of the Korea Proletarian Artist's Federation (KAPF). The proletarian literature
movement, by expanding its organization and targeting the elevation of class consciousness through literature,
sought to strengthen class ideology in society. In order to achieve mass support from the farmers and laborers,
it poured its energies into the creation of a "labor literature" and a "farmer literature." Most notable of this kind
of novel include Ch'oe So-hae's T'alch'ulgi (Record of an Escape) (1925), Cho Myong-hui's Naktonggang (The
Naktonggang river) (1927), Yi Ki-yong's Kohyang (Hometown) (1934), and Han Sol-ya's Hwanghon (Twilight).
These works are for the most part based in class consciousness and emphasize the struggles against
colonialism, with farmers and laborers playing the central protagonists in that struggle. In the case of poetry,
Pak Se-yong, Im Hwa and Kim Ch'ang-sul all took aim at the class contradictions under colonialism and
published many "tendency poems" (kyonghyangshi) emphasizing the consciousness of class struggle.
During the 1930s, Korean literature underwent important changes as Japanese militarism was strengthened
and ideological coercion began to be applied to literature. Pursuit of the communal ideology, which until that
point had formed the course of Korean literature, became a thing of the past. New and various literary trends
began to emerge.
Many novels written during this period experimented with new styles and techniques. In Nalgae (Wings) and
Chongsaenggi (Record of the End of a Life), for example, Yi Sang used the technique of dissociation of the self
from the world around him. Yi Hyo-sok's Memilkkot p'il muryop (When the Buckwheat Flowers Bloom) and Kim
Yu-jong's Tongbaek kkot (Camellia Blossoms) are counted as masterful works of this genre. Also, Pak T'aewon's Sosolga Kubossiui Iril (Days of Kubo the Novelist) (1934) and Yi T'ae-jun's Kkamagwi (The Crow) (1936)
opened up new vistas for the novel with their new stylistic sensibilities. In these novels, novelistic space grows
from within the interior of the self. By contrast, the full length novels of Yom Sang-sop's Samdae (The Three
Generations) (1931), Pak T'ae-won's Ch'eonbyon p'unggyong (Views by the Riverside) (1937), Ch'ae Manshik's T'angnyu (The Muddy Stream) (1938), and Hong Myong-hui's Im Kkok-chong chon (Tale of Im Kkokchong) (1939), all narrate the story of the lives of their characters against the backdrop of Korea's tumultuous
history.
The modernism movement is the most impressive feature of the poetry of this period. It emerged as sunsushi
(pure poetry). The pioneering poems of Chong Chi-yong and Kim Yong-nang embody poetic lyricism through
intricate linguistic sensibility and refined technique. Yi Sang, in particular, played a central role in the
development of this new kind of experimental poetry. Also, aligned with this movement was the so-called
Saengmyongp'a (the life poets) movement which included writers like So Chong-ju and Yu Ch'i-hwan. Another
significant trend during this period was the nature-poems of Pak Tu-jin and Pak Mok-wol, among others. The
poetry of Yi Yuk-sa and Yun Dong-ju was also important in that it captured the emotion of the people in their
resistance to Japanese imperialism.
Literature of the Period of National Division
After the liberation from the Japanese in 1945, Korea became embroiled in the political maneuvers of the
World Powers, and the division into South and North became unavoidable. This division in political thought
also made a significant impact on the literary world, as the factionalism and struggles began to occur between
Southern and Northern literatures. The Korean War(1950-1953) was a tragic interim which solidified Korea's
division into South and North. Postwar Korean society's emergence from the wounds and chaos of that war
had a considerable impact on the development of Korean literature.
For the most part, the postwar novel in South Korea deals with the struggles of the Korean people to achieve
deliverance from their national pain and anguish. The writings of Kim Tong-ri and Hwang Sun-won are
representatives of this new type of literature. Also included in this genre is An Su-kil, whose novel Pukkando
(1959) portrays the pioneering fortitude and steadfast spiritual power of Koreans who migrate to Manchuria. In
addition, many of the postwar generation writers took as their predominant theme the collapse of the traditional
socio-moral value systems, as seen in Oh Sang-won's Moban (Revolt) (1957) and Son Ch'ang-sop's Injo ingan (Artificial Man) (1958). Pak Kyong-ri's Pulshin shidae (The Age of Mistrust) (1957), Chong Kwang-yong's
Kkoppittan Li (Captain Lee) (1962) and Yi Bom-son's Obalt'an (A Bullet Misfired), in particular, deal squarely
with the chaos and moral collapse of postwar society. Yi Ho-ch'iol's Nasang (The Nude Portrait) (1957) and
Ch'oe Sang-gyu's P'oint'du (Point) (1956) describe people living their lives in a veritable pit of bleak reality.
The search for a new poetic spirit and technique was also a significant feature of Korea's postwar poetry.
Among the postwar trends was the Chont'ongp'a (traditionalists), movement, marked by a style rooted in
traditional rhythms and folk sentiment. The centrality of individual sentiment and sensibility in the Chont'ongp'a,
combined with the traditional rhythmic base, brought a broad, folkish sentiment into the realm of poetry. In
addition to Pak Jae-sam, whose P'iri (Flute) and Ulum i t'anun kang (The Saddened River) was inspired by the
world of traditional sentiment and folk feeling, Ku Ja-un, Yi Tong-ju and Chong Han-mo were also significant
contributors to this movement. Another trend in postwar poetry was the Shilhomp'a (experientialists) who, while
venturing to bring new experiences to poetic language and form, concentrated on changing the tradition. Kim
Kyong-rin, Pak In-hwan, Kim Kyu-dong, Kim Ch'a-yong and Yi Pong-rae, as well as a coterie of writers called
the Huban-gi (The Later Years), were central to this new postwar modernist movement. In particular, Pak
Pong-u and Chon Pong-gon, brought critical recognition and a satirical approach to social conditions through
poetry.
At the close of the 1950s, writers like Kim Sung-ok, Pak T'ae-sun, So Jong-in, Yi Ch'song-jun, Hong Song-won
and Ch'oe In-hun made their literary debut. Ch'oe In-hun's Kwangjang (The Square), for example, gave
expression to the agony, wanderings and frustrations of the intellectual using a unique novelistic structure. Kim
Sung-ok, in his Seoul 1964, Kyoul (Seoul, 1964, Winter), wrote about the life of the petit bourgeois.
Shortly after the April 19th Revolution of 1960, poetic trends also changed. Poets like Shin Tong-yop and Kim
Su-yong emphatically rejected the sentimental escapism of the postwar period and began to advocate the
necessity to engage its readership with the political reality of the times. Kim Su-yong's Tallara Cui changnan
(The Prank of the Moonland) (1959) and Shin Tong-yop's long poem Kumgang (The Kumgang river) (1967) for
example, both express this new realistic sensibility by advocating the view that poetry become a significant
means for political expression.
During the 1970s, Korean society found itself in the throes of rapid industrialization in which the gap between
the rich and the poor, as well as regional disparities in industrial development, became markedly visible. As the
political angst among the people increased, a new anti-establishment literary movement exploded onto the
scene. The most important characteristic of the Korean novel during this period was its positive concern for
various social problems which began to appear during the industrialization process. Yi Mun-gu's Kwanch'on
sup'il (Kwanch'on Essays) (1977), for example, portrays the actual conditions of farmers who were neglected
and became impoverished in the midst of the industrial development of the nation. The lifestyles of Seoul's
"border citizens" (those living in the outskirts of the city) and the labor scene were also vividly portrayed in
Hwang Sok-yong's Kaekchi (The Strange Land) (1970) and Samp'o kanun kil (The Road to Samp'o) and Cho
Se-hui's Nanjang-iga ssoa ollin chagun kong (Small Ball Thrown by a Dwarf) (1978). Clearly, these novels
opened up new possibilities for the "labor" novel as they gave new expression to the depravities and sufferings
borne by the lives of the laborers in Korea during this period in history. Yi Ch'Song-jun's Tangshindul Cui ch'ionguk (Your Heaven) (1976), Chaninhan toshi (The Cruel City) (1978) and O jong-hui's Yunyon Cui ttul (The
Garden of Childhood) (1981), all examine the theme of human isolation and alienation which marked these
laborers' experiences of industrial development. The social satire apparent throughtout Pak Wan-so's
Hwich'aonggorinun ohu (The Reeling Afternoon) (1977) and Ch'oe Il-lam's T'aryong (The Tune) (1977) are
representative of important tendencies in the novel of this period.
There also emerged during this period what has been referred to as the "division novel" (pundansosol) which
brought to the fore a critical examination of national division. Kim Won-il's Noul (Sunset)(1978), Chon Sangguk's Abeui kajok (Abe's Family) (1980) and Cho Jong-rae's T'aebaeksanmaek (The T'aebaeksan Mountains)
are representative of this new type of novel. Also noteworthy is the roman-fleuve, like Pak Kyong-ri's T'oji(The
Land), judged to be one of the most important achievements of modern Korean literature.
In the realm of poetry, the works which centered around the experiences of the minjung (roughly translated
"oppressed people" or "oppressed masses") most clearly defined the poetic trends of the times. Shin Kyongrim's Nongmu (Farmer's Dance) (1973) and Ko EUn's Munui maule kaso (Going to Munui Village) (1974), for
example, both clearly demonstrate this concern for the lives of the minjung (people). Kim Chi-ha's T'anun
mongmarum uro (Towards a Thirst) (1982), in particular, gave expression to the fighting spirit of the minjung in
its struggle against industrial exploitation.
The Translation of Korean Literature in Foreign Languages
Korean literature was largely unknown to the world until the 1980s, when translations of Korean literary works
began to appear in foreign countries. Since then, the types of works selected for translation have become
increasingly diverse, and the quality of the translations themselves have improved steadily. Furthermore, as
the translations principally are being published by overseas publishers, the translations have became available
to a wider reading public.
Since the 1980s, Korean literature in English translation has spread widely in the English-speaking countries.
Anthologies of Korean modern short stories such as Flowers of Fire (Peter H. Lee, University of Hawaii Press,
1974); and Land of Exile (Marshall R. Pihl and Bruce Fulton, New York: M.E.Sharpe, 1993) are widely used as
textbooks in universities all across the English-speaking world.
The Korean novelists whose works have been most widely translated are Hwang Sun-won and Kim Tong-ri.
Hwang's novel Umjiginun song (The Moving Castle) was translated in the United States by Bruce Fulton. Other
works, including Collected Short Stories by Hwang Sun-won translated by Edward Poitras, and another similar
collection by Professor Holman, have also been available in English. Important works by Kim Tong-ri such as
Elhwa (Eulhwa, The Shaman Sorceress), Munyodo (The Portrait of the Shaman) have been translated and
published. Poetry selections by Han Yong-un (Your Silence), So chong-ju(Winter Sky) and Hwang Dong-gyu
(Wind Berial) can also be found in English translation.
In francophone countries, the scope of literary translation activities from Korean is limited compared to those in
English-speaking countries; but in these countries too, projects are actively underway. Yi Mun-yol has had their
greatest overseas exposure through French translations. Translated works by Yi Mun-yol include Uridurui
ilgurojin yongung (Notre Heros Defigure) and Shiin (Le Poete) . Other Korean novels available in French are
Cho Se-hui's Nanjang-iga ssoa ollin chagun kong (La petite Balle Lancee par un Nain). Translations of poetry
by individual authors include those of Han Yong-un and Gu Sang. Such translation projects will continue in the
future in an ongoing effort to introduce Korean literature to readers throughout the world.
THE KOREAN SIJO
Sijo is a form of Korean poetry with a far-reaching history, tied heavily to the shifting cultures of the Korean
peninsula.
History
Sijo first emerged as a form in the 14th Century, at the tail end of the Korean Goryeo dynasty. However, it
wasn’t until the later Joseon dynasty that it gained popularity. Sijo were first crafted by members of the ruling
class—or Yangban—in Chinese, which was the official written language of the Korean Peninsula at the time.
Sijo of this era were often performed as song by Kisaeng, the legally enslaved courtesans and entertainers of
the upper-class. However, Sijo Chang (literally short song) required a great degree of technical proficiency and
co-ordination between the performers and drummer. Due to the brevity of the Sijo, Sijo Chang are drawn out,
and have been called “the slowest song,” requiring the singer to draw on techniques such as heavy vibrato and
complex pitch changes.
Chinese characters (Hanja) had traditionally been used in Korea since their introduction in the 5th Century.
However, many native phonetic writing systems existed, some predating the Chinese alphabet by hundreds of
years. The incompatibility of the native systems and Chinese characters saw many of the Korean underclass
remain functionally illiterate. To combat this, Sejong the Great (fourth king of the Joseon dynasty), created the
Hangul alphabet, specifically designed to be easy to learn and master. Many of the country’s scholars and
elites saw this new alphabet as a direct threat to their status and resisted its use, though in the 16th Century it
became widely used.
This new alphabet, and the resulting cultural pride, saw Koreans from all walks of life begin to write Sijo.
Historically, Sijo had propagated an upper-class narrative, but the writers brought to poetry by the Hangul
alphabet would use the form to address all manner of subjects.
Shortly after this, Korean became open to the wider world due to the Japan-Korea Treaty of 1876. Prior to this,
Korea was an isolated kingdom; but with encroaching Western exploration, the removal of the country’s
Regent, and heavy pressure from Japan, Korea became a tributary nation of Japan. The treaty signed between
the two nations saw trade begin to take place between Japan and Korea, although many consider it to have be
wildly unfair and its ramifications can still be felt today in the retaliatory policy of the DPRK, Juche.
Sijo in the period following the treaty are considered to be Modern Sijo, moving away from the musical origins
of Traditional Sijo and establishing it firmly as a literary form.
Sijo continued to flourish throughout ‘The Open-door Period’ (1876), The Empire of Korea (1897–1910),
Japanese Colonial Period (1910–1945), and the modern day, often seen as a cousin of the Haiku.
In 1986, the journal Poet dedicated an entire issue to Sijo translated by Korean-American poet Kim Unsong.
This was followed by Classical Korean Poems (Sijo) in 1987, Sijo by Korean Poets in China, and Poems of
Modern Sijo (a collection of his original work) in the mid-1990s. These books would find favour with Canadian
Haiku poet Elizabeth St Jacques, who later produced Around the Tree of Light, a collection of original Englishlanguage Sijo. From here St Jacques partnered with publisher Dr Larry Goss to produce Sijo West, the first
English-language journal dedicated to Sijo, which further attracted attention from fans of Haiku and other Asian
forms of poetry, before folding after five issues.
Form
Sijo, like Haiku, are built upon a three-line structure with a focus on syllable counts rather than meter.
Each line of a Sijo averages between 14-16 syllables, for a total of between 44 and 46 syllables.
In line one, the subject or theme of the poem is introduced. Line two develops the theme further or changes the
perspective. Like Haiku, this line is most attractive when it is the longest, though this can subverted when it
serves the purpose of highlighting a later point of the poem.
The final line presents either a twist or a concluding statement.
Within each line, there is a pause that falls around the halfway point, resembling a caesura, though this is not a
mathematically precise occurrence; it can happen wherever feels most appropriate.
In the West, printing restriction led to some Sijo being split along these half line breaks, creating six-line
poems. Kim Unsong experimented heavily with the form, using the six-line structure and introducing end-rhyme
between these newly form couplets.
As poems with a music origin, the melody of the line is something that should be considered. If a line does not
possess a pleasing sonic quality, it is not right for a Sijo.
Visually, the poet should attempt to use only what punctuation is necessary, as by their nature Sijo can appear
cluttered when consideration is not applied.
Use
Sijo are used to explore many topics, though a common trend is profound or humorous revelation. As a relative
of the Haiku, Sijo can be used to explore the smallest instances or the widest scenes, although Sijo are more
forgiving. Their considerations are not as strict and you have more syllables to play with, giving rise to further
opportunities.
YOUR TEXTS:
The Tale Of Chunhyang
By Kim Mee Sook / All rights reserved.
The oldest version of the tale was written in Chinese by Yu Chin Hahn in 1754, but it was told
much earlier by bards, called 'kwangdae', roaming the Korean countryside, in a rhythmic
chanted narrative which later became known as Pansori.
Chunhyang is the daughter of a Kisaeng and an aristocrat (who in some versions has split for
Seoul and in others he has died). This places her in a very precarious position. On the one
hand, as a Kisaeng, she is the lowest of the low as far as Confucian thought goes, on the other
hand her mother raised her as if she was an aristocrat's daughter. She taught her to observe the
many virtues of a proper woman.
On the first day of Spring, Tano day, Chunhyang goes out to play escorted by her valet. In the
distance, Mongnyong sees her and instantly falls in love. He knows he must have her.
Chunhyang and Mongnyong are both the tender age of 15, the same age as Romeo and Juliet.
Mongnyong tried to court Chunhyang, though she obstinately rejects him, saying 'you are
mistaken if you think I will just obey you. Although I am a kisaeng, I am also a proper woman!'
Mongnyong changes his strategy. "I'll exchange poetry with her," he thinks. And so they begin
to write each other.
Soon Mongnyong goes to see Chunhyang's mother to ask for her hand in marriage.
Chunhyang's mother comments that her daughter is a proper woman, and that she constantly
writes poetry suggesting her determination to remain faithful to her husband. But Mongnyong is
persistent in professing his pure and innocent love. Soon her mother gives the O.K., and they
are married, in secret of course.
Soon after, Mongnyong's father receives a promotion to an office in Seoul, and the entire family
must move. Mongnyong and Chunhyang tearfully say their good-bye's and promise to be
faithful to each other, and with that they part. The next mayor to come to the town was a
righteous man and soon he too receives a promotion to Seoul. At that point, a corrupt official
named Pyon takes office. He typifies the evil and corrupt officials who torture and exploit the
commoners.
He calls all the village kisaeng, yet none of them please him. He finally finds out that there is one
beautiful kisaeng named Chunhyang. The magistrate advises against that, as she is already
married to the former mayor's son. "No matter," says Pyon, "a kisaeng after all is a kisaeng!"
With that he summons her.
Chunhyang refuses all Pyon's attempt to seduce her and adamantly repeats the Confucian
maxim for womanly virtue, "A servant cannot serve two masters, a wife cannot serve two
husbands!" Enraged, Pyon has her beaten and thrown into prison.
Meanwhile, Mongnyong has finished his studies and passes the Confucian Examination with the
highest accolade. He is given his choice of any job. Mongnyong chooses to become the Secret
Royal Inspector who must travel the countryside incognito and expose corrupt governors and
officials. In the disguise of a beggar, he makes it back to his hometown. His mother in law sees
Mongnyong in tattered rags and looks at him with disdain, as if to say "How dare you show up
like that!" She escorts him to Chunhyang's cell where they are reunited. She is scheduled to be
executed the following morning.
Although happy at being reunited, Chunhyang is also saddened by Mongnyong's appearance.
Selflessly, Chunhyang says to her mother, 'when I die, sell all my clothes and possessions. Buy
my husband the finest clothes to wear and a ring to put on his finger.' They part once more, and
Mongnyong goes off into the night.
The next morning Pyon holds a great feast in honor of his birthday. Chunhyang is brought out
and is asked if she will become his concubine. She refuses and is sentenced to death. Just
before she is killed a beggar appears and says, 'stop.' He then takes off his costume and shows
his royal inspector's seal. He saves Chunhyang and punishes Pyon. They live happily ever after.
SIJO EXAMPLES
Hwang Jin-i (1520c.-1560c.), also known by her gisaeng name Myeongwol (literally bright moon), is the most
legendary gisaeng of the Joseon Dynasty who lived during the reign of King Jungjong. She was noted for her
exceptional beauty, charming quick wit, and extraordinary intellect. Her personal life has become almost mythlike, having inspired movies, a 2006 TV series, operas, and numerous novels. Due to her renowned assertive
and independent nature, she has become a modern popular cultural icon of Korea.
Although only a handful of sijo and geomungo pieces exist today, they nonetheless show skilled craftsmanship
of words and of musical arrangement. Her sijo often describe the natural beauty of Gaeseong and its famous
sites such the palace of Manwoldae and the Pakyon Falls. Others hint at the tragedy of her lost loves. Some
are also responses to numerous famous classic Chinese poems and literature, the majority of them reflecting
on lost love.
Blue Mountains Speak Of My Desire
Blue mountains speak of my desire,
Green waters reflect my Lover's love:
The mountains unchanging,
Do Not Boast Of Your Speed
Do not boast of your speed,
O blue-green stream running by the hills:
Once you have reached the wide ocean,
You can return no more.
References:
http://www.asianinfo.org/asianinfo/korea/literature.htm
https://www.poemhunter.com/hwang-chin-i/biography/
http://nucci.free.fr/chunhyang.htm
YOUR TASKS:
1. Using the given literary pieces as examples, identify the prevailing characteristics of Japanese and
Korean Literature.
2. Write your own haiku and sijo.
3. Choose one representative for each country’s literature. Analyze the piece by following the given
format:
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
Historical Background
Author’s Background
Summary
Analysis
a. Literary elements
b. Literary devices
i.
Figures of speech
ii.
Symbolisms
Reaction
VIETNAM LITERATURE
Vietnamese literature is literature, both oral and written, created largely by Vietnamese-speaking
people, although Francophone Vietnamese and English-speaking Vietnamese authors in Australia and the
United States are counted by many critics as part of the national tradition. For a millennium before the 11th
century, Vietnam was dominated by China and as a result, much of the written work during this period was in
Classical Chinese. Nom characters, created around the 10th century, allowed writers to compose in
Vietnamese using modified Chinese characters. Although regarded as inferior to Chinese, it gradually grew in
prestige. It flourished in the 18th century when many notable Vietnamese writers and poets composed their
works in Nom characters and when it briefly became the official written script.
While the Quoc Ngu, the script was created in the 17th century, it did not become popular outside of
missionary groups until the early 20th century, when the French colonial administration mandated its use in
French Indochina. By the mid-20th century, virtually all Vietnamese works of literature were composed in Quoc
Ngu.
THE LANGUAGE AND SCRIPTS
Among the 54 Vietnamese ethnic groups, some have had their own scripts for a long time and some
have not preserved their ancient scripts. As a matter of fact, some ethnic groups consisting of some hundreds
of individuals living in remote areas have their own languages.
Throughout the years, these languages have been enriched in terms of vocabulary, precision, and
expression. However, the Viet language is most commonly used. In terms of script, for a long time under
northern domination, Chinese was widely used in trade, education and state documents. This lasted until the
beginning of the 20th century. During the eighth century, parallel to the use of Han, the Vietnamese created the
nom script, which used the pictography of Han to note the sounds of the Viet language. The appearance of the
nom script marked a point of maturity in the national conscious of the Viet and led to the development of
literature in Vietnam.
The Romanized script produced by French missionaries appeared in the 16th century and was
substituted for both the Han and Nom scripts.
THE MODERN VIETNAM LITERATURE
The Vietnamese literary tradition has evolved through multiple events that have marked the country’s
history. New literary movements can usually be observed every ten years but in the last century, Vietnamese
literature underwent several literary transitions.
The revolutionary campaign occurred at the beginning of Romanized Vietnamese literature, in an
attempt to standardize its styles such as prose, poetry, and criticism. All the writings produced had one thing in
common: the authors were using a powerful and flexible style to update events and trends and therefore
predict social events.
The Vietnamese people fought two wars of resistance, and at the present time, are in a period of
construction, industrialization and modernization. In this situation, in Vietnamese literature, movement and vital
force currently exist.
THE FOLK LITERATURE
The Vietnamese literature has been rich in folklore and proverbs; tales that have been handed down
from generation to generation, gradually becoming valuable treasures.
The Muong ethnic group in northern has an epic poem called giving birth to the earth and water”, the
white Thai ethnic group in the north-west has “seeing off and instructing the loving heart”. This list could go on
for quite some time.
The folk literature grows during the processes of activity, labour, construction and struggle of the
people. It is the soul and vital power of the nation. At the present time, all kinds of artistic and folk literature
from each ethnic group are being collected and maintained.
THE HAN CHARACTERS
During the 1,000 years of Chinese rule over what is now northern Viet Nam, classical Han Chinese,
also known as became firmly established as the language of the Vietnamese royal court and would remain so
until as late as 1918 when the ancient system of mandarin examinations was finally abolished.
The oldest extant literature written in classical Han Chinese comprises a corpus of 11th-century poems
written by Buddhist monks. By the 13th and 14th centuries, poems in classical Han Chinese were written for
the court by Confucian scholars such as Le Quat, Mac Dinh Chi ( 1346), Truong Han Sieu ( 1354), Chu Van An
( 1370) and Nguyen Trung Ngan (1289-1370), along with important historical works such as Le Van Huu’s Dai
Viet Su Ky (‘Brief History of Dai Viet’) and a range of geographical and encyclopaedic volumes.
THE NOM CHARACTERS
From an early period, a special ideographic script known as classical Han Chinese was also devised for
transcribing spoken Vietnamese. According to annals dating from the late 13th century, the poets Nguyen
Thuyen and Nguyen Si Co were the first to write in classical Han Chinese. At the turn of the century, King Ho
Quy Ly (1400-1407) himself translated the Confucian classic Kinh Thi into nom. Thereafter an increasingly
large number of other works were composed in the new script.
The era of the Le kings (14th and early 15th centuries) was a significant period of development for
classical Han Chinese literature. Of particular note were the works of Nguyen Trai, scholar and strategist to Le
Loi (later King Le Thai To, 1428-1433) during the resistance war against the invading Ming Chinese. Trai,
whose “Proclamation of Victory over the Ngo” remains one of the finest works of Vietnamese national
literature, left an important collection of 254 poems written in classical Han Chinese known as Quoc Am Thi
Tap. Though classical Han Chinese was the official the language of the Vietnamese royal court, two Le
monarchs – Le Thai Tong (1434-1442) and Le Thanh Tong (1460-1497) – are remembered for their poems
written in nom; some 300 works of great historical and literary significance written by Le Thanh Tong may be
found in the anthology “Collected Poems of the Hong Duc Period”.
However, nom poetry did not really begin to break free from Chinese influence until the 16th century, a
process signalled by the appearance of 100 remarkable works in nom by Confucian scholar Nguyen Binh
Khiem (1491-1585), brought together as the “Compilation of B?ch Van’s Poems”.
The slow demise of the Le dynasty and the corresponding rise of the powerful Trinh and Nguyen
families during the 16th and 17th centuries seriously undermined respect for the concept of absolute
monarchy, leading to the collapse of the Confucian system. This, in turn, had important consequences for the
development of Vietnamese classical Han Chinese literature, which now entered a new and exciting phase of
development – fresh themes appeared, and the language itself became richer, more concise and more flexible.
A particular feature of the period was the appearance of stories and fables which contained thinly-veiled
criticisms of official corruption and the shortcomings of feudal society.
However, the golden age for classical Han Chinese was the 18th century, which witnessed a truly
remarkable literary flowering. Particularly popular at this time were long narrative poems known as a story,
which borrowed elements of popular oral tradition, fusing them with classical language to create new and
vibrant works of literature. These works, with their complex plot, characterization and structure, were the first to
express in writing the personal feelings and desires of the protagonists. Amongst the greatest narrative poems
of this period are “Lament of a Warrior’s Wife” by Dang Tran Con, translated into nom from the original
classical Han Chinese by Doan Thi Diem (1705-1748), and “Lament of a Royal Concubine”, written in nom by
Nguyen Gia Thieu (1741-1798). During the brief reign of King Quang Trung (Nguyen Hue, 1788-1792) classical
Han Chinese was adopted as the national script for official texts and in education, to replace the classical
Chinese which had been used for centuries.
The 18th century is known too for its satirical poems and stories, many of which vehemently attacked
the ruling Confucian elite. Perhaps best known are the feminist poems of Ho Xuan Huong (late 18th-early 19th
century) and the anonymous popular stories “Doctor Pig” and “Doctor Quynh”.
Also of significance during this period were historical works written by scholars such as Le Quy Don
(1726-1783), whose “Complete History of Dai Viet” and “History of the Le Dynasty” marked a major advance in
the development of historical studies.
Notwithstanding the revival of a strong monarchy after 1802 under the Nguyen dynasty, Vietnamese
literature continued for some time thereafter to convey the humanistic aspirations and sentiments which had
featured so strongly in the literature of the previous century. The best-known work of the early 19th century and
today perhaps the most famous work in the history of Vietnamese literature is the narrative poem “The Story of
Kieu”, written by poet, scholar, mandarin and diplomat Nguyen Du (1765-1820). Highly regarded for its elegant
language and style, this masterpiece relates the story of a beautiful and talented young woman condemned by
the actions of a wicked mandarin to 15 years of tribulation and suffering.
During the second half of the 19th century, some notable works of nom literature were created by
leading figures in the various patriotic movements set up to fight against French colonialism. These included
proclamations, appeals to struggle, funeral orations, stories of combat and patriotic poems by the likes of Phan
Dinh Phung, Nguyen Quang Bich, Phan Van Tri, Nguyen Thong and Nguyen Xuan Du, together with lengthy
but eloquent appeals to the monarch by Nguyen Truong To and Nguyen Bo Trach. Perhaps the best-known
writer of this period was blind poet Nguyen Dinh Chieu, who composed several volumes of patriotic literature
before his death in 1888.
THE “QUOC NGU”
Modern Vietnamese literature finds its roots during the French colonial period when popularisation of
the romanised script Quoc Ngu finally allowed it to break free from the restrictions of classical Chinese
literature.
Originally devised by French Jesuit missionary Alexandre de Rhodes (1591-1660) as a means of
propagating Roman Catholicism, Quoc Ngu became a cornerstone of the French colonial educational system
in the late 19th century and was initially rejected by Confucian scholars such as Nguyen Dinh Chieu, who
referred to Quoc Ngu as ‘the script of heretics’. However, following the “Renovation” movement of 1907
Vietnamese intellectuals began to realise the potential value of Quoc Ngu as a medium for disseminating
patriotic and anti-colonial ideas.
As literacy gradually spread throughout the country, the development of modern printing methods
facilitated the production of books, newspapers and magazines in Quoc Ngu and both journalism and literature
written in the romanised script began to flourish.
THE MODERN VIETNAM LITERATURE BEFORE 1945
Amongst the earliest attempts at Vietnamese creative writing in Quoc Ngu was a collection of folk tales
entitled Chuyen Doi Xua published in 1876 by Truong Vinh Ky (1837-1898), editor of Viet Nam’s first Frenchsponsored Quoc Ngu newspaper, the Sai Gon-based Gia Dinh Bao. This work was followed in 1887 by the
publication, also in Sai Gon, of a rather rudimentary short story by Nguyen Trong Quan entitled “The Story of
Sad Teacher Lazaro”.
However, the first real flowering of modern Vietnamese literature took place in the north under the
influence of the romantic styles, themes and techniques of French literature. Between 1907 and 1909
pioneering Ha Noi journalist Nguyen Van Vinh (1882-1936) translated and published numerous foreign short
stories and drama scripts in his newspaper Dang co tung bao, but perhaps the most important catalyst in the
propagation of western cultural ideas was the northern cultural magazine Indochina Review, launched by Vinh
in 1913, which not only showcased western literature in translation but also provided an important platform for
the work of aspiring Quoc Ngu writers, thereby laying the essential groundwork for the acceptance of Quoc
Ngu as a bone fide literary medium.
In the years which followed, the novels of leading French writers such as Balzac, Hugo, Flaubert,
Rolland, Gide, Pascal, Malot, Moliere and Corneille became increasingly available in translation, contributing to
a growing popular interest in prose literature. In 1917 a rival Sai Gon-based cultural magazine known as South
Wind Journal was launched by Pham Quynh (1890-1945), though much of the work featured in this publication
remained heavily influenced by Chinese literature. Perhaps more significant in terms of the development of
new Vietnamese writing was the role of “Women’s News”, Viet Nam’s first influential women’s periodical, which
was established during the early 1920s and devoted much of its column space to creative writing in Quoc Ngu
serving as a significant forum for the development of modern literature in both content and form.
Viet Nam’s first home-grown novel was Hoang To “The Unjust Suffering of Hoang To Anh”, written by
Tran Chanh Chieu and published in Sai Gon in 1910. Other works quickly followed, including “Who Can Do
It?’, 1919” and “The Playing of the Wind, 1926” by Ho Bieu Chanh, “Pure Hear, 1925” by Hoang Ngoc Phach
(1896-1973), “Watermelon” by Nguyen Trong Thuat and several short stories by Nguyen Ba Hoc and Pham
Duy Ton.
However, not until the 1930s did there develop a truly satisfactory language for modern prose writing, in
particular, the capacity to handle vocabulary and syntactic structures. Literary historians and critics alike have
emphasised the great contribution made to this process by the Ha Noi-based “Self Reliance Literary Group”,
established in 1932 by Nhat Linh (Nguyen Tuong Tam, 1906-1963) and Khai Hung (Tran Khanh Giu, 18961947), which published many important literary works in its popular weekly journals Phong Hoa (‘Customs and
Mores’, 1932-1935) and “Today, 1935-1940”.
The beginnings of modern Vietnamese poetry may be traced back to the early years of the twentieth
century when poet Tan Da (1888-1939) began to experiment with irregular verse lengths, signalling the first
serious attempt to break away from the classical model. During the 1930s, under the direct influence of works
by early 20th century French poets such as Mallarme, Musset, Baudelaire, Valery and Chateaubriand, Tan
Da’s pioneering work was taken a step further by the New Poetry Movement which was established in Ha Noi
in 1932 by The Lu (Nguyen Thu Le, 1907-1989) to forge a new literary direction free from the strict rules of
Chinese poetry. The Lu himself later devoted his life entirely to drama, but his work laid the groundwork for a
whole new generation of poets who demanded freedom both in form and content.
Thereafter the work of leading lights in the New Poetry Movement such as Xuan Dieu (1917-1985), Luu
Trong Lu (1912-1991), Huy Can ( 1919), Pham Huy Thong (1916-1988), Che Lan Vien (1920-1988), Tre Hanh
ban Te Hanh, 1921) and pioneering female poet Anh Tho (Tuyet Anh, 1921) gave free expression to their inner
emotions and feelings, rejecting the symbolism and strict rules of Chinese-style classical verse.
By this time a powerful current of realism was also developing under the growing ideological influence
of the Communist Party. By the late 1930s, revolutionary literature was flourishing, as evidenced by the novels
of Ngo Tay To (1894-1954) and Nguyen Cong Hoan (1903-1977) and the short stories of Nam Cao (19171951) and Nguyen Hong (1918-1982), which vividly described the trials and tribulations of the peasantry at the
hands of oppressive government officials. A new and militant style of poetry also emerged at this time, its chief
exponent being To Huu (1920-2002), whose famous work Viet Bac was later awarded First Prize by the Viet
Nam Literature and Arts Association.
Thereafter many writers joined the struggle for independence. In the field of poetry established names
from the pre-war period such as Xuan Dieu, Huy Can, Che Lan Vinn, Te Hanh and Anh Tho repudiated their
earlier work and turned their pens in support of the revolution. They were joined by many others, most
noteworthy being Doan Van Cu ( 1913), Hu Loan ( 1916), Nguyen Binh (1918-1966), Quang Dung (19211988), Xua Miexm n (Hai Phong, 1922-1990), Tran Dan (1926-1997), Ho Dai (Ho Nam, 1926) and Ta Hu Ye
(Le Huu, 1927). Meanwhile, revolutionary prose literature continued to flourish with the work of Nguyen Huy
Tuong ( 1912-1960), Bui Hien ( 1919), To Hoai ( 1920), Nguyen Van Bong ( 1921), Kim Lan ( 1921), Chu Van
(1922-1994), Thanh Chau ( 1922), Nguyen Dinh Thi (1924-2003), Nguyen Sieu Hai ( 1926), Vu Tu Nam
( 1929) and Phung Quan ( 1932-1995), who wrote of the patriotism and self-sacrifice required to overthrow a
brutal colonial regime.
Several leading writers lost their life at the front during the final struggle with the French, including poets
Hoang Loc (1920-1949) and Tham Tam (1917-1950) and novelists Tran Dang (1921-1949) and Nam Cao
(1917-1951).
THE MODERN VIETNAM LITERATURE FROM 1945-1975
Prior to 1945, comparatively few southern writers had achieved recognition or success, but against a
background of relative stability, prosperity and artistic freedom in the late 1950s and early 1960s a small but
active literary scene began to emerge in South Viet Nam, initially under the influence of a circle of writers,
linguists and educators who had relocated from the north. An important catalyst in this development was the
proliferation of private publishing companies, particularly in Sai Gon.
Numerous important literary magazines were established in the south after 1954, including “Literature
Today”, Literary News, Expound, Create and Opinion) which introduced new currents of thought from the west
such as existentialism and humanism. Together with the newly-established Sai Gon branch of PEN
International and the Front for the Protection of Cultural Freedom, these publications did much to facilitate the
development of new writing. Southern literary development was further encouraged by the establishment of
various state literary prizes.
Emigre prose writers from the north regrouping in the south after 1954 included not only established
figures such as Nhat Linh, Tam Lang (Vu Dinh Chi, 1901-1986), Trong Lang (Tran Tan Cuu, 1906-1986), Lang
Nhan (Phung Tat Dac, 1907), Dai Duc Tuan (Tchya, 1908-1969), Y Uyen (Nguyen Van Uy, 1911-1969) and Vu
Bang (1913-1984) but also younger novelists and short story writers such as Nguyen Thi Vinh ( 1924), Duong
Nghiem Mau (Phi Ich Nghiem, b 1936), Duyen Anh (Vu Mong Long, b 1936), Nhat Tien (Bui Nhat Tien, b
1936), Thao Truong (Tran Duy Hinh, b 1939), Le Tat Dieu ( 1942) and Trung Duong (Nguyen Th? Thai, b
1944).
It was largely under their influence that southern prose writing came of age during the period 19541975 with the works of Binh Nguyen Loc (To Van Tuan, 1914), Vo Phien ( 1925), Son Nam (Pham Minh Tay,
1926), Ngoc Linh (Duong Dai Tam, 1935) and Nguyen Thi Thuy Vu (Nguyen Bang Linh, 1939) from the south
and Linh Bao (Vo Thi Dieu Vien, 1926), Minh Duc Hoai Trinh (Vo Th? Hoai Trinh, 1930), Nguyen Xuan Hoang
( 1937), Tuy Hong (Nguyen Thi Tuy Hong, 1938), Nha Ca (Tran Thi Thu Van, 1939), Nguyen Thi Hoang ( 1939)
and Nguyen Mong Giac ( 1940) from the central provinces.
Leading poets of the 1950s and 1960s included northern emigres Tuong Pho (Do Thi Dam, 1900199?), Bang Ba Lan (1912-1988), Vu Hoang Chuong (1916-1976), Dinh Hung (1920-1967), Nguyen Sa (Tran
Bich Lan, 1932) and Cung Tram Tuong (Cung Thuc Can, b 1936); Quach Tan ( 1910), Nguyen Vy (Co Dieu
Huyen, 1910-197?), Bui Giang ( 1926), Quach Thoai (Doan Thoai, 1929-1957), Thanh Tam Tuyen (Dzu Van
Tam, 1936) and Nguyen Duc Son (Sao Tren Rung, b 1937) from central Viet Nam; and Dong Ho (Lam Tan
Phac, 1906-1969), Kien Giang ( 1929) and To Thuy Yen (Dinh Thanh Tien, 1938) from the south.
However, the southern literary flowering proved short-lived; whilst the overthrow of the Diem
government in 1963 brought greater artistic freedom, growing political instability, the escalation of war with the
north and the steady slide into official corruption and decadence which attended the influx of large numbers of
American troops in the period after 1963 engendered what one scholar has called a ‘culture of entertainment’.
In a radical departure from the past, a people brought up to associate literature with education and moral
improvement turned increasingly for escapism to cheap imported martial arts novels and sentimental
romances.
In order to survive in this new climate, many members of the literary community began writing daily
feuilletons (serialised stories) for the newspapers, whilst others turned out novels featuring unusually racy
subject matter. Nonetheless, the last years of the Sai Gon regime did see some literary works of note, notably
the novels of Nhat Tien, Le Tat Dieu and Nha Ca with their vivid descriptions of the horrors of war.
In the north, the immediate aftermath of the August Revolution saw the establishment of the Giai Pham
writer movement, the name of which was drawn from its two journals Nhan van (Humanism) and Works of
Beauty. Established by a group of northern intellectuals which included writers Tran Dan, Hoang Cam ( 1922),
Phan Khoi (1887-1959), Nguyen Huu Dang, Truong Tuu, Tran Duc Thao and Thuy An, this movement aimed to
secure a greater measure of intellectual independence for the Vietnamese literary community.
However, the trial which followed firmly established the principle that Vietnamese literature existed to
advance socialism and must be guided by the Communist Party vanguard. With the establishment of the Viet
Nam Writers Association in 1957 northern literature became firmly subordinated to the task of building the
socialist future.
During the 1960s and early 1970s, the northern literary was continued to identify closely with the national and
ideological cause.
Amongst the best-known patriotic poems of this period were “the Campaign Trail, 1960” by Xuan Mien,
“The Red Farewell, 1964” by Nguyen My (1935-1971), “To the Front, 1972” by To Huu and “Poems Against the
Enemy, 1972” by Che Lan Vien. Important revolutionary poems were also written during this period by Minh
Hue (Nguyen Duc Thai, 1927-2003), winner of numerous awards for his works on the Xo Viet Nghe Tinh
uprising of 1930-1931 and the life of Ho Chi Minh; Giang Nam (Nguyen Sung, 1929) and Thu Bon(Ha Duc
Trong, 1935-2003), both recipients of the Southern Revolutionary National Fatherland Front’s Nguyen Dinh
Chieu Award for Literature; and a group of younger poets which included Hoang Minh Chau (b 1930), Pham
Ngoc Canh (Vu Ngan Chi, b 1934), Nguyen Xuan Tham (b 1936), Vo Van Truc (b 1936), Van nghe (Literary
Arts) Newspaper Awards winners Duong Huong Ly (Bui Minh Quoc, b 1940), Pham Tien Duat ( 1941), Bang
Viet (1941), Huu Thinh ( 1942), Nguyen Khoa Diem (b 1943), Anh Ngoc (Ly Son, 1943), Nguyen Duy (b 1948),
Nguyen Duc Mau (Huong Hai Hung, 1948) and Hoang Nhuan Cam ( 1952), playwright Luu Quang Vu (19481988) and war martyrs Nguyen Trong Dinh (1939-1968), Tran Quang Long (1941-1968) and Le Anh Xuan
(1940-1968).
Throughout the American War leading prose writers of the 1940s and 1950s such as Nguyen Cong
Hoan, Nguyen Hong, Bui Hien, To Hoai, Nguyen Van Bong, Chu Van, Thanh Chau and Nguyen Dinh Thi
continued to devote their work to the revolutionary cause.
Other important novelists and short story writers emerging during this period included Thep Moi (anh
Hong, 1925-1991), Vo Huy Tam (1926-1996), Nguyen Trong Oanh (1929-1993), Ngo Ngoc Boi ( 1929),
Nguyen Minh Chau (1930-1989), Nguyen Khai (1930), Vu Thi Thuong ( 1930), Phan Tu (Le Kham, 1930-1995),
Vu Bao ( 1931), Ma Van Khang ( 1936), Do Chu ( 1944) and war martyrs Le Vinh Ha (1932-1967), Nguyen Thi
(Nguyen Ngoc Tan, 1928-1968) and Chu Cam Phong (1941-1971). Of particular importance was a small group
of southern writers who had regrouped in the north after 1954 and now returned south into enemy territory to
gather material for their compositions; these included novelists Nguyen Quang Sang (b 1932), Anh Duc (Bui
Duc Ai, 1935) and Nguyen Ngoc (1932).
THE MODERN FROM 1975
With national integrity finally secured in 1975, it was not long before the literary community began to
explore in their work themes which had largely been set aside during the long struggle for self-determination.
This trend received a boost with the implementation of “Renovation” in 1986, which afforded Vietnamese
writers a measure of creative freedom, allowing them to look at life from an individual point of view rather than
focusing on the role of society as a whole.
Since that time Vietnamese writers have begun to question established views and to tackle such
sensitive issues as the enormous cost of victory in terms of human suffering, the problem of official corruption,
the disappointments of the post-war era and the social effects of the change from a subsidised to a market
economy, including ‘social evils’ such as prostitution and drug addiction. Such themes have provided the raw
material for some of the most exciting contemporary literature emanating from modern Viet Nam, though to
date only a handful of the works which tackle them have been translated into other languages.
A small group of contemporary Vietnamese prose writers has already achieved considerable success
internationally. This group includes Nguyen Huy Thiep (b 1950), author of several important short stories
including “The Retired General”, “The Winds of Hua Tat” and “Daughter of the Sea Gods” novelist and short
story writer Ph?m Thi Hoai (b 1960), now resident in Germany, whose best-known works include the novels
“The Crystal Messenger” and Marie Sen; Duong Thu Huong (b 1947), who attracted wide international
attention for her novels “Beyond Illusions”, “Paradise of the Blind”, “Novel Without a Name” and “Memories of a
Pure Spring”; Ho Anh Thai (b 1960), author of the acclaimed novels “Beyond the Red Mist” and “The Women
on the Island”; and Bao Ninh (b 1952), whose complex, dream-like work “Destiny of Love, 1987”, republished
in 1991 as “The Sorrow of War” transformed writing about human conflict.
However, a much larger body of work by talented contemporary Vietnamese writers has yet to be made
available to a wider international audience. Foremost amongst the older generation of prose writers referred to
earlier whose work still attracts a large readership is Ngo Ngoc Boi, writer of short stories and author of the
novels “Village Pond”, “Nightmare”, “The Wind Carries the Bamboo Branch” and “Infinite Gate of Heaven”; the
late Nguyen Minh Chau, whose works include the novels “Coming Out of the Forest”, “Land of Love” and
“Reeds” plus numerous short stories; and short story writer Nguyen Khai, whose best works were published in
a collection entitled Truyen Ngan Nguyen Khai.
Other important contemporary Vietnamese prose writers include the afore-mentioned Ma Van Khang (b
1936), whose works include the short story collection Truyen Ngan Ma Van Khang and the award-winning
novel “Season of Falling Leaves”; short story writer and novelist Nguyen Manh Tuan (b 1947), whose bestknown works include “Melaleuca Tree Island” and “Standing Before the Sea”; Le Luu (b 1942), short story
writer and author of the novels “Time Far Past” and “Waves on the River Bed”; short story writer and novelist
Duong Huong (b 1949), whose works include “Haven for Single Women” and “This World of People”; and Ta
Duy Anh (b 1959), author of numerous short stories and novels including “The Miserable Old Man” and
“Karma”.
The contribution of women writers to the development of the short story as a distinctive Vietnamese
literary medium has been especially noteworthy; in addition to the afore-mentioned Pham Thi Hoai, leading
contemporary female short story writers include Da Ngan (Le Hong Nga, b 1952), playwright and theatre
director Nguyen Thi Minh Ngoc (b 1953), Ly Lan (b 1957), Vo Thi Xuan Ha (b 1959), Pham Thi Minh Thu (b
1956), Y Ban (Pham Thi Xuan Ban, b 1961), Nguyen Thi Thu Hue (b 1966), Phan Thi Vang Anh (b 1968) and
Tran Thanh Ha (b 1971).
However, perhaps the best known female short story writers currently working in Viet Nam are Le Minh
Khue (b 1949), whose works have been published in the award-winning anthology Truyen Ngan Le Minh Khue,
and Vo Thi Hao (b 1956), author of the highly popular short stories “Sea of Saving” and “Survivor of the
Laughing Forest” and the collected works short story Vo Thi Hao: “Selected Short Stories of Vo Thi Hao: One
Hundred Stupidities of Men”.
Leading Vietnamese poets of the past 25 years such as Pham Tien Duat, Nguyen Duy, Hoang Nhuan
Cam, Bang Viet, Huu Thinh, Pham Ngoc Canh, Anh Ngoc and Nguyen Duc Mau continue to play an important
role in today’s literary scene. Other important contemporary poets include Viet Nam Writers Association
Awards winners Quan Phuong (Ngoc Vu, b 1940), Thanh Thao (Ho Thanh Cong, b 1946) and Nguyen Quang
Thieu (b 1957); and Literary Arts Newspaper Awards winners Hoang Tran Cuong (b 1948), Van Le (Le Chi
Thuy, b 1949), Tran Manh Hao (b 1949) and Tran Dang Khoa (b 1958).
During the past 25 years, women poets have also truly come into their own. One of Viet Nam’s bestknown modern female poets, Xuan Quynh (Nguyen Thi Xuan Quynh, 1942-1988), was tragically killed in 1988
in a car accident along with her playwright husband Luu Quang Vu.
Amongst the most exciting contemporary women poets are Phan Thi Thanh Nhan (b 1943), Thao
Phuong Nguyen Mai Huong, b 1949), Pha Thi Ngoc Lien (b 1952), Giang Van (b 1958), Thanh Nguyen (b
1962), Phan Huyen Thu (b 1972), Ngan Hoa (b 1973) and Ly Hoà ng Ly (b 1975), Literary Arts Newspaper
Awards winners Nguyen Thi Hong Ngat (b 1950) and Nguyen Khanh Chi (b 1965) and Viet Nam Writers
Association Awards winners Y Nhi (Hoang Thi Y Nhi, b 1944), Lam Thi My Da (b 1949), Le Thi May (Pham
Tuyet Hoa, b 1949) and Le Thi Kim (b 1950). The Women’s Publishing House recently published an excellent
collection of poems by 150 women poets, around half of whom were born since the end of the American War.
At the turn of the new millennium, a literary group is known as “Six Faced Circle” emerged in the
southern capital of Ho Chi Minh City, attracting recognition from leading Vietnamese intellectuals. In 2001 four
young writers from this group – Ly Doi (1978), Bui Chat (1979), Khuc Duy (1976) and Nguyen Quan(1977) –
formed the “Open Mouth” underground poetry movement. In recent years this group has held regular poetry
readings and its work has become increasingly linked with contemporary developments in performance art.
Over the past quarter-century the Viet Nam Writers Association, the Ha Noi Writers Association, the Ho
Chi Minh City Writers Association and several other literary organisations have continued to promote the
development of creative writing through their annual awards for the best prose, poetry, theory and criticism and
translated works. There has also been corresponding development in the field of literary criticism and literary
research. Mention should also be made of the Nguyen Du School of Writing, Ha Noi, modelled on the Pushkin
Institute in Moscow, which was established in 1981 by the Ha Noi University of Culture with the aim of training
writers in the two key areas of prose and poetry.
YOUR TEXT
THE LAND OF BLISS
Over five centuries ago, during the reign of King Tran Thuan Tong, there lived a young mandarin named Tu
Thuc, who was chief of the Tien Du district. He was a very learned man and possessed many precious books.
In these he could find all the knowledge of the world except the location of the Land of Bliss, and this was what
he longed to know.
As a small boy Tu Thuc had been told that the Chinese Emperor Duong Minh Hoang had by chance
discovered the Land of Bliss one night when the August moon was full. There he had found women with
wonderful peach-blossom complexions wearing rainbow-colored dresses with long, flaring sleeves. It was land
of eternal youth and pleasure, and one's time was spent in laughter, music, and dancing. The emperor learned
the wonderful "Khuc Nghe Thuong" dance from the fairies themselves. On his return to earth he taught this
dance to the ladies of the imperial palace, who would then dance for him in the silver moonlight as he sipped
his perfumed wine.
From his boyhood Tu Thuc had dreamed of the Land of Bliss, and his greatest ambition was to visit this
remarkable land.
One day Tu Thuc passed an old pagoda, which was renowned for its glorious peonies. It was during the
Flower Festival of the year Binh Ti, and the red peonies were in full bloom. It happened that a young maiden of
radiant beauty and sweet countenance had lowered a branch to admire the blossoms, and as she did so it
broke off in her hand. The priests of the pagoda arrested her and imposed a fine, which she was unable to pay.
Tu Thuc had observed these proceedings, and although he had insufficient money to pay the fine, he
generously offered his brocade coat in exchange for the maiden's freedom. This offer was accepted and Tu
Thuc was praised by everyone in the district when his kind gesture became known.
Some years later, tired of the "circle of honors and worldly interests," Tu Thuc resigned his office in order to be
able to visit the "blue mountains and emerald-green waters." He retired to Tong-Son, a place of many beautiful
springs and splendid grottoes.
One day, taking his lute, a book of poems, and a gourd of wine, he set out to wander through the great forest,
where graceful boughs wove canopies from tree to tree. He crossed many streams and visited the famous Pink
Mountain, the Cave of the Green Clouds, and the Lai River. As he walked he composed verses in praise of
nature's wild and magic charm.
One day he awoke early in the morning and beheld five pastel clouds, which shimmered and glittered above
the sea, as they unfolded into the form of lotus flowers. Enticed by this vision, he rowed towards the clouds and
saw a magic mountain floating on the sea. He stepped ashore, and deeply moved by the beauty of the scenery
about him, composed this verse:
A thousand reflections quiver in these lofty boughs;
The flowers of the grotto greet the arriving guest.
Near the spring, where then is the herb gatherer?
A lone boatman rows on the stream,
And his guitar sounds two notes.
The boat glides lazily, the gourd offers its wine.
Shall we ask the boatman of Vo Lang:
"Where are the peach trees of the Land of Bliss?"
Having completed the poem, Tu Thuc saw the sides of the mountain suddenly open and from the interior there
came a strange, rustling sound. Was it an invitation to enter?
He entered the dark cavern and felt the mountain close behind him. For some distance the cavern was so
narrow that he was forced to crawl on his hands and knees, but then it became lofty and wide. As he
approached its deepest point, a golden light greeted him Looking up, he saw that the rocks above were as
clear as the white clouds of the purest sky. Grasping the jagged edges of the rocks, he began to climb.
Near the summit the air was perfumed with the scent of lilies and roses. A crystalline spring flowed at his feet,
and he saw gold and silver fish swimming in its waters. The broad lotus leaves floating on the surface glistened
with all the colors of the rainbow, appearing as brilliant lights. A bridge of marble led over the stream to a
wonderful garden, where hidden fairies sang songs so soft and harmonious that no human voice could hope to
match them.
The path, strewn with fallen petals, led to a garden with boughs shimmering with starry flowers. Wonderful
birds mingled with the flowers and poured forth their melodious songs. A flock of peacocks, tail-feathers
spread, stood on the green grass which was covered with iridescent petals. And all around more petals kept
falling like flakes of snow. Tu Thuc felt lost in another world. But suddenly the murmur of voices returned him to
reality.
From behind a lacquered gate a group of lovely maidens, dressed in blue, and with sparkling stars in their hair,
came forth to meet him.
"Greetings to our handsome bridegroom," said one of them, and then they all disappeared into the palace to
announce his arrival. A short while later they returned and, bowing, implored him to enter.
Tu Thuc followed the maidens into a magnificent hall with brocaded walls and heavily gilded doors. A soft and
gentle melody floated in the air, and harps sounded sweetly at his approach.
A majestic lady in a snow-white silken dress was seated on a richly carved throne. She motioned him to a
graceful sandalwood chair and then asked:
"Learned scholar and lover of beautiful sites, do you know what land this is?"
"It is true that I have visited many blue mountains and great forests," he answered politely, "but truly I had
never hoped to see such a wonderful land. Would the Most Noble Lady tell me where I find myself?"
The lady smiled and said:
"How could a man from the world of brown dust recognize this land? You are in the sixth of the thirty-six
grottoes of Phi Lai Mountain, which floats on the wide ocean and appears and vanishes according to the
winds. I am the Fairy Queen of the Nam Nhac summit and my name is Nguy. I know that you have a beautiful
soul and a noble heart, and I welcome you."
Then the Fairy Queen motioned to the maidens, and they ushered in a beautiful and modest young girl who
had not been with them before. Tu Thuc at once recognized the young maiden he had befriended at the
pagoda.
The Fairy Queen spoke again:
"This is my daughter, Giang Huong. The day she was in distress you were the only one who offered to help
her. We have never forgotten your noble and generous gesture, and now I am able to show my gratitude. I
offer you her hand in marriage, and henceforth my daughter's life will be bound to yours."
The wedding was celebrated that very day, and all the fairies from the grottoes were invited. A great feast was
prepared, and the nuptials were performed with great pomp.
Then followed many pleasant days of laughter and happiness in the Land of Bliss. The weather was neither
hot nor cold, for it was a land of eternal spring. The boughs in the garden were laden with flowers more
beautiful than the rose, and it seemed that there was nothing more that Tu Thuc could wish for.
Still, as time passed, he began to feel nostalgia for his native village. He would often remain alone at night on
the beach and gaze into the distance.
One day, looking towards the south, he saw a boat gliding on the sea. Pointing, he said to Giang Huong: "It is
likely that that boat is going in the direction from which I came. I cannot hide my feelings any longer; I think
constantly of my home there. Would you understand if I were to return for a while?"
Giang Huong hesitated at the idea of parting, but Tu Thuc insisted: "It is only a matter of a few weeks. Once I
have seen my relatives, I promise to return."
The Fairy Queen was consulted and said: "If he wishes to return to the world of toil and sadness, what is the
good of keeping him here? His heart is still laden with earthly memories, and his wish shall be granted."
Tu Thuc was then asked to close his eyes for a moment, and when he opened them he was back on earth.
He asked the way to his village and was told that he was already there. Yet he failed to recognize the
surroundings. Instead of old friends and acquaintances, he met people he had never seen before. He inquired
of the old men in the square and told them his name. None of them knew it. He left the village, convinced that it
was not his own. As he was leaving he met a very old man.
"Excuse me, venerable grandfather," he said to the old man, "my name is Tu Thuc, and I am looking for my
native village. Would you be kind enough to show me the way?"
"Tu Thuc? Tu Thuc?" repeated the old man as he searched his mind. "When I was a boy I was told that one of
my ancestors named Tu Thuc had been chief of the Tien Du district. But he resigned his office over a hundred
years ago and set off for an unknown destination and never returned. Many people said that he was borne to
Heaven, but more likely he was lost in some ravine. That was near the end of the Tran dynasty, and we are
now under the fourth Le king."
Tu Thuc then gave an account of his miraculous experience, and realized he had stayed in the Land of Bliss
for exactly one hundred years.
"I have heard that a year on Earth is only a day in the Land of Bliss. So you are my most venerable ancestor,
Tu Thuc," continued the old man, "please let me show you your old home."
And he led Tu Thuc to a deserted place, where there was nothing to be seen except a dilapidated hut, entirely
beyond repair.
Tu Thuc was unhappy and disappointed. He longed to return to the Land of Bliss as rapidly as possible. All the
people that he had once known on Earth had been dead for many years, and the ways and manners of the
younger generations completely bewildered him.
So he set out again in the direction of the Yellow Mountains in search of the fairyland, and disappeared. But
whether he found the Land of Bliss or became lost in the mountains, no one knows.
YOUR TASKS:
1. Using the given literary piece as example, identify the prevailing characteristics of Vietnamese
Literature and the customs, traditions, and belief of the people. Use this table:
Characteristics of Vietnamese
Theme of the Story
Customs, Traditions, and Beliefs
Literature
of the Vietnamese Reflected in
the Story
2. Look for one representative of Vietnamese literature (a poem or a short story). Analyze the piece by
following the given format:
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
Historical Background
Author’s Background
Summary
Analysis
a. Literary elements
b. Literary devices
c. Figures of speech
d. Symbolisms
Reaction
References:
https://vietlongtravel.com/news/vietnam-facts/vietnam-literature
https://faerymists.tripod.com/fytales/vietnam.htm
INDONESIAN LITERATURE
Indonesian literatures, the poetry and prose writings in Javanese, Malay, Sundanese, and other
languages of the peoples of Indonesia. They include works orally transmitted and then preserved in written
form by the Indonesian peoples, oral literature, and the modern literatures that began to emerge in the early
20th century as a result of Western influence.
Many of the Indonesian songs, or poems, that were orally transmitted by professional priest-singers
embody traditions that have a religious function. Improvisation played a great part in this kind of poetry, and
there is reason to believe that in its present form much of it is of no great age. Indonesian orally transmitted
prose forms are highly varied and include myths, animal stories and “beast fables,” fairy tales, legends, puzzles
and riddles, and anecdotes and adventure stories. The divine heroes and epic animals of these tales show the
influence of Indian literature and the written literatures of other neighboring cultures.
Written literature in Indonesia has been preserved in the various languages of Sumatra (Acehnese,
Batak, Rejang, Lampong, and Malay), in the languages of Java (Sundanese and Madurese as well as
Javanese), in Bali and Lombok, and in the more important languages of South Celebes (Makassarese and
Buginese). By far the most important in both quantity and quality are the literatures in Javanese and Malay.
The earliest extant examples of Javanese literature date from the 9th or 10th century CE. An important
position in this early literature is occupied by Javanese prose and poetic versions of the two great Hindu epics,
the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. The Javanese also borrowed from India’s sophisticated court poetry in
Sanskrit, in the process making it Javanese in expression, form, and feeling.
When Islam reached Java in the 15th century, the mystical tendencies in it were incorporated by the
Javanese into their own markedly mystical religious literature. Muslim influence was especially fertile during the
early 17th century in Aceh, where Malay for the first time became an important written literary language. In
Java, Muslim legends of saints were combined with Hindu-derived mythologies and cosmologies to produce
imaginative works of historical narrative in which magico-mystical elements play a prominent role.
Indonesia has created many celebrated authors. There has also been a long tradition, particularly
among ethnically Malay populations, of impromptu, interactive, verbal composition of poetry referred to as the
‘pantun’. There is a long Javanese tradition of the poet as a "voice on the wind," a critic of authority. During the
Suharto era, poets and playwrights had works banned, among them W. S. Rendra whose plays were not
allowed in Jakarta.Pramoedya Ananta Toer, a well-known author won the Magsaysay Award and was
considered for the Nobel Prize in Literature.
Indonesia's literary legacy includes centuries-old palm, bamboo, and other fiber manuscripts from
several literate peoples, such as the Malay, Javanese, Balinese, Buginese, Rejang, and Batak. The fourteenth
century Nagarakrtagama is a lengthy poem praising King Hayam Wuruk and describing the life and social
structure of his kingdom, Majapahit. The I La Galigo of the Bugis, which traces the adventures of their culture
hero, Sawerigading, is one of the world's longest epic poems. [Source: everyculture.com]
Although the culture of India, largely embodied in insular Southeast Asia with the Sanskrit language
and the Hindu and Buddhist religions, was eagerly grasped by the elite of the existing society, typically Indian
concepts, such as caste and the inferior status of women, appear to have made little or no headway against
existing Indonesian traditions. Nowhere was Indian civilization accepted without change; rather, the more
elaborate Indian religious forms and linguistic terminology were used to refine and clothe indigenous concepts.
In Java even these external forms of Indian origin were transformed into distinctively Indonesian shapes. The
tradition of plays using Javanese shadow puppets (wayang), the origins of which may date to the neolithic age,
was brought to a new level of sophistication in portraying complex Hindu dramas (lakon) during the period of
Indianization. Even later Islam which forsakes pictorial representations of human brings, brought new
developments to the wayang tradition through numerous refinements in the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries.
[Source: Library of Congress]
The Javanese has a literary history dating back to the 8th century. Many of their folk stories are based
on Hindu stories from India. During the Medang or Mataram Kingdom—a Javanese Hindu–Buddhist kingdom
that flourished between the 8th and 10th centuries in Central Java, and later in East Java—there was
blossoming of art, culture and literature, mainly through the translation of Hindu-Buddhist sacred texts and the
transmission and adaptation of Hindu-Buddhist ideas. The bas-relief narration of the Hindu epic Ramayana
was carved on the wall of Prambanan Temple. During this period, the Kakawin Ramayana, an old Javanese
rendering was written. This Kakawin Ramayana, also called the Yogesvara Ramayana, is attributed to the
scribe Yogesvara circa the 9th century CE, who was employed in the court of the Medang in Central Java. It
has 2774 stanzas in the manipravala style, a mixture of Sanskrit and archaic Javanese prose. The most
influential version of the Ramayana is the Ravanavadham of Bhatti, popularly known as Bhattikavya. The
Javanese Ramayana differs markedly from the original Hindu.
[Source: metapedia.org]
“When Islam started to spread across the islands of Indonesia in the 12th century, it was also bringing
new kinds of cultural influences from the Islamic world, from Arab culture, Persia and Islamic West India. They
included literature, types of instruments, forms of music, styles of recitation of holy texts, and also some forms
of dance. In many cases these new elements were quickly localised and they intermingled with earlier animistic
and Hindu-Buddhist elements. A good example is wayang golek rod puppet theatre, which has its roots firmly
in the older wayang kulit shadow theatre that mainly deals with Hindu mythology. Wayang golek, however,
takes its main plot material from the Islamic Menak stories. A similar kind of fusion of cultural layers can be
recognised in numerous Indonesian traditions. **
Majapahit Literature and the Nagarakertagama
During the Majapahit period, in the 13th–15th centuries, the East Javanese culture reached its zenith.
The second half of the 14th century in particular saw the flourishing of both literature and architecture.
Majapahit’s writers continued the developments in literature and wayang (shadow puppetry) begun in the
Kediri period. The best-known work today, Mpu Prapañca’s Desawarnaña, often referred to
as Nāgarakertāgama, composed in 1365, which provides us with an unusually detailed view of daily life in the
kingdom’s central provinces. Many other classic works also date from this period, including the famous Panji
tales, popular romances based on the history of eastern Java that were loved and borrowed by storytellers as
far away as Thailand and Cambodia. Many of Majapahit’s administrative practices and laws governing trade
were admired and later imitated elsewhere, even by fledgling powers seeking independence from Javanese
imperial control.
[Source: Library of Congress]
"Negara Kertagama," by the famous Javanese author Prapancha (1335-1380) was written during this
golden period of Majapahit, when many literary works were produced. Parts of the book described the
diplomatic and economic ties between Majapahit and numerous Southeast Asian countries including Myanmar,
Thailand, Tonkin, Annam, Kampuchea and even India and China. Other works in Kawi, the old Javanese
language, were "Pararaton," "Arjuna Wiwaha," "Ramayana," and "Sarasa Muschaya." In modern times, these
works were later translated into modern European languages for educational purposes.
[Source: ancientworlds.net]
A description of the Majapahit capital from the Old Javanese epic poem Nagarakertagama goes: "Of all the
buildings, none lack pillars, bearing fine carvings and coloured" [Within the wall compounds] "there were
elegant pavilions roofed with aren fibre, like the scene in a painting... The petals of the katangga were
sprinkled over the roofs for they had fallen in the wind. The roofs were like maidens with flowers arranged in
their hair, delighting those who saw them".
Literature from the Dutch Period in Indonesia
In colonial times some literature was published in regional languages, the most being in Javanese, but
this was stopped after Indonesian independence. The earliest official publishing house for Indonesian literature
is Balai Pustaka, founded in Batavia in 1917. National culture was expressed and, in some ways formed,
through spoken Malay-Indonesian (understood by many people) and newspapers, pamphlets, poetry, novels,
and short stories for those who could read.
[Source: everyculture.com]
The literature on Dutch expansion and the Netherlands East Indies is extensive. The most
comprehensive work on the Cultivation System is perhaps Robert E. Elson’s Village Java under the Cultivation
System. The 1860 novel Max Havelaar: Or the Coffee Auctions of the Dutch Trading Company by Multatuli,
penname of Eduard Douwes Dekker, is still captivating reading. It w as polemic against injustice by Dutch
colonist in Java in the 1850s. A History of Modern Indonesia by Adrian Vickers begins its coverage with the late
nineteenth century, and the collection of papers edited by Robert B. Cribb in The Late Colonial State in
Indonesia is very useful. *
Modern Literature in Indonesia
Modern Indonesian literature got its start with language unification efforts in 1928 and underwent
considerable development before the war, receiving further impetus under Japanese auspices. Revolutionary
(or traditional) Indonesian themes were employed in drama, films, and art, and hated symbols of Dutch
imperial control were swept away.
Michael J. Ybarra wrote in the Los Angeles Times, “Indonesia is one of the world's largest countries,
but it's also a relatively young one. When the Indonesian republic was born in 1949, after three centuries of
Dutch colonialism, language was one forge of nationalism. The new country stretched from the Indian Ocean
to the Pacific, encompassing 17,000 islands. The archipelago was also a riot of languages with some 300
tongues spoken. The literary tradition was more oral than written, everything from the spoken word epics of the
Kalimantan Dayaks in Borneo to Javanese court songs. The new government declared Bahasa Indonesia (a
dialect of Malay) the national language. "Indonesia owes its identity to the Indonesian language," says novelist
Pramoedya Ananta Toer.
[Source: Michael J. Ybarra, Los Angeles Times, July 18, 2004]
By the time of independence, literary production was not great, but it has grown considerably since the 1950s.
The literary tradition is now rich, but one should note that reading for pleasure or enlightenment is not yet part
of the culture of average urban Indonesians and plays little if any part in the life of village people. Indonesia
has made literacy and widespread elementary education a major effort of the nation, but in many rural parts of
the country functional literacy is limited. For students to own many books is not common; universities are still
oriented toward lecture notes rather than student reading; and libraries are poorly stocked.
[Source: everyculture.com]
Modern Writers and Books in Indonesia
In the conflict between left-and right-wing politics of the 1950s and early 1960s, organizations of
authors were drawn into the fray. In the anticommunist purges of the late 1960s, some writers who had
participated in left-wing organizations were imprisoned. The most famous is Pramoedya Ananta Toer, a
nationalist who had also been imprisoned by the Dutch from 1947 to 1949. He composed books as stories told
to fellow prisoners in exile on the island of Buru from 1965 to 1979. He was released from Buru and settled in
Jakarta, but remained under city arrest. Four of his novels, the Buru Quartet , published between 1980 and
1988 in Indonesian, are rich documentaries of life in turn-of-the-century colonial Java. They were banned in
Indonesia during the New Order. Pram (as he is commonly known, rhyming with Tom) received a PEN
Freedom-to-Write Award in 1988 and a Magsaysay Award in 1995. In English translation, the Buru Quartet
received critical acclaim, and after the end of the New Order in 1999, Pram made a tour of the United States.
He is the only Indonesian novelist to have received such acclaim overseas.
[Source: everyculture.com]
Famous writers and intellectuals include: W. S. Rendra, major poet and playwright who achieved fame
during the New Order for taking stands against the government; Akhdiat Miharja, a key figure in literature
during the 1940s and 1950s; Des Alwi, one of the last figures of the revolutionary period (he was the adopted
son of Mohammad Hatta and a close associate of Sutan Syahrir), and later diplomat and writer; and Rosihan
Anwar, legendary reporter, columnist, and public intellectual. Chairil Anwar was also an important figure in the
literature world and a member of the Generation 45 group of authors who were active in the Indonesian
independence movement.
[Source: Library of Congress, August 2, 2011 William H. Frederick]
Some well known Indonesian writers set their stories in fantasy words. Others have used the Dutch
period to criticize the Sukarno and Suharto eras. The Dancer by Ahmad Tohari was banned under Suharto. It
was about village life during the massacre in the 1860s. It paints an unflattering picture of the military. Mochtar
Lubis is another highly regarded Indonesian writer. His most well known novel, Twilight in Jakarta, examines
corruption and the problems of the poor in 1950s Jakarta. This book too was banned and Lubis was jailed. Fira
Basuki wrote the trilogy Jendala-Jendala (“The Windows”), Pintu (“The Door”) and Atap (“The Roof”). Dew
Lestari is a singer who wrote the popular novel Supernova.
Lack of English Translations and Interest in Indonesian Literature
Michael J. Ybarra wrote in the Los Angeles Times, “In 1986 the king of Thailand gave an award to
Indonesian poet Sapardi Djoko Damono for his contributions to Indonesia's literature. Damono, in turn, wanted
to hand out some of his verse when he accepted the award in Bangkok. The only problem was Damono's work
had never been translated into another language. So the poet asked his friend John McGlynn to prepare a
selection in English, the lingua franca of Southeast Asia. For McGlynn, an American translator living in Jakarta,
it was a flashback to when he started studying the Indonesian language in college a decade earlier. "It was
ridiculous," he says. "I had studied Japanese and Chinese literature in translation, but for Indonesian there
were less than five books in translation."
[Source: Michael J. Ybarra, Los Angeles Times, July 18, 2004 *|*]
“Indonesia’s great writer Pramoedya Ananta Toer said, "A translated book is more important than a
diplomat." McGlynn concurs. "Before Lontar there was no possibility of teaching Indonesia literature abroad, of
finding out aspects of Indonesian culture beyond politics or economics," he says. "I want people to understand
the Indonesia I care about. My passion is for Indonesia more than Indonesian literature, but I do feel that only
through arts and culture can you understand another culture."
“It was puppets, not books, that first brought McGlynn to Indonesia. A theater major from the University
of Wisconsin, McGlynn came to Indonesia in 1976 to study wayang kulit, the famous shadow puppet theater.
He had begun studying the language in Wisconsin and continued at the University of Indonesia in Jakarta. His
interest in puppets waned as he began to learn about the country's literature. "At first, literature was only a tool
to learn the language," he says. "I asked my professor to set up a course to study Indonesian literature. I was
the only student. I wasn't truly viewing it as literature. I wanted a greater understanding of the culture. Then I
found a lot of gems. It was only after a few years that I got a calling, a mission."
“McGlynn returned to the U.S. long enough to earn a master's at the University of Michigan in 1981. "I
think it was the first degree in Indonesian literature in the U.S.," he says. Over the last two decades some 20
American universities have added the teaching of Indonesian literature, usually under the auspices of
Southeast Asian studies (the topic is more popular in Australia).
“Even in Indonesia the country's literature is not exactly a priority. "English is a mandatory subject in
school," McGlynn says. "Indonesian literature is not." Lontar Executive Director Adila Suwarno said, "I'm
Indonesian, but I'm disappointed there are not many Indonesians that realize how important it is to preserve
our culture. But I understand that. A country like ours has to feed and house people first. It's easier to collect
funding for poverty. This is too sophisticated."”
Effort to Get Indonesian Literature Translated to English
Michael J. Ybarra wrote in the Los Angeles Times, “McGlynn, along with Damono and several other
Indonesian writers, McGlynn formed an organization to translate and promote the largely unknown literature
from the world's fourth most populous nation. In 1988 the Lontar Foundation was born; its first publication was
a collection of Damono's work called "Suddenly the Night." Since then the foundation has published scores of
books and branched out into documenting some of the archipelago's cultural traditions, such as regional
theater and dance, which are threatened by the irresistible pull of globalization. "Until Lontar was established,
people abroad didn't look at Indonesian literature as literature," McGlynn says. "Whenever Indonesia appears
in a newspaper it's because of a disaster. I wanted to create a more accurate picture. Not necessarily a better
picture but a more balanced one."
[Source: Michael J. Ybarra, Los Angeles Times, July 18, 2004
“Professor Hendrik Maier, an expert on Malay literature who teaches in the new Southeast Asian
studies program at UC Riverside, agrees that the foundation has made the study of Indonesian writing possible
in the English-speaking world. "Lontar made a lot of things accessible in good translations," he says. "At last
we have these books in English. It's also good for the self-confidence of the Indonesians; they're proud that
they get their place in the world."
“The idea for Lontar, McGlynn says, came from an Indian organization called the Seagull Foundation
that was formed in 1987 to promote South Asian arts. The name Lontar refers to the palm-leaf manuscripts that
record the archipelago's oldest writing. For the first several years, McGlynn and the other staff worked for free.
McGlynn earned his living by translating Indonesian economic journals into English. Today, Lontar employs 25
people, has its own website (www.lontar.org) and operates on an annual budget of about $100,000. McGlynn is
the director of publications. About a third of the foundation's revenue comes from publishing, another third from
the sale of note cards and calendar reproductions of beautiful illustrated manuscripts. The rest comes from
donors such as the Ford Foundation and the Luce Foundation.
“Lontar has published 40 books. The titles don't exactly have bestseller written all over them: There's a
four-volume history of Indonesian theater, a six-volume collection of Javanese literature, an oral history from
survivors of the bloody anti-communist purge of the 1960s, the first history of Indonesian cinema and a boxed
set of bilingual theater texts. After Sept. 11, Lontar put out a volume called "Manhattan Sonnet," which featured
prose and poetry by 24 Indonesian writers who had lived in New York or traveled in the U.S. "We want to
distribute more aggressively to schools around the world," Suwarno says. "Our educational system is terrible.
In our small world we need information for Indonesian students."
“Lontar is also preserving other aspects of the country's culture with a series of films, ranging from
interviews with writers such as Toer and Damono to Balinese shadow puppet performances. The foundation
also houses a library stuffed with rare books, old photographs, slides of manuscripts and performances. "Our
mission is to promote Indonesia through literature," Suwarno says. "I really hope we become one of the biggest
libraries of information in Indonesia that everyone will be able to access. It's a long-term project."
Saman, Ayu Utami and Sex
The most talked about book in Indonesia in the 1990s was Saman, a novella by an unknown 27-yearold woman named Ayu Utami. The book was a success because it dealt with subjects that until that time had
been taboo: political, repression, prejudice towards the Chinese, and premarital sex. An American writer based
in Jakarta told the International Herald Tribune, "That book was a whirlwind. No one had talked about politics
like that before, or, for that matter, about sex like that before."
The story is about a Catholic priest and his relationship with four former female students, one of whom
he has a sexual affair with. Other characters include Christian Chinese, political activists and a rubber tapper.
The description of the sex scenes involving the priest are quite graphic, especially by Indonesian standards.
Utami herself is a Catholic, who was born in 1960 and grew up in Bogor, near Jakarta. She worked as a
journalist until she was fired in 1994 for working with an anti-Suharto group called the Association of
Independent Journalists. She also wrote Larung and Sex, Sketches and Stories and cites the Bible as an early
inspiration.
"Saman" was published two weeks before Suharto's fall. Newsweek reported: “Set during his
oppressive regime, the novel raised eyebrows mainly for touching on both religious and sexual matters: the
main character has an affair with a Catholic priest. Drawing skillfully on both Indonesian slang and literary
allegory, "Saman" won the prestigious Jakarta Arts Council competition for new novels and quickly went on to
sell 55,000 copies--a good run in Indonesia.
[Source: Peter Janssen, Newsweek, October 19, 2003 <+>]
After the release of Sex, Sketches and Stories, Peter Janssen wrote in Newsweek, “At the dimly lit
Sudirman International Cafe, the literati have gathered to drink beer, smoke cigarettes and listen to a young
woman talk about sex. The scene wouldn't be notable in most cities, but this is Jakarta, capital of the world's
most populous Muslim country. Ayu Utami, 35, a slender Javanese beauty with sharp features and an open
smile, is launching her newest book, a collection of essays entitled "Sex, Sketches and Stories." Sporting a
skintight top, Utami deftly fields questions on such topics as marriage, infidelity and sexual liberation. "People
think of free sex as something done by people who aren't married, but actually free sex is something done by
married people," says Utami to shouts of approval. "I love you!" yells one young woman, hoisting a beer. “
Sastra wangi: Indonesia's Sexy Feminist Literary Movement
Ayu Utami and her 1998 novel Saman is noted as starting the sastra wangi movement Sastra wangi
(also spelled sastrawangi; literally, "fragrant literature") is a label given to a new body of Indonesian literature
written by young, urban Indonesian women who take on controversial issues such as politics, religion and
sexuality. The controversial label "sastra wangi" originated among predominantly male critics in the early 2000s
to categorize such young, female writers as Ayu Utami, Dewi Lestari, Fira Basuki and Djenar Maesa Ayu.
Utamis said, "There’s always a tendency to categorize literary work, and sastra wangi is one such category ...
The media came up with [the name] because we weren’t the typical writers who used to lead the local literary
scene. Beyond that, I don’t know the meaning or significance of sastra wangi."
[Source: Wikipedia +]
Peter Janssen wrote in Newsweek, “Since the downfall of the autocratic President Suharto five years
ago, Indonesia has undergone plenty of upheaval: three presidents, innumerable riots and demonstrations,
bloody sectarian clashes between Muslims and Christians. Far less noticed has been the rise of provocative
Indonesian literature, thanks largely to a group of bright, bold, attractive, media-savvy young women who are
willing to take on the subject of sex. Their growing body of work has been lumped under the label sastra
wangi--literally, "fragrant literature"--a somewhat derogatory term that has nonetheless stuck and helped the
movement catch on. "There is a newfound freedom now," says Richard Oh, owner of the QB World Book
chain. "These writers aren't afraid to say anything. This is the first new trend in Indonesian literature for ages
and ages."
[Source: Peter Janssen, Newsweek, October 19, 2003 <+>]
Utami launched the movement with her first novel, "Saman," two weeks before Suharto's fall. “A
succession of women writers quickly followed, each pushing the boundaries of the one who came before. In
Dewi Lestari's wildly popular first novel, "Supernova," the main characters include a gay couple and a
prostitute. Djenar Maesa Ayu published a book of prize-winning short stories, including one entitled "Nursing
From Daddy," in which she expresses a young woman's rejection of the traditional place of women in society
through the metaphor of her suckling her father's penis instead of her mother's breast. And Dinar Rahayu, who
wears the traditional Muslim hijab scarf in public, wrote about sadomasochism and transsexuality in her first
book, "Ode to Leopold von Sacher Masoch." Soon after it was published, she resigned her position as a
chemistry teacher at a progressive, privately run Muslim high school. But like most of her peers, she made it
onto Indonesia's top-10 best-seller lists.
Some believe the sastra wangi writers are merely bringing to light the country's natural lustiness. "We
Indonesians are a raunchy lot," says Julia Suryakusmana, academic, writer, publisher and self-proclaimed
feminist. "We've got our own traditional culture that is very sexual. It's just that there is a schizophrenia
between historical reality and what is called 'Eastern' values." That schizophrenia reached new heights under
Suharto's long rule, from 1966 to 1998. After allowing an initial period of openness, in the early 1970s Suharto
cracked down hard on all forms of critical and creative thinking. "For a period of about 25 years there was a
lost generation in terms of Indonesian literature, when writers wrote more and more obliquely," says John
McGlynn, director of publications at the Lontar Foundation, a nonprofit organization that translates Indonesian
literature into English. "The refreshing thing--not just about the women writers but the whole generation of new
writers--is they are reclaiming their voice."
“So far, that voice is in no danger of being silenced. Indonesia's Muslim leaders, who have been waging
strict campaigns against pornography and suggestive dance shows on TV, have left the sastra wangi set alone.
That may have less to do with the message than the medium; since most Indonesians don't read, literature is
not deemed as dangerous as other media. "The religious establishment don't pay attention to art and literature
because the impact of literature is limited," says Nirwan Derwanto, former editor of the respected journal
Kalam. "One of the greatest things about the sastra wangi movement is, it is bringing people to literature." The
hordes of women clamoring for Utami to sign copies of "Sex, Sketches and Stories" is clear proof of that.
A. Junaidi and Suryakusuma wrote in The Jakarta Post that sastra wangi writers have several things in
common. The works tend to be launched in cafes and bookstores, with celebrities and reporters invited. The
writers themselves are younger women, generally entering the industry around the age of 30, and often
physically attractive. The works usually deal openly with sexuality, traditionally a taboo subject in Indonesian
women's literature. This includes homosexuality. Suryakusuma notes that the traditional patriarchal view of
sex, with the man as the subject and woman as the object, is reversed in these works, with women
aggressively seeking and enjoying sex. The diction can be explicit, with terms such as 'penis' and 'vagina'
being common. The diction and subject matter are often "shocking". Although works from a female perspective
have been common in Indonesian literature, with works by Nh. Dini from the 1970s including references to
sexuality, they were generally within the realm of social mores; the sastra wangi movement tends to go against
these mores.
Indonesia’s Twelve-Year-Old Novelist
In 2011, Deanna Ramsay wrote in the Jakarta Post, “A new addition to Indonesia’s cohort of novelists
has just emerged. Her name is Raisa Affandi, and she is just 11 years old. Raisa’s first novel was published a
little over a week ago. Titled Mimi Bo and the Missing Diary, the exuberant and inventive work is set in a
sometimes dreamlike fantasyland. One part Harry Potter for its school setting amidst student intrigue, one part
Charlie and the Chocolate Factory for its obsession with sweets and one part surrealist illusion a la the Beatles’
“Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds”, Mimi Bo and the Missing Diary — at 195 pages — is a remarkable
achievement for someone so young. And, the novel was written in English.
[Source: Deanna Ramsay, Jakarta Post, March 14, 2011 ==]
“After spending some time with Raisa it is clear she is passionate about reading and writing, her room
filled with books and remnants of her own compositions. When asked what had motivated her to embark upon
writing a novel, Raisa said she was inspired by her younger sister Kyla. Raisa started writing Mimi Bo and the
Missing Diary in 2008 right after Kyla was born and based the main character, Mimi Bo, on her beloved sister.
Mimi Bo in the novel is a precocious child with a mind advanced well beyond her 3 months. As Raisa herself
describes the work, “I just wanted to make a book about babies because I knew the pictures would be cute
because babies are cute.”
“But, the work is not just about babies; it is about children with an awareness of the world around them
that is much deeper than the adults in the story imagine. For example, the babies cleverly use crying as a
tactic to achieve other ends. When asked about the process of novel writing, which took her about a year,
Raisa said, “At first I had no idea what the story was going to be about except there were these babies who
were special at this special school. Then I just started adding more ideas and more ideas until the end.”
“The book, adorned with vibrant watercolor drawings, is set at a school that is a virtual paradise for
infants (and adults for that matter), featuring storks as public transportation, a rainbow club that meets during
storms, an array of decadent sweet things to eat and a baby disco. There is also a mystery involving, as the
title connotes, a missing diary, together with lively descriptions of sites borne out of a child’s vivid imagination:
healthy food that tastes likes strawberry ice cream, a door that leads to the tops of pillowy clouds and
chocolate fountains and lemonade swimming pools.
“Raisa’s parents said at first they were not even aware that she was writing a book until one day they
saw her busily, and happily, typing away on the computer and asked her what she was doing. Now, Raisa says
she imagines her initial work as part of a series, each book set in the following month of the school year. She
has almost completed book two, which takes a somewhat different turn, featuring “a monster at the school
[that] turns out to be a good person”, secret agents and various sleuthing activities. She also invented a baby
language for her book, Baahian, citing again her little sister’s inspiration. Clearly, Raisa’s interest lies in
language; she is fluent in both English and Indonesian.
“Raisa spent four of her formative years living in Cambridge, England, while her father worked on his
PhD and her mother an M.A., and English is essentially her first language. Currently living in Jakarta and
attending an international school with instruction in both Indonesian and English, Raisa still prefers to read
English-language books, saying she especially enjoys reading the Harry Potter series, The Necromancer and
horror stories or “anything creepy”.
Her parents also say that she will even pick up their books and peruse them, whether a text on economics or a
work on probability theory.
YOUR TEXT:
Bawang Merah Bawang Putih
The story of Bawang Putih Bawang Merah (a Cinderella tale) is well known throughout the Indonesian and
Malay world.
A rich widow has a spoiled daughter Bawang Merah (Shallot) and an honest, hard-working step-daughter
Bawang Putih (Garlic), whom she and her daughter mistreat and force to do all the menial tasks while they
relax and enjoy themselves.
One day while doing the laundry Bawang Putih loses a sarong in the stream. Desperate to retrieve it she runs
along the river and comes to a decrepit hut where an old crone lives, who promises to return the sarong if
Bawang Putih will clean and cook for her, which she does to the old woman’s satisfaction. She also offers
Bawang Putih a choice between two pumpkins - one large, one small. Bawang Putih takes the smaller one. On
her return she is told to cook the pumpkin, but when it is opened, it contains priceless jewels, which the mother
and Bawang Merah promptly seize.
Hearing how Bawang Putih obtained the pumpkin, the mother tells Bawang Merah to throw a sarong in the
river and make her way to the old woman’s house. As before, the old woman promises to return the sarong if
Bawang Merah will clean and cook, but she quickly gets fed up and demands a pumpkin. Grabbing the big
pumpkin she makes her way back, but cannot wait till she gets home and breaks the pumpkin open only for a
poisonous snake to leap out and bite Bawang Merah who dies. Her mother and Bawang Putih go in search of
Bawang Merah and find her body in the woods.
YOUR TASKS:
1. Using the given literary piece as example, identify the prevailing characteristics of Indonesian Literature
and the customs, traditions, and belief of the people. Use this table:
Characteristics of Indonesian
Theme of the Story
Customs, Traditions, and Beliefs
Literature
of the Indonesians Reflected in
the Story
2. Look for one representative of Indonesian literature (a poem or a short story). Analyze the piece by
following the given format:
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
Historical Background
Author’s Background
Summary
Analysis
a. Literary elements
b. Literary devices
c. Figures of speech
d. Symbolisms
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