Class 1 module 1 introduction: What is psychology? -Psychology is the scientific study of mental processes and behavior -Mental processes: activities of our brain when engaged in thinking, observing the environment and using language -Behaviour: observable activities of an organism, often in response to environmental cues, what we can actually see -The objective of psychology is to describe(e.g.; the score on a specific test), explain (propose a cause for the behaviour, what where when, and why) predict and modify the behaviour and mental processes Levels of Psychological Analysis When studying behaviours and mental processes, one can study the influences of: -The brain Neuronal activity, brain structure, genes Ex:what is going on when presented witch specific information -The person Emotions, ideas, thoughts -What are the thoughts, and feelings that impact the person's behaviour -The group Friends, family, population, culture -social environments and how that shapes someone and how that changes overtime September 18: module 2 Psychology as a science The scientific method ● Psychology shares with other sciences goals and ways of proceeding ● We need verifiable research based on the scientific method (helps us think more wisely) (we need to have curiosity)(what do you mean and how do you know this) ○ Defined as : Set of protocols that researchers will follow such as, identify a research problem, formulate a testable research hypothesis, design a study to verify it, collect and analyze data, draw conclusions and publish their results ● To have a scientific attitude need : curiosity, skepticism (indicates some type of cautious ) & humility (being aware that we can make mistakes, open to knew ideas) ● Reflection and critical thinking (ability to question the value of any statement, allows you to reveal gaps in your judgment and reasoning) (find ways where you can find new explanations) How do we know this? What is the evidence? Are there other possible explanations? Why is it important to question research? You can be misled into believing that something is true when it is not Back up what you are saying by using scientific articles ● Deductive reasoning: reasoning proceeding from broad basic principles applied to specific situations ○ All spiders have 8 legs. A tarantula is a spider. Therefore, tarantulas have 8 legs. ● Inductive reasoning: reasoning process proceeding from small specific situations to more general truths ○ I tend to catch colds when people around me are sick. Therefore, colds are infectious. ● Hypothetico-deductive reasoning: process of modern science where scientists begin with an educated guess, perhaps based on previous research, about how the world works, and then set about designing small controlled observations to support or invalidate that hypothesis. ● Use your experiment to see if your predictions are accurate or not ● Hypothesis may be difficult to test directly so we may have to use predictions which we then test out with experiments ● Empirical: able to be tested in objective ways ○ Includes: data collection, analysis and interpreting data ○ Collect data, organize it, and create conclusions ○ ● Facts vs. Values ○ Fact: statement found through an empirical study ○ An objective statement that could be accurate ○ Value: personal statement ○ Can be considered true or false ○ Research can provide facts that can help develop values The scientific method definitions ● Theories: ideas about laws that govern phenomena ○ Starting point of research ○ Will help provide reasoning and make predictions ○ Can be modified ● Hypothesis: a general statement about the way variables relate that is objectively falsifiable ● Variable: condition, event or situation that is studied in an experiment ○ Types of variables: ■ Independent variable (IV)—the variable that you manipulate (ex smoking or not smoking) ■ Dependent variable (DV)—the variable that you measure (or the variable that is changed by the IV)(ex how much you learn) ● Operationalize: to develop a working definition of a variable that allows you to test it Why is it important to be very specific? -It would be less dangerous for people who read the research to misunderstand the experiment -It would also be useful if someone wants to replicate your research -the more we can reproduce an experiment the more we can confirm the conclusion Variables shyness Definitions How many times will you start a conversation with someone or how many times will a person raise their hand? Love Placing a deep importance and care in someone or something Memory loss Aggression Irritability and contain angered emotions, -number of times that a specific aggressive behaviour is found at recess -the number of seconds it takes for a driver to honk their horn Decision-making skills -amount of seconds it takes for someone to solve a problem -start by checking the background of a topic, questions that were brought up in the past, what is reliable, try to generalize the findings in order to draw some conclusions, Choosing Participants ● Population: the entire group that is of interest to researchers ● Sample: group of people studied in an experiment, used to stand in for an entire group of people ○ Must represent the population ○ random selection – everyone in the population of interest has an equal chance of being selected ○ Minimize sampling bias – selecting a group that is especially likely to confirm your hypothesis Selecting a research Methods ● Descriptive research: studies that allow researchers to demonstrate a relationship between the variables of interest, without specifying a causal relationship ○ Methods: naturalistic observations, case studies or Surveys ● Correlational: predictable relationship between two or more variables ○ Method: correlation ● Experimental research: controlled observation in which researchers manipulate the presence or amount of the independent variable to see what effect it has on the dependent variable ○ Method: Experiment ○ ● Tools: observation grids, questionnaires, interviews, tests, etc. Class Activity Experiments: -used to test out our hypotheses -making observations in controlled settings -key words; dependent and independent variables -get specific results -advantage; results in new facts and not based on observation -disadvantage; randomized selection can be more biased -An example of the method: picking 10 kids out of our class and counting how many times they go on their phones to test out the kids' attention spans Correlations: Research if correlations evaluate relationships between 2 variables without input from the researcher, Advantage: data is unbiased -the point is to find a pattern between information 3 types; positive correlations, when 1 variable goes up the other goes up as well, one goes up and the other goes down, zero when variable 1 goes up or down it has zero correlation on v2 Disadvantage; doesn't explain the data Advantage; easily organized visually so you can easily comprehend it, effective for conveying numbers For example, for a positive correlation as height goes up, and weight goes up, we observe this in nature, for negative the more you intake coffee, the less tired you are, for zero correlation the taller you have no effect on one’s height Survey; -ask you closed questions, often yes or no -use question good to get a lot of data a lot of answers -can be unreliable if people are lying and trying to fit into societal norms -studies the correlation between 2 variables, can tell if its positive or negative, can be biased Case study -very indepth study of a gave subject in a real world situation -advantage; can collect data in many different ways, can see relationships between phenomena and people -disadvantage; expensive and time consuming Statistical methods ● Statistics: describe and measure relationships between variables ● Descriptive research – correlations indicate if there is a relationship between the variables ● Experimental research – statistics indicate if the hypothesis has been supported or if there is a meaningful difference between the groups Correlation show how 2 or more things are related to each other (e.g., study time and memory errors) ● Correlation coefficient: the strength and nature of the relationship between 2 variables (-1.00 to +1.00) ● Positive correlation: when one variable increases, the other increases ● Negative correlation: when one variable increases, the other decreases *Can’t be used to draw conclusions about the causal relationships When we look at experiments Descriptive statistics: describe the data Compare differences between groups Mean: average of all scores Standard deviation (SD): how much the participants’ scores vary from one another Bell-shaped: most of the scores are located near the center and is symmetrical Large SD=more spread (blue) Small SD=tightly clustered (red) Inferential statistics – help to draw conclusions about the data Statistical significance qualifies a result that would be improbable to obtain by chance To determines if the result is significant, statistical tests are used. The test indicates whether the result can be obtained randomly If the threshold is more than 0.05, the result is not significant Greater probability that the observed difference is due to chance p<0.05= significant Replication – repeated testing of a hypothesis to ensure results from one experiment are not due to chance Also, use different types of research If findings are similar, confidence in research results increases Allows theories and laws to be developed Share research findings through scientific journal articles The scientific method 1. The background: question, literature review 2. The hypothesis: state prediction, id variables 3. Research design: participants, research design 4. Analyzing data 5. Review, publish and replicate 6. Build a theory Ethical Research ● Code of Ethics – Canadian Psychological Association ● Research Ethics Boards (REBs) are considered the ethics police. They are a research oversight group that evaluates research to protect the rights of participants in the study. ● Ethical guidelines: ○ Obtain informed consent – obtaining permission from the participant after they know what the study involves and the risks and benefits of participating ○ Protect participants from harm and discomfort ○ Protect confidentiality ○ Participation must be voluntary ○ Deception or incomplete disclosure ○ Provide complete debriefing – revealing to participants any information that was withheld during the study ● Select an (1) option from the following. Share with the group your work on Moodle : Forum-End of Modul Activity 1. Design Studies: ● Goal: illustrate the difference between correlational and experimental research ○ Demonstrate that most research questions are amenable to both types of design ○ Examples of research questions: Does caffeine improve studying? Can meditation improve the level of stress? Can music enhance mood? Does screen time decrease sleep quality? ● Come up with both an experimental and a correlational study to address the research question. ● Develop specific hypotheses, operational definitions of the relevant variables. . Indigenous experiences ● Read: Indigenous Ways of Understanding (p. 50 of your textbook) ● Reflect and Answer the following question: ○ What sorts of things should researchers do in order to collaborate with rather than simply study diverse indigenous cultures? ○ What are some of the benefits and challenges of conducting research with Indigenous groups? ● Is it feasible for researchers who do not belong to an Indigenous community to conduct research without collaborators? ○ What is the Mi’kmaw concept of “two-eyed seeing” and what implications would using it have for research involving indigenous people. 3. Job Analysis: Research and Statistics ● View Wiley video: https://education.wiley.com/content/Comer_Psychology_Around_Us_ 4CE/media/simulations/videos/final-io-9.html ● Reflect and Answer the following question: ○ What kind of research would you do in order to develop a description of a particular job so that the organization with the job could look for someone to fill it? ○ What sorts of research would you need to do and what sorts of research methods would you use to find a good candidate for a participant job like the one noted in the previous question? ○ For Industrial and Organizational (I/O) psychologists helping organizations find and hire new employees, what sorts of ethical issues/concerns should they regularly consider?
