Seminar 3
CATEGORIAL STRUCTURE OF THE WORD
1. The basic notions concerned with the analysis of the categorial structure of the word:
grammatical category, opposition, paradigm. Grammatical meaning and means of its
expression.
Words, first of all notional unts, possess some morphemic features expressing
grammatical meanings. These features determine the grammatical form of the word. e.g.
tables Grammatical and lexical meanings differ greatly. First of all, lexical meanings refer to
concrete units, therefore they are numerous. Grammatical meanings are formed as the result of
generalization of large groups of lexical meanings. Each lexical unit in such class as “a table, a
bird, a house” has its own lexical meaning, and at the same time they are united by their general
grammatical meaning of thingness. Grammatical meanings are obligatory to all lexicon units,
while lexical meaning can hardly be determined for such units as articles, prepositions, particles
and conjunctions. The system of lexical meanings is unique and specific in every language. The
system of grammatical meanings has to some extent a universal character (Wierzbicka).
Grammatical meanings are very abstract, very general. The most general notions
reflecting the most general properties of phenomena are referred to in logic as “categorical
notions”, or “categories”. Category – a class or a group of things regarded as having certain
features in common. To categorize means to place something in a category. Thus,
categorization is very much like labeling. The most general meanings rendered by language and
expressed by systemic correlations of word-forms are interpreted in linguistics as
categorialgrammatical meanings. The categorial meaning (e.g. the grammatical number) unites
the individual meanings of the correlated paradigmatic forms (e.g. singular – plural) and is
exposed through them. As for the grammatical category itself, it presents a unity of form
(material factor) and meaning (ideal factor) and constitutes a certain signemic system. The
ordered set of grammatical forms expressing a categorical function constitutes a paradigm.
Grammatical categories may be:
Verbal and nominal (V: mood, voice, tense, N:case, gender, number)
Morphological and syntactical (M – features of parts of speech (number, mood, voice
etc, S –transitivity/intransitivity, coordination/subordination, predicativity)
The grammatical category is a system of expressing a generalized grammatical meaning
by means of paradigmatic correlation of grammatical forms. The ordered set of grammatical
forms expressing a categorial function constitutes a paradigm. The paradigmatic correlations of
grammatical forms in a category are exposed by grammatical oppositions which are generalized
correlations of lingual forms by means of which certain functions are expressed.
There exist three main types of qualitatively different oppositions: "privative", "gradual",
"equipollent".
2. The Prague linguistic school and its role in the development of the systemic conception of
language. The theory of oppositions, types of oppositions: privative, gradual, equipollent;
binary, ternary, etc. Oppositions in grammar.
3. The notion of oppositional reduction. Types of oppositional reduction: neutralization and
transposition.
Oppositional reduction points out the fact that the opposition in this case is contracted, losing its
formal distinctive force: Man conquers nature.
In various contextual positions one member of an opposition can be used in the position of the
other. This phenomenon can be referred to as reduction of oppositions.
A stylistically indifferent oppositional reduction is called neutralization. Use of the unmarked
member does not transgress the expressive conventions of ordinary speech.
Another type of oppositional reduction is called transposition. It is defined as contrastive use of
the counter-member of the opposition (the strong one, as a rule).
4. Synthetical and analytical forms. The principle of identifying an analytical form. The
notion of suppletivity.
There are two basic types of means with the help of which grammatical forms are
built: synthetical and analytical. Synthetical (synthetic) grammatical forms are built by means of
the morphemic composition of the word. Analytical grammatical forms are built by the
combination of the notional word with auxiliary words, e.g.: come - have come. Analytical forms
consist of two words which together express one grammatical meaning; in other words, they
are grammatically idiomatic: the meaning of the grammatical form is not immediately dependent
on the meanings of its parts. Analytical grammatical forms are intermediary between words and
word-combinations. Some analytical forms are closer to a word, because the two parts are
inseparable in their grammatical idiomatism; for example, the forms of the perfect aspect: come have come. The components of some other analytical forms are more independent semantically,
and they are less idiomatic grammatically; for example, the degrees of comparison: beautiful more beautiful – most beautiful.
Suppletivity, like inner inflexion, is not productive as a purely morphological type of form. It is
based on the correlation of different roots as a means of paradigmatic differentiation.
Suppletivity is used in the forms of the verbs be and go, in the irregular forms of the degrees of
comparison, in some forms of personal pronouns. (be – am – are, is – was – were, I – me, We –
us, she - her)
Существует два основных типа средств, с помощью которых строятся грамматические формы: синтетические и аналитические.
Синтетические грамматические формы строятся с помощью морфемного состава слова. Аналитические грамматические формы
образуются путем сочетания условного слова со вспомогательными словами, например: come - пришли. Аналитические формы состоят
из двух слов, которые вместе выражают одно грамматическое значение; другими словами, они грамматически идиоматичны: значение
грамматической формы не зависит непосредственно от значений ее частей. Аналитические грамматические формы являются
промежуточными между словами и словосочетаниями. Некоторые аналитические формы ближе к слову, потому что эти две части
неразделимы по своему грамматическому идиоматизму; например, формы совершенного вида: come - пришли. Компоненты некоторых
других аналитических форм более независимы семантически и менее идиоматичны грамматически; например, степени сравнения:
красивый - более красивый – самый красивый.
Податливость, как и внутренняя флексия, непродуктивна как чисто морфологический тип формы. Она основана на соотнесении
различных корней как средстве парадигматической дифференциации. Супплетивность используется в формах глаголов быть и идти, в
неправильных формах степеней сравнения, в некоторых формах личных местоимений. (быть – есть – есть, есть – был – были, я – меня,
Мы – нас, она
Questions:
1. In what way are the two notions - "grammatical category" and "opposition" interconnected?
The paradigmatic correlations of grammatical forms in a category are exposed by grammatical
oppositions which are generalized correlations of lingual forms by means of which certain
functions are expressed.
2. What grammatical elements constitute a paradigm?
The ordered set of grammatical forms constitutes a paradigm. The paradigmatic correlations of
grammatical forms in a category are exposed by the so-called “grammatical oppositions”.
The opposition (in the linguistic sense) may be defined as a generalized correlation of lingual
forms by means of which a certain function is expressed. The correlated elements (members) of
the opposition must possess two types of features:
common features (basis of contrast);
differential features (express the function in question)
The oppositional theory was originally formulated as a phonological theory but then it was
successfully applied in the theoretical grammar.
Three main qualitative types of oppositions are distinguished: privative; gradual; equipollent.
By the number of members contrasted oppositions are divided into: binary (two members);
ternary (three members); quaternary (four members).
The most important type of opposition in grammar is the binary privative opposition since all
other types may be reduced to this one.
3. What are the differential features of privative, gradual, and equipollent oppositions?
4. What enables linguists to consider the privative binary opposition as the most important
type of oppositions?
5. What makes neutralization stylistically colourless?
6. What ensures a stylistic load of transposition?