HUM 2301 (Dr. ENNAHID)
Topic THREE
THE ART AND ARCHITECTURE OF THE UMAYYADS (661-750 CE)
1. The Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem
2. The Great Mosque of Damascus
3. Umayyad Coinage
Dynastic Art & Arch.
Caliph (Khalifa): A person/Caliphate (Khilafa): An institution
Khalifatu Rasul Allah = Caliph
The Rightly Guided Caliphate: 632-661 CE
Four Companions of the Prophet: Abu Bakr, ‘Umar, ‘Uthman, and ‘Ali (chosen by their
peers/community)
Rightly Guided Caliphate (632-661 CE) vs. Umayyad (Dynastic) Caliphate (661-750 CE)
Shift in Scale/Monumentality
Investment: time & resources (foreign expertise)
Explanation of this shift:
These monuments (e.g., The Dome of the Rock and the G. Mosque of Damascus) are meant to
convey a political/religious message: Power, prestige, glorification of the Caliph, etc.
Religious Architecture:
1.
Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem
2.
Great Mosque, Damascus
Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem
•
Completed in 691 CE by the Umayyad Caliph ‘Abd al-Malik.
•
Jerusalem was conquered by Muslim troops in 638 CE under the leadership of the Rightly
Guided Caliph ‘Umar.
•
Qur’an 17:1 (The Chapter of the Night Journey)/Revealed around 621 CE (1 year before the
Hijra). See Qur’anic Exegesis: al-Tafsir.
Date: March 14
THE ART AND ARCHITECTURE OF THE UMAYYADS Cont.
The Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem
Isra’ (The Night Journey) and Mi’raj (Ascension)
The Umayyad Caliph ‘Abd al-Malik, hired a Byzantine architect who used a byzantine
model:
The octagonal (8 sides) plan was inspired from church architecture, more specifically, from
martyria (sing. Martyrium) architecture.
The Architecture: Plan & 3 Dimensional view
Virtual Walking Tours of al-Haram al-Sharif:
https://archive.aramcoworld.com/issue/200901/a.virtual.walking.tour.al-haram.alsharif.htm
THE ART AND ARCHITECTURE OF THE UMAYYADS Cont.
The Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem
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The nature of Mosaic Decoration: Themes depicted, etc.
Sources of inspiration
Description/Interpretation of the mosaic elements: motifs and epigraphy.
Muslim restriction as to what to be depicted on the building: A religious Space
The mosaic decoration from the inside of the building:
• A very expensive building.
• Foreign expertise: Byzantine mosaicists (an expert in mosaic decoration).
• Iconoclastic: 280 square meters of mosaics; the absence of the human figure; the
emphasis on floral design/geometry/arabesque/epigraphy (inscriptions).
• Meaning of these mosaics: Some of the motifs represent insignia of power (e.g., the
wings on the crown of the defeated Persian/Sasanian king) to show the triumph of the
Umayyad empire over rival political entities.
• Epigraphy: Qur’anic text, most specifically, Christological passages (i.e., verses of the
Qur’an related to Jesus Christ/al-Masih); please note the absence of the Night Journey
verse (17:1)!
THE ART AND ARCHITECTUR OF THE UMAYYADS Cont.
Date: March 16
The Great Mosque of Damascus: Architecture
Built by the Umayyad Caliph al-Walid, 706 CE.
The mosque was built on a site of a church (tomb of Saint John the Baptist).
Plan & 3 Dimensional view
The Great Mosque of Damascus: Mosaic Decoration
•
Iconoclastic: Absence of human/animal figures
•
Very realistic depiction of nature
•
The introduction of a new element (compared to the mosaic decoration at The Dome of
Rock): Depictions of buildings (architectural themes).
•
The Meaning of these architectural themes:
1. Depiction of a city of God (Paradise)
2. The towns of the world.
3. Symbol of Umayyad conquest.
Date: March 23
1.
GENERAL BACKGROUND ON ISLAMIC COINAGE
2.
UMAYYAD COINAGE (CURRENCY)
Case Study: Almoravid Dinar: Hegira 537 / AD 1142
Source:
http://islamicart.museumwnf.org/database_item.php?id=object;ISL;dz;Mus01;28;en
NUMISMATICS
https://www.bkam.ma/musee
http://numismatics.org/
1. Materials
2. Epigraphy
3. Iconography
4. Chronology
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5. Patronage
6. Ideology
7. Toponymy
Numismatics: The scientific study of coinage in terms of:
Denominations:
• Materials: Gold, silver, and copper; to link the following coinage denominations
(terms) in Islamic coinage:
o Dinar (Gold): denarius (Latin); the term is mentioned in Qur‘an: 3:75.
o Dirham (Silver): drachma (Greek); Qur‘an, see Chapt. of Joseph.
o Fals (Copper): follis (Latin)
Gold/Tibr: The Sudan & The Almoravids; gold traffic (long-distance vs. local exchange), purity of
gold, sources of the Almoravid gold; medieval West Africa (Ennahid, The Oxford Handbook of
African Archaeology, OUP, 2013).
Transition from barter, coinage, (the check was introduced, but it did NOT supplant/replace
coinage): The 42,000 dinars check or Sakk (178.5 kgs); Awdaghost (about 1,660 kms south of
Sijilmassa); Ibn Hawqal (X CE).
Date: March 28
• Epigraphy: Informs us about the place (toponym, toponymy = the study of place
names) of production (e.g., Almeria, Spain).
Dar al-Sikka (The mint): The personnel working at Dar al-Sikka is called die makers
(al-Sakkak). Chronology: The date (year) when the coin was minted. Name and
political/religious title of the issuing authority (sakka al-nuquda bi ismihi), e.g.,
Amir al-Mu’minin (The Commander of the Faithful) vs. Amir Muslimin (The
Commander of the Muslims). The dominant religion (Islam): Profession of Faith
(al-Shahada), the Caliph’s title, and Qur’anic verses.
• Ideology: The use of religious/ideological elements to promote a political/religious
agenda, e.g., the competition between the Almohad and the Marinid dynasties in
Morocco (al-Mahdi Imamuna vs. al-Qur’an Imamuna)
April 4
• Iconography: images shown on the coins; e.g., the portrait of a king meant to convey
political/religious power; symbols such as crosses (for Christians) to show the dominant
religion.
• Patronage/The issuing authority: Name and political/religious title of issuing
authority (sakka al-nuquda bi ismihi)/The portrait of a king meant to convey
political/religious power.
Phase I
The Early Muslim Community
610-632 CE
632-661 CE: Rightly Guided Caliphate
Phase II
661-750 CE Dynastic Caliphate: Umayyad Caliphate
TWO Regions:
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1.
Former Persian/Sasanian/Sasanid Territories (Silver Coinage): Introduction of
minor changes to Persian coinage:
a. Kept the portrait of the defeated Persian king
b. Removing the Fire Altar (Zoroastrianism/Majusiyya) and changing it with the caliph leading
the prayer.
c. Arabic Epigraphy: Religious text
d. Pahlavi script: The name of the Muslim Governor, date, etc.
Date: April 6
« Le Coran, Aux Origines du Livre » (History of the Qur’an), Video in Eng.
Projection
Date: April 11
2. Former Byzantine Territories: Gold Coinage
De-Christianization: Removal of Christian signs/symbols from coinage
a. Cross: Removal of the horizontal bar from crosses
b. Removal of crosses from imperial crowns1
c. Christ Monogram (χριστός/Christos): made out of the two first letters of Jesus’ name in
Greek (link to Ottoman Sultan’s Tughra); See the main porch of St. Pierre Cathedral. Rabat,
Morocco.
Phase III
Major Currency Reform by Caliph ‘Abd Al-Malik: 695-697 CE
Removal of all images (iconography) from Muslim coinage
Aniconic: Exclusively (Arabic) epigraphic: Religious text (e.g., Qur’an 112:1-4/Chapt. of the
Oneness/al-Ikhlas), in addition chronology, etc.
NEW TOPIC
THE ART AND ARCHITECTURE OF THE ‘ABBASIDS
Baghdad & Samarra: Discussion PENDING
THE ARTS OF THE BOOK
“Oldest' Koran found in Birmingham - BBC News”
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jowQond7_UE&list=LLQgwrVdFood_bGSh9qh9J0A&index
=102
Methods for dating of archaeological objects (made of organic material): Carbon Dating C14
The Birmingham Univ. Qur’an dates to 645 CE (The Prophet passed away 632 CE).
Manuscript: A book written by hand, e.g., A Qur’anic manuscript.
Parchment = Processed animal skin (goat, sheep…)
Riqq (processed animal skin of gazelle): Noble and durable
Parchmenter = Raqqaq
Absolute dating (C14) vs. Relative dating (Paleography)
Paleography = The study of old scripts (al-Khatt); paleographers
Colophon: The last page of a manuscript (incl. Qur’an), usually with the name of the patron, the
calligrapher, and the date when the manuscript was completed (e.g., Sultan Baybars' Qur'an).
Date: April 13
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THE BLUE QUR’AN
https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/454662
• Ink application: “As with the pages of the celebrated “Blue Qur’an” (see cat. no. 2), the
execution of this Qur’an folio in gold Kufic script on vellum involved the lengthy and expensive
process called chrysography
The letters were written in “liquid glue,” filled in with a careful application of
ground gold suspended in a solution, and finally outlined with pale brown ink using a thinnibbed stylus. (…).”
• Landscape orientation/Few lines of text; large number of folios (114 chapters/6,000 verses)
• “Indigo-dyed [colored] parchment” to create a powerful impact using the contrast element
(Gold text on dark blue surface).
•
Script on the Blue Qur’an
Paleography: The scientific study of old scripts.
Old Arabic Script: Rudimentary and simple/basic form of Arabic script: missing diacritical
marks (al-tanqit) and vowel signs (al-Shakl).
Introduction of diacritical marks and vowel signs: Umayyad Period.
Date: April 18
THE ARTS OF THE BOOK Cont.
Pre-Printing Press Period:
I.SCRIBE/COPYIST/CALLIGRAPHER:
Scribe: Person in charge of writing down a particular content (religious/secular).
610 CE-632 CE: The Revelation
Zayd Ibn Thabit (d. 665 CE) was one the three scribes working for the Prophet.
Copyist: Person making copies of the original text written by the scribe.
Calligrapher is an artist; calligraphy is the art of beautiful handwriting (manuscript illumination =
embellishing of manuscripts).
The British Library: Turning the Pages:
Authorship & Chronology: Colophon is a statement with the name of the author/date.
“This is the colophon of the seventh and final volume of the Baybars Qur'an. Each volume
ends with a page devoted to the colophon, providing the names of those involved in its
production. The bottom line dates the completion of the copying of the text. The Baybars
Qur'an is the earliest dated Qur'an from the Mamluk period. Rukn al-Din Baybars is
mentioned as the patron of this copy of the Qur'an in line 3. Muhammad ibn alWahid is identified as the calligrapher in line 4. This Qur'an is the only known example
of this calligrapher's work to survive. The large decorated hasp, unlike volume three, does
not contain Sandal's signature, although this page was illuminated by him. The last line
states that this Qur'an was completed in its entirety in the year 705 [AH] of the
Muslim calendar, corresponding to the years 1305-1306 AD.”
Source:
https://www.bl.uk/turning-the-pages/?id=0354faf0-a67a-11db-87d30050c2490048&type=book
[The Baybars Qur'an: pp. 34-35].
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II.THE STANDARDIZATION OF THE ARABIC SCRIPT (A Major Contribution to Arabic
Calligraphy)
Handwritten Documents: Manuscripts (NOT printed books)
a. The Tool (reed pen): The making of the reed pen following pre-determined
specifications.
b. The Unit of Measurement: The dot of ink pressed on a piece of paper using a reed
pen.
‘Abbasid Calligrapher: IBN MUQLA (886-940 CE): The calligrapher who invented
PROPORTIONAL CALLIGRAPHY (A method for the standardization of the Arabic
Script)
28 letters of the Arabic Alphabet
Set standards (rules) for 1) each letter of the 28 letters of the Arabic Alphabet and 2) for 6 different
scripts (x 28).
Reed (Qasab) pen
Scale of execution/production: e.g., the Mecca Clock
Date: April 20 [on MS TEAMS]
Islam Empire of Faith [PBS Documentary]: Part II
Date: April 27
III.MEDIA/SCRIPTS/CONTENT
Medium:
SCRIPTS
Paleography: The scientific study of old scripts.
Old Arabic Script: Rudimentary and simple/basic form of Arabic script: missing diacritical marks
(al-tanqit) and vowel signs (al-tashakil).
Improved Arabic Script with the introduction of diacritical marks and vowel signs: Umayyad
Period.
Different scripts used for different purposes/contexts.
Two basic forms:
1. Kufic-based: Angular script/older script (very popular until the 11th cent. CE).
2. Naskhi-based: Cursive/Fluid script (from the 12th century CE onwards).
Tuluth: Dignified/Noble Arabic Script
a.
Kiswa of the Ka‘ba
b.
Qur‘anic Manuscripts (e.g., Sheikh Uthman Taha, the calligrapher of
the Mecca/Medina Qur’an).
Regional Calligraphic Traditions: Arabic language and script origins
Eastern (Mashriqi) vs. Maghribi (The Maghrib: North Africa and al-Andalus):
Exp. Mosque Arch.: Hispano-Moorish, Ottoman, etc.
Maghribi Script (The Maghrib: North Africa and al-Andalus):
a. Mabsut: Qur’anic manuscripts (the equivalent of Tuluth in the Mashriq/Middle East)
b. Mujawhar: Official correspondence/documents (royal letters, royal decrees, etc.)
c. Musnad: Informal note taking, etc.
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MEDIA
Pre-Islamic Period (pre year 610 CE): Arab society was an oral society.
e.g., Mu‘allaqat: Arabic poetry
Epigraphic (inscriptions) evidence: Rare
N.B. Ancient Egypt (Papyrus, Bardiyyat) or Mesopotamia (clay tablets): rich written record…
Time of the Prophet
Zayd Ibn Thabit (d. 665 CE):
Rudimentary media (writing surfaces): Animal skin (parchment), shoulder blades of camels;
processed palm branches, thin stones, etc.
Gradual Process
610 CE: Qur‘an/scribe Zayd Ibn Thabit
Memory-aid: Qur’anic content memorized/recited
632-661 CE: The establishment of Rightly Guided Caliphate (al-Khilafa al-Rashida): The first phases
of the collection of the Qur’an.
The Caliph ‘Uthman commissioned an official copy of the Qur’an known to us as the
Standard Codex (al-Mushaf al-Imam).
Post 661 CE: Dynastic Caliphate (The Umayyads)
State/Empire formation: Administration/Record keeping… exp. Lists of soldiers, taxes, etc.
Vibrant intellectual/Scientific movement…
The first consequence: the improvement of the Arabic script and, second, the transition to a
cheaper medium: PAPER!
The introduction of Paper to the Muslim World: 750 CE.
Context: As a consequence of battle (Talas); a group of Chinese prisoners who knew how to make
paper; they taught the Arabs the technique of paper making.
Mid- 10th: paper mills (workshop for paper making)
Mass produced: mid-10th century = Paper mills (e.g., Fez); See Ennahid, Brill, 2011, section on
paper making in Morocco.
Leo Africanus (XVI): Kutubiyya Mosque 100 shops of booksellers (Moroccan Arabic: Kutbi
meaning a bookseller). (See Amin Maalouf, Leo Africanus).
CONTENT
Secular (e.g., poetry, medical manuscripts, etc.) vs. Religious (e.g., Qur’anic manuscripts, Hadith
books, etc.).
Date: May 2
Topic NINE
Learning and Worship: The Madrasa
The Readings:
Hillenbrand, R. 1994, The Madrasa, pp. 235-251 (PDF file)
Full Ref.:
Hillenbrand, R.
1994 Islamic Architecture. Form, Function and Meaning. Columbia University Press, New York.
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DEFINITION AND EARLY EVOLUTION
Madrasa/Jami‘/Kuttab
• The madrasa (medersa) is an institution of higher education in which religious sciences are
taught, such as fiqh (jurisprudence), tafsir (Quran exegesis), and hadith (Traditions). Most
madrasas have living quarters for resident students. The madrasa was originally built to train the
religious apparatus of the state (‘Ulama). E.g., the Qarawiyyin in Fez and Dar al-Hadith alHassaniyya in Rabat.
•
The madrasa as an educational institution developed at a relatively later date compared to
other religious institutions.
1.
Masjid
2.
Masjid-Khan
3.
Madrasa
• The madrasa represents the last stage in the evolution of the Islamic educational institutions.
• At first, religious studies were conducted in the masjid. The mosque of the Prophet can be
considered as the first educational center in Islam; the Prophet and his Companions gathered in
the mosque to pray but also to recite Quran, study its meanings, and discuss matters of belief
and conduct. The Prophet also taught hadiths to his Companions
• The best examples of mosques as centers of higher learning are the Qarawiyyin (A.D. 859),
al-Azhar (A.D. 972), and the Zaytuna in Tunis.
With the expansion of Islam and the growth of the Muslim community, students and
scholars alike traveled great distances to seek knowledge (especially, collectors of hadiths). To
accommodate out-of-town students, a hostelry (khan) was attached to the mosque, which gave
rise to the masjid-khan complex.
• The 11th century saw the end product of this evolution with the foundation of an institution
that combined the roles of both the mosque and the khan: the madrasa.
• The establishment of madrasas did not however encroach on the educational role of
mosques; there was much overlap between the two institutions.
•
At first, each madrasa was founded for one madhhab (School of Islamic Law). Later
madrasas were founded for two, three or even the four madhhabs. There was however a
separation of students taught different madhhabs. Students of each madhhab were gathered in
each of the four iwans opening onto the madrasa’s central courtyard (e.g., The Mosque-Madrasa
of Sultan Hassan, AD 1356 and 1363).
•
•
The flourishing of madrasas in the Islamic world was the result of an ambitious architectural
program initiated by Nizam al-Mulk (bio. A.D. 1018-1092) (career: A.D. 1064-1092), a Saljuk
vizier, who built several madrasas including the celebrated Madrasa Nizamiyya in Baghdad
(A.D. 1067).
MAGHRIBI MADRASAS
•
In the Maghrib, it was not until the Marinid period that the first madrasas were built. In fact,
the foundation of madrasas is the hallmark of Marinid art and architecture.
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The first madrasa in the Maghrib is Madrasa al-Saffarin (metal-workers) in Fas built in A.D.
1271 (A.D. 1285?) by Marinid sultan Abu Yusuf Ya‘qub b. ‘Abd al-Haq. Most Maghribi madrasas
were built in Fas by Marinid sultans between A.D. 1271 and A.D. 1356.
•
ARCHITECTURE OF MAGHRIBI MADRASA
•
Compared to their eastern counterpart, Maghribi madrasas have small dimensions (about 14
m x 14.5; 35 m x 36 m for eastern madrasas). The small size of maghribi madrasas is due to 1) their
exclusive teaching of the Maliki madhhab and 2) the lack of building space within the medina.
•
A classic plan of a Maghribi madrasa includes:
1. A bent-axis entryway: a feature borrowed from domestic architecture. In madrasa
architecture the length of the corridor allows the visitor time to adjust from the bustle of street
life to the quiet of a place of learning and worship.
2. A central courtyard with a fountain or a pool in the middle
3. A mosque along the main axis of the courtyard; it functioned as a lecture-hall outside
regular prayer hours. Axiality was a major concern since the prayer hall was kept along the main
axis of the building even if it runs counter the correct orientation of the qibla (see Attarin
madrasa ‘perfumers’ where the main axis of the prayer hall is perpendicular to that of the
building; axiality was maintained by placing the entrance to the prayer hall to the left of the
mihrab).
4. Two, three or four lateral galleries surrounding the courtyard and delimited by panels of
lattice woodwork (mashrabiyas).
5. Student cells opening onto the lateral galleries and/or overlooking the courtyard for cells
located on the upper floors. Student accommodations are sealed off the courtyard by screens of
lattice woodwork. At the small end of the scale, some student cells measure 1.50 m x 2 m barely
big enough for one or at most two students.
6. Ablution facilities and latrines: a series of cubicles surrounding an auxiliary courtyard with
a fountain in the middle.
7. In some cases, the right and left corridors branched off the main entrance gives access
respectively to a minaret (Saffarin and Bu ‘Inaniyya’) and a staircase leading to an upper floor.
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