Sociology the Discipline
Unit 1 Module 1 - Sociology, Culture & Identity
Origins of Main Stream Sociology
Amongst the academic disciplines known as the Social Sciences, Sociology is considered
to be new, when compared to the older disciplines such as political science,
anthropology, economics and psychology to name a few. The French essayist Emmanuel
Joseph Sieyès (1748-1836), was perhaps the first to use the term sociology. Auguste
Comte later, re-conceptualised and introduced the term sociology in the way that we
now know and appreciate it.
Most early sociological thinkers approached the study of society in a similar manner as
the natural sciences. They believed that generalized theories can be formulated, based
on natural science research methodologies. This approach to sociological research is
known as positive science - positivism.
Socio-political Context - Modernists contend that sociology emerged out of two major
revolutions of the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Starting with the French
revolution of 1789 and then the Industrial Revolution of Europe. The new socio-political
and economic orders that emerged due to these real life changes, birthed a new era in
social life, giving rise to individualism, democracy, capitalism and the research for
efficient systems of living and operating - (leading to the rise of rationalization).
Political thinkers, philosophers and other academics, noted and began rationalizing the
major changes that had begun to occur in the 'world'. In their quest to adequately
classify and explain the new dynamics of social life, they developed various research
methods and theories to explain social life. It is through this process that we note the
development of the discipline of sociology.
Methods of Research Methodology
Unit 1 Module 1 - Sociology, Culture & Identity
Methodology/Research Methods
Methodology, may be defined as: The procedures involved in the investigation of facts
and concepts. Methodology refer to how observers go about their observations and
explanations of social reality.
It can also be defined as the "norms" of scientific investigation.
Methodology is not concerned with increasing the number of facts or accumulating data
but is concerned with inquiry into the explanation of the procedures by which
observations are made, how concepts are utilized, and how and to what extent
explanations are made from a particular stated point of view.
Sociological research methods/ Methodology can be divided into two major groups:
I. Quantitative/Numerical Research
Research using methods allowing for the measurement of variables within a collection of
people or groups and resulting in numerical data subjected to statistical analysis. By its
very nature this is a form of positivism.
II. Qualitative/Word Research
Research using methods such as participant observation or case studies which result in
a narrative, descriptive account of a setting or practice. Sociologists using these methods
typically reject positivism and adopt a form of interpretive sociology.
Origins of Caribbean Sociology
Unit 1 Module 1 - Sociology, Culture & Identity
Origins of Caribbean Sociology
An Overview
Caribbean Sociology is said to have entered its first and golden age during the period of
the 1950's - 1970's. Where a group of Caribbean intellectuals such as MG Smith, Edith
Clarke, George Roberts, Leo Depres, RT Smith, Lloyd Brawaithe and Orlando Patterson
all conducted extensive and intensive research on various aspects of Caribbean life,
culture, practices and territories. With the aim of understanding the indigenous
Caribbean cultures as well developing an indigenized sociological discourse for and by
Caribbean people.
Today, Caribbean sociology has become more robust and there have been a burgeoning
of works from the likes of contemporary minds such as Christine Barrows, Rhoda
Reddok, Nasser Mustapha, Susan Craig, Rex Nettleford, Bill Riviere, Henry Paget, Elsa
Goveia, Derek Gordon, Geroge Beckford, Angel Quintero Rivera et al...
Definition of Culture
Unit 1 Module 1 - Sociology, Culture & Identity
Culture
What is Culture? The term culture is varied in its definition, as such it cannot be limited
to one singular explanation. Instead, we will briefly present a few definitions that
capture the sociological understanding of the term.
Sir Edward B. Tylor, "That complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals,
law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of
society."
To the interactionists culture refer to "systems of human meaning."
Culture may also refer to the shared knowledge, beliefs and values of members of society
and may be passed on from generation to generation through the process of
socialization.
Sociology a Science
Unit 1 Module 1 - Sociology, Culture & Identity
Is Sociology a Science?
Auguste Comte (1789-1857) asserted that human society obeys laws of behaviour.
The assertion that sociology is a science is based on the concept of empiricism
(numbers). This method or approach to sociological theorizing is known as positivism.
Positivism aims at discovering patterned and regular events in the social world whose
occurrence is either caused by another event, or strongly correlated with that event.
Sociology itself has been defined as a body of organized knowledge developed through
systematic enquiry, using techniques that approximate to those of natural science,
yielding data of similar reliability and validity.
To determine whether sociology is a science we will measure it's methods of research
and theory formulation practices with the hypothetico-deductive method which has
been dubbed as the scientific method.
The hypothetico-deductive method follows these stages as outlined below:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Observation
Conjecture
Hypothesis formulation
Testing
Generalization
Theory formulation
This method requires the researcher to be neutral at all times. Researcher bias, opinions
are not involved in the research process.
Karl Popper (1963) - Falsification and Deduction
Argued that there was a fundamental problem with the scientific method - induction.
With induction the research observes social phenomena and then based on the patterns
obtained makes theories about a particular social act.
Instead he argues that deduction should be used, where various generalizations are
formulated and then testing carried out to disprove them. Those that have not been
falsified (disproven) would become theory.
.
ESSAY ON SOCIOLOGY AS A SCIENCE
Can sociologists study society in
the same way that scientists
study the natural world?
Sociologists study society as a 'social science' however the status of
sociology as a science is easily questionable when compared to how
acknowledged scientists study the natural world. In order to
determine whether or not sociology can be accepted as a true
science it is useful to make comparisons between the studies
performed by both sociologists and natural scientists on their
subjects of society and the natural world respectively. At its most
fundamental level, the philosophy behind knowledge, reality and
being must also be scrutinized as the knowledge which is so eagerly
pursued by scientists is only relevant under certain philosophical
conditions.
The natural world can be accepted as what can be sensed and has
matter. Scientists study the natural world using an empirical,
experimental and factual approach. They investigate and analyse
the workings of nature before testing each conclusion. A biologist
can study the nucleus of a cell because it can be seen with a
microscope and experiments show it to exist. A chemist can study
hydrogen because it can be sensed through it's reactions with other
chemicals. A physicist can study electricity because it can be seen to
exist by lighting a bulb. They study these things in the pursuit of
knowledge.
Society is different from the natural world in that it is not a 'thing'
with physical existence that can be investigated with our senses.
Society consists of groupings of humans, and its study looks at the
way these groupings behave. When a sociologist studies society
they look at behaviour and the mind. Behaviour and the mind do
not take physical form like an atom does, and so it can be argued
that they do not exist, and so cannot be studied scientifically. Or
perhaps they do exist as chemicals inside the physical entity that is
the brain, and so can be studied scientifically like any other matter.
With science, one of the main aims in seeking the 'facts' is keeping
a high level of objectivity so that those facts which are sought are
the same for all scientists, independent of their subjective
inclinations. This objectivity would seem fairly simply, say, with
study of inanimate objects. However, sociologists study people and
people don't necessarily behave like inanimate objects - they may,
for example, react differently to varying interviewing styles used in
social research. Given a questionnaire, an interviewer may put
particular emphasis on a certain answer in that questionnaire to
encourage the respondent to give that answer. A level of bias is
hence created, whilst such bias is perhaps far more difficult to
leverage in the study of the natural world.
If an expert natural scientists proclaims that "the mass of the
substance x is 5g" it may be taken as a scientific objective fact. Any
number of scientists could conduct a similar study and would return
the same empirical result, giving additional experimental proof and
backing to the first scientists study. A sociologist has a far greater
struggle in their line of study, as the majority of result they may
conclude will be difficult to prove and replicate in further studies.
But whatever results are collected by both the sociologist and the
natural scientists, any objectivity found is still subject to our
philosophical understanding of reality, conditioned by the society
and time in which we have come to live.
An understanding of what reality actually is is crucial. Philosophically
there are two main camps on epistemology - there are the idealists,
and there are the materialists. Idealists (such as Plato and Hegel of
the past) see every material thing having been created by a
powerful God or spirit, and ideas govern the material world.
Conversely, materialists see matter as primary, and ideas and the
mind are a product of the matter in the brain.
Most people believe that they have have 'free-will' - they can think
for themselves, as an individual, independent of anything else of
matter. However, this belief requires idealism in one's philosophy,
yet modern science relies on a purely materialistic philosophy.
Materialists would argue that any level of perceived free-will is not
free-will and ideas are "nothing else than the material world
reflected in the human mind, and translated into forms and
thoughts" (Marx).
The mode of thought which dominates the modern capitalist
philosophy and science is called the metaphysics. The 'facts' are
sought after, things are dealt with separately and statically, rather
than in connection and in their movement. To some, however, this
is sheer reductionism, and results in many contradictions which are
ignored. Everything is reduced to just characteristics and functions.
Marx and Engels found metaphysics as too limited in its scope to
explain the laws governing human society and thought. They
worked together to develop the method of dialectic materialism so
that it could be used scientifically in relation to society. Using
dialectics, society is understood not as superficial changes and
existing in the now, but in its historical development and as an
entity existing throughout human history which is undergoing
organic developmental change. Under a dialectic philosophy, today's
societies are seen as the result of a process of historical
development. "Dialectical thinking stands in the same relationship
to metaphysics as a motion picture to a still photograph. The one
does not contradict the other, but compliments it. However, the
truer, more complete approximation of reality is contained in the
movie" (Sewell & Woods, 1983).
Using the positivist approach adopted by Marx and Engels enables
the establishment of laws of human behaviour in the same way
natural scientists have established laws of the natural world. Their
approach to dialectics was a development of the philosophical
theory of Hegel, although they were the first to develop this theory
in scientific terms, as was documented in Engels' Anti-Dühring
(1877).
Positivists view ideas, thought and mind as scientists see atoms,
and should be "in the same state of mind as the physicist, chemist
or physiologist when he probes into a still unexplored region of the
scientific domain" (Durkheim 1964: xiv). Positivism shares many
similarities to the empirical research methods employed by
scientists, most notably in its objective attention to detail in the
collection of data. In keeping objectivity, positivists can only study
that which can be seen, measured and observed with the purpose of
discovering what causes things to happen.
Interpretivism (and behaviourism) opposes positivism, focusing on
action theory. Human behaviour is taken to be meaningful and
worthy of study beyond empiricism as it is far more than that.
Interpretivists see ideas, thought and mind as mere social and
mental constructs, so we cannot fully understand the world because
we take our own individual view points to what is happening.
Durkheim was a positivist - he thought it both possible and
desirable for sociologists to be able to establish laws of human
behaviour. In his study of suicide, Durkheim found it to be the
product of social forces external to the individual. People's
behaviour is seen to be governed by external stimuli, and their
ideas and feelings are irrelevant. As a result, the behaviour can be
objectively rather than subjectively observed and measured, similar
to how a scientist observes and measures the natural world.
Interpretivists or anti-positivists suggest people people apply
meaning to the world, and so sociology should not even try to be
scientific. Human behaviour is taken to be meaningful and so cannot
be understood in the same way as natural phenomena can be. In
metaphysics, a tree is a tree, there is not meaning for it being a
tree, it just is. Human thoughts and ideas aren't just thoughts and
ideas, they have meaning. If someone is to commit suicide then
there is a meaning for them to do that. Whilst the actions of 11th
September 2001 are seen by most as an act of terrorism, to those
committing the acts they most likely had an entirely different
meaning. Likewise, the war on terrorism can be given contradicting
meanings by different individuals and societies.
To an interpretivist, reality is too complicated for numbers and
quantitative analysis to be made. Qualitative methods are essential
for a full understanding of social reality. Scientific objectivity cannot
be upheld using these qualitative methods which require a level of
subjective thought.
Underlying everything is a problem of ontology. What makes
something real? What makes an apple any more real than slavery?
And what exactly is an apple - where does it begin, where does it
end, where does it exist? Metaphysically the apple is that 'thing'
that can be touched and sensed. Dialectically it isn't that easy - it's
always changing, always flowing, can never be defined. Idealistically
the apple is what one believes to be an apple, and that may only be
a figment of one's imagination. The apple may just be a chemical
reaction experienced in sensing it.
By thinking dialectically slavery exists in the same way that an
apple does, and can be explained equally scientifically, but using
different scientific methods to those currently employed. In
metaphysics everything must be objectively quantified to be
scientific, but it may not always be possible - may never be
possible.
Valid knowledge is subjective. A basic mathematical equality is that
'1 + 1 = 2', and that the result can not possibly be anything other
than 2. However here it can simply and swiftly be disproved - take
two drinks, add them both together and you have one drink - '1 + 1
= 1'. Similar reasoning can be taken further to show that the sum is
never equal to two as to do so would involve making subjective
definitions. So what is a 'fact' and a 'truth' that science is so intent
on discovering, when one of the most basic mathematical principles
on which science is based can be so easily disproved?
Scientific method can be subjective and ambiguous, as Michael D.
Sofka (1997) writes: "Reference is often made to 'The Scientific
Method' as though it were one, well established, universal problem
solving tool. The truth is, we do not have a good description of what
scientists actually do, and we are not even close to universally
prescriptions for what they should be doing." As a result, scientific
method is merely an unscientific combination of common sense
guesses and rules of thumb, and where one rule of thumb is
contrary to another, the scientist subjectively chooses which one to
follow.
At the most simple level, the natural world is studied in order to
unstrained the natural world, and society is studied in order to
understand society. Differences begin to arise in the use of this
knowledge.
Knowledge of the natural world has many and varied uses:
medicinal healing; computational devices; weapons of mass
destruction. The list is endless and always growing as new
discoveries are made.
A problem arises in assessing the uses of a knowledge of society in
that it doesn't manifest itself in physical form. With knowledge of
society one can't make a toaster, for example. Nor can one make a
society. The use is that enables people to understand why people do
things, what makes them behave in certain ways. Proving whether
this knowledge is true is difficult to demonstrate. With natural
science, a toaster can be built, and if it works, then the science
behind the toaster is believed to be objective and true. Because
sociologists cannot manifest any physical entity with their
knowledge, the truth of their knowledge can surely be nothing but
subjective.
Before any research method can be carried out there must be some
theory, and in examining the objectivity of this in relation to social
theory May notes that "It is commonly thought that if values enter
the research process, this renders its findings void" (1997: 40).
However in opposition to this he demonstrates that these values
enable critical evaluation of how knowledge is produced and how it
may be biased towards those who are able to "perpetuate their
beliefs within society".
May argues that although social theory can be used to interpret
empirical data, "it also enables a more general orientation in
relation to political, historical, economic and social issues, as well as
providing a basis for critical reflection on the process of research
itself and social systems in general" (1997: 27). This view suggests
that whilst parts of sociology may be studiable similar to the natural
sciences, it can also be studied in ways that the natural sciences are
not.
Sociology students are required to write essays and attend lectures
on theory, and this is a prominent way in which sociology is taught.
Emphasis is not necessarily on research and the results of this
research, but on ways of thinking. Science, however, is taught with
the emphasis on research and experimentation. Sociology provokes
thought and qualitative analysis of ideas and opinions. Science
involves learning formulas, structures and laws. Whilst sociology too
can teach these things, it does so only as a small part of the whole.
But sociology exists as a discipline which is not so restricted as the
sciences. It can be both objective and subjective, as can the very
nature of the 'thing' called society that it studies. To study it as a
science is to take away half of its essence, as to is to study it as
everything but a science.
Perhaps the question should be not 'can' sociologists study society
in the same way that scientists study the natural world, but 'do all'.
Marx and Durkheim, two of three founding fathers of sociology,
studied the discipline as a science, as have many others. Hence
sociologists can (evidence here is in that they have) studied society
like scientists study the natural world. By that line of thinking, it is
irrelevant that many have also studied it as something other than a
science.
But if all sociologists study society as a science, then which
academic body will have their thoughts provoked by and be able to
qualitatively analyse society? Equally, if it is so important to make
sociology a recognised science, then it must be split in two. That
sociology which can be scientifically tested, and that which cannot
be. Objective sociology based on facts, laws and common scientific
principles; and subjective sociology which cannot study anything
objectively because that's no longer in its field, and so anything
subjective can no longer be researched in objective ways.
Ridiculous of course, because this is twisting the question's intended
interpretation. It's clear what it means to all that read it: "Look at
natural science and how scientists study it, and do the same for
sociologists and society. Look at the ways in which they study it, the
methods they use, the theory the use. Then, using the research of
sociologists to backup evidence and points, find out what similarities
and differences there are. Ensure a rigid structure is kept
throughout, with logical progression leading to a well thought out
conclusion". But, as with sociology, science and life, it's a subjective
interpretation because we are only human. Humans are inherently
subjective.
Through exploring the study of society and the natural world a
number of contradictions, difficulties and problems have arisen.
There is the problem of ontology, of the very essence of being, and
how a philosophical theory is required to make interpretations.
Objectivity is just the accumulation of many peoples' subjectivities,
and so it's superiority over subjectivity in scientific methodologies is
questionable. Society can only be fully studied as scientists study
the natural world if one adopts a full philosophy of dialectic
materialism. With any other current philosophy, there are
unacceptable scientific contradictions which cannot be resolved and
so negate the scientific integrity of any findings.
Positivism
Unit 1 Module 1 - Sociology, Culture & Identity
Positivism
This sociological method favours quantitative methods of conducting research. Some
advocates of Positivism includes: Auguste Comte, Emile Durkheim, Talcott Parsons.
Positivism adheres to the notion that sociological study should be confined to
observable or directly measurable phenomena. There are four major aspects of
positivism: social facts, statistical data, correlation, causation.
1. Social Facts: refer to information or phenomena that can be objectively observed and
classified. To Comte sociologists should not be concerned with the internal meanings,
motives, feelings and emotions of individuals, since these mental states exist only in the
person's consciousness, they cannot be observed and so they cannot be measured in any
objective way. Durkheim agreed with Comte and stated that the first and most
fundamental rule is - 'consider social facts as things'. Therefore the institutions of
society, eg belief systems, customs i.e. the facts of the social world should be considered
as things in the same way as the objects and events of the natural world.
2. Statistical Data: Positivists beleive that it is possible to classify the social world in an
objective way. For example, membership in clubs and organizations, rates of social
actions (eg marriage, suicide, divorce), juvenile delinquency and high school drop-outs.
3. Correlation: refers to the relationship between one thing (variable) and another
(variable).
4. Causation: This makes the links between correlations. If there is a strong link between
two or more types of social phenomena, then it is possible for one of these phenomena
to cause the other to take place/occur.
Family
Unit 1 Module 2 - Social Institutions, Family, Religion & Education
The Family is generally regarded to be a universal institution. This means that it can be
found in most known human societies. G.P. Murdock made this generalization after
conducting studies on approximately 250 societies.
The Family may be defined as a socio-economic unit usually consisting of a conjugal pair
- male and female - who share residence, and other familial duties, which includes, (but
it not limited to) child or geriatric care, economic, cultural and sexual functions.
Anthropologists contend that the family perhaps may be the oldest social institution,
known to human civilizations. It is important to note that families vary due to cultural,
economic and political factors. As such there are varying definitions and notions of the
term 'family'. Some are stated below:
The Family refer to :


A group of people related by blood (consanguine relationship).
People related by marriage (the married conjugal pair constitutes a family) or adoption
(this can apply to the parent-child relationship, or sibling relationship).
A group of people who share common residence, name, economic and affective
functions.
Functionalist Functions of the Family
Unit 1 Module 2 - Social Institutions, Family, Religion & Education
Functionalist Functions of the Family
A Functionalist Perspective
1.
2.
3.
4.
Sexual
Reproductive
Economic
Educational
Sexual - To Murdock, the sexual function is a fundamental role of the family. It helps to
satisfy the sexual needs of both partners. Further, he asserts that it helps to strengthen
stronger emotional ties between the conjugal pair, which serves to unite them both
physically and affectively.
Reproductive - Functionalists believe that the family unit provides a stable environment
for the reproducing of offspring. Without this function, society (humanity) would cease
to exist.
Economic - This refers to the provision of all material needs (which usually requires the
use of money). Functionalists argue that the family unit helps to meet the basic and nonbasic material needs of its members through economic co-operation.
Education - Thus refers to the transmission of culture via the process of socialization
(from adults to children) or it may also refer to the stabilization of the adult personality
(adult to adult interaction usually characterized by liberality, in a privatized
atmosphere).
Family Types
Unit 1 Module 2 - Social Institutions, Family, Religion & Education
Family Types
Family types can be divided into two major classifications:
1. Polygamous
2. Monogamous
Polygamous families may be described as families in which either spouse is allowed to
have more than one spouse simultaneously. (Mustapha, 2007) In the instance where the
male has more than one wives, this is known as polygyny. Where the woman has more
than one husband, this is known as polyandry.
Monogamous families are those families in which the marriage is limited to one spouse.
This conjugal relationship is usually recognized by a legal contract and is the dominant
marriage form of modern industrial society. (Mustapha, 2007).
The various household/types arrangements as we know it, originate from either the
polygamous or the monogamous family type. We shall briefly examine a few:
A. Nuclear Household – traditionally is defined as a social unit consisting of a mother,
father and their children (biological or adopted), living under the same roof. With the
changes in contemporary, the Reconstituted family, can categorized as a variation of this
family type.
B. Extended Household – may include intergenerational or intragenerational nuclear
families living together under the same roof.
C. Single Parent Household – refer to a lone parent and their child/ren living under
the same roof.
Ethnic Families
Unit 1 Module 2 - Social Institutions, Family, Religion & Education
Ethnic Families
The Caribbean is characterised by a multiplicity of cultures, which translates into
various kinship patterns. History have dictated the course of cultural mixing –
colonialism, slavery, indentureship – have all contributed to the variety of family forms
that currently exist in the Caribbean.
Ethnic groups includes:
Africans
East Indians
Europeans
Chinese
Afro-Caribbean family systems/kinship patterns bear the following characteristics:
• Matrifocality (Clarke 1957, Frazier 1939 & Herskovits, 1964)
• Common-Law or Visiting Conjugal relations (Clarke 1957)
• Male Marginality (Herskovits, 1964)
• Extended (Frazier 1939 & Herskovits, 1964)
East Indian Caribbean family systems/kinship patterns bear the following
characteristics:
• Patriarchal
• Endogamic
• Marital Conjugal relations
• Extended
(Klass 1961)
European family systems/kinship patterns bear the following characteristics:
• Patriarchal
• Nuclear/Extended
• Marital Conjugal relations
• Endogamic
Chinese family systems/kinship patterns bear the following characteristics:
•
•
•
•
Patriarchal
Nuclear/Extended
Marital Conjugal relations
Endogamic
(Brereton 1993)
Religion
Unit 1 Module 2 - Social Institutions, Family, Religion & Education
The term religion is multifaceted, and cannot be limited to one singular definition.
However, we shall present a few of the more encompassing explanations.

Religion is a theological, philosophical, anthropological, sociological, and psychological
phenomenon of human kind.

Human recognition of superhuman controlling power and especially of a personal God
entitled to obedience. Concise Oxford Dictionary (1990)

Any specific system of belief and worship, often involving a code of ethics and a
philosophy. Webster's New World Dictionary (Third College Edition).

A unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, that is things set apart
and forbidden which unite into one single moral community – called a church – all
those who adhere to them. Durkheim 1912.
Sociologists, hold differing views on the origins and functions of religion. To the
functionalists, religion serves to maintain social order, and equilibrium in society. To
the Marxists, religion is a tool of the ruling class, used to subjugate/keep in check the
ambitions of the working class. To the feminists religion is also a tool of both the
capitalists and men used to keep women in their place of subordination. For the
Interactionists, religion, helps to give meaning to life. Social beings use this Institution
to make sense of a naturally senseless world.
Types of Religions
Unit 1 Module 2 - Social Institutions, Family, Religion & Education
Religious belief systems may be classified into the following:
• Animism
• Naturism
• Polytheism
• Monotheism
Animism - belief in the existence of individual spirits that inhabit natural objects and
phenomena.
Naturism - worship of nature
Polytheism – worship of many gods.
Monotheism – worship of one god
General Definitions
Unit 1 Module 2 - Social Institutions, Family, Religion & Education
Primogeniture - The right of the eldest child, especially the eldest son, to inherit the
entire estate of one or both parents.
Polygamous - root word greek (poly -many), (gamos- marriage); many marriages. It
refer to the practice of plural marriages, usually involving one spouse who is common to
several other conjugal partners.
Monogamous - (mono - one) ; one marriage. Marriage to one conjugal partner at a time.
The commitment usually ends either with death or divorce.
Reconstituted family – can be a nuclear unit consisting to individuals who had
previously been married. Various factors may account for the formation of a
reconstituted household, which include divorce or death.
Conjugal - refer to/ relates to marriage or the relationship of spouses; with all the
attendant responsibilities that are culturally implied in this role. Thus it may include
functions relating to sexual gratification, economic co-operation, affectivity etc...
Social Control - refers to the modes of regulating people's behaviour. These regulations
may take the form of formal regulations, which occur as state laws, official institutional
rules and other civil regulatory codes eg traffic laws. They may also take the form
of informal directives such as customs, group attitudes and practices etc...
The Difference between formal and informal social control
• Informal social control usually occur as social values: this can be translated as
customs, traditions and norms. Informal sanctions make take the form of
disapproval as ridicule, sarcasm or criticism. Extreme cases of sanctions may include
social discrimination and exclusion.
Inductive method - The inductive method starts with many observations of nature, with
the goal of finding a few, powerful statements about how nature works
(laws and theories).
Deductive method - The deductive method starts with a few true statements (axioms)
with the goal of proving many true statements (theorems) that logically follow from
them.
Value free - in sociology this suggests that sociological research can be executed without
researcher bias. That is it can be objective. It assumes that researchers can be neutral
and devoid of biases.
Functions of Religion
Unit 1 Module 2 - Social Institutions, Family, Religion & Education
Functions of Religion
Functionalist Assmptions :
Overview – Durkheim view religion as a combination of belief and practice. He further
emphasized the difference between the sacred (that which is holy) and the profane (not
holy). Durkheim, noted that conflicts can arise between different religions, since there
may be a clash in their beliefs and practices. (Jorgensen et al., 1997) p.622
• Preserves social order
• Integrates people into communities/society – fosters the collective conscience
• Maintains value consensus
Marxists
Marx believed that religion was created by the ruling class, to perpetuate their ideologies
and to control the masses, by allowing them to believe they have no control over their
social conditions. Marx believed that religion is dangerous, since it prevents the
development of class consciousness. Thus to him, religion is an illusion (not real/a
distortion), that dulls the pain of the oppressed. Religion acts as a drug, a sedative, to
ease suffering; it is the opium of the masses. Religion is the impotence of the human
mind to deal with occurrences it cannot understand. (Marx 1818-1883).
• Masks exploitation
• Distracts from social problems and conflict
• Justifies and legitimizes ruling class ideology.
• Maintains social order by hiding conflict and exploitation
Interactionists
To Weber religion deals with the ‘problem of theodicy’ – this refers to the problem of
understanding why evil exists (suffering, disaster) if there is a God. (wikipedia.org) In
other words, religion seeks to explain why evil exists although God is good. Weber
explains that religion answer the questions that arise from the theodicy problem – such
as why did my relative die, why am I here, why are we poor or sick? (Jorgensen et al.,
1997) p.622
• Provides meaning in a meaningless world
• Provides answers for fundamental questions
Origins of Caribbean Religions
Unit 1 Module 2 - Social Institutions, Family, Religion & Education
Caribbean Religion - An Overview
Caribbean academics contend that the multi-ethnic nature of the region, have loaned
itself to the diversity of religious beliefs. Further, this diversity, have also resulted in the
phenomenon of syncretism. Each of the Caribbean religions has its own unique history
of development. In this section we shall attempt to briefly outline the history of each of
these religions.
1. Christianity – originated in varying forms or versions over several centuries in the
region. See Doctrines and Beliefs
• Roman Catholicism was the first doctrinal form of Christianity to officially infiltrate
the Caribbean. It was introduced as a result of the exploration and settlement of the
Spanish conquistadores, from as early as 1493. Catholic missionaries under the Royal
decree of the Spanish Crown came to help convert the indigenous populations to the
Holy Catholic Faith.
• Protestant Christianity – came with the British explorers during the early 1620’s.
see http://caribbean-guide.info/past.and.present/religion/protestant/ for a summary
on breakdown of Christian denominations in the Caribbean.
2. Hinduism – came to the region with the indentured East Indian immigrants during
the period 1838 – 1917. The colonial government attempted to repress East Indian
religious practices, in an effort to ‘westernize’ them. Thus Hindus converted by changing
their names and professed to be Christians, to ensure that their children obtained
educational and employment opportunities. However, in-spite of these repressive
political tactics, Hinduism continued to thrive. At the turn of the 20th century with the
economic fortunes of the oil boom, there was a revival of the outward religious practices
of the Hindus. Temples were built, pujas were held and the festivals such as Divali and
Phagwa were celebrated with a bit of grandeur. Doctrines and Beliefs
3. Islam – was first brought to the Caribbean by the enslaved Mandingo peoples of
Africa. However, it was unable to spread due to the strong arm Colonial Government
policy of ‘seasoning’ the slaves. With the arrival of the East Indentures, Islam was
revived. Doctrines and Beliefs
4. African Syncretic Religions – African religions came to the New World with the
enslaved Africans. However, their indigenous religious practices were outlawed during
colonial enslavement and labelled a pagan and barbaric. Africans, in an effort to avoid
punishment as well as to maintain connection to the spirit world, adapted to the New
World regime by synchronizing their traditional indigenous beliefs with elements of
Christianity. In so doing, they helped to retain some elements of their ancestral religious
practices. Variations of African Syncretic religious beliefs emerged throughout the
Caribbean, however they held general similarities. Some of these African Syncretic
religions includes :
• Vodun
• Shango
• Kumina
Pocomania
Revivalism
Orisha
5. Rastafarianism - During the 18th century a religious force had developed in the USA
which looked to the biblical references to Ethiopia as a means of challenging the myth
that blacks were destined to be ‘beasts of burden’. These blacks were part of the
Ethiopian movement. (Campbell, 1993, p. 47). This Ethiopian movement laid the
ideological background for the development of Pan-Africanism, and in turn the New
World religion known as Rastafarianism. Under the leadership of Pan-Africanist Marcus
Garvey (circa.1930’s), Afro-Caribbean people began taking pride in their ancestral
culture, and to resist white colonial domination. Through the preach of a black
liberation theology, many young unemployed blacks, yielded to the call. As such the
movement took on a religious momentum of its own. By 1950 Rastafarianism, had
developed into a spiritual doctrine, which perpetuated a political agenda of resistance!
Doctrines and Beliefs.
Education
Unit 1 Module 2 - Social Institutions, Family, Religion & Education
Education – An Overview
Education takes place in a set of organizations. It is a set of social institutions, of social
processes, fulfilling certain social functions, and illustrating social tensions and
conflicts. It takes place in a collection of buildings, fitted with specific personnel.
(Savvas et. al 1997)
The activities of educating or instructing; activities that impart knowledge or skill. The
general understanding of the term relates to activities that go on in schools, colleges,
and universities. Thus education involves learning or socialization. Education is not
limited to a school environment. Learning or education can take place in any possible
context; e.g. at a camp, on the playing field, at a debate competition, via electronic
media etc…
Mustapha 2007 notes that “in traditional societies, most forms of education took place
through informal mechanisms involving the family, clan and tribe”. However, he notes
that as societies changed, these informal institutions were no longer able to provide
adequate “specialized knowledge”, necessary for younger members to be well integrated
into the wider society.
The changes in society have necessitated changes in the educational system. In this
section we shall examine the theories of Education as well as the development of
education in the Caribbean region by looking at selected countries.
Functions of Education
Unit 1 Module 2 - Social Institutions, Family, Religion & Education
Functions of Education – Theoretical Perspectives Summarized
Education Functionalist Perspective :
• Promotes social order in society (Durkheim)
• Allows for effective role allocation (Davis and Moore)
• Foster the collective conscience, thorough the transmission of norms, morals and
values. (Parsons)
• Creates a skilled labour force (Durkheim)
Marxist Perspective:
Bowles and Gintis
• Mechanism of social control
• Creates labourers for the capitalist system
• Socializes individuals into the status quo – justifying the un-equal class divisions.
• Allows for alienation of students, which is later translated into alienation in the work
place.
Interactionist Pespective:
Hargreaves, Cicourel, Lacey , Kituse & Becker et.al
• Allows for labelling of students – eg. Good bad, smart, dull.
• Streaming for the labour force.
• Influenced life chances, in terms of opportunities for monetary and non-monetary
vocations.
History and Development of Caribbean
Education
Unit 1 Module 2 - Social Institutions, Family, Religion & Education
Development of Education in the Caribbean
Pre-Emancipation:
• Education limited to white and males specifically
• Female education was limited to domestic science (whites)
• No formal education (in reading, writing and numeric) for the enslaved.
Post-Emancipation:
• Emergence of limited formal education for the newly freed. Usually initiated by the
missionary societies.
• State funded educational institutions were limited during the immediate post-emancipation
era. Economic loss from declining sugar profits was blamed for this inadequacy.
• In Jamaica, the 1898 Lumb Report recommended that both boys and girls should be taught
agriculture science “in such a manner as to overcome the prevalent distaste for these pursuits so
essential to the economic standards of Jamaica and its citizens”. (Leo-Rhynie, 1997) Blacks had
developed a dislike for agricultural enterprise and preferred education in areas lending to ‘office
work’.
1900-Political Independence:
• Nationalist politicians understood that education was essential to national progress and
productivity. National policies were implemented to improve the quality and increase
opportunity for education amongst the masses.
• 1950 saw the development of the first regional university amongst the British West Indies –
the University of the West Indies, with three campuses spread throughout the region, located at
Mona Jamaica, Cave hill Barbados and St Augustine Trinidad. For the first time in the history of
the BWI, Anglophone students desirous of pursuing university education had the option of
obtaining their Bachelor degree within the region.
Functions of Stratification and
Mobility
Unit 1 Module 3 - Social Stratification & Social Mobility
Social Stratification
Functionalists would consider the following issues in theorizing about the
phenomenon of social stratification:
1. What is the function of social stratification?
* To maintain social order
* To ensure that all roles are filled
* Roles are filled by those best suited to efficiently execute them.
2. What are the functions of a class system?
* To classify and rank roles according to merit and importance
* To encourage individuals to invest time and effort in education, and skills acquisition
for the functionally more important roles.
3. Why is social stratification necessary?
- To ensure that society continues to exist.
Altogether, Davis and Moore contend that:
Social inequality is an unconsciously evolved device by which societies insure that the
most important positions are filled by the most qualified persons. Hence every society,
no matter how simple or complex, must differentiate persons in terms of both prestige
and esteem, and must therefore possess a certain amount of institutionalized inequality.
(Mc-Graw-Hill, 1980)
Criticisms:
1. Anthropologists contend that social stratification or institutionalized inequality is
not necessarily inevitable, nor universal. Instead they suggest that some hunting
/gathering societies do not appear to have structured inequality.
2. Tumin presents the following arguments in opposition to Davis and Moore’s
postulations:
• Academics have difficulty in defining positions as more or less important.
• There are several essential/functionally important jobs that are not prestigious.
• Any form of social inequality, has the tendency to discriminate against persons in
lower ranks of the strata.
• Individuals in lower stratas have fewer opportunities in comparison to those from
higher stratas to realize/develop their talents.
• Some members of the upper strata may be so positioned simply by virtue of
birth/ascription and not necessarily due to merit.
Caribbean Stratification
Unit 1 Module 3 - Social Stratification & Social Mobility
Caribbean Stratification
Overview
The Caribbean stratification system has been influenced by its history of Colonialism,
Plantation Slavery and Indentureship. Although, most of these territories are currently
politically independent nation-states, the legacy of their history have continued to
impact upon their individual social structure.
Caribbean Theories of Stratification
Plantation Society –
This theory of Caribbean society, though based on the original plantation model of, can
be applied to contemporary Caribbean societies.
• Upper Class/caste/ruling elites (traditionally white) – own wealth, means of
production and political power
• Intermediate Class/caste (mulatto/browns) – usually educated, own some wealth,
(desire but) lack political power
• Working Class/caste ( blacks) – slaves, uneducated, lack wealth and political power.
Academics contend that the Upper Class on the contemporary Caribbean continues to
be whites. These either descents of the old planter class aristocracy (eg. The Beke of
Martinique –descents of French planters – own most of the islands supermarkets,
hotels, land, transportation, control import prices,) continue to own and control a
significant proportion of the territory’s wealth, and as such wield great economic, social
and political power. The non-white populations continue to be situated at the lower end
of the social strata. They constitute the public servants and unskilled workers in the
society.
Plural Society
• Smith argues that most societies in the Caribbean are plural societies where there
exists significant cultural diversity and race antagonism
• Various ethnic groups have their own socio-economic institutions but not their own
political system
• It is the cultural and race diversity that causes the discord between the cultural
groups.
• Social inequality exists between ethnic groups. These inequalities are transient
depending on the social actor. Factors of colour, religion, culture, economic background,
education all influence positioning within the social strata.
Creole Society
• Is described as a hybrid/syncretic/new society.
• The stratification system is informed by an ascriptive-particularistic value system
(Braithwaite)
• Ryan contends however that the ascriptive-particularistic value system that informed
the pre-independence era, gave way to meritocracy in the post-independence era. Some
elements of the ascriptive value system continue to exist.
Closed/quasi caste stratas ----------- Flexible/Open class based stratas
Colonialism ------------------------- Self-Governance
Social mobility in the Caribbean
Unit 1 Module 3 - Social Stratification & Social Mobility
Social Mobility in Caribbean Society
An Overview
East Indian Social Mobility:
In the larger island territories such as Jamaica, Trinidad and Guyana, which received
East Indian labourers, these workers were, designated to the lowest position in the
social structure. East Indians are no longer situated at the bottom of the social structure
as a social grouping, but rather, there is a tendency towards a multi-ethnic placement
that has been influenced by, economics, gender, age, health, educational attainment etc.
Indeed East Indians have acquired a great deal of economic power (through
entrepreneurship, public and private sector employment) and have come to challenge
the traditional political dominance of Afro-descended Caribbeaners. This is most
notable in territories such as Trinidad and Guyana.
African Social Mobility:
The African population of the Caribbean has been largely descended from the formerly
enslaved populations. For almost 400 years enslaved blacks were stereotyped as
inferior. They held no political power, no wealth, no citizenship and were denied to
actively and openly participate in their own cultural tradtions. All of these factors
relegated them to the base position within the caste-type socially stratified social
structure.
After Emancipation Africans abandoned the estates, in a bid to seek out and create a
socially and economically independent life. The intent to uplift themselves and following
generations from the bottom of the social strata. Most Africans sought to educate their
children –thus generating distaste for agriculture and a preference for non-manual
labour. This gave rise to the educated black middle class of the twentieth century.
Africans rose to political dominance in most of the island territories and maintained
such power from the 1960’s unto the present.
Summary of Caribbean Social Mobility:
CLR James observed that in the West Indies, education has been a powerful factor in the
formation of the middle classes. However, although some black proletariats have been
able to pull themselves up from the masses through education into the middle class,
they can never rise to the bourgeois class.
Today, with the changes in contemporary lifestyle, which includes – the democratization
of Caribbean nations, and the influence of meritocratic values over the traditional
particularistic ones (particularly in the public domain) the social structure has become
more complex. This complexity may also be due to the expansion and diversification of
the economy and educational curriculum now available in the West Indies.
Contemporary researchers have noted that there has been a tendency towards fluidity of
movement within the middle strata. It must be noted however those in spite of these
visible and tangible socio-economic changes, inequality continue to exist throughout the
region.
According to Gordon:
They show that those Jamaicans whose parents were agricultural labourers, domestic
and unskilled manual workers had virtually no chance of ending up at the top of the
middle strata….Only four out of 1,000 males with agricultural labouring origins, for
example, were likely to end up in this top stratum, despite the vaunted expansion of the
educational system and the opening up of new positions.
The empirical evidence suggests that although the social stratification system have
moved from the tendency to be caste like to that of being class oriented – hence the
noticeable mobility between social stratas, we note that individuals of the uppermost
parts of the social structure continue to maintain their position, whilst those at the
bottom, struggle to move up and maintain second place.
Plural Society
Unit 1 Module 3 - Social Stratification & Social Mobility
Plural Society
Many of the societies which have problems of multicultural governance are former
multi-ethnic colonies. A theory of such colonial and post-colonial societies draws
particularly on the work of J.S.Furnivall and M.G.Smith.
According to Furnivall different ethnic groups in a plural society meet only in the
market place. This market place however lacks the characteristics which Durkheim
envisaged in his concept of organic solidarity. It lacks the shared values which organic
solidarity requires and involves brutal conflict and exploitation. The sense of solidarity
on which morality depends is to be found within the different ethnic groups when they
go home from the market place. Within these groups there is intense solidarity and
moral unity.
Furnivall worked in Burma but wrote about Java drawing on the work of the Dutch
economic theorist, Boeke. Boeke writes that in the economy of Netherlands India “there
is a materialism, rationalism and individualism and a concentration on economic ends
far more complete and absolute than in homogeneous Western lands” As he sees it this
is a capitalism quite different from that which grew slowly over hundreds of years and
maintained its moral roots.
M.G..Smith wrote originally about Grenada but his theory of the plural society has been
widely used in the analysis of colonial and post-colonial societies in the
Caribbean. Smith is aware of the general sociological theory of Talcott Parsons and its
assumption of four mutually supportive institutions. In the Caribbean, however he
argues that there are several co-existing ethnic groups each of which has a nearly
complete set of social institutions. Setting his argument within the context of a review of
social anthropological theories used in studying the Caribbean, he sees the various
ethnic groups as having their own family systems, there own productive economies,
their own languages and religion but not their own political system. In the political
sphere they are all controlled by one dominant segment... To put this in more concrete
terms Blacks are descended from Slaves, Indians from indentured labourers. The groups
have remained distinct and have their own institutions. They exist however politically
under the domination of an outside power. Thus the defining feature of a plural society
is seen as this process of the domination of all ethnic groups by the colonial power. New
problems arise when the colonial power withdraws.
Whereas Furnivall sees the different ethnic groups as bound together by the economic
fact of the market place, Smith sees them as bound together by a political institution, the
colonial state.
One crucial institution in the Caribbean was the slave plantation. The history of
plantations is traced by Max Weber in his General Economic History to the manor. But
the Caribbean slave plantation comes into existence when capitalism directs
horticultural production to the market. Similar developments occur in mining. M.G
Smith’s theory has to take account of this. In fact he sees the plantation as one form of
political institution.
M.G.Smith collaborated with the South African, Leo Kuper in producing a series of
essays on Africa and also turned his attention to the United States in his book
Corporations and Society, The case of South Africa is of special interest calling for an
analysis of a society based upon rural labour migrating to the gold mines. The United
States has developed as neither homogeneous nor plural but heterogeneous.
Smith has to deal with the question of social class. This is easy enough for he has only to
say that each group has its own internal class structure. He does, however, have to
compare his own theory to that of Marx. He cannot accept that group formation occurs
between those having the same or different relations to the means of production, nor
that “in the social production of the means of life men enter into circumstances which
are independent of their will” For Smith the culture of ethnic groups in a plural society
is not simply determined in this way. The plural segments in colonial society operate
according to a different dynamic which it is the purpose of Plural Society theory to
explain.
Rex has attempted to set out a theory of the plural society which does justice to Marxian
and other theories as well as those of Smith. This involves first of all recognizing that
such societies go though several phases of development, pre-colonial, colonial and post
colonial. In the colonial phase relations to the means of production are important, even
though they are more varied than Marxist categories suggest involving such structures
as the encomienda in Spanish America. At the same time however groups have a
relationship to each other reminiscent of the mediaeval estate system in Europe
different groups having the cultures, rights and privileges which attach to their function.
In the post-colonial phase there would be according to this theory a number of
developments. One would be the subordination of peasants to the large estates or
latitudinal, a second would be the replacement of the former colonial power by a group
able to take over its powers, a third would be a change in which new primarily economic
centres replaced the colonial power, and so far as resistance and struggle within the new
system is concerned.
Fanonism laying emphasis upon the national struggle would take precedence over class
struggle.
The application of plural society theory to capitalist societies based upon mining
produces a different set of problems. There rural agricultural reserves are expected to
provide social back-up so that males of working age can live in segregated compounds or
locations and be intensively exploited. This is a situation very much like that described
by Furnivall.
Definition of Stratification and
Mobility
Unit 1 Module 3 - Social Stratification & Social Mobility
Social Stratification
This refer to the classification or categorization of people into groups, with specific
commonalities. Such groupings may include : economic status, prestige, culture, race,
religion, age, gender or any other characteristic.
Social Stratification exists in every known human society. This classification system may
be informed by the values of the society. Particularistic values, tend to create closed
stratification systems. Whilst universal values create a more transient or open
stratification system.
Social Mobility is the change in the social status of an individual. The term social ,
relates to any aspect of life affected by peer to peer relations and
interactions. Mobility is indicative of movement. Thus the concept of social mobility
addresses the issue of movement of an individual within the social stratification system.
In the Caribbean social stratification is unique, since individual members may hold
multiple stations within the same social strata. What does this mean? Let take for
example a young professional Afro-Caribbean woman. Most Caribbean territories are
characterized by stratification structure that is rooted in a synthesized universalistic and
particularistic value system.
Under the universalistic/meritocratic value system, this individual's rank may be
different to her ranking under the particularistic/traditional value system. Further, the
individual's placement in both instances can be mutually exclusive.