Chapter 8
Motivation and Emotion
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Motivation
The force that moves people to behave, think, and
feel as they do
Motivation energizes, directs, and sustains
behavior.
Answers the question:
Why do we do the things we do?
William James called the natural tendency (innate) to seek a
particular goal
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Theories of Motivation
Evolutionary Approach
– instincts
Drive Reduction Theory
– drives, needs, and homeostasis
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Hunger
▪ Humans are motivated to eat to convert food to energy.
▪ Hunger signals are sent to and from the brain.
Hypothalamus
– lateral hypothalamus
▪ initiation of hunger and eating
– ventromedial hypothalamus
▪ cessation of hunger and eating
Gastric signals
Blood chemistry
– glucose
– insulin
– Leptin
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– stomach contractions
Eating Disorders
▪ Disorders
▪ Causes
▪ Culture
▪ Biology
▪ Genetics
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▪ Binge eating disorder (BED): eating disorder
characterized by recurrent and uncontrolled episodes of
eating a large number of calories in a short time
▪ Bulimia nervosa: eating disorder characterized by binge
eating followed by purging
▪ Anorexia nervosa: eating disorder characterized by an
intense fear of being fat, resulting in severe restriction of
food intake
Eating Disordered
Causes of Anorexia and Bulimia
– sociocultural
▪ media images
▪ family interactions
▪ biological
▪ Genetics
▪ serotonin regulation
•
Neurological Effects of Dieting, Binging, Purging
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Obesity Causes
▪ Proposed causes
▪
▪
▪
▪
▪
▪
High heritability/personality traits
Environmental toxins
Excess “good bacteria” in gut
Daily wear-and-tear on hippocampus
Leptin resistance
Lack of exercise and overeating
▪ Traits that adaptive in ancestral environment may be
maladaptive in modern environment
▪ Strong attraction to energy-dense food
▪ Ability to store excess fat
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▪ Evolutionary mismatch
Sexual Desire
▪ Dihydroepiandostero (DHEA)
▪ Testosterone
▪ Estrogen
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▪ Desire for sex is necessary for survival of
DNA.
▪ Three hormones play key roles.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Sequence of Needs
Basic needs must be met before higher needs can
be satisfied.
Self-Actualization
• motivation to develop to our fullest potential
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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (2 of 2)
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Intrinsic v. Extrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic Motivation
– organismic needs +
enjoyability
– key to achievement
Extrinsic Motivation
– Incentives (rewards,
punishments)
▪ Delaying gratification:
Something our species does
well
– Does extrinsic motivation
undermine intrinsic
motivation?
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Emotion
A feeling, or affect, that can involve physiological
arousal, conscious experience, and behavioral
expression.
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Emotion
▪ Does not reside in any location in brain; no
single way to measure it
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▪ Emotions are temporary states with a clear
beginning and a clear end, that includes
unique subjective experiences and
physiological activity, and that prepares
people for action (psychological,
physiological and behavioral components)
Theories of Emotions
▪ James–Lange theory: Stimuli trigger activity
in the ANS, which in turn produces an
emotional experience in the brain.
▪ Cannon–Bard theory: Stimuli simultaneously
trigger activity in the ANS and emotional
experience in the brain.
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▪ Early theories
Theories of Emotion
James-Lange Theory
Perception of
Physiological changes
Perceived external stimulus
Physiological arousal
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Theories of Emotion
Cannon-Bard Theory
Physiological arousal
Perceive external stimulus
Emotion
Simultaneous and
independent
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The Two Factor Theory of Emotion
▪ According to cognitive psychologists, in
order to recognize the emotion, we must
give it a name (label) that is a cognitive
function. Stimuli trigger a general state of
physiological arousal, which is then
interpreted as a specific emotion.
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▪ Are Cognitive Factors needed to Feel?
Two-Factor Theory of Emotion (Schachter/Singer)
Do we need to think in order to feel?
Cognitive labeling
Interpret external
cues
Emotion
Perceive
external
stimulus
Physiological arousal
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Limbic System: Amygdala
Persistence of emotional memories
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The Emotional Brain
▪ Appraisal made by amygdala: evaluation of the
emotion-relevant aspects of a stimulus
▪ “Fast” (thalamus ! amygdala) and
“slow” (thalamus ! cortex ! amygdala) Notice
pathway only one way to amygdala; no chance
for reasoning once information (fear, anger,
impulsive behavior) get to the amygdala
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▪ Amygdala plays important role in emotion;
is threat detector
Identifying Emotions
Can you identify the emotion?
Fear
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Emotional Communication
▪ Emotional expression
▪ Observable sign of an emotional state
▪ Universality hypothesis
▪ People (even those who have never seen a human
face) are generally good at judging and creating the
same facial expressions.
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▪ Emotional expressions have the same meaning
for everyone; originally proposed by Darwin
Can You Tell What This Man Is Feeling?
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▪ Simple vs complex emotions
Lying
▪ Telling lies affects both verbal and nonverbal
behavior.
▪ Liars:
▪ Slower speech, longer response time, fewer details,
less fluent, less engaging, more uncertain, tenser,
less pleasant, a bit too good
▪ Tend to believe people tell the truth
▪ Do not know signs of lying
▪ The accuracy of polygraphis has been
questioned.
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▪ People are poor lie detectors.
▪ Real smiles (left) are often
accompanied by a crinkling
of the eye corners, and fake
smiles (right) are not.
▪ Eye crinkles are reliable
signs—but not perfectly
reliable signs—of
happiness.
▪ Happy people don’t always
crinkle their eyes and
although most people can’t
fake the crinkle, some can.
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How Reliable Are the Reliable Muscles?
Pursuit of Happiness
Biological Factors
• genetics (50 to 80% heritable)
• set point
Obstacles
• hedonic treadmill (pleasure short-lived)
• direct pursuit can backfire
Happiness Activities & Goal Striving
• altruism, physical activity, positive self-reflection
• personally meaningful goal investment
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