S
A
M
P
LE
Caribbean Examinations Council®
for self-study and distance learning
S
A
M
P
LE
®
Caribbean Examinations Council®
for self-study and distance learning
Contents
Acknowledgements
iv
Introduction
1
Section 1
Section 8
Society, culture and the
individual
Contribution of sports to
development in the Caribbean
Section 2
154
Section 9
Section 3
42
M
History, society and culture
19
Regional integration and
development
P
Geography, society and culture
Section 4
LE
3
73
A
Cultural diversity in Caribbean
society and culture
159
Section 10
Factors promoting or hindering
development
168
Section 11
Intellectual traditions
179
S
Section 5
Impact of societal institutions on
Caribbean people
Section 12
97
Section 6
Caribbean–global interaction
The mass media
198
Section 13
122
Social justice
Section 7
Section 14
Concepts and indicators
of development
Investigating issues in the
Caribbean
142
204
209
2
Geography, society and culture
Introduction
At the end of this section,
learners should be able to:
In this section we will be looking closely at the relationships between
the physical environment and our perceptions, beliefs and values.
It is not often that we think about the environment in those terms.
It may surprise some of us that physical landscape could be shaped
by beliefs and perceptions inherent in our society and culture. One
of the sub-disciplines of geography, human ecology, focuses on the
interrelationships that are forged between a people and their environment
according to how nature and people are perceived – it tells us, for
example, how space and place are understood.
Specific objectives
You should be able to:
locate the Caribbean, its main
territories and water bodies on
a map
distinguish between the
geological, geographical and
historical Caribbean
In this section, we will examine insights from the discipline of geography
and some of its sub-disciplines, such as geomorphology and human
ecology, in order to understand relationships between society, culture
and the physical features of the Caribbean. However, both views of
man–land relationships are influenced by history. For example, the land
surfaces that early settlers found suitable to cultivate are largely still
cultivated today, sometimes with the same crops. Thus, in this section
there will be an intertwining of human ecology, geography and history, in
explaining aspects of Caribbean society and culture.
M
describe the discipline of
geography and its subdisciplines: geomorphology and
human ecology
A more familiar view is the notion that the physical landscape
determines many of our activities and, thus, influences our social and
cultural life. In Section 1, we saw that the peculiar nature of being
an archipelago was thought to be responsible for prompting values of
insularity and difference among Caribbean people, especially among
territories situated far apart. The nature of the physical landmass was
thought to influence values and attitudes towards interaction and
identity. The study of the physical environment, geomorphology, is
another sub-field of the discipline of geography.
P
appreciate the impact of
geographical factors in shaping
the socio-cultural environment
of the Caribbean.
LE
General objective
A
explain how Caribbean society
and culture have been shaped
by geographic phenomena
S
explain how different
conceptions of man–land
interaction have shaped
different social and cultural
responses to the environment.
Content
Location of the Caribbean – the concept of ‘Caribbean’
The study of geography
Cultural responses to:
geomorphic phenomena, such as plate tectonics, landforms
and soils
meteorological phenomena, such as hurricanes
The study of human ecology
Cultural responses to geographic phenomena, such as:
winds and ocean currents
coral reefs
Location of the Caribbean
The Caribbean region is a relatively large area with much diversity from
mainland territories to islands and archipelagoes. This diversity is
often masked by people both outside and inside the region, attributing
19
Caribbean Studies
a Caribbean way of life to the entire region. Studying the location of the
Caribbean helps us to better appreciate the diversity that co-exists with,
and underlies, common Caribbean experiences.
An understanding that there are conflicting conceptions of ‘Caribbean’
introduces us to how diverse the region is. The activity below is a first
step in developing a definition of the Caribbean.
Activity 2.1
Florida
Defining the Caribbean
Cuba
Mexico
Turks & Caicos
Cayman Islands
Haiti
Belize
Using Map 1 provided, define the
Caribbean. Justify your answer.
Jamaica
Central
America
The Caribbean can be defined
as _________________________________
Pacific Ocean
Atlantic Ocean
Dominican
Republic
Puerto
Rico
Caribbean Sea
P
I have chosen this definition
because _____________________________
Bahamas
LE
Is the term ‘Caribbean’ a loosely used
concept? Many Caribbean people hardly
ever ponder on this term that is used to
describe us all. In this exercise, we try
to come to a rationale to justify our
definition of Caribbean.
Gulf of
Mexico
Barbados
Tobago
Trinidad
Venezuela
Orinoco River
M
Map 1
Feedback
Let us begin with your definitions. You have probably taken one of three
positions and you have probably opted for the one that identifies most
commonalities across the region.
S
A
The geographical Caribbean – this describes the area washed by the Caribbean
Sea and is often described as the Caribbean Basin. It would, therefore, include
most of the islands of the Lesser and Greater Antilles as well as mainland
territories in Central America (Costa Rica, Belize, Panama, Honduras) and
Northern South America, such as Colombia and Venezuela. The common link
here is the Caribbean Sea.
The historical Caribbean – this describes the area that saw the impact of
European colonisation, slavery, indentureship and the plantation system.
This refers to all the territories, so that one way of defining the Caribbean
is to identify those countries that experienced the rule of specific European
countries. Thus, the Caribbean may be defined as being broken up into the
English-, French-, Dutch- and Spanish-speaking countries and territories. This
then is a cultural definition.
The geological Caribbean – this is not used as frequently as the definitions
above in referring to the Caribbean. However, it shows that there are
deep-seated structural features of Caribbean geology that also identify
commonalities. It is the area that is defined by the Caribbean Plate and which
experiences similar tectonic, seismic and volcanic features and processes.
20
Section 2 Geography, society and culture
It is quite likely that you can point out flaws in each of these descriptions
of the Caribbean when compared with the commonly accepted
understandings of ‘Caribbean’ with which you have grown up. We are
beginning to understand that the term ‘Caribbean’ can be complex.
Activity 2.2 asks you to identify some of the flaws in these definitions.
Activity 2.2
Problems in defining the Caribbean
A sound knowledge of the islands, countries and water bodies of the
Caribbean region helps in pointing out anomalies in the definitions given
previously. For this exercise, you are required to be familiar with the countries
and bodies of water of the Caribbean area as shown on Map 1.
Feedback
LE
Identify any errors or problems in the three ways of defining the Caribbean
discussed above. Draw a table as shown below for your answers.
Historical
1
Guyana and the Bahamas do not
have coastlines on the Caribbean
Sea. Yet both countries are
commonly accepted as part of the
Caribbean.
The problem with defining the Caribbean
according to linguistic or European
heritage, is that it tends to ignore the
commonalities of Caribbean experience at
the hands of these colonial powers.
The western edge of the Caribbean
Plate is located in the Pacific and
includes Honduras, Costa Rica,
Nicaragua and Panama in the
Caribbean.
2
This definition includes countries
not normally associated with the
Caribbean – Panama, Colombia,
and other countries of Central
America.
This definition would include Guyana and
the Bahamas. It should also include the
French-, Dutch- and Spanish-speaking
countries of the Caribbean and Central
America.
The northern edge of the Caribbean
Plate defines much of Belize, Cuba
and the Bahamas as extra-regional.
This is also true of Guyana in the
south.
M
P
Geographical
Geological
S
A
By now you are probably realising that the definition of the Caribbean we
have been accustomed to is that of the historical or cultural Caribbean.
That we usually ignore the Spanish, French and Dutch territories, could
be because of convenience. It could also reflect the ‘colonial’ division of
the region that still persists in our inability to recognise each other as
equally important to the Caribbean.
The Caribbean Studies syllabus attempts to strike a balance in defining
the Caribbean. The syllabus deals mainly with the geographical and
historical Caribbean and includes the French-, Spanish- and Dutchspeaking territories.
The discipline of geography
Geography is the study of our landscape and of how people use and
interact with it. It examines a range of issues and phenomena that
often comprise specific disciplines in their own right. The table overleaf
shows a commonly accepted understanding of the different branches
of geography, and the areas of study that we are interested in, namely
geomorphology and human ecology.
21
Caribbean Studies
Human geography
Practical geography
Geomorphology
Population geography
Map reading
Urban studies
Fieldwork
Economic geography
Statistics
Political geography
Surveying
Climatology
Metereology
Biogeography
Hydrology
Human ecology
Physical geography
Regional studies
Geomorphology focuses on the physical environment. It is the study of:
the formation of physical features, rocks and soils
the development of landforms, rocks and soils over time
how these features and landforms affect the physical landscape.
LE
While geomorphology deals exclusively with the physical and structural
aspects of the environment, human geography focuses on man’s impact
on the environment, in terms of population density, in the building of
towns and cities, and the economic activities in specific areas or regions.
The physical environment is the context for these activities.
There is scope for an area of study where the man–land continuum is
further explored. As suggested earlier, we will take:
P
a close look at how the physical environment constrains and
influences man’s use of the landscape
M
a stance from human ecology, which, as the table above suggests,
crosses some disciplinary borders. It investigates how man has shaped
the natural environment through the beliefs and values characteristic
of human society and culture. In this view the beliefs and values of
a people are imprinted on the landscape and influence how land is
perceived and used.
A
Activity 2.3 will begin to build your understanding of geomorphology and
the view that the physical landscape influences man’s use of it.
Activity 2.3
The study of geomorphology
S
Most of us have actually studied
geomorphology in our early years
of schooling.
Geomorphology is the study of the
physical landscape.
1 Choose FIVE of the physical
features that are studied in
geomorphology (e.g. cliff,
plateau).
2 Draw the features that you
choose.
Feedback
The most common geomorphological features on the Earth’s surface are also
the ones you probably met before in the study of geography. You may be able
to quite readily recognise them in your area or region of the Caribbean. They
shape the landscape into distinctive forms, largely because they represent
areas where altitude (height above sea level) or gradient (the slope of the
land) changes, that is, the land may change from steep to undulating, to gently
sloping, to flat. Altitude and gradient are two of the most important aspects of
the relief of the surface (shape, height and slope).
It is almost certain that mountains, plateaus, plains, valleys and coasts were
among the features you mentioned. They are drawn opposite.
Coasts have similar features but they may be given different names. For
example, a cliff is a steep slope and could be a hill or mountain near the sea.
Lowlands are called coastal plains and projections of low land into the sea are
called peninsulas.
Volcanoes, while structurally different from mountains, the relief is the same
as that of mountains.
22
Section 2 Geography, society and culture
Earthquakes, while an intermittent occurrence, tend to leave relief features
such as faults where the rocks have shifted. These may look like steep slopes
(called fault scarps).
Height
The diagrams above all show the differences in relief that distinguish the
features from each other.
Mountain, hill
Activity 2.3 focused on some of the more abundant landforms on the
Earth’s surface. However, the study of landforms also includes the study of
rocks, which make up the landforms, and soils derived from rocks.
Valley
Cultural responses to geomorphic phenomena
Landforms, rocks and soils
Activity 2.4
Height
LE
While the geomorphologist will study these features of the physical
landscape as important in themselves, we are really interested in how
they determine man’s use of the land.
The influence of landscape in shaping human society and culture
Steep slopes
Fill in the missing information in the diagram below to show how the relief of
the landscape influences man’s use of it.
Mountain
Impact on
man
barrier to
communications,
e.g. road/rail
Valley
Plateau
M
Type of
relief
Lowlands, plains
Lowlands,
plains
Plateau
High land, steep
sides, flat top
Height
A
difficult to grow
crops or build
tourism:
scenery
nature
reserve
S
How man
uses the
land
Undulating land
Height
P
The landscape can constrain man’s use of the land. This exercise is intended to
increase your awareness of man–land interactions.
This activity should take you about 25 minutes.
Feedback
Type of
relief
Mountain
Valley
Plateau
Lowlands, plains
Impact
on man
barrier to
communications,
e.g. road/rail
flooding and
landslides
in times of
heavy rain
difficult to settle the steep sides,
makes the building of houses
and roads costly, the flat top
may have no rivers, inhibiting
settlement and agriculture
an environment friendly to man and
his activities:
fresh water in rivers
difficult to grow
crops or build
gentle or flat slope for building
roads, houses, and for cultivation
coastal location for trade and
transport
23
Caribbean Studies
Type of
relief
Mountain
Valley
Plateau
Lowlands, plains
How
man
uses the
land
tourism:
scenery
nature
reserve
transport
routes,
especially
in the
mountains
left in forest or its natural
vegetation
settlements: towns, villages, capital
cities and continuous urban sprawl
sometimes used as tourist
attractions as wilderness places
agriculture: plantation or estates,
small or peasant farms
has ecotourism potential
industry – processing of agricultural
products
forestry
quarrying
navigation
terracing for
agriculture
fishing
bulldozing the land
to build houses
growing crops
dams
the slopes are often cultivated
by small-scale farmers who help
to erode the soils and carve the
slopes into gullies
fishing, roads, railways, airports,
ports
LE
dumping
waste
P
As Activity 2.4 shows, landscape – its shape, altitude and gradient –
influences human use of it. However, how people go about agriculture,
industry, building houses and roads, has to do with cultural heritage.
Thus, although we have seen that the land itself determines where
humans can settle and where they cannot, our historical legacy of
cultural forms dictates what type of settlement they make, what
materials will be used and what architectural plan they will favour.
M
Activity 2.5 below encourages you to explore the many ways that human
society and culture have been shaped by geographic phenomena such as
landforms, rocks and soils.
Feedback
Activity 2.5
1 In many countries of the Caribbean, there are extensive plantations or
estates producing cash crops for export such as sugar cane, bananas,
coconuts or, less commonly, cocoa. In some countries, these plantations
have been found to be uneconomic to support and they have diversified
into small-scale peasant farms, growing food crops such as rice, ground
provisions, peas, beans, vegetables or small cash crops for export, such as
sugar cane, bananas, ginger, arrowroot, nutmeg and coconuts. You need to
explain what is happening in your country.
A
Examples of how human society
and culture have been shaped by
landscape
S
All learning takes place best when
we can relate new information to
familiar knowledge. In this activity,
we will draw on your knowledge of
your own country to extend your
understandings.
1 What area of your country is
most extensively cultivated,
for example, in sugar cane or
other cash crops?
2 What characteristics of the
landscape have encouraged
large-scale cultivation there?
3 How would you describe the
influence of history on the
social and cultural forms that
are present today in that area?
2 If your country has large areas of the land devoted to plantations or
estates, then there may be certain geographic factors present. The
gradient of the land is flat, rolling or undulating. This land is easiest to
farm especially, with heavy machinery. It also facilitates transport. The
altitude is low. The soils are liable to be fertile as rivers or water courses,
when they reach the plains, often flood, spreading silt and other minerals
and nutrients that enrich the soil. You may need to consider where the
mountains are in relation to the prevailing winds, the northeast trade
winds. Most likely, large-scale cultivation exists in areas that are sheltered
from the winds. These areas are usually near a port or have transport links.
The area you chose may have all or some of these conditions to show why
this form of cultivation was located there and not elsewhere.
3 While the land itself may have the requirements for extensive farming,
history intervenes when we consider who were the different groups in
possession of these lands and how they made use of it. Plantation agriculture
was not part of the social and cultural norms of the Caribs, Arawaks and
24
Section 2 Geography, society and culture
other indigenous peoples. It was only with the coming of the Europeans and
their superior technology in farming that this type of land organisation
became a feature of our landscape and has remained so to this date.
The examples given above illustrate the social and cultural expressions
of a people. Similarly, the practices of small farmers and estates also
reflect social and cultural arrangements of our people. Thus, if we are
contributing to soil erosion because of bad farming practices, such as
deforestation, then that is a social and cultural response. It is a response
to geography because it usually involves the cultivation of marginal lands
– steep slopes that should really not be cultivated but left under a cover of
forest. There is also a historical dimension – large estates, usually owned
by companies, own most of the fertile plains, poorer farmers have been
relegated to cultivate steep, hilly, not very fertile lands.
LE
The examples below show how landscape has influenced the ways of life
of Caribbean people.
Fishing is often a social and cultural response to land that is inhospitable
to human settlement (high altitude, steep gradients). Islands with
mountainous interiors often find coastal people forging stronger links with
other islanders across the water, than with the urbanites of the capital city.
P
If you examine settlement patterns in the Lesser Antilles, you will notice
a clear distinction between the west and east. Most of the capital cities
are located on the west coasts.
Part of the reason for this is that there are larger pockets of lowlands in
the west suitable for cultivation.
M
This response by Caribbean people also has to do with the interaction
of relief and weather phenomena. The west coasts enjoy a sheltered
location (because of the mountainous backbone) from the weather
systems that are brought with the northeast trade winds – easterly
waves, tropical storms and hurricanes. These systems bring much rain
and heavy winds to eastern locations.
A
The high mountains force the winds to rise, depositing excessive moisture
on the eastern and windward coasts. Consequently, the west coast (the lee
coast) is drier, often facilitating cultivation (particularly sugar cane).
S
This pattern could also be found in parts of the larger islands of the
Greater Antilles.
Plate tectonics: landforms, rocks and soils
It is not enough to be able to describe the different surface landforms and
show how they have influenced the types and location of human social
and cultural activities. Any Caribbean person should be aware of the
subterranean tectonic processes at work in the region and how those
processes can affect surface landforms and our lives.
Plate tectonics is a theory that attempts to explain how the landforms
we have just studied were created and developed over time. The
substance of the theory states that:
there are large slabs of the Earth’s crust (land and ocean) that form
plates and move, driven by convection currents in the mantle
the Caribbean Plate is bordered by the Atlantic Plate in the east and
its western margin lies off Central America in the Pacific
plates move and adjoin other plates at their margins or boundaries
25
Caribbean Studies
at these margins, three types of movements are possible:
where the plates collide, this is called a convergent or destructive
margin – the Lesser Antilles is on such a margin
where the plates move away from each other, this is called a
divergent or constructive margin (there is only a small divergent
margin in the Caribbean, off Jamaica)
where the plates slide past each other, this is called a transform
margin (or a fault) – the northern and southern margins of the
Caribbean Plate are of this type.
The term tectonic refers to earth movements and so can be relevant to
mountain-building activities such as folding or earthquake (also called
seismic) activity, which results in the faulting of rocks, or volcanism.
At each of the three plate margins mentioned above, various tectonic
processes occur that affect the Earth’s surface and human existence.
LE
At convergent or destructive margins, the main processes are
earthquake activity, volcanic activity and mountain building.
At divergent margins, the main processes are earthquake and volcanic
activity.
At transform margins, earthquake activity is the dominant process.
P
Activity 2.6
Plate tectonics and the creation of the Caribbean landscape
Use the information given on the left about plate tectonics to answer the following questions.
M
1 Identify the plate margin in the block diagram below.
The plate margin shown below is a ______________ margin.
ANDES (fold
mountains)
S
A
Peru-Chile deep-sea
trench (subduction zone)
Plate A
Continental
or
oceanic crust
Mantle
26
Volcanic
eruption
Continental
crust
Pacific Ocean
Sea level
Plate B
Crust
NAZCA PLATE
(oceanic crust)
Earthquake foci –
pressure builds up
as plate is destroyed
Mantle
SOUTH
AMERICAN
PLATE
(continental
crust)
Lava
rises
Oceanic crust melts due to
friction and heat from mantle
Section 2 Geography, society and culture
2 Identify the plate margin in the cross-section above.
The plate margin shown above is a _________________ plate margin. The main features are:
______________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________
3 Look at Map 2 below. Identify which territories in the Caribbean are not likely to experience earthquakes or
volcanoes.
4 What are the social and cultural responses in any Caribbean country to hazards such as earthquakes and
0
km
500
LE
volcanoes?
The Bahamas: stable
limestone platform
N
NORTH AMERICAN
PLATE
1842
Earthquakes, folding, faulting
1863
1637 1824 1976
P
1692
1907
C A R I B B E A N
s, v
olca
n
oe s
A
ke
S
COCOS PLATE
NAZCA
PLATE
m
ou
nt
a
t
ar
ua
The
An
de
s: f
old
e
s,
ain
nt
hq
M
1931
1972
Fold
m
ou
P L A T E
ic island arc
lcan
Vo
Cayman Islands
Ridge
1967
s
in
SOUTH AMERICAN
PLATE
Recently active
volcano
Major historic
earthquake
Convergent plate
boundary –
subduction zone
1765
1954
Guiana Shield:
ancient, stable rock
Divergent plate
boundary
Transform plate
margin
Direction of plate
movement
Map 2 The Caribbean plate
Feedback
1 The first diagram shows a transform margin. The plates slide by each other
building up stress and strain in the rocks, which eventually move or are
displaced causing earthquakes. Faults are left on the surface as lines of
weaknesses in rocks. They can be eroded to form valleys or may stand out
as bold relief features, such as fault scarps. Only earthquake activity occurs
at a transform plate margin. This is very common along the northern and
southern borders of the Caribbean Plate.
27
Caribbean Studies
2 The second diagram is of a convergent or destructive plate margin. Its main
features include:
two plates colliding with each other – the grinding of plate against
plate produces earthquakes
one plate being forced down into the subduction zone where the heat
and friction melts the rocks
molten rock ascending to the surface through cracks and joints to form
volcanoes
sediments from the colliding plates accumulating in great depressions,
which are raised through earth movements (mountain-building
activity) to form islands such as Barbados.
LE
3 Map 2 shows that the northern boundary of the Caribbean Plate does not
include most of Cuba and the Bahamas. The latter particularly is considered
to be on a stable (or shield) area – not frequently prone to earthquakes or
volcanoes.
The southern border of the plate passes through Trinidad and northern
South America. It therefore, does not affect Cayenne, Guyana or Suriname.
These countries are situated on the old hard rocks of the Guiana Shield,
which is considered to be a stable area, not prone to earthquakes or
volcanoes.
P
The rest of the Caribbean countries are prone to both earthquakes and
volcanoes – those on transform margins to earthquake activity and those
on convergent margins to earthquakes, volcanoes and mountain-building
activity.
A
M
4 The social and cultural responses to hazards such as earthquakes and
volcanoes vary across the region. Countries where there is a low risk
of earthquakes and volcanic activity tend to be complacent. The more
experience there is of a hazard, the better prepared the people are for the
hazard (Nagle, 1998).
S
Social and cultural responses to hazards
One of the reasons for introducing the topic of plate tectonics in
the Caribbean Studies syllabus is to examine the social and cultural
responses of people to geographic phenomena. While plate tectonics
influenced the creation of many different landforms, as discussed
previously, the theory is also associated with environmental hazards
such as volcanic eruptions and earthquakes. We did look generally at how
altitude, gradient and shape of the land surface influenced human social
and cultural activity. Now we want to look at the responses of Caribbean
people to rather sudden and extreme environmental hazards, such as
volcanic eruptions and earthquakes.
First of all, we should be aware of the variety and types of environmental
hazards that occur in the Caribbean.
28
Section 2 Geography, society and culture
Activity 2.7
Environmental hazards in the Caribbean
The table below shows different types of environmental hazards. Complete the table by putting a tick in the relevant
category – several categories may apply to one hazard.
Hazards
Meteorological
Tectonic
Man-induced
Sudden
occurrence
Slow
(warning)
Volcanic
eruptions
Earthquakes
Floods
LE
Landslides/
rockfalls
Hurricanes
Tidal flooding
Hazards
Meteorological
Earthquakes
Tectonic
Man-induced
√
M
Volcanic
eruptions
P
Feedback
√
√
Landslides/
rockfalls
√
Hurricanes
√
Tidal flooding
√
√
Slow
(warning)
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
A
Floods
Sudden
occurrence
√
√
√
√
S
Volcanoes can erupt suddenly but there are examples of protracted eruptions such
as in the Soufrière Hills of Montserrat and Mt Soufrière in St Vincent.
Flooding is especially prevalent in lowlands and coastal plains. Rivers are adjusted
to average rainfall and tend to maintain their channels. However, in times of
unusually high rainfall such as thunderstorms, the instability associated with
the intertropical convergence zone or during a hurricane, the incoming water
exceeds the river’s capacity and the river is said to ‘burst its banks’. Flooding also
results from human activities. For example, repeated and indiscriminate dumping
of waste in rivers, particularly large items such as household appliances and motor
vehicle parts, can block rivers causing localised floods.
Deforestation leaves the soils on steep slopes loose. Rain then removes large
amounts of soil down slope to be deposited on riverbeds. This raises the level of
the riverbed. In times of increased rainfall, the river will not have the capacity
to accommodate the increased water and there can quite easily be widespread
flooding.
Landslides and rockfalls result from unstable rocks and soils with a large clay
component. Clay absorbs rainwater, becoming slippery, enabling rocks on steep
29
Caribbean Studies
slopes to slide. Heavy rainfall, earthquakes or the vibrations caused by blasting,
quarrying and road and rail building can induce landslides and rockfalls.
Hurricanes go through several stages. They begin as small depressions or
low-pressure systems over the Atlantic, near Africa. Some of them develop
into more intense low-pressure systems, called easterly waves, and are
brought with the northeast trade winds into the Caribbean. A few easterly
waves develop into tropical storms and fewer still into hurricanes. They can
be detected and tracked with routine forecasting.
Tidal flooding results from extremely large waves pounding the coast, caused
by either hurricanes or strong earthquakes out at sea, displacing the seabed.
LE
Other environmental hazards may be localised or infrequent phenomena such
as soil creep, slumping, mudslides, mud volcanoes and tornadoes.
Activity 2.8
Social and cultural responses to hurricane threats
This activity will call upon knowledge about hurricanes and responses to them.
1 Experience
i Which Caribbean countries rarely experience hurricanes?
ii Identify FOUR Caribbean countries that are more frequently hit by
hurricanes.
iii Suggest an explanation why some Caribbean territories are seldom or
never hit by hurricanes while for others this is a common occurrence.
2 Material well-being
The personality of individuals
is also an important factor in
responding to hazards. Some
people are apathetic, even to
make plans for the possibility
of such an event; some wait
on national emergency bodies
to tell them what to do; while
others seek to minimise loss in
the degree to which persons have
options that can reduce risk.
Persons of higher socioeconomic
status can choose to build in
areas where a better foundation
is possible, on more stable
slopes; can choose building
materials that can withstand a
range of stresses; and can invest
in insurance and health coverage
to mitigate the effects of an
earthquake.
Explain how socioeconomic status may influence the social and cultural
responses of Caribbean people to the threat of hurricanes.
3 Personality
S
A
There are some places that
are somewhat removed from
the Caribbean Shield and
earthquakes are not a major
risk to their way of life, for
example, Guyana. If people
have experienced earthquakes
repeatedly they tend to have a
plan as to what they would do if
a strong earthquake occurs.
M
P
Example
Source: adapted from
Nagle (1998)
30
Outline the steps that may be taken by a person who wishes to minimise
the risk associated with a hurricane.
4 Collective responsibility
How can governments and national bodies help to reduce the risks and
dangers associated with hurricanes?
Feedback
1 Hurricanes follow well-defined tracks as they cross the Atlantic and enter
the Caribbean. Usually, they first hit the chain of the Lesser Antilles so all
those countries and Barbados have first-hand experience of hurricanes.
Within the Caribbean Sea, they are less predictable. They may completely
miss the chain of the Greater Antilles, but those islands too usually
experience at least one hurricane every two or three years. Hurricanes gather
strength from passage over warm seas so that if they hit Central America, it
is usually with considerable force. The frequency with which hurricanes hit
Belize City forced that country to re-locate its capital inland, at Belmopan.
Hurricanes receive their impetus to spin and create a vortex from the spin
of the earth. This Coriolis force is weak nearer to the Equator, so that
countries close to the Equator (5° to 10° N) are not likely to experience
hurricanes – for example, Guyana (5° N) and Trinidad (10° N).
Section 2 Geography, society and culture
2 Hurricanes hit poorer people the hardest. The more well-to-do usually
build on protected sites and on stable lands. Those inhabiting squatter
settlements suffer from land slips and floods caused by heavy rains
and destruction of their homes by strong winds. The social and cultural
responses of the poor are limited in mitigating the effects of hurricanes.
3 To minimise risk during a hurricane, we can take measures listed below.
Batten down windows and doors; particularly glass panes.
Remove all furniture or objects from the yard that may become
missiles.
Keep a stock of fresh water, canned foods, candles, matches and
hurricane lamps.
Ensure that pets and livestock are safe.
LE
Do not go outside in strong winds because of possible harm from flying
objects.
Formulate plans about how best to protect ourselves, for example, we
should all be aware of the nearest hurricane shelter.
Keep a transistor radio handy to listen to the latest bulletins.
It is advisable to have insurance to cover any loss.
P
4 In all Caribbean countries, governments and national bodies usually take
steps to:
educate the population to adopt safe building and housing practices
that will provide protection from extreme weather conditions
M
develop and implement procedures for removing persons in an
emergency to safer ground and for general evacuation
have well-planned shelters in all parts of the country
develop an effective educational and disaster-awareness programme
to sensitise the population as to risks and what they can do to
minimise risks
A
meet adequate housing needs, as far as possible
ensure that building codes and regulations are followed.
S
We cannot afford to be complacent about environmental hazards. We
have seen the damage caused by volcanic eruptions and the potential
damage that may be caused by the subduction that is occurring at the
western edge of the Caribbean Plate Governments, agencies and the
people of the Caribbean need to ensure that measures are in place to deal
with these potential hazards. Each person has a role to play. For example,
we should be more careful about using rivers for a dumping ground and
cutting down trees. A knowledge of human ecology should further your
understanding of these issues.
Human ecology: conceptions of space and place
At the beginning of this section, two views of the man–land relationship
were mentioned. One view could be described as the determining
effects of geography. We explored this view at length as the influence
of geography (landforms, rocks, soils, environmental hazards) on the
social and cultural life of Caribbean people. Another view that was also
31
Caribbean Studies
Aboriginal conceptions of space
and place
Many of us, if we are not history
students, seldom think about
the aboriginal people of the
Caribbean. Yet, thousands of
aboriginal people still inhabit the
region today. This activity will
help deepen your awareness of
how different groups of Caribbean
people have shaped our landscape.
From your previous knowledge
of the Caribs, Arawaks and other
aboriginal peoples, what would
you say were their dominant
beliefs about the man–land
relationship?
suggested was that the general perceptions or dominant ideas and values
of a people shaped how they see the potential of their living space. Thus,
deep-seated ideas, values and beliefs are important in explaining how
land is presently organised and used.
Human ecology deals with the impact of people on their environment
through the dominant social and cultural beliefs they have about
themselves in relation to land or nature. One way of making this clear is
to contrast the world views of two major groups of people that inhabited
Caribbean space over time.
Feedback
To complete this exercise, we must first think about the activities of the
aboriginal people. They grew a few crops, did some fishing, hunting and
gathering and moved in dugout canoes with the prevailing winds and ocean
currents. The aboriginal people, even those with more advanced agricultural
systems and building technology such as the Maya, worshipped gods that were
closely associated with nature and with their daily activities such as planting
and harvesting.
LE
Activity 2.9
P
Today the Caribs of northeast Dominica, for example, continue to use the canoe
to communicate with neighbouring territories, crossing international borders at
will. They maintain their traditional crafts such as basketry, weaving, fishing and
boat building. They do not rely very much on modern technologies but continue
to use age-old knowledge of the winds and ocean currents of the area.
A
M
It would seem that they believed that nature was sacred and that they needed
to pray and give sacrifices so that nature would continue to be bountiful.
Hence, they believed that they should understand as much as possible, for
example, about plants and their medicinal properties, so that they could make
the wisest use of what was given by nature. Their practices demonstrate a
respect for nature and an emphasis on conservation. The unwillingness of the
Caribs, Maya and the aboriginal people in the interior of Guyana to recognise
the international borders that separate their people attests to an underlying
disbelief that land can be carved up and demarcated or even owned by man.
Eurocentric conceptions of space
and place
Feedback
S
Activity 2.10
The world view of the aboriginal people can now be contrasted with
the world view of the Europeans who first came to the Caribbean in the
fifteenth century and whom even today maintain a dominant presence in
our ways of life.
To a great extent the Eurocentric
view of life continues to dominate
our world. It is important, as
Caribbean people, that we are well
aware of this.
1 Based on your previous
historical knowledge, what
were the dominant beliefs of
Europeans about man–land
relationships?
2 How are these beliefs
demonstrated today?
32
1 Europeans were technologically advanced compared to the aboriginal
inhabitants, especially in warfare and manufacturing. They were
‘Renaissance men’ – they had thrown off the narrow, superstitious views of
the Dark Ages and had embraced an optimistic spirit that mankind could
do all things. Their many breakthroughs in science and technology fuelled
their industries and increased their control over nature. They came to the
Caribbean as conquerors who enslaved the native inhabitants as well as
West Africans, who were brought to labour in mines and on plantations.
Europeans conceived of the land space as being there to be used for
their good and well-being. They were caught up in the capitalist mode of
production, bent on making a profit, so that they did not exploit resources
for their own immediate use but for mass production. The perception was
Section 2 Geography, society and culture
that the land could be owned by whichever party was strong enough to
maintain supremacy. Values then were aligned towards individual owners,
competition, exclusion and large-scale exploitation for profit.
2 Today, even though there are competing conceptions of land, the
Eurocentric views hold sway. We may see such views manifested in how
land is believed to exist for the sustenance for those using it now. Thus,
land is sometimes degraded, littered, polluted and destroyed without
a thought to the future. Housing and built-up areas are constructed on
slopes, causing accelerated soil erosion, leading to flooding and other
environmental problems. Today, we struggle between the voices favouring
restraint and conservation in exploiting the environment and those who
point to the productive sector, modernisation and economic growth.
LE
Human ecology offers us insights into how we perceive our living space
and an understanding that these perceptions are due largely to the social
and cultural beliefs that we have inherited. We can use that characteristic
feature of the Caribbean environment – coral reefs – to further explore
these issues.
Activity 2.11
P
Basic facts about coral reefs
The geography of the Caribbean shows the importance of coral reefs in maintaining many aspects of
our ways of life. That we tend to abuse this resource could stem from a lack of awareness of the usefulness
of coral reefs.
M
Look at the diagram below and answer the following questions.
1 There are three types of coral reefs: fringing, atoll and barrier reefs.
Locate any barrier reefs in the Caribbean.
S
A
2 Biodiversity: the reef
provides habitats, shelter
and food for thousands
of species of marine flora
and fauna.
Show ONE way that this
is important to man.
4 Reefs are important to
man because:
they break the force of
the waves providing
harbours and beaches
they provide ideal
environments for
diving, photography
they______________
Types of corals
3 Coral polyps are the tiny
marine organisms that secrete
a calcium carbonate shell or
tube that remains after the
polyp dies. They stick together
to form the massive structure
of the reef.
What conditions are necessary
for polyps to thrive?
5
Threats to the survival of coral reefs in the Caribbean:
Overfishing
Extracting corals, sand and limestone
Tourist traffic (walking on the corals, fuel from boats, dropping anchors)
_______________________________________________________________
33
Caribbean Studies
Feedback
1 Barrier reefs are separated from the mainland by a deep channel of a
hundred feet or more. They comprise massive coral canyons, ridges and
tunnels. The most extensive barrier reef in the world is located off eastern
Australia and Belize has the second longest barrier reef. Another very large
barrier reef is found off Andros Island in the Bahamas.
Atolls are roughly oval-shaped and enclose a lagoon. Groups of atolls are
found off Belize – Lighthouse Reef, Glover’s Reef and the Turneffe Islands.
Many of the islands of the Bahamas are atolls. They represent the growth
of coral on a submerged mountain chain.
Fringing reefs are very common. They are connected to the island or
separated from it by a very narrow strip of sea, for example, Buccoo Reef
off Tobago.
LE
2 Biodiversity is important as the different flora and fauna secrete substances
to protect themselves from predators and these chemicals have been
found to be potentially useful by man in manufacturing medicines.
3 Polyps thrive best in shallow, clear and warm waters.
P
4 Many wetland ecosystems in the Caribbean can survive because coral reefs
break the force of waves enabling a sheltered environment of quiet water
for swamps and mangrove to grow. The latter provide valuable fisheries,
ecotourism attractions and ecological benefits to man.
5 Corals are destroyed in a variety of ways:
M
Coastal development in the form of hotels and marinas involve
construction, quarrying and dredging, the waste of which drains out to
sea to provide turgid waters that choke coral growth.
Pollution, in the form of detergents and other chemicals, stimulates
algal growth which develops over living corals and kills them.
S
A
Eurocentric values that emphasise the exploitation of natural resources
to promote economic development and well-being have resulted in the
expansion of the tourist industry in ways that threaten the sustainability
of our environment. However, alternative conceptions of human
ecology, reminiscent of the aboriginal view of man–land relationships,
are competing with mainstream values. Tourism policy in Dominica
and Guyana advocates a minimum of high-rise tourist development
initiatives, and ecotourism enclaves that blend into the natural
environment. The payoff may not be seen as substantial in terms of
short-term economic growth but adverse effects on the environment are
minimal and there is potential for further development of ecologically
friendly tourism.
Key points
It is believed that one of the first principles important in understanding
the society and culture of a place is knowledge of its location and
the physical landscape. This section emphasises the contribution
of geography in shaping some of the social and cultural practices of
Caribbean people.
34
Section 2 Geography, society and culture
For example:
the archipelagic nature of the Caribbean is thought to foster values
that tend to fragment Caribbean people and keep them apart
geomorphology shows how gradient, altitude and shape of the land
surface contributes to different kinds of relief
relief is an important factor in how people have perceived the
usefulness of the landscape
plains and coastal lowlands historically have been densely peopled
because these areas offered man the opportunity to establish societies
and cultures
mountains, high plateaus, as well as the windward slopes of the
Lesser Antilles, are sparsely settled because of the difficulties for
building, transport, accessing fresh water and cultivating
References
Honeychurch, L. (1995). ‘Caribs,
Creoles and Concepts of Territory:
The boundary between France and
Dominica’. Caribbean Geography,
6(1), pp. 61–70.
Nagle, G. (1998). Hazards. Surrey,
UK: Thomas Nelson and Sons, Ltd.
Mohammed, J. (ed.). (2001).
Readings in Caribbean Studies.
Kingston, Jamaica: CXC.
LE
soil is also a factor in settlement on lowlands (soils tend to be thick
and fertile on plains and lowlands but thin and prone to erosion on
steeper slopes)
Suggested further
readings
plate tectonics illustrates how subterranean processes helped to
create landforms in the first place, and volcanic and seismic activity
continue to influence society and culture today
hurricanes, winds and ocean currents also influence Caribbean society
and culture
P
human ecology adds to the influence of geomorphology on social and
cultural activity – in that the dominant ideas of people about man–
land relationships influence how people use their geographic space
Conclusion
M
the aboriginal inhabitants of the Caribbean had different values about
man and land than those of the Europeans, whose values are now
mainstream in the Western world
S
A
Geography provides the basic framework within which society and
culture develops. The outlook and perspectives a people may adopt are
fundamentally related to what their environment offers and how they
subsequently shape that environment. Different groups occupying a
landspace may see different potential in the environment and, therefore,
their man–land interactions will differ. This, however, leads us to a
historical perspective – the subject of Section 3.
Further readings
Palacio, J. (1995). ‘Aboriginal people
– Their struggle with cultural
identity in the Caricom region’.
Bulletin of Eastern Caribbean
Affairs, 20(4), pp. 25–40.
Potter, R. B. (1992). ‘Caribbean
Views on Environment and
Development: A cognitive
perspective’. Caribbean
Geography, 3(4), pp. 236–243.
Pulsipher, L. M. (2001). ‘Our
Maroon in the Now-Lost
Landscapes of Montserrat’. The
Geographical Review, Jan–Apr
2001, pp. 132–142.
Robertson, R. (1995). ‘Volcano
Surveillance and Hazard
Mitigation in the Eastern
Caribbean’. Caribbean
Geography, 6(2).
End test
Attempt all the questions.
1
Copy the map below and mark the following:
Atlantic and Pacific Oceans
Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico
Barbados
Guyana and Belize
Puerto Rico
35
Caribbean Studies
Central America and the West Indies
LE
N
The ‘Commonwealth Caribbean’ is sometimes used to define the Caribbean.
State ONE criticism of such a definition.
3
a Geomorphology is the study of ________________?
P
2
S
A
4
M
b Human ecology is the study of ________________?
Key
mountains
river
N.E. Trades
a Copy the map and indicate with an X where settlement is most likely to take place.
b Give FOUR reasons to support your answer.
5
Suggest THREE ways in which volcanic activity has influenced Caribbean society and
culture.
6
Describe ONE way in which winds and ocean currents have influenced Caribbean
society and culture.
7
Copy the diagram on page 37 and mark on it how small farmers can continue to
cultivate these slopes and minimise the risk of soil erosion.
36
Section 2 Geography, society and culture
1,000 m
0m
a Identify the environmental hazard that has affected the rocks as shown in the
‘before’ and ‘after’ diagrams.
LE
8
Before
After
Landsurface
P
Fault
Different rock type
9
M
b How has this hazard impacted on the landscape?
Tick off the terms and phrases below that are consistent with a human ecological
approach that respects nature and the environment:
a Preservation of wilderness areas
b Economic development and modernisation
A
c Sustainability
d Ecotourism
e Urban development and urban sprawl
S
f Use of local materials
g Blending construction into the environment
h Mass production, for example, manufacturing or logging
10
i
High-rise hotel construction
j
Over-exploitation of resources
Fill in the blanks using words from the list below.
(Note: there are more words in the list that there are blanks.)
irrigation
extensive
machinery
Barbados
peasant
poverty
transport
relief
Jamaica
hagglers
economy
cash
family
volcanic
convergent
plantation
transform
rivers
erosion
divergent
southern
technology
underdevelopment
37
Caribbean Studies
The island of _______________ shows complex _______________ features, which
influence society and culture. For example, the _______________ lowlands are
_______________ enough to maintain the European tradition of sugar cane
cultivation in _______________ holdings. These lowlands provide ideal conditions for
_______________ and the _______________ of raw materials and finished products.
_______________ provide water for _______________. One of the reasons that
the soils are so fertile is because ancient _______________ rocks have broken
down to provide a high mineral content. (The island used to be situated on a
_______________ margin, but today the margin is of the _______________ type).
LE
On the other hand, mountain and hillside slopes are also cultivated but the social
and cultural arrangements are different. Farms are small, called _______________
farms, and tend to be worked by _______________ labour. They lack machinery and
modern, often expensive, transport and _______________.
P
The small farmer is involved in a different type of _______________ to that described
above. He sells his produce in local markets or to local businesses. He is at the
mercy of floods, pests, low prices and lending institutions. The _______________ of
small farmers is directly linked to rural _______________ – a tradition that began
with European colonisation where the interior of a country, if it could not be
cultivated with _______________ crops, was ignored. The plight of the small farmer
continues to this day. While it is often true that he engages in practices that result
in soil _______________, these practices reflect his lack of options.
1
N
A
Gulf
of
Mexico
M
Feedback for end test
Atlantic Ocean
Puerto
Rico
S
Belize
Caribbean Sea
Barbados
Pacific
Ocean
Guyana
2
This is a definition of convenience as it demarcates the territories with a British colonial experience from the others
and excludes existing British territories. Any course that studies the Caribbean and defines it as the ‘Commonwealth
Caribbean’ should make clear the assumptions that such a definition is at best only a partial one, adopted for
convenience.
38
Section 2 Geography, society and culture
3
a Geomorphology is the study of the physical landscape, its processes and resulting features or landforms.
b Human ecology is the study of human perception of their space and how they have organised this space. It
can also be described as the study of the relationships between human groups and their physical and human
environments.
4
a
LE
X
As shown above, putting an X anywhere in the southern lowlands will be suitable.
b i
Flat land for building houses and roads
ii
Fresh water for domestic consumption
P
iii A sheltered location from strong winds and heavy rains
iv A port location for trade and movement
5
Ways in which volcanic activity has influenced Caribbean society and culture:
M
It has increased the tourism potential of certain countries through the promotion of spectacular scenery, for
example, the Pitons of St Lucia and features such as hot springs, mineral baths, sulphur springs, craters and
calderas.
It brings to the consciousness of all Caribbean people the threat of environmental hazards, for example, the
destruction wrought in Montserrat.
A
It has caused insurance companies and underwriting firms to increase premiums in those countries where there
is a risk of eruptions.
Volcanic rocks weather over time to form fertile soils full of minerals that plants need, thus encouraging
agriculture in high-risk areas.
S
The intermittent and dormant nature of volcanic activity has spawned a false sense of security in those islands
where active volcanoes are found.
6
The northeast trade winds, the prevailing winds, together with the dominant ocean currents in the Atlantic Ocean
helped Columbus and those voyagers in the days of sail by directing them towards the Caribbean. They brought
with them a way of life that was very different to the society and culture of the indigenous inhabitants. The impact
of the Europeans continues to this day.
Another way that winds and ocean currents continue to influence society and culture is the direction of flow, which
facilitates inter-island travel by fishermen in their pirogues. The ease with which individuals can travel from island
to island in pirogues and other small craft reflects how they can take advantage of winds and ocean currents locally.
The Caribs of Dominica and the Creoles of Guadeloupe and Martinique interacting across international boundaries
are evidence of this.
39
Caribbean Studies
7
1,000 m
0m
8
LE
Concrete walls built around the hillsides serve to impede the progress of soil downslope. They are called terraces.
Ploughing around the hillside – contour ploughing – has a similar effect.
a Earthquakes or seismic activity.
b i
The relief has changed; there is now a scarp slope showing where rocks have moved or been displaced to
relieve the stress that has been building up in the rocks.
ii A fault remains in the rocks. A fault is a line of weakness along which further movement is likely to occur. It
is therefore unstable.
The island of Jamaica shows complex relief features, which influence society and culture. For example, the
southern lowlands are extensive enough to maintain the European tradition of sugar cane cultivation in
plantation holdings. These lowlands provide ideal conditions for machinery and the transport of raw materials
and finished products.
M
10
a, c, d, f, g
P
9
Rivers provide water for irrigation. One of the reasons that the soils are so fertile is because ancient volcanic rocks
have broken down to provide a high mineral content. (The island used to be situated on a convergent margin, but
today the margin is of the transform type).
A
On the other hand, mountain and hillside slopes are also cultivated but the social and cultural arrangements are
different. Farms are small, called peasant farms, and tend to be worked by family labour. They lack machinery and
modern, often expensive, transport and technology.
S
The small farmer is involved in a different type of economy to that described above. He sells his produce in local
markets or to local businesses. He is at the mercy of floods, pests, low prices and lending institutions. The poverty of
small farmers is directly linked to rural underdevelopment – a tradition that began with European colonisation where
the interior of a country, if it could not be cultivated with cash crops, was ignored. The plight of the small farmer
continues to this day. While it is often true that he engages in practices that result in soil erosion, these practices
reflect his lack of options.
Tutor-marked assignment
Write no more than 1,000 words on the following topic.
Choose one Caribbean territory and describe how the natural
environment has influenced some of its social and cultural practices.
20 marks
Criteria for marking
The award of marks is based on the following.
Content
40
Explanation of concepts:
Analysis of concepts:
Synthesis:
8 marks
7 marks
5 marks
Section 2 Geography, society and culture
Structure
A quick sketch map of the chosen country will help considerably in
organising your essay. It should contain a key that describes the location
of major features of the natural and built-up environment – mountains,
plains, swamps, capital city, densely populated areas. Then you can
choose two or three of the major regions you show on the map and
discuss the interaction and interrelationships between the physical
landscape and how humans have used the land.
LE
A discussion about social and cultural practices is necessary, showing
that they encompass the range of ways that groups have used to organise
their existence. Thus, not only agriculture is worthy of mention, but the
differences in how it is organised from hillsides to plains; the dangers
posed by certain practices, for example, deforestation and soil erosion;
and the historical background influencing these practices. Social and
cultural practices can also include settlement patterns, interaction across
international boundaries, attitudes to hazards, and activities such as
fishing and tourism – all of which are tied to the physical environment.
Style
S
A
M
P
Analysis and interpretation should be well developed and relevant to
the issue under examination. Conclusions drawn should be logical and
insightful.
41
S CAPE
A
M
P
LE
®
Caribbean Examinations Council®
The Caribbean Examinations Council (CXC®) has developed this self-study
guide to provide candidates both in and out of school with an additional
resource to help them prepare for the CAPE® Caribbean Studies examination.
The guides have been prepared by experienced educators with expertise in the
syllabus, teaching and/or examination. The content covers the key concepts of
the subject that candidates must know.
Features of the study guides include:
Ǧ
Introduction and Objectives setting out the key concepts to be covered in each
chapter
Ǧ
Ǧ
Examples to illustrate learning points
Ǧ
End Tests with Feedback to help you evaluate your progress.
Activities and Feedback to provide plenty of practice and help you build your
understanding and application of the concepts
This study guide will provide you with the tools and support you need to reach
your full potential.
I S B N 978-1-4085-0899-2
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