Baumrind’s Model of PARENTING STYLES
Identity foreclosure, a person who has not
spent time considering alternatives (that is, has
Authoritarian parenting emphasizes control
not been in crisis) is committed to other people’s
and
plans for his or her life
unquestioning
obedience.
Authoritarian
parents try to make children conform to a set
standard of conduct and punish them forcefully for
Identity Moratorium, a person is currently
violating it. They are less warm than other
considering alternatives (in crisis) and seems
parents.
headed for commitment.
Their
children
tend
to
be
more
discontented, withdrawn, and distrustful.
Identity diffusion, is characterized by absence
Permissive
parenting
emphasizes
self-
expression and self-regulation. Permissive parents
of commitment and lack of serious consideration
of alternatives.
make few demands. They consult with children
about policy decisions and rarely punish. They are
warm, noncontrolling, and undemanding. Their
Mary Ainsworth’s STRANGE SITUATION
preschool children tend to be immature—the least
self-controlled and the least exploratory.
Babies with secure attachment are flexible and
resilient in the face of stress. They sometimes cry
Authoritative parenting emphasizes a child’s
when a caregiver leaves, but they quickly obtain
individuality but also stresses limits. Authoritative
the comfort they need once the caregiver returns.
parents are loving and accepting but also demand
Some
good behavior and are firm in maintaining
comfortable being left with a stranger for a short
standards.
judicious
period of time; however, they clearly indicate they
punishment when necessary, within the context of
prefer the caregiver to the stranger in the reunion
a warm, supportive relationship. Preschoolers with
episode, often smiling at, greeting, or approaching
authoritative parents tend to be the most self-
the caregiver.
They
impose
limited,
babies
with
secure
attachment
are
reliant, self-controlled, self-assertive, exploratory,
and content.
Babies
with
avoidant
attachment,
by
contrast, are outwardly unaffected by a caregiver
Neglectful, or uninvolved— are parents who,
leaving or returning. They generally continue to
sometimes because of stress or depression, focus
play in the room, and frequently interact with the
on their needs rather than on those of the child.
stranger. However, upon the caregiver’s return,
Neglectful parenting has been linked with a variety
they ignore or reject the caregiver, sometimes
of
deliberately turning away. Avoidantly attached
behavioral
disorders
in
childhood
and
adolescence.
babies tend to show little emotion, either positive
or negative.
James E. Marcia’s IDENTITY STATUS—
Babies who exhibit ambivalent (resistant) -
CRISIS AND COMMITMENT
attachment are generally anxious even before
the caregiver leaves, sometimes approaching the
Identity achievement is characterized by
caregiver for comfort when the stranger looks at
commitment to choices made following a crisis, a
or approaches them for interaction. They are
period spent in exploring alternatives.
extremely reactive to the caregiver’s departure
from the room and generally become very upset.
Upon the caregiver’s return, these babies tend to
remain upset for long periods of time, kicking,
government policies trickle down and can affect a
screaming, refusing to be distracted with toys, and
child’s day-to-day experiences.
sometimes arching back and away from contact.
They show a mix of proximity-seeking and angry
The macrosystem consists of overarching
behaviors and are very difficult to settle.
cultural patterns, such as dominant beliefs,
ideologies, and economic and political systems.
Babies with the disorganized-disoriented
For example, individuals are affected by the type
pattern seem to lack a cohesive strategy to deal
of political system they live in, and they might
with the stress of the Strange Situation. Instead,
reasonably have different experiences if raised in
they show contradictory, repetitive, or misdirected
an
behaviors (such as seeking closeness to the
authoritarian regime with limited freedoms.
open
democratic
society
versus
an
stranger instead of the mother or showing a fear
response upon the caregiver’s entry). They seem
The chronosystem represents the dimension of
confused and afraid.
time. Time marches on, and as it does, changes
occur. These can include changes in family
composition (as when a new child is born or a
Bronfenbrenner’s BIOECOLOGICAL
divorce occurs), place of residence, or parents’
THEORY
employment, as well as larger events such as
wars, ideological shifts, or economic cycles.
The microsystem consists of the everyday
environment
of
neighborhood.
interactions
with
home,
It
work,
includes
siblings,
school,
or
face-to-face
parents,
GENERATIONS, THEIR HISTORICAL
friends,
PERIODS, AND CHARACTERISTICS
classmates, or later in life, spouses, work
colleagues, or employers.
Silent Generation
The mesosystem is the interlocking influence of

Individuals born between 1928 and 1945

Children of the Great Depression and
microsystems. It may include linkages between
World War II; described as conformists
home and school (such as a parent-teacher
and civic minded.
conference) or between the family and the peer
group (such as the relationships that develop
Baby Boomers
among families in a neighborhood peer group).

Individuals born between 1946 and 1964
Because

Label
of
mesosystem
interactions,
used
because
this
generation
environments in which a child does not directly
represents the spike in the number of
participate may nonetheless influence her.
babies born after World War II; the largest
generation ever to enter late adulthood in
The exosystem consists of interactions between
the United States.
a microsystem and an outside system or
institution. Although the effects are indirect, they
Generation X
can still have a profound impact on a child. For

Individuals born between 1965 and 1980
example, countries differ with respect to what

Described as lacking an identity and savvy
type of parental leave, if any, is available. Whether
loners
or not a parent can stay home with a newborn is
a substantial influence on development. Thus,
Millennials

Individuals born in 1980 and later

First generation to come of age and enter
to come up with new ways of putting facts
emerging adulthood (18 to 25 years of
together—in other words, to think originally.
age) in the twenty-first century (the new
millennium). Two main characteristics: (1)
The contextual element is practical; it helps
connection to technology, and (2) ethnic
people deal with their environment. It is the ability
diversity.
to size up a situation and decide what to do. What
actions are most appropriate for a given situation
depend on the context; a person might decide to
Common
memory
strategies
are
rehearsal,
adapt to a situation, change it, or get out of it.
organization, and elaboration.
Tacit
knowledge,
Sternberg’s
term
for
Writing down a telephone number, making a list,
information that is not formally taught or openly
setting a timer, and putting a library book by the
expressed but is necessary to get ahead.
front door are examples of external memory
aids: prompts by something outside the person.
Generic memory, which begins at about age 2,
Saying a telephone number over and over after
produces a script, or general outline of a familiar,
looking it up, so as not to forget it before dialing,
repeated event, such as riding the bus to
is a form of rehearsal, or conscious repetition.
preschool or having lunch at Grandma’s house. It
helps a child know what to expect and how to act.
Organization is mentally placing information into
categories (such as animals, furniture, vehicles,
Episodic memory refers to awareness of having
and clothing) to make it easier to recall.
experienced a particular event at a specific time
and place. Given a young child’s limited memory
In elaboration, children associate items with
capacity, episodic memories are temporary.
something else, such as an imagined scene or
Unless they recur several times (in which case
story. To remember to buy lemons, ketchup, and
they are transferred to generic memory), they last
napkins, for example, a child might visualize a
for a few weeks or months and then fade.
ketchup bottle balanced on a lemon, with a pile of
napkins handy to wipe up any spills.
Autobiographical memory, a type of episodic
memory,
refers to memories of distinctive
experiences that form a person’s life history. Not
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
everything in episodic memory becomes part of
autobiographical memory—only those memories
The componential element is the analytic
that have a special, personal meaning to the child.
aspect
Autobiographical
of
intelligence;
it
determines
how
efficiently people process information. It helps
people solve problems, monitor solutions, and
evaluate the results. Some people are more
effective information processors than others.
The experiential element is insightful or
creative; it determines how people approach novel
or familiar tasks. It enables people to compare
new information with what they already know and
memory
between ages 3 and 4.
generally
emerges