THE EUROPEANS
Europe in the 15th century
INFLUENCE OF CATHOLICISM
The spiritual powers of the Roman Catholic Church permeated every aspect of life and made
the Church the dominant institution in Western Europe. It fostered the desire to spread
Christianity in foreign lands. The Pope became the arbitrator of political disputes,
particularly those involving the discovery of new lands. Yet new political and religious ideas
began to undermine the predominance of Christendom.
POLITICAL
The archaic feudal system had practically disappeared with the establishment of new city states and nation - states, namely England, France, Spain, Portugal, and the Italian city states. Though they retained monarchical systems of government as in feudal period,
nationalism replaced the old ideas of an overruling Christian Empire.
SPAIN: The marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile completed the
unification of Spain and founded Europe’s most absolute and Catholic monarchy.
PORTUGAL: Under the rule of Prince Henry the Navigator and others Portugal took the lead
in nautical exploration for new trade routes. To consolidate the economic basis of their power
and to rival each other’s progress, monarchies of the nation - states sought new sources of
wealth through overseas trade and colonization.
SOCIAL
Because of the Renaissance and the decay of feudalism, the serfs, society’s lowliest and
largest class of manual labourers, were unshackled from the semi - slavery of serfdom;
personal enquiry and personal enterprise became the hallmarks of society. A new middle
class of merchants and tradesmen came into existence, and above them was the nobility,
forming the ruling class.
TRADE
A lucrative commerce had developed between Europe and the Far East with Venice, Genoa,
and Florence as the most important trading cities. European articles such as wine, salted fish,
furs, woollen goods, and linen cloth were exchanged for silk, muslin, velvets, cotton,
dyestuffs, spices, jewels, ivory, and gold in the Orient. These luxuries and exotic items were
then transported overland to Europe where they were in great demand by the wealthy and the
affluent. But further expansion of the European Oriental trade was hindered by the dangers
and difficulties of the overland route; Venetian and Genoese monopoly of the spice trade; the
limited amount of produce transported by pack; the capture of Constantinople by Turks
closing one of the best trade routes. The easiest way to overcome all these difficulties and
satisfy demands for Oriental products was to find a new route to the East.
TECHNOLOGY
Scientific advancement during the Renaissance resulted in wide range of inventions and
improvements in ship design which aided maritime exploration: invention of the compass,
astrolabe, quadrant, hourglass, sundial, and windlass; the design of ocean-going carracks and
caravels: the development of printing which spread new information to all levels of society.
Learned men believed that the world was a sphere, not a rectangle, and it was therefore
possible to reach the EAST by sailing WEST across the Atlantic. One such learned person
was Don Cristobal Colon of Genoa.
Reasons why Europeans did not travel long distances before the late 15th century.
•
The Europeans thought that the world was flat. They believed that after you reached
the End of the world, you would drop off.
•
The Europeans believed that there were horrible sea creatures in the sea, so they did
not travel long distances.
•
The ships the Europeans owned needed many improvements, so they were not
suitable for travelling long distances.
•
The Europeans seas were dangerous as there were various conflicts between them and
the Muslims, so they did not travel long distances.
Reasons for European Exploration in the 15th century - ‘’Gold, God, Glory’’
Europe was divided into a number of kingdoms whose rulers were absolute monarchs.
This meant that they had the authority to make whatever decisions they liked. Their subjects
(people under their rule) had to accept the king’s decision as final.
The Kings of Europe frequently waged war against each other, to capture more
territories. Each King wanted to be more powerful than each other and they believed that
power depended on the amount of land under their control. These Kings were even willing to
finance voyages of exploration in order to get more land. They also hoped to find gold which
could be used to finance war for their own personal purposes.
The discovery of new land therefore meant more space for citizens, land for the
landless and job opportunities for the unemployed. The Europeans wanted to find a new sea
route to the east. European merchants travelled frequently to places like China, India, and
North Africa in order to trade. Travel at that time was very dangerous but these merchants
still went to distant lands to sell the things they made and to get things they could not grow
for themselves. From India, the
merchants obtained gold, tea and spices. From Africa: gold, ivory and slaves. From China:
silk, spices, and tea. The European merchants were able to sell cotton, knives, cutlasses,
hoes, and glass beads.
The merchants from Venice began to monopolize the trade to the East. They would
not let the other European merchants pass through their port. The merchants from Venice
became so rich that it aroused the jealousy of the other European merchants. The Spaniards
and Portuguese became more determined to find another route to the east. The Renaissance
(Period of rebirth of revival of Greek and Roman knowledge)
During the period when the Turks controlled some parts of Europe, life was difficult
for the people who lived in those parts. Some of them were even captured as salves. Progress
at that time slowed almost to a halt. Knowledge gained in previous time almost disappeared
as few people went to school. Some people referred to this time as the dark ages. Between
1400 and 1700, the old ideas in art, science, and mathematics started to spread again from
Italy to the rest of Europe. The Renaissance was a rebirth of knowledge and learning which
resulted in new inventions. Two famous scientists of the period were Galileo Galilei who
invented the telescope and Sir Isaac Newton who first explained the force of gravity. The
desire for adventure and knowledge was stirred even in sailors, who were now interested in
making voyages of exploration. Some of the famous explorers were Christopher Columbus,
Vasco da Gama, and Bartholomew Diaz.
Technological Improvements
Price Henry the Navigator was the son of King John of Portugal. In 1419, he founded a
navigation school which trained many of Europe’s sailors. These sailors were now prepared
to make long voyages. Sailors learned about cartography which is the skill of mapmaking.
During the 15th century, improvements were made in this area so that one of the maps made
was a map of the world (Ptolemy’s map of the world).
Christopher Columbus and the “Enterprise of the Indies”
Christopher Columbus was born in Genoa Italy between 1450 and 1451 and practiced
mapmaking along with his two brothers. Columbus showed a keen interest in exploration.
To get ships and men to embark on voyages, Christopher Columbus had to find a monarch
who was willing to risk money and men for such an expedition.
He began to persuade the court of Portugal to support his venture. Columbus’ main point was
that he could get to the East by sailing West. By sailing across the Atlantic he claimed that he
could reach Cipangu, Marco Polo’s name for Japan. He called this bold adventure “Enterprise
of the Indies”. The Portuguese refused to accept his explanation/his point of view. They were
sure that Japan was more than 10 000 miles away. They stated that the plan could not work
and that it was too risky.
Columbus crossed the border and presented his plans to King Ferdinand and Queen
Isabella of Spain. The Spanish King and Queen were at this time fighting the Moors, a group
of Muslims, from North Africa who had colonized a part of the Spanish Empire. They did not
have the money to support Columbus. For seven years he tried to get the Spanish Monarchs
to support him. He even decided that he was going to get the French to support him. He was
on his way to the French when he received word that the Spanish were willing to finance his
voyages of exploration to beat Portugal in the race to the East. Columbus first set sail on
August 3rd, 1492, and landed in San Salvador in the Bahamas first. His three ships were
called the Niña, Pinta, and the Santa María (his flagship)
.
Voyages to the New World (The Americas)
First Expedition
On August 3, 1492, Columbus sailed from Palos, Spain, with three small ships, the
Santa María commanded by Columbus himself, the Pinta under Martín Pinzón, and the
Niña under Vicente Yáñez Pinzón. After halting at the Canary Islands, he sailed due west
from September 6th until October 7th, when he changed his course to the southwest. On
October 10th, a small mutiny was quelled, and on October 12th, he landed on a small
island called San Salvador in the Bahamas. He took possession for Spain and, with impressed
natives aboard, discovered other islands in the neighbourhood. On October 27th, he sighted
Cuba and on December 5th reached Hispaniola. On Christmas Eve, the Santa María was
wrecked on the north coast of Hispaniola, and Columbus, leaving men there to find a colony,
hurried back to Spain on the Niña. His reception was all he could wish; according to his
contract with the Spanish sovereigns he was made “Admiral of the Ocean Sea” and Governor
General of all new lands he had discovered or should discover.
Second Expedition
Fitted out with a large fleet of 17 ships, with 1,500 colonists aboard, Columbus sailed
from Cádiz in October of 1493. His landfall this time was made in the Lesser Antilles, and
his new discoveries included the Leeward Islands and Puerto Rico. The admiral arrived at
Hispaniola to find the first colony destroyed by the indigenous natives. He founded a new
colony nearby, then sailed off in the summer of 1494 to explore the southern coast of Cuba.
After discovering Jamaica, he returned to Hispaniola and found the colonists, interested only
in finding gold, completely disorderly; his attempts to enforce strict discipline led some to
seize vessels and return to Spain to complain of his administration. Leaving his brother
Bartholomew in charge at Hispaniola, Columbus also returned to Spain in 1496.
Third Expedition
On his third expedition, in 1498, Columbus was forced to transport convicts as
colonists, because of the bad reports on conditions in Hispaniola and because the novelty of
the New World was wearing off. He sailed still farther south and made his landfall on
Trinidad. He sailed across the mouth of the Orinoco River (in present day Venezuela) and
realized that he saw a continent, but without further exploration he hurried back to Hispaniola
to administer his colony. In 1500, an independent governor arrived, sent by Isabella and
Ferdinand as the result of reports on the wretched conditions in the colony, and he sent
Columbus back to Spain in chains. The admiral was immediately released, but his favour was
on the wane; other navigators, including Amerigo Vespucci, had been in the New World and
established much of the coastline of NE South America.
Fourth Expedition
It was 1502 before Columbus finally gathered four ships for a fourth expedition,
by which he hoped to re-establish his reputation. If he could sail past the islands and far
enough west, he hoped he might still find lands answering to the description of Asia or Japan.
He struck the coast of Honduras in Central America and coasted southward along an
inhospitable shore, suffering terrible hardships, until he reached the Gulf of Darién.
Attempting to return to Hispaniola, he was marooned in Jamaica. After his rescue, he was
forced to abandon his hopes and return to Spain. Although his voyages were of great
importance, Columbus died in relative neglect, having had to petition King Ferdinand to
secure his promised titles and wealth.
Problems Columbus faced while at sea
•
Columbus first stopped at the Canary Islands to do some repairs.
•
After 3 weeks without sight of land, the sailors began to murmur among themselves
wondering if there was really land beyond the horizon.
•
In the mid - Atlantic, they noticed the compasses in their ships were no longer
pointing to the true north. Columbus had to explain that it was a normal occurrence.
There was a variation in the compass because the ships were going so far west that the
natural pull of the magnetic north was altered.
•
After two days at sea without sight of land, the seamen became violent and rebellious.
They wanted to return to Europe and Columbus convinced them that land was near
and promised that if landfall was not made soon, he would turn back.
.