Head of the emba lmed
Vladimir Ulyanov Lenin in the
Lenin Mausoleum on Red
Square, Moscow. The photograph shows the mummy in
its 1997 condit ion.
A Death-Beyond Life-Lenin, Mao, Evita
LUISA REIBLICH
"The man is only sleeping!"
shows, he was not disfigured. 3 Death had taken a man
who was frail, but not old. Had he been old, his death
The death of some people is experienced as too great
might have been expected and would have been easier
a loss to be able to live with it. These are people with
to bear. His death was to be feared: "The loss of the
such great charisma that ideas and passionate emo-
function of Lenin, who had founded and guaranteed the
tions gather around them. Some play an outstanding
political identity of the young Soviet Union, posed the
role in politics, but their enigma goes far beyond their
threat of a new civil war and of the collapse of the
political acts. If such a personality dies, the fascination
Soviet regime." 4 Joseph Stalin, his successor in the task,
remains, and possibly even increases, due to the cir-
would not have been welcomed by the deceased, so
cumstances of their death. The successors, whether in
Stalin at a secret session of the Politburo allegedly con-
the political office or just in life, are faced with the task
sidered the idea of embalming Lenin as early as Octo-
of controlling and directing the maelstrom of forces and
ber 1923: "at least for as long as it takes for our minds
the strong feelings surrounding the death of their pre-
to get used to the idea that he no longer lives among
decessor. If they are successful, they will have the
us." The ensuing debate, which was not recorded in
charismatic powers of the deceased at their disposal,
writing, showed the conflict between the hope that the
and much more so, since the dead can no longer speak,
conservation of the corpse would compensate for the
and can no longer interfere. Christian monarchical
loss of the leader and the fear of transforming the rev-
Europe developed tried and tested procedures for this,
olutionary into a relic, a cult object as of the old,
in the form of religious forms and rituals. Saints' bodies
recently overthrown, order. Whether the debate took
remained intact after death, and rulers were embalmed
place or not, even if the speeches of the opponents
before being buried in their family vaults. They were
were perhaps just recreated, they still reflected the
then of course invisible, yet had not disappeared, and
basic problem in the face of the death of a revolution-
their position was occupied by legitimate successors. It
ary leader. It was problematic to consider how to honor
was a political aim to secure continuity, and embalming
personalities and their work in the true sense of the ide-
and funereal customs were useful in attempting to
ology, without borrowing from that which had been
attain this goal. 1
overcome? 5 Stalin won, and the wishes of the dead man
What would have happened, however, if someone
himself, of his wife, and of his family were ignored. Rev-
died who had destroyed this age-old order, setting in
olutionary ideology, too, was ignored, with an eye on
motion a hitherto unseen revolutionary fervor and, in
the benefits that an embalmed Lenin and a posthumous
the process, had unleashed an eddy of forces of
"Lenin cult" brought to the regime. Modern science put
unknown force? Could they also be tamed, perhaps
the relic to work to connect the religious feelings of the
even with the means and the rites of the consciously
population as in an elderly society and make them sub-
destroyed tradition?
servient to the party, so that the deceased politician
On January 21, 1924, Vladimir llyich Ulyanov, known
could continue to "function''.
as Lenin, died in Gorki. He was one of the theoreticians
The time of death was helpful in this case: The Jan-
of scientific socialism and the charismatic leader on
uary chill of -30°C (-22°F) initially kept the corpse fresh.
Russia's bloody path toward the dictatorship of the pro-
In addition, Professor Abrikossov, the pathologist
letariat. Lenin died at age 54, from common arte-
charged with the autopsy and the emergency conser-
riosclerosis.2 As a photograph of Lenin on his deathbed
vation of Lenin, injected the aorta with six litres (1.6 gal-
174
I LUISA REIBLIC H
Ions) of a mixture of formalin, alcohol, and glycerol, one
corpse was then sutured back together and placed in a
day after the death. The classic conservation liquids dis-
rubber tub with a "balm" bath containing a succession
infected and protected the body from frost damage;
of solutions of potassium acetate alcohol, quinine chlo-
however, they did not survive inside the body and the
ride and phenol as disinfectants; acetic acid to prevent
corpse was in danger of desiccating. After the transfer
blemishes; hydrogen peroxide for a rosy skin, and water
to Moscow, there were hardly any signs of decomposi-
and glycerine. The latter bonds with water, and the
tion that would affect the week-long pompous festivi-
body, whose capacity for absorbtion was increased by
ties, which included Lenin lying in state as thousands of
making cuts in the tissue, regained its humidity after a
mourners filed past. The leading party officials carried
few weeks. Rubber bandages under the suit did, and
the coffin from the main hall of the trade union building
still do, help retain moisture. A chemical solution is still
into the temporary oak mausoleum on Red Square,
regularly injected underneath the bandages, which
which was completed on January 27. It stood above a
keeps the corpse flexible and facilitates its care. The
pit that had been blasted from the frozen ground for
chemicals used in the embalming also removed the
Lenin's coffin. Despite natural conservation by cold,
mould patches on the exposed areas of skin. The hands
which was augmented by technology, gradually the
and head are exposed and resemble Lenin as he was in
first signs of pallor mortis, skin discoloration, and gap-
life; collapsed tissue areas were injected with formalde-
ing of the lips appeared .6 The part of the skull through
hyde and the eyeballs were replaced with inserts to pre-
which the brain had been removed also began to turn
vent the eyelids from collapsing . The lips and eyes were
brown. After long discussions in the Politburo about
stitched invisibly. Lenin was transformed into his own
suitable conservation methods and which experts
posthumous portrait. After all, he was conserved in
should be consulted, and after some resistance on the
order to be displayed, not being embalmed for an after-
part of the chosen expert, eventually, at the end of
life (fig . 1).
March 1924, Professor Vladimir Vorobyov, professor of
The basic conservation took four months to com-
anatomy in Kharkov and an experienced preparator,
plete, but further continuous maintenance is necessary.
was charged with the task of embalming Lenin, using
The guardians of the body still paint all exposed areas
the latest scientific methods. For this work he was given
of skin twice a week with the usual solution, and every
a private apartment and a remuneration of 50,000
18 months the mausoleum closes for two months, so
rubles. Four assistants, including the biochemist Boris
that the entire body can be unwrapped, carefully exam-
llyitsh Zbarski and anatomy professor Petr Karusin,
ined, and re-treated. The conservation involves vinegar
assisted him in his task. The decomposition of the dead
water rinses of the body cavities, the removal of mould
man had continued unabated, and so the embalmers
patches. an embalming bath, and the renewal of the
were faced with a precarious. even dangerous task in
skin color. The clothes are washed and ironed. Every ten
the light of their clients' well-known modus operandi in
years, Lenin is even given a new suit, since the conser-
case of failure.
vation chemicals cause the fabric to disintegrate.
The preparation of Lenin began two months after
The original wooden mausoleum was replaced by a
his death, on a marble table in the mausoleum's cellar.
second one, which lasted for five years. In 1930, a mag-
The method consisted of the removal of organs, some-
nificent structure of reddish-brown granite and Labra-
thing that had already been recognized as useful in
dor stone, with a stepped pyramid as a roof. replaced
ancient Egypt, combined with modern knowledge of
its wooden predecessors. It was home not only to Lenin,
the biochemical action of conservation solutions.
displayed in full daylight in a splendid glass and bronze
Vorobyov employed the formalin technique, developed
sarcophagus like a saint 7 (fig. 2), but also to a research
in 1895 by Prof. N. F. Myelnikov-Rasvedenkov, patholo-
laboratory and numerous scientists. Their task was the
gist at Moscow University, and elaborated upon it.
permanent protection of the body from decomposition,
Vorobyov reopened the sutures from the first autopsy
as well as fundamental biochemical research. In addi-
and removed Lenin's organs. The body cavities were
tion, an institute was charged with the painstaking
rinsed, first with distilled water and then with acetic
examination of the dead man's brain, which was dis-
acid, and the tissue was fixed with formalin. Com-
mantled into 30,000 separate components. The genius
presses on face, body, and hands used the same anti-
of the revolutionary leader was to be proven as a phys-
septic solution to counter decomposition. The padded
ical reality.
A DEAT H -BEYOND LIFE-LENIN, MAO , EV ITA
I
175
Th e mausoleum, guarded by permanent security,
t hi s status also app li ed to the corpse. The body was
became a p lace of p il grim age and a symbo li c ce nter of
thoroughly restored aga in in 2003 and is st ill in the care
the Soviet Union .8 During im portant festivities, the
of severa l experts. Hard ly a v isitor to Moscow misses a
mausoleum formed the bas is for th e party leadership's
visit to Len in. On April 27, 2007, some 2,000 people
p latform, so th at the successo rs qu ite literally stood on
co mmemorated his 137 1h b irthd ay. In the meantime, the
top of the now-mytho logized founding hero. It is, there-
dead man has become a rel ic in the t rue sense, a
fore, not surpris in g that during World War II , Sta lin
remainder of an ideo logy th at has been overtaken by
evacuated his va lu ab le predecessor like a precious
history. He entered the realm of the in corrupt ibl e saints,
work of art , t o Tyumen in Western Siberia, far from the
albeit in th e service of a materialist wor ld v iew. Lenin's
enemy. Of course the body was accompanied by a team
body was not immortalized by th e sp iritual streng th of
of scient ists, who made use of the time by thoroughly
the sou l that inhabited him but by th e most advanced
restoring their ward. It was there that he received his
methods of conservation at that time.
except io nally lifeli ke coloration. Thi s visib le c haracteristi c nurtured rumours that the corpse had been
exchanged fo r a wax model. Only recently were the
rumours contrad icted by an expe rt: " I perce ived that
typical sme ll of corpse conservat ion . I am abso lutely
2 The embalmed Lenin
in his g lass and bronze
sa rco p hagus.
"We know that the dead are
pow erfu l rulers!"
Th e v isib le success of the Lenin emba lm ers was not
certa in that it is the real Lenin w ho li es t here in state." 9
w ith out consequences. Deceased heads of state in
The Lenin Mausoleum comp lex, built sole ly to stage
other communist states also enjoyed similar services
th e venerat ion of a Comm uni st sa int, necessitated an
from the team from Moscow. It was not un expected
enormous financial out lay. It is reported that the main-
that, after the death of its first Cha irman, the "sister
tenance costs are up to 1. 5 million dollars a year. 10 The
party" at the other end of the cont in ent, would ask the
successor st ate of the Soviet Union was no lo nger wi ll-
Russian special ists for advice. 13 Th e request from China,
in g to pay such sums; in 1991, the mausoleum 's budget
however, did not happen. Chin a had its own age-o ld tra-
was c ut by 80% . A private fund filled the gapn In 1993,
dit ion of mummies. A fter all, in 1971, during Mao's life-
Boris Yelts in removed the guard of honor, lead in g to
time, the " Lady of Dai", w ho had probably died
specu lation that Lenin wou ld finally be bur ied. 12 Th e
between 178 and 145 BC, was found. Th e deg ree of
mausoleum was declared a UNESCO World Heritage
preservation of this " mother o f all mummies" exceeded
site in 1990, w hi c h raised the q uesti on as to whether
the q ual ity of the mummies of Ancient Egypt. Its limbs,
moistened w ith a reddi sh-brown liquid, we re movable,
her sk in was soft, her arteries conta in ed blood, and the
body sti ll had its interna l organs . It was decided to conserve Mao Zedong, who died in China, o n September 9,
1976. At that time, owing to relat ions with the Sov iet
Union, Ch in ese researchers travelled to Moscow, in
search of mumm ifi cation expert ise.
Mao died at the age of 83 . Hi s deat h was expected;
he had spe nt his final months su fferin g greatly. 14 What
happened afterward s was comparab le t o the events in
Russia in 1924: the surv ivors were afra id of an ensuing
power struggle, 15 so during the ni ght of his death, the
Politburo argued about what to do w ith the corpse.
Mao himself had given written orders that his body was
to be cremated; however, t he party offic ial s wanted him
emba lmed .16 They agreed on his ly in g in state. For one
week, the Ch in ese people were permitted to say their
farewells in the Great Hall of the People in Beijing. This
necessitated a bas ic "emergency" conservation, by
inj ection w ith forma ldehyde. Even the init ia l care
176
I
LUI SA RE IB LI C H
proved difficult because Mao's body was severely
in the re spective central squares, just like the relics of
shrunken. The dead man's personal physician, Dr. Li
old Christian Europe. They became secular saints, cen-
Zhisui, was opposed to this undertaking, for good rea-
tres of a cult of personality, which Communism,
sons. He was charged with assembling a team of
although expressly rejecting it, nevertheless busily
experts around him as quickly as possible, and devel-
employed. Visitors to the Mao mausoleum also doubt
oping a method of conservation. Embalming methods
the authenticity of the corpse, especially since rumors
that had proved successful in early history, however, did
describe the embalming process as insufficiently long-
not offer any solutions for the Great Leader, who was,
lasting; the mummy was said to be noticeably decom-
of course, not to be interred like the ancient mummies.
posing or to be a wax copy anyway. 18 Since it opened in
In case the specialists could not succeed in preserving
1977, the mausoleum has recorded 158 million visitors .
Mao, a wax copy was kept in reserve, which is said still
The 30th anniversary of Mao's death was commemo-
to be kept in the mausoleum. The physicians found the
rated on September 9, 2006. The mausoleum was ren-
solution in professional publications: the body would be
ovated between March and September 2007, for the
filled with formaldehyde, right up to the fingertips. The
celebrations and to make a profitable display possible
result of the introduction of 22 liters (5.8 gallons) of this
for the future; an interment of the body was never
solution during an hour-long procedure did, however,
considered.
not come up to expectations: "Mao's face was bloated
and as round as a ball, his neck was as wide as his head.
... The ears were similarly swollen and stood away from
"I will return and I will be million s!"
the head at a right angle ." Massage and make-up
Like Lenin and Mao, Eva Peron, the second wife of the
returned the deceased to his original shape, as can be
Argentine dictator Juan Peron, was also embalmed to
seen in the photographs of the Great Chairman lying in
remain among her people for ever, in a grand mau-
state, seemingly peacefully asleep under a flag, without
soleum , a protected monument, in the middle of the
any traces of decomposition. 17
capital. As a result of the anti-Peron coup, no tomb was
A more thorough conservation was begun after the
period of lying in state. For one year, the body and the
ever built, although the conservation of the body was
completed.
embalmers stayed in a laboratory in a subterranean
Further aspects played a role in the events sur-
complex . As with Lenin, the procedure was based on
rounding this woman, who was fascinating even in
the removal of the internal organs, in this case with the
death. There was, first of all, the tragic death itself. The
exception of the brain, and on the action of conserva-
First Lady of the State, who was already ardently
tion solutions; the body was stuffed with formalde-
admired during her lifetime, died slowly, painfully and
hyde-soaked cotton wool. A tube inserted into the neck
very young . On July 26, 1953, she succumbed to uter-
made it possible to pump more of the conservation
ine cancer, at the age of only 33 years. Her life from Cin-
solution into the body whenever necessary.
derella to the glamorous paths of power were known far
In the case of the Chinese revolutionary leader,
beyond the borders of her country, and even the conti-
discussions were held about where Mao should be dis-
nent. Glamour and charisma endowed the woman with
played. The successors decided on a mausoleum almost
an almost mythical aura, even when she was still alive. 19
at the center of the capital, on Tiananmen Square, the
In additional to everything else, she was very beautiful .
Place of Heavenly Peace. Another suggestion was the
Her death fulfilled all the prequisites for the unleashing
actual heart of Beijing, the Forbidden City. There were,
of the most romantic outpouring of emotions, strength-
however, some arguments against that location; the
ened by the intensity of Latin American Catholic atti-
Forbidden City represented a place where a disap-
tudes toward life and death. "The death of a beautiful
proved, and therefore hidden, "kowtow to the old man"
woman is without doubt the most poetic theme in the
(such as, for example, before the rules of Feng Shui) was
world." 20 Public empathy with her suffering developed
mixed with ideologically conformist points of view.
into the cult of a martyr. The candles in front of images
Therefore, not only were the events surrounding the
of Evita were never allowed to go out; a mass was read
deaths of the party leaders in Russia and China similar,
with a million participants; thousands prayed inces-
but also the images. In each case, the the mummified
santly and passionately for her recovery, and many
founders of a new order lay on display, in glass coffins
wanted to die for her. When the inevitable finally hap-
A D EAT H- BEYOND LI FE-LEN IN, MAO, EV ITA
3 The mummified Eva Peron,
historic photograph .
I
177
pened , the entire country plunged into an abyss of
glamorous woman's body. He examined Eva, who was
mourning. The Vatican received request s to canonize
barely alive, with a view to her politically desirable
her when people were worried about the "Angel of
mummification, which was commissioned by Juan
Compassion." 21 While she lay in state in a glass coffin,
Peron seven weeks before she died. He was shocked:
from July 27 to August 9, 12 million mourners filed
she smelled badly and had wounds. Eva's skin was
through the hall of the ministry; some had to be pre-
burned by radiation; her facial features were sunken,
vented from committing suicide at the catafalque. For
her body wa s emaciated; and she weighed ju st 33 kg
such an extended farewell, the body had to be con-
(72.75 lbs). 25 Ara's prescription. treatment of the burns
served. Whether Eva Peron herself had the desire to be
with healing oils, was certainly aimed at alleviating
preserved, is unknown 22 ; however, since she expected
Eva 's pain, but Ara was probably also looking ahead to
to be lying in state, she did order a discreet nail polish
the future embalming process, which was, of course,
as part of her manicure.
supposed to restore Evita's beauty. The night she died,
The physician who was finally consulted, Dr. Pedro
Ara immediately injected conservation liquid s into the
Ara, honorary cultural attache at the Spanish Embassy
still-warm body of the deceased so that it could with-
in Argentina, had already made a name for himse lf as a
stand the lengthy mourning rituals without sustaining
preparator. 23 On October 17, 1952, during a speec h
any damage. Ara oversaw the presentation of the body
made by Eva Peron, Ara got close enough to Eva to look
in the glass coffin and forbade it to be opened; an air
for signs of illness: "But I stand here and can see her
vent was installed to prevent the glass from fogging.
breathlessness well, and even the accelerated pulse
Afterward, the transformation of the deceased into an
under the delicate skin of her thin neck." 24 His attitude
idol began. In the magnificent trade union building, a
toward first the living, and then the dead, woman
gift from Evita to the workers, Peron set up a superbly-
revealed a certain obsession: perhaps he was lured not
equipped, secure laboratory where, according to one of
so much by the fee of 100,000 dollars as by the attempt
hi s colleagues later on, Ara worked on the "Spanish
to test his skills against the decomposition of such a
mummification". 26 He injected a formalin solution into
178
I
LUI SA RE IBL IC H
Eva's arteries and rinsed the in side of the body w ith for -
Koening. For the Lieutenant Co lonel, it meant an adven-
malin und zinc ch loride, whi le so me parts were fill ed
ture of a very special kind, and for the deceased Ev ita,
with paraffin . Th e interna l o rgans were left intact and
a novel-like odyssey. There was talk of sec ret trans-
wrapped in para ffin thread s, which dist inguished this
portati on; hide-outs; three wax copies intended to mi s-
mummy from most of the o t hers. Ara also se lectively
lead a ll pursuers of the one genuine co rpse; of the
empl oyed carbolic acid, borate, and mercury ch loride.
"c urse of the mummy", bring in g bad luck and death t o
Finall y, Ara covered the co rpse with a hard layer of wax .
all t hose involved in removing the body; of a major w ho
After one yea r of basic conservation, a se lect aud ience
shot hi s w ife because of her; of Koen in g 's life long
was all owed to adm ire the eterna l Evita in a chape l near
necrop hiliac obsess ion and of nocturnal burials. For a
the laboratory, resting like Snow White on white sil k,
long time Eva was hidden in a wooden box with the
under a g lass cover, alm ost as if floating. Every day, Ara
in sc ription " La Voz de Cordoba" (The Voice of Cor-
dedicated himse lf to her care: organs were adju sted
doba), w hi ch was not w ithout a certa in irony since Eva
and the body was periodically placed into a co nserva -
Peron owed her rise to radio broadcasts. New images
tion bath. As ca n be seen in a photograph of the
and idea s joined those engendered by the living Evita:
mummy (f ig . 3), t he p hysician created a sleeping
"Now she had become a dol l for dreams, a dead
beauty wit h f lawless feature s and red lip s; it on ly
object." 27 She finally disappea red, into the O ld World,
sound ed a litt le hollow when touc hed. No trace of the
with th e assistance of the Vati ca n, finding peace in a
deadly d isease marred the image.
grave in Europe that remained undi scovered for a long
Under the care of the emba lm er, the peace of Sleep-
time. Al l t he whi le, the Neo-Peroni st s searched for the
ing Beauty nearly lasted for a long time, but during th e
deceased and therefore immortal, eternal ly young and
1955 anti-Peron coup, leaders mi stook the beautiful
beautifu l Evita. Although Juan Peron still lived in exile
mummy in a remote part of the bu il ding to be a doll,
in Madrid, they were looking not for a po liti c ian, but for
and not worth keeping . Medical assessment of th e
the embodiment of a myth. The Neo -Peron ists pressed
body, revealed that "Th e Virgin Mary of the Poor" was
Aramburu, then ki ll ed him because he could not revea l
still present, and perhaps almost more dangerous dead
where Ev ita was buried-yet another person who had
than ali ve, sin ce she was a sec ret center of her cu lt.
died in the serv ice of th e beautifu l lady. Aramburu 's
Destruction of the mummy would have led to uprisings,
death made it poss ibl e for the mummy to be found; he
so the new president, Aramburu , ordered that Eva be
had received the soug ht-after information in a sea led
given a Christ ian burial. The burial had to be undertaken
envelope, which he deposited w ith a notary, w ithout
sec retly at an untraceable locat ion, so that her grave
first reading it. When the enve lope was opened it
would not become a shrin e for pi lgrimage. On Novem -
revealed the truth: Evita lay buried under the name
ber 24, 1955, "O peration Evasion " began, under the
Marla Maggi de Magistris in a cemetery in Milan. In 1971,
direction of Lieutenant Co lone l Car los Eugenio Moori
she was exhumed and taken to her hu sband in Spain;
A DEATH- BE YO N D LIF E- L ENIN . M AO, EV ITA
Juan Peron was not pleased with the arrival of Eva's
mummified body, since he had remarried. Without
doubt, Dr. Ara showed more enthusiasm about the
reunion with his most famous work; he confirmed its
identity and physical integrity. Eva's sisters, however,
had also traveled to Spain, and reported serious damage to face and body. Peron hid the resilient Eva in the
attic of his villa, 28 and did not take her back home when
he took power a second time. She was finally returned
to
Argentina
by
Isabel , Peron's third
wife and
Argentina's President after his death, who wanted to
make use of Evita's undiminished popularity for her
own ends. On October 17, 1974, an airplane returned the
beautiful body to Buenos Aires. In the palace, Dr.
Domingo Tellechea immediately began restoration of
the mummy, which included combing Eva's hair, giving
her a manicure, and dressing her in a new set of clothes.
The customary military coup ended the presidency of
Isabel Peron, and led to the return of Evita. On October
22, 1976, Erminda and Blanca Duarte were finally able
to bury their sister. Today Evita lies in the elegant cemetery of La Recoleta, in the tomb of her brother-in-law's
family. A bronze plaque commemorates the powerhungry and compassionate angel of the descamisados
("the shirtless ones", followers of Peron). Her final resting place is a compulsory stopover on any tourist's visit.
The guides explain about the thick concrete plates
under which Evita was buried. It is said that she is protected this way because of fear of theft, 29 but the dead
whose return is feared, and which must therefore be
prevented, have been buried in the same way.
I
179
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