Human Behavior and Victimology
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN BEHAVIOR This chapter presents an introduction to human
behavior, fundamental theories and concepts about human behaviour, abnormal behavior, mental
disorder, criminal behaviour, as well as relationship of intelligence to criminality or criminal
behavior.
EXPECTED LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this chapter, students are expected to have:
a. Familiarized the fundamental theories and concepts about human development with focus
on human behavior;
b. Differentiated normal from abnormal behavior based on legal and psychological
perspective;
c. Comprehended the central bases, principles, and concepts surrounding mental disorder;
and
d. Realized and illustrated the role and importance of human intelligence to criminal justice.
Lesson 1. Overview on Human Development
What is Behavior? Behavior refers to the actions of an organism or system, usually in relation
to its environment, which includes the other organisms or systems around as well as the physical
environment. It is the response of the organism or system to various stimuli or inputs, whether
internal or external, conscious or subconscious, overt or covert, and voluntary or involuntary.
Behavior can also be defined as anything that you do that can be directly observed,
measured, and repeated. Some examples of behavior are reading, crawling, singing, holding
hands and the likes.
What is Human Behavior? Human behavior is the range of actions and mannerisms exhibited
by humans in conjunction with their environment, responding to various stimuli or inputs,
whether internal or external, conscious or subconscious, overt or covert, and voluntary or
involuntary. Human behavior is influenced by many factors, including:
a. Attitudes,
b. Emotions,
c. Culture,
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
k.
l.
m.
n.
Ethics,
Authority,
Motivation,
coercion,
beliefs,
Reasoning,
values,
Religion,
Rapport,
persuasion, and
genetics.
What is Human Development? Human development is the process of a person’s growth and
maturation throughout their lifespan, concerned with the creation of an environment where
people are able to develop their full potential, while leading productive and creative lives in
accordance with their interests and needs, Development is about the expansion of choices people
have in order to lead lives they value.
Four Pillars of Human Development
1. Equity. It is the idea that every person has the right to an education and health care, that
there must be fairness for all.
2. Sustainability. It encompasses the view that every person has the right to earn a living
that can sustain him or her, while everyone also has the right to access to goods more
evenly distributed among populations.
3. Production. It is the idea that people need more efficient social programs to be
introduced by their governments.
4. Empowerment. It is the view that people who are powerless, such as women, need to be
given power.
Theories of Child (Human) Development
A. Personality Theory
I. Psychoanalytic Theory by Sigmund Freud
The Structure of Personality or Tripartite Personality
The structure of personality, according to Sigmund Freud, is made up of three major systems: the
id, the ego and the superego. Behavior is always the product of an interaction among these three
systems; rarely does one system operate to the exclusion of the other two.
1. Id. Id allows us to get our basic needs met. Freud believed that the id is based on the
pleasure principle i.e. it wants immediate satisfaction, with no consideration for the
reality of the situation. Id is the selfish, primitive, childish, pleasure-oriented part of
personality with no ability to delay gratification. Freud called id as true psychic reality
since it represents the inner world of subjective experience and has no knowledge of
objective reality.
2. Ego. As the child interacts more with the world, the ego begins to develop. The ego’s job
is to meet the needs of the id, whilst taking into account the constraints of reality. The
ego acknowledges that being impulsive or selfish can sometimes hurt us, so the id must
be constrained (reality principle). Ego is the moderator between the id and superego
which seeks compromises to pacify both.
3. Superego (Conscience of Man). The superego develops during the phallic stage (see
below) as a result of the moral constraints placed on us by our parents. It is generally
believed that a strong superego serves to inhibit the biological instincts of the id
(resulting in a high level of guilt), whereas weak superego allows the id more expressionresulting in a low level of guilt. Superego internalizes society and parental standards of
“good” and “bad”, “right” and “wrong” behavior (see figure 1).
Levels of Awareness or Topographical Model by Sigmund Freud
1. The Conscious Level. It consists of whatever sensations and experiences persons are
aware of at a given moment of time.
2. The Preconscious Level. This domain is sometimes called available memory that
encompasses all experiences that are not conscious at the moment, but which can easily
be retrieved into awareness either spontaneously or with a minimum of effort.
3. The Unconscious Level. It is the deepest and major stratum of the human mind; the
storehouse for primitive instinctual drives plus emotion and memories that are so
threatening to the conscious mind that they have been repressed, or unconsciously pushed
to the unconscious mind. Examples are forgotten trauma in childhood or repressed sexual
desires of which you are unaware.
Freud’s Model of Personality Development or Psychosexual Stages
1. Oral Stage (0-18 Months). This is the first psychosexual stage in which the infant’s
source of id gratification is the mouth. Infant gets pleasure from sucking and swallowing.
Later when he has teeth, infant enjoys the aggressive pleasure of biting and chewing. A
child who is frustrated at this stage may develop an adult personality that is characterized
by pessimism, envy, and suspicion. The overindulged child may develop to be optimistic,
gullible, and full of admiration for others.
2. Anal Stage (18 Months-3 Years). When parents decide to toilet train their children
during anal stage, the children learn how much control they can exert over others with
anal sphincter muscles. Children can have the immediate pleasure of expelling feces, but
that may cause their parents to punish them.
This represents the conflict between the id, which derives pleasure from the
expulsion of bodily wastes, and the super-ego which represents external pressure to
control bodily functions. If the parents are too lenient in this conflict, it will result in the
formation of an anal expulsive character of the child who is disorganized, reckless and
defiant. Conversely, a child may opt to retain feces, thereby spiting his parents, and may
develop an anal retentive character which is neat, stingy, and obstinate.
3. Phallic Stage (3-6 years). Genitals become the primary source of pleasure at this stage.
The child’s crotic pleasure focuses on masturbation, that is, on self-manipulation of the
genitals. He develops a sexual attraction to the parent of the opposite sex; boys develop
unconscious desires for their mother and become rivals with their father for her affection.
This reminiscent with Little Hans’ case study. So, the boys develop a fear that their
father will punish them for these feelings (castration anxiety). So decide to identify with
him rather than fight him. As a result, the boy develops masculine characteristics and
represses his sexual feelings towards his mother. This is known as:
a. Oedipus Complex. It refers to an instance where in boys build up a warm and
loving relationship with mothers (mommy’s boy).
b. Electra Complex. It refers to an occasion where in girls experience an intense
emotional attachment for their fathers (daddy’s girl).
Note: The Oedipus Complex is named for the king of Thebes who killed his father
and married his mother.
4. Latency Stage (6-11 Years). Sexual interest is relatively inactive in this stage. Sexual
energy is going through the process of sublimation and is being converted into interest in
schoolwork, riding bicycles, playing house and sports.
5. Genital Stage (11 Years on). This refers to the start of puberty and genital stage; there is
renewed interest in obtaining sexual pleasure through the genitals. Masturbation often
becomes frequent and leads to orgasm for the first time. Sexual and romantic interests in
others also become a central motive.
Interest now turns to heterosexual relationships. The lesser fixation the child has
in earlier stages, the more chances of developing a “normal” personality, and thus
develops healthy meaningful relationships with those of the opposite sex.
Psychosexual Theory asserts that we are born with two basic instincts:
1. Eros. It is named after the Greek god of love. Eros includes the sex drives and
drives such as hunger and thirst.
2. Thanatos. It is named after Greek god of death. This includes not only striving
for death, but also destructive motives such as hostility and aggression. These
drives highly influence the personality of a person,
Freud’s Psychosexual Stages: A Summary
Stage
3. Oral (0-18 months)
4. Anal (18-36 months)
4. Phallic (3-6 years)
5. Latency (6 years to puberty)
6. Genital (puberty on)
Focus
 Pleasure centers on the mouth (sucking, biting, chewing).
 Pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder elimination; coping with demands for
control.
 Pleasure zone is the genitals; coping with incestuous sexual feelings.
 A phase of dormant sexual feelings.
 Maturation of sexual interest.
II. Trait Theory
Trait theories attempt to learn and explain the traits that make up personality, the
differences between people in terms of their personal characteristics, and how they relate
to actual behavior.
Trait refers to the characteristics of an individual, describing a habitual way of
behaving, thinking, and feeling. Trait approach identifies where a person might lie along
a continuum of various personality characteristics.
Kinds of Trait by Gordon Allport
1. Common Traits. These are personality traits that are shared by most members of a
particular culture.
2. Individual Traits. These are personality traits that define a person’s unique
individual qualities.
3. Cardinal Traits. These are personality traits that are so basic that all Person’s
activities relate to these. It is a powerful and dominating behavioral Predisposition
that provides the pivotal point in a person’s entire life. Allport said that only few
people have cardinal traits.
4. Central Traits. These are the core traits that characterize an individual’s personality.
Central traits are the major characteristics of our personalitics that are quite
generalized and enduring. They form the building blocks of our personalities.
5. Secondary Traits. These are traits that are inconsistent or relatively superficial, less
generalized and far less enduring that affects our behaviors in specific circumstances.
Kinds of Trait from Lewis Goldberg’s Big Five or Five Factor Theory
1. Extraversion. This dimension contrasts such traits as sociable, outgoing. Talkative,
assertive, persuasive, decisive, and active with more introverted traits such as
withdrawn, quiet, passive, retiring, and reserved.
2. Neuroticism. People high on neuroticism are prone to emotional instability. They
tend to experience negative emotions and to be moody, irritable, nervous, and prone
to worry.
3. Conscientiousness. This factor differentiates individuals who are dependable,
organized, reliable, responsible, thorough, hard-working, and preserving from those
undependable, disorganized, impulsive, unreliable, irresponsible, careless, negligent
and lazy.
4. Agreeableness. This factor is composed of a collection of traits that range from
compassion to antagonism towards others. A person high on agreeableness would be
a pleasant person, good-natured, warm, sympathetic, and cooperative.
5. Openness to Experience. This factor contrasts individuals who are imaginative,
curious, broad-minded, and cultured with those who are concrete-minded and
practical, and whose interests are narrow.
Personality Trait by Hans Eysenck
1. Extrovert. It refers to a person that is sociable, out-going, and active.
2. Introvert. It refers to a person that is withdrawn, quiet, and introspective.
3. Emotionally Unstable. It is a trait that is being anxious, excitable, and easily
disturbed.
Eysenck theorized that criminality and antisocial behavior are both positively and
causally related to high levels of psychoticism, extroversion and neuroticism.2.1.14 The
theory says that in extroverts, and possibly also in people high on the psychoticism scale,
biologically determined low degrees of arousal and arousability lead to impulsive, risktaking and sensation-seeking behavior that increase the level of cortical (brain) arousal to
a more acceptable and enjoyable amount.
Eysenck did find that extroverts experience cortical under arousal, prefer higher
levels of stimulation, and are less responsive to punishment – they therefore do not learn
behavioral alternatives with the use of disciplinary action.SI
What is Temperament? Temperament refers to the fundamental groundwork of
character, generally presumed to be biologically determined and existent early in life,
inclusive of traits like emotional reactiveness, energy level, reaction tempo, and
motivation to explore.
Four Types of Temperament
Melancholic - Sad, gloomy
Choleric - hot-tempered, irritable
Phlegmatic - Sluggish, calm
Sanguine - cheerful, hopefull
Psychological Researches on Crime and Delinquency
1. August Aichhorn. Aichhorn in his book entitled Wayward Youth (1925) said that the
cause of crime and delinquency is the faulty development of the child during the first
few years of his life. The child as a human being normally follows only his pleasure
impulse instinctive. Soon he (child) grows up and finds some restriction to these
pleasure impulses which he must control. Otherwise, he suffers from faulty egodevelopment and become delinquent. He then concluded that many of the offenders
with whom he had worked had underdeveloped consciences. Aichhorn identified two
further categories of criminal:
a. Those with fully developed consciences but identified with their criminal parents, and
b. Those who had been allowed to do whatever they like by over-indulgent parents.
2. Cyril Burt. His book entitled Young Delinquent published in 1925 fashioned the
theory of General Emotionality. According to him many offenses can be traced to
either in excess or a deficiency of a particular instinct which accounts for the
tendency of many criminals to be weak willed or easily led. Fear and absconding may
be due to the impulse of fear. Callous type of offenders may be due to the deficiency
in the primitive emotion of love and an excuse of the instinct of hate.
3. William Healy. His book entitled Individual Delinquency published in 1916 claimed
that crime is an expression of the mental content of the individual. Frustration of the
individual causes emotional discomfort; personality demands removal of pain, and
pain is eliminated by substitute behavior, that is, crime delinquency of the individual.
Healy and Bonner in 1936 conducted a study of 105 pairs of brothers where one
was a persistent offender and the other a non-offender. It was found that only 19 of
the offenders and 30 of the non-offenders had experienced good quality family
conditions. These findings suggested that circumstances within a household may be
favorable for one child but not the sibling. It then proposed that the latter had not
made an emotional attachment to a “good parent”, hence impeding the development
of superego (201
4. Walter Bromberg. In his book entitled Crime and the Mind printed in 1946
mentioned that criminality is the result of emotional immaturity. A person is
emotionally matured if he has learned to control his emotion effectively and who
lives at peace with himself and harmony with the standards of conduct which are
acceptable to society. An emotionally immature person rebels against rules and
regulations, engages in usual activities and experiences a feeling of guilt due to
inferiority complex.
B. Psychosocial Theory of Development by Erik Erikson
Erikson was best known for his theory on social development of human beings,
and for coining the phrase identity crisis (see figure below).
Erikson’s Stages of Human Development.
The theory describes eight stages through which a developing human should pass
from infancy to late adulthood. In each stage the person confronts, and hopefully masters,
new challenges. Each stage builds on the successful completion of earlier stages. The
challenges of stages not successfully completed may be expected to reappear as problems
in the future 1221 healthily
C. Cognitive Development Theory by Jean Piaget
Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development suggests that children move
through four different stages of mental development. His theory focuses not only on
understanding how children acquire knowledge, but also on understanding the nature of
intelligence (see table below).
Piaget’s 4 Stages of Cognitive Development
Stage
1. Sensorimotor (birth to 2 years)
 The child learns by doing: looking, touching, sucking. The child also has a
primitive understanding of cause-and-effect relationships. Object performance
appears around 9 months.
2. Preoperational (2 years to 7 years)
 The child uses language and symbols, including letters and numbers. Egocentrism
is also evident. Conservation marks the end of the preoperational stage and the
beginning of concrete operations.
3. Concrete Operational (7 years to 11 years)
 The child demonstrates conservation, reversibility, serial ordering, and a mature
understanding of cause-and-effect relationships. Thinking at this stage is still
concrete.
4. Formal Operational (12 years and up)
 The individual demonstrates thinking, including logic, abstract deductive
reasoning, comparison, and classification.
Piaget believed that children take an active role in the learning process, acting much
like little scientists as they perform experiments, make observations, and learn about the
world. As kids interact with the world around them, they continually add new knowledge,
build upon existing knowledge, and adapt previously held ideas to accommodate new
information.
D. Socio-Cultural Theory by Lev Vygotzky
Vygotsky’s work was largely unknown to the West until it was published
in 1962. His theory is one of the foundations of constructivism. It asserts three
major themes regarding social interaction, the more knowledgeable other, and the
zone of proximal development. It argues that social interaction precedes
development; consciousness and cognition are the end product of socialization
and social behavior. Hence, social interaction plays a fundamental role in the
process of cognitive development. In contrast to Jean Piaget’s understanding of
child development (in which development necessarily, precedes learning),
Vygotsky felt social learning precedes development. He states: “Every function in
the child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later,
on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside
the child (intrapsychological)”.
Vygotsky’s theory promotes learning contexts in which students play an
active role in learning. Roles of the teacher and student are therefore shifted, as a
teacher should collaborate with his or her students in order to help facilitate
meaning construction in students. Learning therefore becomes a reciprocal
experience for the students and teacher (see figures below).
Social Developmental Theory (Model 1).
Social interaction
with parents, siblings,
peers, teachers
Cultural values,
beliefs, traditions
Language and
communication skills
The child
E. Bio Ecological Theory by Urie Bronfenbrenner
This is known as the Human Ecology Theory, the Ecological Systems theory
states that human development is influenced by the different types (five) of
environmental systems. Formulated by famous psychologist Urie Bronfenbrenner,
this theory helps us understand why we may behave differently when we compare
our behavior in the presence of our family and our behavior when we are in
school or at work. The five environmental systems are:
1. The Micro System. It is the direct environment we have in our lives. Your family,
friends, classmates, teachers, neighbors and other people who have a direct contact with
you are included in your micro system. The micro system is the setting in which we have
direct social interactions with these social agents. The theory states that we are not mere
recipients of the experiences. We have when socializing with these people in the micro
system environment, but we are contributing to the construction of such environment.
2. The Mesosystem. It involves the relationships between the microsystems in one’s life.
This means that your family experience may be related to your school experience. For
example, if a child is neglected by his parents, he may have a low chance of developing
positive attitude towards his teachers. Also, this child may feel awkward in the presence
of peers and may resort to withdrawal from a group of classmates.
3. The Exosystem. It is the setting in which there is a link between the context where in the
person does not have any active role, and the context where in is actively participating.
Suppose a child is more attached to his father than his mother. If the father goes abroad to
work for several months, there may be a conflict between the mother and the child’s
social relationship, or on the other hand, this event may result to a tighter bond between
the mother and the child.
4. The Macrosystem. It is the actual culture of an individual. The cultural contexts involve
the socioeconomic status of the person and/or his family, his ethnicity or race and living
in a still developing or a third world country. For example, being born to a poor family
makes a person work harder every day.
5. The Chronosystem. It includes the transitions and shifts in one’s lifespan. This may also
involve the socio-historical contexts that may influence a person (see figure below).
Bioecological Model
One classic example of this is how divorce, as a major life transition, may affect not only
the couple’s relationship but also their children’s behavior. According to a majority of
research, children are negatively affected on the first year after the divorce. The next years
after it would reveal that the interaction within the family becomes more stable and
agreeable.
F. Moral Development by Lawrence Kohlberg
This theory is a very interesting subject that stemmed from Jean Piaget’s theory of moral
reasoning. Developed by psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg, this theory made us understand that
morality starts from the early childhood years and can be affected by several factors.
He found out that children are faced with different moral issues, and their judgments on
whether they are to act positively or negatively over each dilemma are heavily influenced by
several factors. In each scenario that Kohlberg related to the children, he was not really asking
whether or not the person in the situation is morally right or wrong, but he wanted to find out the
reasons why these children think that the character is morally right or not.
Levels of Moral Development
Level 1: Preconventional Morality. The first level of morality. Preconventional morality,
can be further divided into two stages: obedience and punishment, and individualism and
exchange.
Stage 1: Punishment Obedience Orientation. Related to Skinner’s Operational Conditioning,
this stage includes the use of punishment, so that the person refrains from doing the action and
continues to obey the rules. For example, we follow the law because we do not want to go to jail.
Stage 2: Instrumental Relativist Orientation. In this stage, the person is said to judge the
morality of an action based on how it satisfies the individual needs of the doer. For instance, a
person steals money from another person because he needs that money to buy food for his
hungry children. In Kohlberg’s theory, the children tend to say that this action is morally right
because of the serious need of the doer.
Level 2: Conventional Morality. The second level of morality involves the stages 3 and 4 of
moral development. Conventional morality includes the society and societal roles in judging the
morality of an action.
Stage 3: Good Boy-Nice Girl Orientation. In this stage, a person judges an action based on the
societal roles and social expectations before him. This is also known as the “interpersonal
relationships” phase. For example, a child gives away her lunch to a street peasant because she
thinks doing so means being nice.
Stage 4: Law and Order Orientation. This stage includes respecting the authorities and
following the rules, as well as doing a person’s duty. The society is the main consideration of a
person at this stage. For instance, a policeman refuses the money offered to him under the table
(illegally) and arrests the offender because he believes this is his duty as an officer of peace and
order.
Level 3: Postconventional Morality. The post-conventional morality includes stage 5 and stage
6. This is mainly concerned with the universal principles that relation to the action done.
Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation. In this stage, the person is look at various opinions and
values of different people before coming up with the decision on the morality of the action.
Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles Orientation. The final stage of moral reasoning, this
orientation is when a person considers universally accepted ethical principles. The judgment may
become innate and may even violate the laws and rules as the person becomes attached to his
own principles of justice (see figures below).
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development (Model 1)
Level 1: Preconventional
Stage 1: Obedience & Punishment – Avoid getting in trouble
Stage 2: Individualism & Exchange. – What’s in it for me? (↓ Pain & ↑ Pleasure)
Level 2: Conventional
Stage 3: Good Boy / Good Girl - Makes me look good / Gain approval of others
Stage 4: Law & Order - Because that’s the rule. Because it’s the law
Level 3: Postconventional
Stage 5: Social Contract - For the common good & the welfare of others
Stage 6: Principled Conscience - Personal integrity, no matter the price
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development (Model 2)
Lesson 1 Practical Exercises. See APPENDIX A, pages 31-32
Lesson 2. Abnormal Behavior
What is Abnormal Behavior? Abnormal Behavior is something deviating from the normal or
differing from the typical, is a subjectively defined behavioral characteristic, assigned to those
with rare or dysfunctional conditions. It may be abnormal when it is unusual, socially
unacceptable, self-defeating, dangerous, or suggestive of faulty interpretation of reality or of
personal distress. It refers to behavior that is deviant, maladaptive, or personally distressful over
a long period of time.
The American Psychiatric Association defines abnormal behavior in medical terms as a
mental illness that affects or is manifested in a person’s brain and can affect the way a person
thinks, behaves, and interacts with people s
What is Psychopathology? Psychopathology is the scientific study of mental disorders,
including efforts to understand their genetic, biological, psychological, and social causes;
effective classification schemes (nosology). Course across all stages of development;
manifestations; and treatment. It is also defined as the origin of mental disorders, how they
develop, and the symptoms they might produce in a person.
The 4 Ds in Abnormality
1. Deviance. This term describes the idea that specific thoughts, behaviors, and emotions
are considered deviant when they are unacceptable or not common in society. Clinicians
must, however, remember that minority groups are not always deemed deviant just
because they may not have anything in common with other groups. Therefore, we define
an individual’s actions as deviant or abnormal when his or her behavior is deemed
unacceptable by the culture he or she belongs to.
2. Distress. This term accounts for negative feelings by the individual with the disorder. He
or she may feel deeply troubled and affected by their illness.
3. Dysfunction. This term involves maladaptive behavior that impairs the individual’s
ability to perform normal daily functions, such as getting ready for work in the morning,
or driving a car. Such maladaptive behaviors prevent the individual from living a normal,
healthy lifestyle. However, dysfunctional behavior is not always caused by a disorder; it
may be voluntary, such as engaging in a hunger strike.
4. Danger. This term involves dangerous or violent behavior directed at the individual, or
others in the environment. An example of dangerous behavior that may suggest a
psychological disorder is engaging in suicidal activity 1291 Models of Abnormality
Models of Abnormality
1. Behavioral Model. Behaviorists believe that our actions are determined largely by the
experiences we have in life, rather than by underlying pathology of unconscious forces.
Abnormality is therefore seen as the development of behavior patterns that are considered
maladaptive (harmful) for the individual.
Behaviorism states that all behavior (including abnormal) is learned from the environment
(nurture), and that all behavior that has been learnt can also be ‘unlearnt’ (which is how
abnormal behavior is treated).
The emphasis of the behavioral approach is on the environment and how abnormal behavior
is acquired, through classical conditioning, operant conditioning and social learning. Learning
environments can reinforce (re: operant conditioning) problematic behaviors.
2. Cognitive Model. The cognitive approach assumes that a person’s thoughts are
responsible for their behavior. The model deals with how information is processed in the
brain and the impact of this on behavior. The basic assumptions are:
a. Maladaptive behavior is caused by faulty and irrational cognitions.
b. It is the way you think about a problem, rather than the problem itself that causes
mental disorders.
c. Individuals can overcome mental disorders by learning to use more appropriate
cognitions.
d. The individual is an active processor of information. How a person, perceives,
anticipates and evaluates events rather than the events themselves, which will
have an impact on behavior. This is generally believed to be an automatic process;
in other words, we do not really think about it (see figure below).
3. Medical or Biological Model. The medical model of psychopathology believes that
disorders have an organic or physical cause. The focus of this approach is on genetics,
neurotransmitters, neurophysiology, neuroanatomy, biochemistry etc. For example, in
terms of biochemistry the dopamine hypothesis argues that elevated levels of dopamine
are related to symptoms of schizophrenia.
The approach argues that mental disorders are related to the physical structure and
functioning of the brain. For example, differences in brain structure (abnormalities in the
frontal and pre-frontal cortex, enlarged ventricles) have been identified in people with
schizophrenia.
4. Psychodynamic Model. As mentioned earlier, the main assumptions include Freud’s
belief that abnormality came from the psychological causes rather than the physical
causes, that unresolved conflicts between the id, ego and superego can all contribute to
abnormality, for example:
a. Weak Ego. Well- adjusted people have a strong ego to cope with the demands of
both the id and the superego by allowing each to express itself at appropriate
times. If, however, the ego is weakened, then either the id or the superego,
whichever is stronger, may dominate the personality.
b. Unchecked Id Impulses. If id impulses are unchecked, they may be expressed in
self-destructive and immoral behavior. This may lead to disorders such as conduct
disorders in childhood and psychopathic [dangerously abnormal] behavior in
adulthood.
c. Too Powerful Superego. A superego that is too powerful, and therefore too harsh
and inflexible in its moral values, will restrict the id to such an extent that the
person will be deprived of even socially acceptable pleasures. According to Freud
this would create neurosis, which could be expressed in the symptoms of anxiety
disorders, such as phobias and obsessions.
Freud also believed that early childhood experiences and unconscious motivation were
responsible for disorders.
Identification of Abnormal Behavior
1. Deviation from Statistical Norm. The word abnormal means away from the norm.
Many population facts are measured such as height, weight and intelligence. Most of the
people fall within the middle range of intelligence, but a few are abnormally stupid. But
according to this definition, a person who is extremely intelligent should be classified as
abnormal. Examples are:
a. Intelligence. It is statistically abnormal for a person to get a score about 145 on
an IQ test or to get a score below 55, but only the lowest score is considered
abnormal.
b. Anxiety. A person who is anxious all the time or has a high level of anxiety and
someone who almost never feels anxiety are all considered to be abnormal.
2. Deviation from Social Norm. Every culture has certain standards for acceptable
behavior; behavior that deviates from that standard is considered to be abnormal
behavior. But those standards can change with time and vary from one society to another.
3. Maladaptive Behavior. This third criterion is how the behavior affects the well-being of
the individual and/or social group. A man who attempts suicide or a paranoid individual
who tries to assassinate national leaders are illustrations under this criterion. The two
aspects of maladaptive behavior are:
a. Maladaptive to One’s self. It refers to the inability of a person to reach goals or
to adapt the demands of life.
b. Maladaptive to Society. It refers to a person’s obstruction or disruption to social
group functioning.
4. Personal Distress. The fourth criterion considers abnormality in terms of the individual’s
subjective feelings, personal distress, rather than his behavior. Most people commonly
diagnosed as ‘mentally ill’ feel miserable. Anxious, depressed and may suffer from
insomnia.
5. Failure to Function Adequately. Under this definition, a person is considered abnormal
if they are unable to cope with the demands of everyday life. They may be unable to
perform the behaviors necessary for day-to-day living c.g. self-care, hold down a job,
interact meaningfully with others, make themselves understood etc. The following
characteristics that define failure to function adequately:
a. Suffering,
b. Maladaptiveness (danger to self),
c. Vividness and unconventionality (stand out),
d. Unpredictably and loss of control,
e. Irrationality/incomprehensibility,
f. Causes observer discomfort, and
g. Violates moral/social standards.
6. Deviation from Ideal Mental Health. Under this definition, rather than defining what is
abnormal, we define what is normal/ideal and anything that deviates from this is regarded
as abnormal. This requires us to decide on the characteristics we consider necessary to
mental health. The six criteria. By which mental health could be measured are as follows:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
Positive view of the self,
Capability for growth and development,
Autonomy and independence,
Accurate perception of reality,
Positive friendships and relationships, and
Environmental mastery (able to meet the varying demands of day-to-day
situations).
According to this approach, the more of these criteria are satisfied, the healthier the
individual is.
Symptoms of Abnormal Behavior
1. Long Periods of Discomfort. This could be anything as simple as worrying about
a calculus test or grieving the death of a loved one. This distress is related to a
real, related, or threatened event and passes with time. When such distressing
feelings, however, persist for an extended period of time and seem to be unrelated
to events surrounding the person, they would be considered abnormal and could
suggest a psychological disorder.
2. Impaired Functioning. Here, a distinction must be made between simply a
passing period of inefficiency and prolonged inefficiency which seems
unexplainable. For instance, a very brilliant person consistently fails in his classes
or someone who constantly changes his jobs for no apparent reason.
3. b. Bizarre behavior that has no rational basis seems to indicate that the
individual is confused. The psychoses frequently result in hallucinations (baseless
sensory perceptions) or delusions (beliefs which are patently false yet held as true
by the individual).
4. Disruptive Behavior. Disruptive behavior means impulsive, apparently
uncontrollable behavior that disrupts the lives of others or deprives them of their
human rights on a regular basis. This type of behavior is characteristic of a severe
psychological disorder. An example of this is the antisocial personality disorder.
Lesson 2 Practical Exercises. See APPENDIX B, pages 33-34
Lesson 3. Mental Disorder
What is a Mental Disorder? Mental Disorder refers to the significant impairment in
psychological functioning.
A mental disorder, also called a mental illness or psychiatric disorder, is a behavioral
or mental pattern that causes significant distress or impairment of personal functioning.
According to Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)-IV, a mental
disorder is a psychological syndrome or pattern which is associated with distress (e.g. via a
painful symptom), disability (impairment in one or more important areas of functioning),
increased risk of death, or causes a significant loss of autonomy; however it excludes normal
responses such as grief from loss of a loved one, and also excludes deviant behavior for political,
religious, or societal reasons not arising from a dysfunction in the individual.
In 2013, the American Psychiatric Association (APA) redefined mental disorders in the
DSM-5 as “a syndrome characterized by clinically significant disturbance in an individual’s
cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior that reflects a dysfunction in the psychological,
biological, or developmental processes underlying mental functioning.”1381 See more in
Chapter III
What is Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders? It is better known as the
DSM-IV, the manual is published by the APA and covers all mental health disorders for both
children and adults. It also lists known causes of these disorders, statistics in terms of gender, age
at onset. And prognosis as well as some research concerning the optimal treatment approaches.
Mental Health Professionals use this manual when working with patients in order to better
understand their illness and potential treatment and to help 3rd party payers (e.g., insurance)
understand the needs of the patient. The book is typically considered the ‘bible’ for any
professional who makes psychiatric diagnoses in the United States and many other countries.
Much of the diagnostic information on these pages is gathered from the DSM IV.
What is American Psychiatric Association (APA)? It is a medical specialty society with over
35,000 US and international member physicians who “work together to ensure humane care and
effective treatment for all persons with mental disorder, including mental retardation and
substance related disorders. It is the voice and conscience of modern psychiatry. Its vision is a
society that has available, accessible quality psychiatric diagnosis and treatment.” APA is the
oldest national medical specialty society in the US.
Relationship Mental Disorder and Crime
The relationship between mental disorder and crime is an issue of significant empirical
complexity. It has been subject of extensive research, using both cross-sectional and longitudinal
designs and including samples of the general population, birth cohorts, psychiatric patients, and
incarcerated offenders. Nevertheless, findings have been equivocal.1411 On the one hand, the
following are several results of studies that have found a relationship between mental disorder
and crime:
1. The risk of criminal behavior was significantly higher among subjects with mental
disorders, regardless of the socioeconomic status of the childhood family. In particular,
the higher risk for violent behavior was associated with alcohol-induced psychoses and
with schizophrenia with coexisting substance abuse.
2. A review on the five epidemiological investigations of post-Second World War birth
cohorts, came to the conclusion that persons who develop major mental disorders are at
increased risk across the lifespan of committing crimes. However, this increased risk may
be limited to generations of persons with major mental disorders born in the late 1940s,
1950s and 1960s, as they do not have received appropriate mental health care.
3. After examining data from national hospital and crime registers in Sweden, researchers
found that the overall population-attributable risk fraction of patients was 5%, indicating
that patients with severe mental disorder commit one in 20 violent crimes.
4. A comparison on Swiss in-patients with the general population resulted that patients were
more frequently registered in all crime categories, although there were differences
between the diagnostic groups: while alcoholics and drug users of both sexes had a
significantly higher criminality rate, a higher rate was found among female, but not male
patients suffering schizophrenia or related disorders.
5. Finally, homicidal behavior appears to have a statistical association with schizophrenia
and antisocial personality disorder.
On the other hand, there are also studies that discard any relationship between mental
disorder and crime. They are as follows:
1. In a study which examined the ability of personal demographic, criminal history, and
clinical variables to predict recidivism in mentally disordered offenders in the United
Kingdom, researchers found that reconviction in mentally disordered offenders can be
predicted using the same criminogenic variables that are predictive in offenders without
mental disorders.
2. Researchers analyzed the relationship between violence and substance abuse among
patients with chronic mental disorder and found that major mental disorder alone, with no
history of alcohol or drug abuse, was associated with a considerably lower risk of
violence. Overall, the study showed no difference in the rate of violence between patients
with major mental disorders and patients with other diagnoses.
3. Other studies suggest that the diagnosis of schizophrenia and delusional disorder,
contrary to previous findings, do not predict higher rates of violence among recently
discharged psychiatric patients.
4. Similarly, researchers found that crime rate among male schizophrenic patients was
almost the same as that in the general male population. However, the crime rate among
females was twice that of the general female population, so the overall results of the
study were mixed.
What is Mental Retardation (MR)? MR is a condition of limited ability in which an individual
has a low Intelligence Quotient (IQ), usually below 70 on a traditional intelligence test, and has
difficulty adapting to everyday life; he/she first exhibited these characteristics during the socalled developmental period – by age 18.
MR is a developmental disability that first appears in children under the age of 18. It is
defined as a level of intellectual functioning (as measured by standard intelligence tests) that is
well below average and results in significant limitations in the person’s daily living skills
(adaptive functioning). Adaptive skills are a term that refers to skills needed for daily life. Such
skills include the ability to produce and understand language (communication); home-living
skills; use of community resources; health, safety, leisure, self-care, and social skills; selfdirection; functional academic skills (reading, writing, and arithmetic); and job-related skills.
Four Different Degrees of Mental Retardation
1. Mild Mental Retardation. Approximately 85% of the mentally retarded population is in
the mildly retarded category. Their IQ score ranges from 50 70, and they can often
acquire academic skills up to about the sixth-grade level. They can become fairly selfsufficient and, in some cases, live independently, with community and social support.
2. Moderate Mental Retardation. About 10% of the mentally retarded population is
considered moderately retarded. Moderately retarded persons have IQ scores ranging
from 35-55. They can carry out work and self-care tasks with moderate supervision. They
typically acquire communication skills in childhood and are able to live and function
successfully within the community in such supervised environments as group homes.
3. Severe Mental Retardation. About 3-4% of the mentally retarded population is severely
retarded. Severely retarded persons have IQ scores of 20-40. They may master very basic
self-care skills and some communication skills. Many severely retarded individuals are
able to live in a group home.
4. Profound Mental Retardation. Only 1-2% of the mentally retarded population is
classified as profoundly retarded. Profoundly retarded individuals have IQ scores under
20-25. They may be able to develop basic self-care and communication skills with
appropriate support and training. Their retardation is often caused by an accompanying
neurological disorder. Profoundly retarded people need a high level of structure and
supervision.
Causes and Symptoms of Mental Retardation
Low IQ scores and limitations in adaptive skills are the hallmarks of Mental retardation.
Aggression, self-injury, and mood disorders are sometimes associated with the disability. The
severity of the symptoms and the age at which they first appear depend on the cause. Children
who are mentally retarded reach developmental milestones significantly later than expected, if at
all. If retardation is caused by chromosomal or other genetic disorders, it is often apparent from
infancy. If retardation is caused by childhood illnesses or injuries, learning and adaptive skills
that were once. Easy may suddenly become difficult or impossible to master. In about 40% of
cases, the cause of mental retardation cannot be found.
Biological and environmental factors that can cause mental retardation include the following:
1. Genetic Factors. About 30% of cases of mental retardation is caused by hereditary
factors. Mental retardation may be caused by an inherited genetic abnormality, such as
fragile X syndrome.
What is Fragile X Syndrome? It is a defect in the chromosome that determines sex, is the most
common inherited cause of mental retardation. Single-gene defects such as phenylketonuria
(PKU) and other inborn errors of metabolism may also cause mental retardation if they are not
discovered and treated early. An accident or mutation in genetic development may also cause
retardation. Examples of such accidents are development of an extra chromosome 18 (trisomy
18) and Down syndrome. Down syndrome, also called mongolism or trisomy 21, is caused by an
abnormality in the development of chromosome 21. It is the most common genetic cause of
mental retardation.
2. Prenatal Illnesses and Issues. Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) affects one in 3,000
children in Western countries. It is caused by the mother’s heavy drinking during the first
twelve weeks (trimester) of pregnancy. Some studies have shown that even moderate
alcohol use during pregnancy may cause learning disabilities in children. Drug abuse and
cigarette smoking during pregnancy have also been linked to mental retardation.
Maternal infections and such illnesses as glandular disorders, rubella,
toxoplasmosis, and cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection may cause mental retardation.
When the mother has high blood pressure (hypertension) or blood poisoning (toxemia),
the flow of oxygen to the fetus may be reduced, causing brain damage and mental
retardation.
Birth defects that cause physical deformities of the head, brain, and central
nervous system frequently cause mental retardation. Neural tube defect, for example, is a
birth defect in which the neural tube that forms the spinal cord does not close completely.
This defect may cause children to develop an accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid inside
the skull (hydrocephalus). Hydrocephalus can cause learning impairment by putting
pressure on the brain.
3. Childhood Illnesses and Injuries. Hyperthyroidism, whooping cough, chickenpox,
measles, and Hib disease (a bacterial infection) may cause mental retardation if they are
not treated adequately. An infection of the membrane covering the brain (meningitis) or
an inflammation of the brain itself (encephalitis) can cause swelling that in turn may
cause brain damage and mental retardation. Traumatic brain injury caused by a blow to
the head or by violent shaking of the upper body may also cause brain damage and
mental retardation in children.
4. Environmental Factors. Ignored or neglected infants who are not provided with the
mental and physical stimulation required for normal development may suffer irreversible
learning impairment. Children who live in poverty and suffer from malnutrition,
unhealthy living conditions, abuse, and improper or inadequate medical care are at a
higher risk. Exposure to lead or mercury can also cause mental retardation. Many
children have developed lead poisoning from eating the flaking lead-based paint often
found in older buildings.
Intelligence Tests for Learning Abilities and Intellectual Functioning
1.
2.
3.
4.
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale
Wechsler Intelligence Scales
Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence
Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children
Prevention of Mental Retardation
Immunization against diseases such as measles and Hib prevent many of the illnesses that
can cause mental retardation. In addition, all children should undergo routine developmental
screening as part of their pediatric care. Screening is particularly critical for those children who
may be neglected or undernourished or may live in disease-producing conditions. Newborn
screening and immediate treatment for PKU and hyperthyroidism can usually catch these
disorders early enough to prevent retardation.
Good prenatal care can also help prevent retardation. Pregnant women should be
educated about the risks of alcohol consumption and the need to maintain good nutrition during
pregnancy. Such tests as amniocentesis and ultrasonography can determine whether a fetus is
developing normally in the womb.
Lesson 3 Practical Exercises. See APPENDIX C, pages 35-36
Lesson 4. Criminal Behavior and Intelligence
What is Criminal Behavior? Criminal Behavior refers to a behavior which is criminal in
nature; a behavior which violates a law. Thus, the moment a person violates the law, he has
already committed [exhibited] criminal behavior.1541 Criminal behavior refers to conduct of an
offender that leads to and including the commission of an unlawful act.1551
According to Goldoozian, for human behavior to be considered a crime, three elements are
necessary to be present:
1. Legally, the criminal act should be prohibited by law.
2. Materially, the criminal act should be executed or realized.
3. Spiritually, the criminal act should be accompanied by criminal intention or guilt.
Origins of Criminal Behavior: Criminological Perspective
1. Biological Factor. Heredity as a factor implies that criminal acts are unavoidable, inevitable
consequences of the bad seed or bad blood. It emphasizes genetic predisposition toward
antisocial and criminal conduct as evidenced by some studies and theories such as: Born
Criminal (Cesare Lombroso), Physique and Somatotype (Ernst Kretschmer & William Sheldon),
and Juke and Kallikak (Richard Dugdale & Henry Goddard).
2. Personality Disorder Factor. Personality disorder factor refers to an act that exhibits a
pervasive pattern of disregard for and violation of the rights of others that begins in childhood or
early adolescence and continues into adulthood such as Anti-Social Personality Disorder.
3. Humanistic Factor. It identifies personal responsibility and feelings of self-acceptance as the
key causes of differences in personality. This perspective focuses on how humans have evolved
and adapted behaviors required for survival against various environmental pressures over the
long course of evolution.
4. Behavioral or Social Learning Factor. As mentioned above, behavioral/social learning
approach explains consistent behavior patterns as the result of conditioning and expectations.
This emphasizes the role of environment in shaping behavior.
What is Behavioral Personality Theory? It is a model of personality that emphasizes learning
and observable behavior.
What is Social Learning Theory? It is an explanation of personality that combines learning
principles, cognition, and the effects of social relationships.
What is Self-reinforcement? This is the praising or rewarding oneself for having made a
particular response.
What is Identification? It is a feeling from which one is emotionally connected to a person and
a way of seeing oneself as himself or herself. The child admires adults who love and care for him
or her and this encourages imitation.
Specifically, the following are some criminological learning theories under the behavioral
or social learning factor:
a. Differential Association Theory by Edwin Sutherland
b. Imitation Theory by Gabriel Tarde
c. Identification Theory by Daniel Glaser
5. Cognitive Approach. Cognitive approach at differences in the way people process
information to explain differences in behavior. This perspective emphasizes the role of mental
processes that underlie behavior.
Intelligence and Criminality
What is Human Intelligence? Human intelligence generally points to at least three
characteristics. First, intelligence is best understood as a compilation of brain-based cognitive
abilities. According to 52 eminent intelligence researchers. Intelligence reflects a very general
mental capability that, among other things, involves the ability to reason, plan, solve problems,
think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly and learn from experience.
The earliest causal explanation, popular during the early 1900s, portrayed criminals as so
feebleminded and mentally deficient that they could neither distinguish right from wrong nor
resist criminal impulses. This feeblemindedness hypothesis, however, lost favor long ago as it
became clear that few criminals are actually mentally deficient and most recognize, though may
not follow, behavioral norms. A more recent, and more compelling, causal explanation
emphasizes the importance of intelligence especially intelligence during childhood socialization.
The socialization of children involves constant verbal communication and comprehension of
abstract symbols; therefore, children with poor verbal and cognitive skills have greater difficulty
completing the socialization process, which puts them at risk of under controlled, antisocial
behavior. Empirical studies overall have supported this developmental hypothesis, and it fits with
the especially strong correlation between verbal IQ and crime (see table below).
A final causal explanation links IQ to crime through school performance. Less intelligent
students do less well in school, which results in academic frustration. This frustration, in turn,
weakens their attachment and commitment to schooling, and a weakened bond to school, as per
social control theory, allows for more criminal behavior.1601 This school performance
hypothesis has received strong support from empirical studies, and it is probably the most widely
accepted explanation of the IQ-crime correlation.
Criminal Law and Intelligence
What is the McNaughton (M’Naghten) Rule? In 1724 an English court maintained that a man
was not responsible for an act if “he does not know what he is doing, no more... a wild beast”.
Modern standards of legal responsibility, however, have been based on the McNaughton decision
of 1843.
The formal insanity defense has its beginnings in 1843, when Daniel McNaughton tried to
kill Robert Peel, the British prime minister (he shot and killed his secretary instead). At his trial,
McNaughton testified that he believed that the British government was plotting against him, and
he was acquitted of murder. The McNaughton Rule requires that a criminal defendant:
1. Not know what he was doing at the time; or
2. Not know that his actions were wrong (because of his delusional belief, McNaughton
thought he was defending himself.
The Rule created a presumption of sanity, unless the defense proved “at the time of
committing the act, the accused was laboring under such a defect of reason, from disease of the
mind, as not to know the nature and quality of the act he was doing or, if he did know it, that he
did not know what he was doing was wrong.” This rule was adopted in the US, and the
distinction of knowing right from wrong remained the basis for most decisions of legal insanity.
What is the Durham Rule? It also called as the Product Test which states that, “an accused is
not criminally responsible if his unlawful act is the product of mental disease or mental defect.”
Some States in USA added to their statutes this doctrine which is also known as irresistible
impulse recognizing some ill individuals may respond correctly, but may be unable to control
their behavior.
The Durham Rule was adopted in USA in 1954 but was overturned in 1972, largely
because its ambiguous reference to “mental disease or defect” places undue emphasis on
subjective judgments by psychiatrists, and can easily lead to a “battle of the experts.”
What is ALI “Substantial Capacity” Test? Many states in USA now adopt a version of
guidelines set out by the American Law Institute (ALI) in 1962, which allows the insanity
defense if, by virtue of mental illness, the defendant:
1. Lacks the ability to understand the meaning of his/her act; or
2. 2. Cannot control his/her impulses (sometimes known as the irresistible impulse test).
The Test was integrated by the ALI in its Model Penal Code Test, which improved on the
McNaughton rule and irresistible impulse tests. The new rule stated that a person is not
responsible for his criminal act if, as a result of the mental disease or defect, he lacks substantial
capacity to appreciate the criminality of his act or to conform his conduct to the requirements of
the law.
Still, this test has been criticized for its use of ambiguous words like “substantial capacity”
and “appreciate” as there would be differences in expert testimonies whether the accused’s
degree of awareness was sufficient. Objections were also made to the exclusion of psychopaths
or persons whose abnormalities are manifested only by repeated criminal conduct. Critics
observed that psychopaths cannot be deterred and thus undeserving of punishment.
In 1984, however, the U.S. Congress repudiated this test in favor of the McNaughton style
statutory formulation. It enacted the Comprehensive Crime Control Act which made the
appreciation test the law applicable in all federal courts. The test is similar to McNaughton as it
relies on the cognitive test. The accused is not required to prove lack of control as in the ALI
test. The appreciation test shifted the burden of proof to the defense, limited the scope of expert
testimony, eliminated the defense of diminished and provided for commitment of accused found
to be insane.
Criminal Law and Intelligence in the Philippines
In the Philippines, the courts have established a more stringent criterion for insanity to be
exempting as it is required that there must be. A complete deprivation of intelligence in
committing the act, i.e., the accused is deprived of reason; he acted without the least discernment
because there is a complete absence of the power to discern, or that there is a total deprivation of
the will. Mere abnormality of the mental faculties will not exclude imputability.
The issue of insanity is a question of fact for insanity is a condition of the mind, not
susceptible of the usual means of proof. As no man can know what is going on in the mind of
another, the state or condition of a person’s mind can only be measured and judged by his
behavior. Establishing the insanity of an accused requires opinion testimony which may be given
by a witness who is intimately acquainted with the accused, by a witness who has rational basis
to conclude that the accused was insane based on the witness’ own perception of the accused, or
by a witness who is qualified as an expert, such as a psychiatrist. The testimony or proof of the
accused’s insanity must relate to the time preceding or coetaneous with the commission of the
offense with which he is charged.
The Revised Penal Code
Article 12 of the Code exempts a person from criminal liability in consideration of intelligence.
They are as follows:
Paragraph 1. Any person who has committed a crime while the said person was imbecile or
insane during the commission. When the imbecile or an insane person has committed an act
which the law defines as a felony (delito), the court shall order his confinement in one of the
hospitals or asylums established for persons thus afflicted, which he shall not be permitted to
leave without first obtaining the permission of the same court.
Suggested Readings:
1. People of the Philippines vs. Tibon, G.R. No. 188320, June 29, 2010.
2. People of the Philippines vs. Roger Austria Y Navarro (alias Bernie), G.R. No. 11151719, July 31, 1996.
3. People of the Philippines vs. Fernando Madarang Y Magno, G.R. No. 132319. May 12,
2000.
4. People of the Philippines vs. Celestino Bonoan Y Cruz, G.R. No. L-45130, February 17,
1937.
Paragraph 2. A person over nine years of age and under fifteen, unless he has acted with
discernment, in which case, such minor shall be proceeded against in accordance with the
provisions of Art. 80 of the Code.
Paragraph 3. Any person having an age of 9 years old and below.
Suggested Reading:
1. People of the Philippines vs. Morales, G.R. No. 148518, April 15, 2004.
Note: In connection to paragraph 2 and 3, Republic Act No. 9344 otherwise known as Juvenile
Justice and Welfare Act of 2006, us amended by Republic Act 10609, raised the criminal
exemption from 9 to 15 years old. In addition, a person of this age is totally exempted, whether
he/she acted with or without discernment during the commission of crime.
Lesson 4 Practical Exercises. See APPENDIX D, pages 37-38
End of Chapter I.
C. & Ruthazer, R. (1997). Early onset ce by outpatients with chronic mental SS, 48(9),1181-5.
Baum, P. S., Robbins, P.. Mulvey, E., assessment: The MacArthur study of Oxford Press.
990). Schizophrenia and crime: A renics in Stockholm. British Journal
Ed.) Mc Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. On. In Psychiatry Update and Board
Ers. Forum 2018 Advameg, Inc. Ders.com/Kau-Nu/Mentalretardation.
To criminology and psychology of and Legal Definition. Copyright
Ved from https://definitions.uslegal.
1). Wadsworth Thomson Learning. Ne, delinquency and intelligence: A York: Pergamon Press...
Ved from https://www.google.com/ urce=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=
CIMQ_AUICigB&biw=1366&bih nd delinquency: A direct test of the of Abnormal Psychology,
97, 330
Intelligence and Delinquency: A Review, 42:571-587.
On and Hilgard’s introduction to the Publishing.
y. Retrieved from https://www.ocf. Eb/pppt_supplement.htm. 6/6/18. Do Madarang Y Magno.
G.R. No.
Pde Book I (15th Edition). Rex Book
CHAPTER II
HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND COPING MECHANISMS
This chapter presents the factors affecting human behavior such as: emotion, conflict,
depression, stress, and frustration. It further provides their association to criminal behavior based
on researches. Lastly, this chapter includes topics about defense and coping mechanisms in
response to various kinds of frustration.
EXPECTED LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this chapter, students are expected to have:
a. recognized the factors that cause changes to human behavior;"
b. acquired sufficient knowledge about effects to human behavior of emotion, conflict,
depression, stress, and frustration;
c. analyzed the concept of defense and coping mechanisms exhibited by human beings;
and
d. evaluated how they (learners) exhibited defense and coping mechanisms.
Lesson 1. Emotion
Emotion refers to feelings affective responses as a result of physiological arousal,
thoughts and beliefs, subjective evaluation and bodily expression. It is a state characterized by
facial expressions, gestures, postures and subjective feelings. It is associated with mood,
temperament, personality, and disposition. The English word emotion is derived from the French
word émouvoir. This is based on the Latin emovere, where e (variant of ex-) means out and
movere means move. The related term motivation is also derived from movere.
Theories of Emotion
1. James-Lange Theory by William James and Carl Lange. This states that
emotion results from physiological states triggered by stimuli in the environment:
emotion occurs after physiological reactions. This theory and its derivatives states
that a changed situation leads to a changed bodily state. As James says, "the
perception of bodily changes as they occur is the emotion." James further claims
that, "we feel sad because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid because we
tremble, and neither have we cried. strike, nor tremble because we are sorry,
angry, or fearful, as the case may be." The theory has now been abandoned by
most scholars (see figure below).
2. Cannon-Bard Theory by Philip Bard and Walter Cannon. This suggests that
people feel emotions first and then act upon them. This is a theory that emotion
and physiological reactions occur simultaneously.
Example: I see a man outside my window. I am afraid. I begin to perspire.
The Cannon-Bard Theory is based on the premise that one reacts to a specific stimulus and
experiences the corresponding emotion simultaneously. Cannon and Bard posited that one is able
to react to a stimulus only after experiencing the related emotion and experience (see figure
below).
2. Two Factor Theory by Schachter & Singer. This posits that emotion is the cognitive
interpretation of a physiological response. For many, this remains the best formulation of
emotion. Most people consider this to be the “common sense” theory to explain
physiological changes; their physiology changes as a result of their emotion (see figure
below),
What is Emotional Intelligence (EI)? El is the area of cognitive ability that facilitates
interpersonal behavior. El was popularized in 1995 by psychologist and behavioral science
journalist Dr. Daniel Goleman in his book, Emotional Intelligence. He described El as a person’s
ability to manage his feelings, so that those feelings are expressed appropriately and affectively.
El is the capacity to understand and manage emotion; however, the content and
boundaries of this construct remain unsettled.
Mayer and Salovey, defined El as, the ability to perceive emotion, integrate emotion to
facilitate thought, understand emotions, and to regulate emotions to promote personal growth.
Five Components of Emotional Intelligence by Goleman
1. Self-awareness. Individual have a healthy sense of El self-awareness if they understand
their own strengths and weaknesses, as well as how their actions affect others. A person
with emotional self-awareness is usually receptive to, and able to learn from, constructive
criticism more than one who doesn’t have emotional self-awareness.
2. Self-regulation. A person with a high El has the ability to exercise restraint and control
when expressing their emotions.
3. Motivation. People with high EI are self-motivated, resilient and driven by an inner
ambition rather than being influenced by outside forces, such as money or prestige.
4. Empathy. An empathetic person has compassion and is able to connect with other people
on an emotional level, helping them respond genuinely to other people’s concerns.
5. Social skills. Emotionally intelligent people are able to build trust with other people, and
are able to quickly gain respect from people they meet.
Emotional Intelligence and Criminal Behavior: Research Findings
1. The group of convicted offenders obtained significantly lower scores on all the domains of
MEII (Mangal Emotional Intelligence Inventory) such as intrapersonal awareness (own
emotions), interpersonal awareness (others emotions), intrapersonal management (own
emotions) and interpersonal management (others emotions), and aggregate emotional
quotient in comparison to their normal counterparts. Researchers concluded that, the
convicted offenders’ group had significantly lower El compared to normal subjects. Starting
El enhancement program in prison can help the inmates better understand their feelings and
emotions.
2. El is deeply related to aggression and offending.
3. Persons with high El levels are more able to moderate their emotions and are less impulsive
while individuals with low El levels are more prone to risky behavior. They also have a hard
time understanding situations from the perspective of others and, therefore, tend to be less
empathetic.
4. A reduced capacity to regulate emotions could possibly maintain offending pattern of
behavior in criminals. For example, internet child sexual abuse is often preceded by
unregulated negative feelings.
5. A reduced capacity to regulate anger, desire, and sexual arousal may result in an assault,
theft, and sexual assault, respectively.
6. Some recent studies, consistently report El deficits in criminals. In addition, some studies
indicate that offenders are deficient in subcomponents of El such as social problem-solving,
empathy, III social competency, flexibility, impulse control, and self regard.
Lesson 2. Conflict
Conflict is a stressful condition that occurs when a person must choose between
incompatible or contradictory alternatives. It is a negative emotional state caused by an inability
to choose between two or more incompatible goals or impulse.(23) Conflict is the state in which
two or more motives cannot be satisfied because they interfere with one another.[24]
Types of Conflict
1. Psychological Conflict (Internal Conflict). Psychological conflict could be going on
inside the person and no one would know (instinct may be at odds with values). Freud
would say unconscious id battling superego and further claimed that our personalities are
always in conflict.
2. Social Conflict. The different kinds of social conflict are:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Interpersonal conflict,
Two individuals me against you,
Inter-group struggles (us against them),
Individual opposing a group (me against them, them against me), and
Intra-group conflict (members of group all against each other on a task).
3. Approach-Avoidance. Conflict can be described as having features of approach and
avoidance: approach-approach, avoidance-avoidance, approach-avoidance. Approach
speaks to things that we want while Avoidance refers to things that we do not want. The
kinds of approach avoidance are:
a. Approach-Approach Conflict. In this conflict, the individual must choose
between two positive goals of approximately equal value. In this, two pleasing
things are wanted but only one option should be chosen.
Examples: Choice between two colleges, two roommates, or two ways of spending the summer.
b. Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict. This conflict involves more obvious sources of
stress. The individual must choose between two or more negative outcomes.
Examples: (a) Study or do the dishes. (b) I don’t want this and I don’t want that. (c) A woman
with an unwanted pregnancy may be morally. Opposed by abortion.
c. Approach-Avoidance Conflict. This conflict exists when there is an attractive
and unattractive part to both sides. It arises when obtaining a positive goal
necessitates a negative outcome as well.
Examples: (a) Gina is beautiful but she is lazy. (b) I want this but I don’t want what this entails.
(c) A student who is offered a stolen copy of an important final exam. Cheating will bring guilt
and reduced self-esteem, but also a good grade.
d. Multiple-Approach-Avoidance Conflict. This refers to conflict with complex
combinations of approach. And avoidance conflicts. It requires individual to
choose between alternatives that contain both positive and negative consequences.
Functional versus Dysfunctional Conflict
a. Dysfunctional Conflict. There is dysfunctional conflict if conflict disrupts,
hinders job performance, and upsets personal psychological functioning.
b. Functional Conflict. There is functional conflict if conflict is responsive and
innovative aiding in creativity and viability.
Crime and Conflict
Criminal behavior as an indicator of conflict within the person, emphasizing either:
a. Failure to resolve tensions generated in the course of interaction between the organism
and human figures in its environment; and
b. Tensions generated by person’s inability to satisfy the contradictory expectations of
others, or else to mobilize the resources needed to perform a role assigned to him.
Lessons 1 and 2 Practical Exercises. See APPENDIX A, pages 67-68
Lesson 3. Depression
Depression is an illness that causes a person to feel sad and hopeless much of the time. It is
different from normal feelings of sadness, grief, or low energy. Anyone can have depression. It
often runs in families. But it can also happen to someone who doesn’t have a family history of
depression.
Causes of Depression
a.
b.
c.
d.
Major events that create stress, such as childbirth or a death in the family.
Illnesses, such as arthritis, heart disease, or cancer.
Certain medicines, such as steroids or narcotics for pain relief.
Drinking alcohol or using illegal drugs.
Symptoms of Depression
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
Think and speak more slowly than normal.
Have trouble concentrating, remembering, and making decisions.
Have changes in their eating and sleeping habits.
Lose interest in things they enjoyed before they were depressed.
Have feelings of guilt and hopelessness, wondering if life is worth living.
Think a lot about death or suicide.
Complain about problems that don’t have a physical cause, such as headache and
stomachache.
Different Forms of Depression
1. Major Depressive Disorder or Major Depression. It is characterized by a
combination of symptoms that interfere with a person’s ability to work, sleep,
study, eat, and enjoy once-pleasurable activities. It is disabling and prevents a
person from functioning normally. An episode of this may occur only once in a
person’s lifetime, but more often, it recurs throughout a person’s life.
2. Dysthymic Disorder or Dysthymia. The symptoms do not occur for more than
two months at a time. Generally, this type of depression is described as having
persistent but less severe depressive symptoms than Major Depression. It
manifests nearly constant depressed mood for at least 2 years accompanied by at
least two or more of the following:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
Decrease or increase in eating.
Difficulty sleeping or increase in sleeping,
Low energy or fatigue,
Low self-esteem,
Difficulty concentrating or making decisions, and
Feeling hopeless.
3. Psychotic Depression. This occurs when a severe depressive illness is
accompanied by some form of psychosis, such as a break with reality,
hallucinations, and delusions.
4. Postpartum Depression. This occurs after having a baby. A new mother
develops a major depressive episode within one month after delivery. It is
estimated that 10 to 15 percent of women experience this depression. In rare
cases, a woman may have a severe form of depression called postpartum
psychosts. She may act strangely, see or hear things that aren’t there, and be a
danger to herself and her baby.
5. Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD). This occurs during the winter months, when
there is less natural sunlight. The depression generally lifts during spring and
summer. SAD may be effectively treated with light therapy, but nearly half of
those with SAD do not respond to light therapy alone. Antidepressant medication
and psychotherapy can reduce SAD symptoms, either alone or in combination
with light therapy.
6. Bipolar Disorder. This is also called as manic-depressive illness; it is
characterized by cyclical mood changes from extreme highs (mania) to extreme
lows (depression) (see more below).
7. Endogenous Depression. Endogenous means from within the body. This type of
depression is defined as feeling depressed for no apparent reason.
8. Situational Depression or Reactive Depression. This is also known as
Adjustment Disorder with Depressed Mood. Depressive symptoms develop in
response to a specific stressful situation or event (e.g. job loss, relationship
ending). These symptoms occur within 3 months of the stressor and lasts no
longer than 6 months after the stressor (or its consequences) has ended.
Depression symptoms cause significant distress or impairs usual functioning (e.g.
relationships, work, school).
9. Agitated Depression. This is characterized by agitation such as physical and
emotional restlessness, irritability and insomnia, which is the opposite of many
depressed individuals who have low energy and feel slowed down physically and
mentally inappropriate social behavior.
Depression and Criminality: Research Findings
People with depression might be more likely to commit a violent crime than those
without depression, a new study suggests. Researchers analyzed data from more than 47,000
people in Sweden who were diagnosed with depression and followed for an average of three
years. They were compared to more than 898,000 gender- and age-matched people without
depression.
People with depression were five to six times more likely than those in the general
population to harm others or themselves, according to the researchers at Oxford University in
England.
“One important finding was that the vast majority of depressed persons were not
convicted of violent crimes, and that the rates reported are below those for schizophrenia and
bipolar disorder, and considerably lower than for alcohol or drug abuse.
Specifically, almost 4% of depressed men and 0.5% of depressed women committed a
violent crime after their depression diagnosis, compared with slightly more than 1% of men and
0.2% of women in the general population. Quite understandably, there is considerable concern
about self harm and suicide in depression.
Lesson 4. Stress
Stress refers to the consequence of the failure of an organism (human or animal) to
respond appropriately to emotional or physical threats, whether actual or imagined. Stress is a
form of the Middle English destresse, derived via Old French from the Latin stringere, to draw
tight. The term stress was first employed in a biological context by the endocrinologist Hans
Selye in the 1930s. Stress can thought of as any event that strains or exceeds an (311 individual’s
ability to cope.
What is Stressor? Stressor is anything (physical or psychological) that produces stress (negative
or positive). For example, getting a promotion is a positive event, but may also produce a great
deal of stress with all the new responsibilities, work load, etc.
Two Types of Stress
1. Eustress or Positive Stress. Eustress is a word consisting of two parts. The prefix
derives from the Greek eu meaning either well or good. When attached to the
word stress, it literally means good stress.
It is a stress that is healthy or gives one a feeling of fulfillment or other
positive feelings. Eustress enhances function like physical or mental, such as
through strength training or challenging work.
Examples of positive personal stressors include:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
Receiving a promotion or raise at work,
Starting a new job,
Marriage,
Buying a home,
Having a child,
Taking a vacation,
Holiday seasons, and the like.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
2. Distress or Negative Stress. It refers to a persistent stress that is not resolved
through coping or adaptation. Distress may lead to anxiety or withdrawal
(depression) behavior. Effects of distress are:
Ineffectiveness at tasks,
Self-defeating behavior,
Transitional suicidal behavior,
Anxiety and fear,
Loss of interest and initiative,
Poor decision-making,
Apathy and cynicism, and the like.
Examples of negative personal stressors include:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
The death of a family member,
Injury or illness (oneself or a family member),
Being abused or neglected,
Separation from a spouse or committed relationship partner,
Conflict in interpersonal relationships,
Bankruptcy/money problems,
Sleep problems,
Children’s problems at school,
i. Legal problems, and the like.
Three Phases of Stress (General Arousal [adaptation] Syndrome/GAS)
1. Alarm. It is the first phase. When the threat or stressor is identified or realized,
the body’s stress response is a state of alarm. At this stage adrenaline will be
produced in order to bring about the fight-or-flight response.
2. Resistance. It is the second phase. If the stressor persists, it becomes necessary to
attempt some means of coping with the stress. Although the body begins to try to
adapt to the strains or demands of the environment, the body cannot keep this up
indefinitely, so its resources are gradually depleted.
3. Exhaustion. It is the third phase in the GAS model. At this point, all of the
body’s resources are eventually depleted and the body is unable to maintain
normal function. The initial autonomic nervous system symptoms may reappear
sweating, raised heart rate etc. The result can manifest itself in obvious illnesses
such as ulcers, depression, diabetes, trouble with the digestive system or even
cardiovascular problems, along with other mental illnesses (see figure above).
Types and Categories of Stress
1. Acute Stress. It refers to what most people identify as stress. It manifest tension
headaches, emotional upsets, gastrointestinal disturbances, feelings of agitation
and pressure.
2. Episodic Acute. It refers to stress that is more serious and can lead to migraines,
hypertension, stroke, heart attack, anxiety, depression, and serious gastrointestinal
distress.
3. Chronic Stress. It is the most serious of all; a stress that never ends. It grinds a
person down until resistance is gone. Serious systemic illness such as diabetes,
decreased immune-competence, perhaps cancer is its hallmark.
4. Traumatic Stress. It is the result of massive acute stress, the effects of which can
reverberate through our systems for years. Posttraumatic stress disorder is
treatable and reversible and usually requires professional aid.
Note. Most common types of stress and anxiety problems are defined by the DSM-IV-TR of the
American Psychiatric Association.
A. Types of Short Term Stress
1. Acute Time. It refers to a limited stress that come on suddenly (acute) and are
over relatively quickly. Situations like public speaking and doing math fall into
this category. It may come without warning but are short in duration.
2. Brief Naturalistic Stress. It is a stress that is relatively short in duration such as
classroom test or a final exam.
B. Types of Long Term Stress
3. Stressful Event Sequences. It refers to a single event that starts from a chain of
challenging situations such as losing a job or surviving a natural disaster.
4. Chronic Stress. It refers to a stress that lacks a clear end point. Often, they force
people to assume new roles or change their self-perception. Think of a refugee
leaving their native country or an injury leading to permanent disability, these are
life-changing events.
5. Distant Stress. It refers to stress that may have been initiated in the past (like
childhood abuse or trauma resulting from combat experiences) but continue to
affect the immune system. Distant stressors have long-lasting effects on emotional
and mental health.
How does stress affect Human Behavior? Stress contributes to health problems such as
headaches, high blood pressure, heart problems, and skin conditions. It also influences cognitive
processes because it is associated with elevated levels of cortisol, a hormone that can influence
brain functioning.
Stress and Criminality: Research Findings
Criminal actors and victims experience various forms of stress related to criminal
activity. Stress and crime are interrelated in a linear fashion (e.g., stress causes crime) and in a
reciprocal cycle (e.g., victimization inducing stress). Strain theories posit the causal relationship
of stress to crime, and psychological conditions, such as post- traumatic stress disorder and acute
stress disorder, explain the experience of stress caused by criminal action. Using general strain
theory to explain the causal relationship, recent research explores the circumstances that cause
stress and result in crime.
Stress can Trigger Violent Crimes: Research Findings
A stressful life event like the death of a parent can trigger individuals to commit violent
crimes, a new study has found. Researchers discovered that in the week after being exposed to
stress, people were more likely to go on to commit a violent crime themselves.
Stress Related Crimes: Research Findings
According to research, pervasive stress on a societal scale also correlates with higher
crime, including homicide, aggravated assault, rape, and robbery 140-and contributes to the
outbreak of war, terrorism, and other social violence.
According to prevailing theories in the field of conflict management,142 the first stage in
the emergence of war is mounting stress political, ethnic, and religious tensions. Such social
stress, if unchecked, erupts as violent conflict or war. When such societal tensions run deep,
history confirms that diplomatic efforts, negotiated settlements, and ceasefires produce fleeting
results and provide no stable basis for lasting peace.
Lessons 3 and 4 Practical Exercises. See APPENDIX B, pages 69-71
Lesson 5. Frustration
Frustration is a negative emotional state that occurs when one is prevented from reaching
a goal. It is an unpleasant state of tension and heightened sympathetic activity, resulting from a
blocked goal. Frustration is associated with motivation since we won’t be frustrated if we were
not motivated to achieve the goal. Frustration may be external or personal.
What is External Frustration? It is a distress caused by outwardly perceivable conditions that
impedes progress toward a goal.
What is Internal/Personal Frustration? It is a distress caused by the individual’s inner
characteristic that impedes progress toward a goal. The sources of frustration are as follows:
1. Physical obstacles such as drought, typhoons, flat tire, etc. That prevents a person
from doing his plans or fulfilling his wishes.
2. Social circumstances such as obstacles through the restrictions imposed by other
people and customs and laws of social being.
3. Personal shortcomings such as handicapped by diseases, blindness, deafness or
paralysis.
4. Conflicts between motives such as leaving college for a year to try painting, but
also pleasing one’s parents by remaining in school.
Is anger a source of frustration? There is a saying “frustration begets anger and anger begets
aggression.” Direct anger and aggression is expressed toward the object perceived as the cause of
the frustration. If someone gets in your way, you could verbally threaten them or push them
aside. If the source of the frustration is too powerful or threatening for direct aggression,
displaced aggression is often used. The aggression is redirected toward a less threatening and
more available object.
An angry person often acts without thinking. The person has given in to the frustration
and they have given up restraint. Anger can be a healthy response if it motivates us to positive
action but all too often the actions we engage in when angry are destructive.
Common Responses to Frustration
1. Aggression. It refers to any response made with the intent of harming person/objects.
The infliction may be a physical or psychological harm.
2. Displaced Aggression. It refers to the redirecting of aggression to a target other than the
actual source of one’s frustration.
3. Scapegoating. It refers to the act of blaming a person or group of people for conditions
not of their making.
4. Escape. It is the act of reducing discomfort by leaving frustrating situation or by
psychologically withdrawing from them such as apathy (pretending not to care) or illegal
drug use (see more in Lesson 6 below).
What is the Frustration Aggression Theory? It refers to a frustration turning into aggression.
Aggression is a malicious behavior or attitude towards someone or something, usually triggered
by frustration.
What is Frustration-induced Criminality? It refers to the idea that when a person’s behavior is
directed at a specific goal and is blocked; arousal increases and the individual experiences a need
to reduce it. Individuals who employ violence to reduce this frustration will, under extreme
frustration, become more vigorous than usual, possibly even resorting to murder and other
violent actions. A good example of this is, the child who does not have their needs met and
becomes frustrated. The frustration of not having dependency needs met prevents the child from
establishing emotional attachments to other people. The individual may thus become resentful,
angry, and hostile toward other people in general.
What is the Hypothesis of Catharsis? If a person buys a punching bag, or release your
aggression by playing Quake, or by screaming, then he will be less violent and aggressive in dayto-day life, having “released” his aggression.
Lesson 6. Coping and Defense Mechanisms
What are Coping Mechanisms? These refer to the sum total of ways in which people deal with
minor to major stress and trauma. Some of these processes are unconscious ones, others are
learned behavior, and still others are skills that individuals consciously master in order to reduce
stress, or other intense emotions like depression. Not all ways of coping are equally beneficial,
and some can actually be very detrimental.
What are Defense Mechanisms? These refer to an individuals’ way of reacting to frustration.
These are unconscious psychological strategies brought into play by various entities to cope with
reality and to maintain self image. Healthy persons normally use different defenses throughout
life. According to Freud, defense mechanisms are methods that ego uses to avoid recognizing
ideas or emotions that may cause personal anxiety, it is the unrealistic strategies used by the ego
to discharge tension.[18.191
List of Coping and Defense Mechanisms
1. Acting Out. This means literally acting out the desires that are forbidden by the Super
ego and yet desired by the Id. We thus cope with the pressure to do what we believe is
wrong by giving in to the desire. A person who is acting out desires may do it in spite of
his/her conscience or may do it with relatively little thought. Thus, the act may be being
deliberately bad or may be thoughtless wrongdoing.
Examples:
a. An addict gives in to his/her desire for alcohol or drugs.
b. A person who dislikes another person seeks to cause actual harm to him/her.
2. Aim Inhibition. Sometimes we have desires and goals that we believe that we are unable
to achieve. In aim inhibition, we lower our sights, reducing our goals to something that
we believe is actually more possible or realistic.
Examples:
a. A person who sexually desires another person but is unable to fulfill that desire
(for example the other person is married) convinces himself/herself that all he/she
really wants is to be friends.
b. A person who wants to be a veterinarian does not get sufficient exam grades, so
becomes a vet’s assistant instead.
3. Altruism. Avoid your own pains by concentrating on the pains of others. Maybe you can
heal yourself and feel good by healing them and helping them to feel good.
Example: A self-made millionaire who grew up in poverty sets up a charitable foundation and
gains great pleasure from how it helps others get out of the poverty trap. She receives social
accolade and public recognition for her good deeds gratefully.
4. Attack. The best form of defense is attack; it is a common saying and is also a common
action, and when we feel threatened or attacked (even psychologically), we will attack
back. When a person feels stressed in some way, he/she may lash out at whoever is in the
way, whether the other person is a real cause or not. He/she may also attack inanimate
objects.
Example: A person is having problems with his/her computer. He/she angrily bangs the
keyboard.
5. Avoidance. In avoidance, we simply find ways of avoiding having to face uncomfortable
situations, things or activities. The discomfort, for example, may come from unconscious
sexual or aggressive impulses.
Examples:
a. I dislike another person at work. I avoid walking past his/her desk. When people talk
about him/her, I say nothing.
b. My son does not like doing homework. Whenever the subject of school comes up, he
changes the topic. He also avoids looking directly at me.
6. Compartmentalization. It is a “divide and conquer” process for separating thoughts that
will conflict with one another. This may happen. When there are different beliefs or even
when there are conflicting values.
Examples:
a. A person who is very religious and is also a scientist holds the opposing beliefs in
different cognitive compartments, such that when they are in church, they can
have blind faith, whilst when they are in the laboratory, they question everything.
b. My son is an angel in school and a demon at home.
7. Compensation. Where a person has a weakness in one area, they may compensate by
accentuating or building up strengths in another area. Thus, when they are faced with
their weakness, they can say, but I am good at...’, and hence feel reasonably good about
the situation.
Examples:
a. A person who failed in Math excelled in English.
b. People who are not intellectually gifted may turn their attention to social skills.
8. Conversion. It occurs where cognitive tensions manifest themselves in physical
symptoms. The symptom may well be symbolic and dramatic and it often acts as a
communication about the situation. Extreme symptoms may include paralysis, blindness,
deafness, becoming mute or having a seizure while lesser symptoms include tiredness,
headaches and twitches.
Example: A person’s arm becomes suddenly paralyzed after it has been used to threaten to hit
someone else.
9. Denial. It is simply refusing to acknowledge that an event has occurred. The person
affected simply acts as if nothing has happened, behaving in ways that others may see as
bizarre.
Example: A man hears that his wife has been killed, and yet refuses to believe it, still setting the
table for her and keeping her clothes and other accoutrements in the bedroom.
10. Displacement. It refers to the shifting of actions from a desired target to a substitute
target when there are some reasons why the first target is not permitted or not available.
Examples:
a. The boss gets angry and shouts at me. I go home and shout at my wife.” She then shouts
at our son. With nobody is left to displace anger onto, he goes and kicks the dog.
b. A man wins the lottery. He turns to the person next to him and gives the Person a big
kiss.
11. Dissociation. It involves separating a set of thoughts or activities from the main area of
conscious mind, in order to avoid the conflict that this would cause. This can also appear
as taking an objective, third-person perspective, where you ‘go to the balcony’ and look
down on the situation in order to remove emotion from your perspective (it is called
dissociation of affect).
Example: A religious person preaches kindness to all, yet is cruelly strict to children, without
realizing that there is a conflict between the two.
12. Emotionality. When we become stressed or tension is caused, a number of negative
emotions may start to build, including anger, frustration, fear, jealousy and so on. When
we display these emotions, it can affect others around us, arousing similar or polar
feelings. Some people are either not good at restraining their emotions or are less
concerned about the effect on others and more about the personal benefits of emotional
outbursts. As a result, they regularly and habitually display extreme emotions.
Examples:
a. Teenagers often cannot contain the emotions caused by physiological and
temporal development. As a result, they can be very emotional and can contribute
significantly to family problems.
b. A man who has had long relationship problems is given to angry outbursts that
both give temporary respite and yet add to the cycle of relational failures.
13. Fantasy or Day Dreaming. When we cannot achieve or do somethingThat we want, we
channel the energy created by the desire into fantastic Imaginings. Fantasy also provides
temporary relief from the general stresses of everyday living.
Examples:
a. A boy who is punished by a teacher creates fantasies of shooting the teacher.
b. A student who flunks university exams imagines that they could have passed the exams
‘if they really wanted to’.
14. Fight-or-Flight Reaction. When we perceive a significant threat to us, then our bodies
get ready either for a fight to the death or a desperate flight from certain defeat by a
clearly superior adversary.
Example: A lion suddenly appeared in front of a person while walking in the forest. That person
may choose to wrestle the lion or run away to save his life.
15. Help-rejecting Complaining. A person becomes upset or otherwise elicits supporting
actions from other people. When helpful suggestions or other comfort is offered,
however, he/she reject this and return to his/her complaint.
Example: A person complains to his/her partner about problems at work. When the partner
suggests ways of resolving the problems, the solutions are rejected out of hand and the person
continues to complain.
16. Idealization. It is the over-estimation of the desirable qualities and underestimation of
the limitations of a desired thing. We also tend to idealize those things that we have
chosen or acquired. The opposite of idealization is demonization, where something that is
not desired or disliked has its weak points exaggerated and its strong points played down.
Examples:
a. A teenager in awe of a rock star idealizes his/her idol, imagining him/her to have
a perfect life, to be kind and thoughtful, and so on. He/she ignore the star’s
grosser habits and rough background.
b. I buy a sports car and look admiringly at its sleek lines. I ignore the factThat it
drinks fuel and is rather uncomfortable.
17. Identification. It occurs when a person changes apparent facets of his/her personality
such that he/she appears to be more like other people. This process may be to copy
specific people or it may be to change to an idealized prototype. Areas of identification
may include external elements, such as clothing and hair styles as well as internal factors
such as beliefs, values and attitudes.
Examples:
a. A girl dresses like her friends, as much because she likes the garb as any
conscious desire to be like them.
b. A person in a meeting adopts similar body language of his/her manager and tends
to take the same viewpoint.
18. Intellectualization. This refers to a “flight into reason”, where the. Person avoids
uncomfortable emotions by focusing on facts and logic. The situation is treated as an
interesting problem that engages the person on a rational basis, whilst the emotional
aspects are completely ignored as being irrelevant.
Example: A person who is in debt builds a complex spreadsheet of how long it would take to
repay using different payment options and interest rates.
19. Introjection. It occurs as a coping mechanism when we take on attributes of other people
who seem better able to cope with the situation than we do.
Examples:
a. I have to give a presentation but feel scared. I put on the hat of Abraham Lincoln
and imagine I am confidently giving a vital speech to the nation.
b. A child is threatened at his/her school. He/she takes on the strong defender
attributes that he/she perceives in his/her father and pushes away the bully.
20. Passive Aggression. A person who uses passive-aggressive method to cope with stresses
does this by ‘attacking’ others through passive means. Passive aggression often appears
when a person is asked to do something which he/she wants to avoid for some reason
(such as priority of other work). By appearing to agree but not making any real
commitment, he/she can avoid the action.
Examples:
a. A sales person uses a persuasive sales pattern. The customer agrees that this is
just what he/she wants, but when it comes to signing the order, he/she finds
reasons why he/she cannot buy today.
b. A change manager asks people to change what they do. They agree but do not
actually do what they agreed to do.
21. Post-traumatic Growth. An individual who has suffered a traumatic experience
somehow finds ways to turn it into something good. Typically, interpersonal relationships
are improved, with friends and family valued more and more time being spent in helping
others. Self-perception changes through the increase in resiliency gained from realizing
you can cope with hardship.
Examples:
a. A mother who has lost her child due to cancer raises significant money for cancer
charities.
b. After a terrorist attack, people are friendlier with others nearby and help out.
22. Projection. When a person has uncomfortable thoughts or feelings, he/she may project
these onto other people, assigning the thoughts or feelings that he/she need to repress to a
convenient alternative target. Projection may also happen to obliterate attributes of other
people with which we are uncomfortable.
Examples:
a. An unfaithful husband suspects his wife of infidelity.
b. A woman who is attracted to a fellow worker accuses the person of sexual
advances.
23. Provocation or Free-floating. When a person feels stressed, his/her way to avoid
dealing with the real issues is to provoke others into some kind of reaction.
Examples:
a. A very common context for provocation is between teenagers and their parents,
siblings and teachers. The teenager deliberately does something reprehensible,
gets told off, and then blames the other person.
b. Provocation is also a common cause of fights, both verbal and physical.. A person
who needs to affirm his/her power will provoke a weaker other in order to
escalate into conflict he/she is confident he/she can win.
24. Reaction Formation. It occurs when a person feels an urge to do or say something
and then actually does or says something that is effectively the opposite of what he/she
really wants. It also appears as a defense against a feared social punishment.
Examples:
a. A person who is angry with a colleague actually ends up being particularly courteous and
friendly towards him/her.
b. A man who is gay has a number of conspicuous heterosexual affairs and openly criticizes
gays.
25. Rationalization. When something happens that we find difficult to accept, then we will
make up a logical reason why it has happened. We rationalize to ourselves.
Examples:
a. A person evades paying taxes and then rationalizes it by talking about how the
government wastes or losses money through corruption. University
b. A person fails to get good enough results to get into a chosen and then says that he/she
didn’t want to go there anyway.
26. Regression. It involves taking the position of a child in some problematic situation,
rather than acting in a more adult way. This is usually in response to stressful situations,
with greater levels of stress potentially leading to more overt regressive acts. Regressive
behavior can be simple and harmless, such as a person who is sucking a pen (as a
Freudian regression to oral fixation).
Examples:
a. A person who suffers a mental breakdown assumes a fetal position, rocking and
crying.
b. A college student carefully takes his/her teddy-bear with him/her (and goes to
sleep cuddling it).
27. Repression. It involves placing uncomfortable thoughts in relatively inaccessible areas of
the subconscious mind. Thus, when things occur that we are unable to cope with now, we
push them away, either planning to deal with them at another time or hoping that they
will fade away on their own accord. The level of ‘forgetting’ in repression can vary from
a temporary abolition of uncomfortable thoughts to a high level of amnesia, where events
that caused the anxiety are buried very deep.
Examples:
a. A child who is abused by a parent later has no recollection of the events, but has trouble
forming relationships.
b. A man has a phobia of spiders but cannot remember the first time he was afraid of them.
28. Self-harming. It refers to the person’s physically deliberately hurting himself in some
way or otherwise puts himself at high risk of harm.
Examples:
a. Slapping oneself.
b. Punching a hard wall.
29. Somatization. It occurs where a psychological problem turns into physical and
subconscious symptoms. This can range from simple twitching to skin rashes, heart
problems and worse.
Examples:
a. A policeman, who has to be very restricted in his professional behavior, develops
hypertension.
b. A worried actor develops a twitch.
30. Sublimation. It is the transformation of unwanted impulses into something less harmful.
This can simply be a distracting release or may be a constructive and valuable piece of
work. Many sports and games are sublimations of aggressive urges, as we sublimate the
desire to fight into the ritualistic activities of formal competition.
Examples:
a. I am angry. I go out and chop wood. I end up with a useful pile of firewood. I am
also fitter and nobody is harmed.
b. A person with strong sexual urges becomes an artist.
31. Suppression. This is where the person consciously and deliberately pushes down any
thought that leads to feelings of anxiety. Actions that take the person into anxietycreating situations may also be avoided.
Examples:
a. An older man has sexual feelings towards a teenager and quickly suppresses the
thought.
b. I am about to take a short-cut down an alleyway. There are some people down
there. I decide to take the longer, but more ‘interesting’ route.
32. Substitution. This takes something that leads to discomfort and replace it with something
that does not lead to discomfort.
Examples:
a. Rather than making a difficult phone call, I call my daughter for a chat. B. Instead of
putting up a mirror, I put up a photograph of myself when I was younger.
33. Symbolization. It is a way of handling inner conflicts by turning them into distinct symbols.
Symbols are often physical items, although there may also be symbolic acts and metaphoric
ideas.
Examples:
a. A soldier explains his decision to join the army as ‘defending the flag’.
b. A man asks for the woman’s hand, symbolizing the ‘hand in marriage’.
34. Trivializing. When we are faced with a disappointment over something that is important to
us, we are faced with the problem of having our expectations and predictions dashed. We may
even have told other people about it beforehand, making it doubly embarrassing that we have not
gained what we expected. One way is to make something a joke, laughing it off.
Examples:
a. A girl rejects the advances of a boy. He tells his friends that she isn’t that pretty anyway.
b. I lose a lot of money due to gambling. I tell myself that I didn’t need it anyway.
35. Undoing. It refers to performance of an act to ‘undo’ a previous unacceptable act or thought.
Confession is a form of undoing, including that done in a church to a priest or a secret admission
to a close friend.
Examples:
a. A man who has been unkind to his wife buys her flowers (but does not apologize).
b. A person who has barged in front of others in a queue holds the door open for them.
36. Positive Coping. There are a number of approaches that we can take to cope in a positive
way with problems, including:
a. Immediate problem-solving: Seeking to fix the problem that is the immediate cause of our
difficulty.
b. Root-cause solving: Seeking to fix the underlying cause such that the problem will never
recur.
c. Benefit-finding: Looking for the good things amongst the bad.
d. Spiritual growth: Finding ways of turning the problem into a way to grow ‘spiritually’ or
emotionally.
Example: A student fails an exam. He/she views it as an opportunity to deepen his/her learning
and study hard.
Lessons 5 and 6 Practical Exercises. See APPENDIX C, pages 73-74
End of Chapter II.
CHAPTER III
MENTAL DISORDERS AND CRIMINALITY
This chapter presents the common disorders that are somehow associated with abnormal persons.
Such abnormalities are: anxiety disorders, delusional disorders, mood disorders, personality
disorders, schizophrenia, sexual disorders, somatoform disorders and dissociative disorders.
Likewise, research studies were presented regarding association of the disorders to criminality or
criminal behavior.
EXPECTED LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this chapter, students are expected to have:
a. understood the types of mental disorders and their sub-types, as well as their effects to human
behavior;
b. contrasted the differences of mental disorders;
c. identified and analyzed how the mental disorders are associated to criminality based on
research findings; and
d. recognized the importance of understanding mental disorders and their connection to
administration criminal justice.
Lesson L. Mental Disorders
What is Mental Disorder? A mental disorder is a broad term used to group physical and
psychological symptoms that cause abnormal thoughts and behaviors. Mental disorders are more
commonly referred to as mental illnesses. These illnesses cause abnormal behavior that is
disruptive to a person’s life. Mental illnesses may be associated with the brain, but they have
more in common with other bodily illnesses than they do differences.
Causes of Mental Disorder
The most common model used by psychologists to explain why mental disorder occurs is
called the biopsychosocial model. The word simply means that biological, psychological and
social factors all contribute to mental disorders.
Two General Kind of Mental Disorder
A. Neurosis
What is Neurosis? Neurosis is a class of functional mental disorder involving distress but
neither delusions nor hallucinations, whereby behavior is not outside socially accepted norms.
Neurosis also known as psychoneurosis or neurotic disorder, and thus those suffering
from it are said to be neurotic. It involves impaired social, intellectual and/or vocational
functioning without disorganization of personality or loss of contact with reality. The kinds or
symptoms are:
1. Anxiety Reaction. Anxiety reaction has diffused fearfulness, tension, and restlessness
with sometimes snowball into episodes of panic.
2. Dissociative Reaction. Dissociative reaction is a massive repression or dissociation of
certain aspect of experience or memory varying inntensity from sleepwalking to amnesias
and multiple personality disturbances.
3. Conversion Reaction. Conversion reaction illustrates symbolic resolution of conflict that
imitates the effects of physical illnesses like paralysis, blindness, anaesthesia, etc.
4. Phobic Reaction. Phobic reaction refers to intense, irrational fear of specific objects or
events that may have a symbolic significance on the afflicted individual.
5. Obsessive-Compulsive Reaction. Obsessive-compulsive reaction has repetitive,
irrational thoughts (obsessions) and/or actions (compulsions) which usually involve some
symbolic effort at conflict resolution.
6. Depressive Reaction. Depressive reaction refers to depression, usually accompanied by
guilt, feelings of inferiority, and anxiety.
B. Psychosis
What is Psychosis? Psychosis came from the word psyche, for mind/soul, and osis, for
abnormal condition. It means abnormal condition of the mind, and is a generic psychiatric term
for a mental state often described as involving a “loss of contact with reality.” People suffering
from psychosis are said to be psychotic. Disorganization of personality marked by impaired
vocational and social functioning and intellectual deterioration. It has the following
characteristics: disorientation of time, place and/or person: delusion (false beliefs);
hallucination (false perception); bizarre behavior; inappropriate emotional responses; distortion
of thinking, association, and judgment. The kinds and symptoms are:
1. Involution Reaction. Involution reaction demonstrates severe depression during the
involution period without previous history of psychosis.
2. Affective Reaction. There is a presence of inappropriately exaggerated mood and
marked change in activity level with associated thought disorder.
3. Manic-Depressive Reaction. Manic-depressive reaction shows cyclical disturbances
involving various combinations of or alternation between excitement and delusional
optimism on the one hand and immobilizing, delusional depression on the other.
4. Schizophrenic Reaction. Schizophrenic reactions are bizarre behavior; disturbances of
thought and reality testing, emotional withdrawal; and varying levels of psychotic
thinking and behavior.
Lesson 2. Anxiety Disorder
Anxiety is a psychological disorder that involves excessive levels of negative emotions, such as
nervousness, tension, worry, fright, and anxiety. It is a generalized feeling of apprehension, fear,
or tension that may be associated with a particular object or situation or may be free-floating, not
associated with anything specific. Anxiety can cause such distress that it interferes with a
person’s ability to lead a normal life.
What is the difference between Anxiety and Fear? Anxiety is defined as an unpleasant emotional
state for which the cause is either not readily identified or perceived to be uncontrollable or
unavoidable, whereas, fear is an emotional and physiological response to a recognized external
threat or a response to a real danger or threat.
What are the symptoms of an Anxiety Disorder? Symptoms vary depending on the type of
anxiety disorder, but general symptoms include:
a. Feelings of panic, fear, and uneasiness,
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
k.
Uncontrollable, obsessive thoughts,
Repeated thoughts or flashbacks of traumatic experiences.
Nightmares,
Ritualistic behaviors, such as repeated hand washing.
cold or sweaty hands and/or feet,
shortness of breath,
Numbness or tingling in the hands or feet,
nausea,
Muscle tension,
dizziness, and the like.
Types of Anxiety Disorder
1. Generalized Anxiety Disorder. This disorder involves excessive, unrealistic worry and
tension, even if there is little or nothing to provoke the anxiety. Accordingly, symptoms
include restlessness or feeling keyed up. Difficulty concentrating, irritability, muscle
tension and jitteriness, deep disturbance, and unwanted, intrusive worries.
2. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD). People with OCD are plagued by constant
thoughts or fears that cause them to perform certain rituals or routines. The disturbing
thoughts are called obsessions – are anxiety provoking thoughts that will not go away
(ex.: one may have repetitive thoughts of killing a child, of becoming contaminated by a
handshake, or of having unknowingly hurt someone in a traffic accident; and the rituals
are called compulsions are irresistible urges to engage in behaviors (ex.: a person with an
unreasonable fear of germs who constantly washes his or her hands, compulsive
counting, touching, and checking).
3. Panic Disorder. This disorder keeps recurring attacks to a person of intense fear or
panic, often with feelings of impending doom of death. People with this condition have
feelings of terror that strike suddenly and repeatedly with no warning. Other symptoms of
a panic attack include sweating, chest pain, palpitations (irregular beartbeats), and a
feeling of choking, which may make the person feel like he or she is having a heart attack
or “going crazy.”
4. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). PTSD is a condition that can develop
following a traumatic and/or terrifying event, such as a sexual or physical assault, the
unexpected death of a loved one, or a natural disaster. people with PTSD often have
lasting and frightening thoughts and memories of the event, and tend to be emotionally
numb.
5. Specific Phobias. It exhibits intense fear of a specific object or situation, such as snakes,
heights, or flying. Phobia is an exaggerated, unrealistic fear of a specific situation,
activity, or object. The level of fear usually is inappropriate to the situation and may
cause the person to avoid common everyday situations.
6. Social Anxiety Disorder. This is also called social phobia. It involves overwhelming
worry and self-consciousness about everyday social situations. The worry often centers
on a fear of being judged by others, or behaving in a way that might cause embarrassment
or lead to ridicule.
Three Types of Anxiety According to Freud
1. Reality Anxiety. It refers to fear of real dangers in the external world.
2. Neurotic Anxiety. It refers to fear that instincts will get out of control and cause the
person to do something for which he or she will be punished.
3. Moral Anxiety. It refers to fear of the conscience. People with well developed superegos
tend to feel guilty when they do something that is contrary to the moral code by which
they have been raised.
Anxiety Disorder and Criminality: Research Findings
Among offenders with Anti-social Personality Disorder (APD), the presence of anxiety
disorders may increase behavior problems and limit participation in offender rehabilitation
programs and work training. People with APD and anxiety disorders have high rates of helpseeking behavior An untreated anxiety disorder may also increase the risk of substance misuse,
which, in turn, increases the risk of repeat offending.
Lessons I and 2 Practical Exercises. See APPENDIX A, pages 119-12
Lesson 3. Delusional Disorder: False Belief
Delusional disorder is sometimes referred to as paranoia, delusions are false, sometimes
even preposterous, beliefs that are not part of the person’s culture. One might think he is Jesus
Christ; another Napoleon.
The concept delusional disorder was derived from the Greek word paranous (paranoia).
Para means besides, while nous means mind, or in other words it refers to a mind besides itself.
The term paranoia was previously used to describe a number of observable phenomena including
delirium associated with fever, delusional jealousy and being overly suspicious.
Seven Types of Delusional Disorder
1. Persecutory Type (Delusion of Persecution). The central theme of this delusion is that
the individual is being conspired against, spied on, followed, poisoned, cheated, harassed
or obstructed. Individuals who hold these beliefs are either suspicious generally, or may
be suspicious of one or more persons. These individuals may often show anger,
resentment and violence, and therefore the persecutory type is commonly associated with
violent criminal conduct. Individuals suffering from such delusions could also hold the
belief that there is some injustice that needs to be remedied by legal action.
2. Jealous Type. The central theme of this delusion is that the individual’s spouse or lover
is being unfaithful. The individual’s belief is confirmed by drawing incorrect inferences
from “evidence” he or she has gathered to support the belief. For example, stains on bed
sheets or ruffled clothing may be used as supporting “evidence”. The individual may
confront his or her spouse or lover with the evidence, restrict the spouse’s autonomy,
follow the spouse or lover to investigate the belief, or even attack the spouse or lover.
3. Erotomanic Type. The central theme of this delusional is that another person is in love
with the individual. The other person is usually of a high status such as a famous person
or a sports hero, or could be a complete stranger. The delusion is that the other person
and the deluded person have a romantic and spiritual relationship, rather than a sexual
relationship. The individual may try to contact the object of the delusion by telephone,
sending letters, stalking or gifts. Individuals suffering from this delusional, especially
males, may experience some form of confrontation with the law during their efforts to
“rescue” the objects of their delusions from some sort of “danger.
4. Grandiose Type (Delusion of Grandeur). The central theme of this delusion is that the
individual believes he or she has an extraordinary talent or has made an important
discovery. The individual may also believe that he or she has a special relationship with a
prominent person such as being the adviser to the president, or that he or she is the
prominent person. In this case the actual person is considered the impostor. In some
cases, individuals suffering from grandiose delusions may believe that they are the
Savior.
5. Somatic Type. This delusion is centered on bodily functions or sensations. In some
cases, the individuals may believe that they omit a foul odor from their skin, mouth or
rectum. Sometimes it is believed that there are internal parasites in the body, or that a
certain part of the body is ugly or not functioning properly Self-mutilation can take place
to free the body from the parasites.
6. Mixed Type. In this subtype, no delusional theme is predominant, There could be a
combination of delusional themes, for example, having delusions of love as well as
delusions of jealousy. Guenter Parche, a 38-year old man, stabbed the tennis star Monica
Seles with a serrated steak knife with a five-inch blade, not because he hated her enough
to kill her but rather because he was a fan of the number two-ranked Steffi Graf. He was
obsessed and jealous to such a degree that he wanted to put the number one-ranked Seles
out of action. By stabbing Seles, he paid heed to his delusion of love and jealousy.
7. Unspecified Type. Where a dominant delusional belief cannot be clearly determined or
does not fall within the description of the other subtypes, it is classified as an unspecified
type of delusional disorder. For example, this would be where an individual has delusions
of reference but there is no predominant persecutory component. In this case the person
believes that others' actions, or specific occurrences, refer to him or her. Such a person
may believe that a group of friends who are innocently talking to each other about sports
may be referring to him or her. The person with the delusion of reference may feel
threatened and it is possible that he or she may react on the basis of the unsubstantiated
belief. Although the person is out of hearing range and cannot follow the conversation,
there might be an attack if he or she is convinced that they are mocking him or her.
Types of Delusional Disorders not Included in the DSM-IV-TR
1. Delusions of Control. The central theme of this delusion is that a person believe that he is
under control. The individual may believe that his or her thoughts are being controlled or
influenced from outside him or her. These delusions are often accompanied by delusions of
description of how the individual's thoughts are being controlled by means of, for example,
electronic devices, computers or telepathy.
2. Delusions of Reference. The predominant delusional theme is the false belief that others are
talking about one. It could also refer to instances where an individual falsely believes that the
behavior of others refers to him or her! A person acting under this type could be considered
dangerous, for example if the individual tries to "defend" himself or herself against another
individual who he or she believes is referring to them. In this case, the deluded individual will
not be acting in self-defense but would be committing a crime.
3. Delusions of Self-accusation or Delusion of Guilt. This delusion is associated with intense
feelings of guilt and remorse, and could be regarded as the extreme opposite of the grandiose
delusion, where the individual replaces feelings of saving the world with the delusional belief
that the world is coming to an end. The depressed individual could feel that the salvation of the
world depends on his or her own death, and may mutilate himself or herself or have suicidal
tendencies.
Causes Delusional Disorder
1. Genetic. The fact that delusional disorder is more common in people who have family
members with delusional disorder or schizophrenia suggests there might be a genetic factor
involved. It is believed that, as with other mental disorders, a tendency to develop delusional
disorder might be passed on from parents to their children.
2. Biological. Researchers are studying how abnormalities of certain areas of the brain might be
involved in the development of delusional disorders. Abnormalities in the functioning of brain
regions that control perception and thinking may be linked to the formation of delusional
symptoms.
3. Environmental/Psychological. Evidence suggests that delusional disorder can be triggered by
stress. Also, alcohol and drug abuse contribute to the condition. Isolated people, such as
immigrants or those with poor sight and hearing, are more vulnerable to developing delusional
disorder.
Delusion and Criminality: Research Findings
Delusional disorders may be uncommon but they are a reality. Those suffering from
delusional disorders may seem harmless or eccentric until they commit a crime.
Criminal behavior is sometimes motivated by delusional thinking. For example,
individuals with persecutory delusions may act violently in pre-emptive (perceived) self-defense.
Those with erotomanic delusions may stalk the object of their delusional affection, and those
with jealous delusions may seek retribution for perceived infidelity. Mental illness is observed
more often in prison than would be expected in a general community sample.
Lesson 4. Mood Disorder
Mood disorder is characterized by extreme and unwanted disturbances in feeling or
mood. It refers to major disturbances in one's condition or emotion, such as depression and
mania. It is otherwise known as affective disorder.
Types of Mood Disorder
1. Bipolar Disorder. It is formerly known as manic-depression; there are swings in mood
from elation (extreme happiness) to depression (extreme sadness) with no discernable
external cause.
Two Phases of Bipolar
i. Manic Phase. During this phase, the patient may show excessive,
unwarranted excitement or silliness, carrying jokes too far. They may also
show poor judgment and recklessness and may be argumentative, Manic
may speak rapidly, have unrealistic ideas, and jump from subject to
subject. They may not be able to sleep or sit still for very long.
ii. Depressive Episode. The other side of the bipolar coin is the depressive
episode. Bipolar depressed patients often sleep more than usual and are
lethargic. During bipolar depressive episodes, a patient may also show
irritability and withdrawal.
Accordingly, the depressed person speaks slowly and monotonously while the manic
person speaks rapidly, dramatically, often with many jokes and puns. The depressed person has
low self-esteem while the manic person has inflated self-esteem.
2. Depressive Disorder. Depressive disorder is when the person experiences extended,
unexplainable periods of sadness.
Three Kinds of Depressive Disorder
a. Major Depressive Disorder. A person with this depression is in a depressed mood
for most of the day, nearly every day or has lost interest or pleasure in all, or
almost all, activities, for a period of at least two weeks.
b. Single Episode. Single episode depression is like major depression only it strikes
in one dramatic episode.
c. Recurrent. Recurrent depression is an extended pattern of depressed episodes
which include any of the features of major depressive disorder.
Mood Disorder and Criminality: Research Findings
Arrest and incarceration are potential complications of bipolar disorder, which has a
higher prevalence among incarcerated individuals than in the community 251 Early onset of
bipolar disorder is associated with juvenile antisocial behavior and greater likelihood of arrest,
Individuals with bipolar disorder who had been arrested had more hospitalizations than those
who had not and were more likely to be experiencing manic symptoms.
Bipolar disorder is associated with a heightened risk of suicide compared with the general
population. A 15-fold increased risk of suicide in men and a 20-fold increased risk in women.
Similarly, in a single year approximately 0.017% of the international population died by suicide,
whereas for people with bipolar disorder it was as high as 0.4% More controversially, bipolar
disorder has been linked with aggressive and criminal behaviors such as robbery and assault,
especially during manic episodes. A systematic review found that people with bipolar disorder
were more likely to have committed violent crime than the general population.
Lessons 3 and 4 Practical Exercises. See APPENDIX B, pages 123-124
Lesson 5. Personality Disorder
Personality disorders are chronic maladaptive cognitive-behavioral patterns that are
thoroughly integrated into the individual’s personality and that are troublesome to others or
whose pleasure sources are either harmful or illegal.
Types and Categories of Personality Disorder
Cluster A: Odd or Eccentric Behaviors
1. Schizoid Personality Disorder (SPD). Those with SPD may be perceived by others as
somber, aloof and often are referred to as loners.
Manifestations:
a. Social isolation and a lack of desire for close personal relationships.
b. Prefers to be alone and seem withdrawn and emotionally detached.
c. Seem indifferent to praise or criticism from other people.
2. Paranoid Personality Disorder (PPD). Although they are prone to unjustified angry or
aggressive outbursts when they perceive others as disloyal or deceitful, those with PPD
more often come across as emotionally “cold” or excessively serious.
Manifestations:
a. They feel constant suspicion and distrust toward other people.
b. They believe that others are against them and constantly look for evidence to support
their suspicions.
c. They are hostile toward others and react angrily to perceived insults.
3. Schizotypal Personality Disorder (SPD). This disorder is characterized both by a need
for isolation as well as odd, outlandish, or paranoid beliefs. Some researchers suggest this
disorder is less severe than schizophrenia.
Manifestations:
a.
b.
c.
d.
They engage in odd thinking, speech, and behavior.
They may ramble or use words and phrases in unusual ways.
They may believe they have magical control over others.
They feel very uncomfortable with close personal relationships and tend to be suspicion
of others.
Cluster B: Dramatic, Emotional, or Erratic Behaviors
1. Antisocial Personality Disorder (APB). APD is characterized by lack of empathy or
conscience, a difficulty controlling impulses and manipulative behaviors. Antisocial
behavior in people less than 18 years old is called conduct disorder.
Manifestations:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Act in a way that disregards the feelings and rights of other people.
Anti-social personalities often break the law.
Use or exploit other people for their own gain.
They may lie repeatedly, act impulsively, and get into physical fights.
They may mistreat their spouse, neglect or abuse their children and exploit their
employees.
f. They may even kill other people.
g. People with this disorder are also sometimes called sociopaths or psychopaths.
People with this disorder are at high risk for premature and violent death, injury,
imprisonment, loss of employment, bankruptcy, alcoholism, drug dependence, and failed
personal relationships.
2. Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD). This mental illness interferes with an
individual’s ability to regulate emotion. Borderlines are highly sensitive to rejection, and
fear of abandonment may result in frantic efforts to avoid being left alone, such as suicide
threats and attempts.
Manifestations:
a.
b.
c.
d.
They have intense emotional instability, mostly in relationship with other.
They make frantic efforts to avoid real/imagined abandonment by others.
They may experience minor problems as major crises.
They express their anger, frustration, and dismay through suicidal gestures, selfmutilation, and other self-destructive acts.
e. They tend to have an unstable self-image or sense of self.
Borderline personalities are at high risk for developing depression, alcoholism, drug
dependence, and bulimia; dissociate disorder, and post traumatic stress disorder. Furthermore, 10
percent of people with this disorder commit suicide by the age of 30.
3. Narcissistic Personality Disorder (NPD). NPD is characterized primarily by
grandiosity, need for admiration, and lack of empathy. Narcissistic tend to be extremely
self-absorbed, intolerant of others’ perspectives, insensitive to others’ needs and
indifferent to the effect of their own egocentric behavior.
Manifestations:
a. They a grandiose sense of self-importance.
b. They seek excessive admiration from others and fantasize about unlimited success
or power.
c. They believe they are special, unique, or superior to others. However, they often
have very fragile self-esteem.
4. Histrionic Personality Disorder (HPD), Individuals with this personality disorder
exhibit a pervasive pattern of excessive emotionality and attempt to get attention in
unusual ways, such as bizarre appearance or speech.
Manifestations:
a. They strive to be the center of attention.
b. They act overly flirtatious or dress in ways that draw attention.
c. They may also talk in dramatic or theatrical style and display exaggerated emotional
reactions.
Cluster C: Anxious, Fearful Behaviors
1. Avoidant Personality Disorder (APD). Those with avoidant personalities are often
hypersensitive to rejection and unwilling to take social risks Avoidant displays a high
level of social discomfort, timidity, fear of criticism, avoidance of activities that involve
interpersonal contact.
Manifestations:
a.
b.
c.
d.
They possess intense, anxious shyness.
They are reluctant to interact with others unless they feel certain of being liked
They fear being criticized and rejected.
They often view themselves as socially inept and inferior to others.
2. Dependent Personality Disorder (DPD). People with this disorder typically exhibits a
pattern of needy and submissive behavior, and rely on others to make decisions for them.
Manifestations:
a. They have severe and disabling emotional dependency on others.
b. They have difficulty in making decisions without a great deal of advice and
reassurance from others.
c. They urgently seek out another relationship when a close relationship cods.
d. They feel uncomfortable by themselves
3. Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder (OCPD). It is also called as Anankastic
Personality Disorder. Persons with OCPD are so focused on order and perfection that their
lack of flexibility interferes with productivity and efficiency. They can also be workaholics,
preferring the control of working alone, as they are afraid that work completed by others will
not be done correctly.
Manifestations:
a. They have a preoccupation with details, orderliness, perfection, and control.
b. They devote excessive amounts of time to work and productivity and fail to take time
for leisure activities and friendships.
c. They tend to be rigid, formal, stubborn, and serious.
This disorder differs from obsessive-compulsive disorder, which often includes more bizarre
behavior and rituals
Personality Disorder and Criminality: Research Findings
Eysenck believes that personality is the main factor in criminal behavior, has a decisive role
in crime, and their study is the only systematic method through which criminal behavior can be
explained.
The findings of a study on 440 prisoners in Tehran, Iran, showed that 88% of prisoners were
men. Moreover, 51.8%, 15.7%, 10.2%, 8.6%, 5.0%, 1.4%, 3.0%, and 1.6% were imprisoned due
to fraud, theft, blood money payment, infidelity, denying, and failure to pay dowry, murder, and
smuggling, respectively. Furthermore, the prevalence of avoidant personality disorder (AvPD),
narcissistic personality disorder (NPD), antisocial personality disorder (ASPD), aggressivemasochistic personality disorder, passive-aggressive personality disorder, and self-defeating
personality disorder was higher than other disorders. A significant relationship was observed
between type of crime and schizoid personality disorder (SPD).D)
The prevalence of clinical personality patterns among imprisoned women was 61.2% and
schizotypal personality disorder (STPD), paranoid personality disorder (PPD), and borderline
personality disorder (BPD) were, respectively, the most prevalent among men, and PPD, SPD,
and histrionic personality disorder (BPD) were, respectively, the most prevalent among women.
In the study conducted on addicts in the prison of Kashan, Iran, the highest prevalence was,
respectively, observed in ASPD (12 individuals; 24%), MDD (10 individuals, 20%), hypomania
(7 individuals; 14%), hypochondriasis (5 individuals; 10% ), HPD (5 individuals; 10%), PPD (4
individuals; 8%), anxiety disorder (4 individuals; 8%), and SPD (individuals; 6%),
In a study on prisoners charged with narcotics-related crimes, 85.2% of the studied
individuals had personality disorders, the most prevalent disorders were HPD (42.4 %) and
ASPD (40.4 %) and the least prevalent disorder was SPD (14.6 %). Moreover, mixed personality
disorder was observed in 52,6% of the subjects. Furthermore, occupation, education, and marital
status had a significant correlation with drug trafficking
Another study reported a 55.2% prevalence (112 individuals) of personality disorders among
prisoners ASPD (18.2%) was the most prevalent disorder [40,41,42,43) SPD (8.4%), dependent
personality disorder (DPD) (8.4%), BPD (7.4%), mixed personality disorder (3.4%), obsessive
compulsive disorder (OCD) (3.0%), HPD (3.0%), PPD (2.5%), and other personality disorders
(0.9%) were also observed. The evaluation of the prevalence of personality disorders based on
crime type showed that the highest prevalence was related to theft (64.1%), drug addiction
(60.9%), iniquity and murder (55.6%), drug trafficking (55.0%), and financial crimes (40.9%),
respectively.
Paranoid persons committing violent crimes and whose personality characteristics are
primarily paranoid belong to a variety of subtypes. Some exhibit pathological jealousy, others,
extreme bigotry, still others, persecutory ideation and grudge-holding. Within the latter category
will be situated the majority of persons committing mass murder (i.e. the murder of three or more
people in one outburst). Almost all mass murderers are male.
A diagnosis of Antisocial Personality Disorder (ASPD) has consistently been linked to the
criminal behavior, including violent offending, of prisoners.
Further evidence for a relationship between personality disorder and violence has emerged
from research investigating perpetrators of violence in the community. A large number of crosssectional studies have demonstrated that individuals who engage in violent and nonviolent
offending, (47,4 aggression, 9501 and intimate partner violence 15 are more likely to meet
diagnosis for a personality disorder. Also, individuals diagnosed with a cluster A or B
personality disorder, as defined by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders,
fourth edition, had a threefold likelihood of committing violent acts in the future. A high
propensity for aggression has also been identified in individuals seeking treatment for personality
disorder.
Violent Recidivism: Research Findings
Personality disorder is a central criterion in current approaches to violence risk assessment and
management, and has been documented to increa the risk of violent recidivism. A diagnosis of
ASPD is especially predictive, for instance, found that reconviction rates for attempted or
completed murder, manslaughter, assault, robbery, or rape were 3.7 times higher for individuals
with this diagnosis. Psychopathy has also been found to strongly predict violent recidivism.
Suggested Readings:
1. Veronica Cabacungan Alcazar vs. Rey C. Alcazar, G.R. No. 174451. October 13, 2009
2. Glenn Viñas vs. Mary Grace Parel-Viñas. G.R. No. 208790. January 21, 2015.
3. Marable vs. Marable. G.R. No. 178741. January 17, 2011.
Lesson 6. Somatoform Disorder
Somatoform disorder is a mental disorder characterized by physical symptoms that mimic
physical disease or injury for which there is no identifiable physical cause. The symptoms that
result from a somatoform disorder are due to mental factors.
People who have this disorder may undergo several medical evaluations and tests to be sure
that they do not have an illness related to a physical cause or central lesion. Patients with this
disorder often become very worried about their health because the doctors are unable to find a
cause for their health problems.
Six Major Types of Somatoform Disorder
1. Conversion Disorder (Hysteria). This is a condition where a patient displays neurological
symptoms such as numbness, paralysis, or fits, even though no neurological explanation is found
and it is determined that the human Behavior and Victimology Symptoms are due to the patient’s
psychological response to stress.
Symptoms are grouped as follows:
a. Sensory Symptoms. These include anesthesia. Excessive sensitivity to strong stimulation
(hyper anesthesia), loss of sense of pain (analgesia), and unusual symptoms such as tingling or
crawling sensations
b. Motor Symptoms. Any of the body’s muscle groups may be involved. Arms, legs, vocal
cords. Included are tremors, tics (involuntary twitches), and disorganized mobility or paralysis.
c. Visceral Symptoms. Examples includes trouble swallowing, frequent belching, spells of
coughing or vomiting, all carried to an uncommon extreme. In both sensory and motor
symptoms, the areas affected may not correspond at all to the nerve distribution in the area.
2. Hypochondriasis. It refers to condition in which persons are preoccupied with their health
and are convinced that they have some serious disorder despite reassurance from doctors to the
contrary.
3. Somatization Disorder. Also called as briquet’s disorder or, in antiquity, hysteria is a
psychiatric diagnosis applied to patients who chronically and persistently complain of varied
physical symptoms that have no identifiable physical origin.
4. Pain Disorder. It occurs when a patient experiences chronic pain in one or more areas, and is
thought to be caused by psychological stress. The pain is often so severe that it disables the
patient from proper functioning. It can last as short as a few days, to as long as many years.
5. Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD). It is previously known as dysmorphophobia and
sometimes referred to as body dysmorphia or dysmorphic syndrome. It occurs when the affected
person is excessively concerned about and preoccupied by a perceived defect in his or her
physical features (body image).
6. Undifferentiated Somatoform Disorder. In this kind, only one unexplained symptom is
required for at least 6 months. Included among these disorders are false pregnancy, psychogenic
urinary retention, and mass psychogenic illness (so-called mass hysteria).
Difference between Factitious Disorder and Malingering
Factitious disorder is the term used to describe a pattern of behavior centered on the
exaggeration or outright falsifications of one’s own health problems or the health problems of
others. Some people with this disorder fake or exaggerates physical problems; others fake or
exaggerate psychological problems or a combination of physical and psychological problems.
Factitious disorder differs from a pattern of falsified or exaggerated behavior called malingering.
While malingerers make their claims out of a motivation for personal gain, people with factitious
disorder have no such motivation.
Malingering is not a form of mental illness. However, people who adopt malingering
behaviors often have a diagnosable mental illness called antisocial personality disorder.
Individuals with this disorder have a long standing pattern of involvement in activities that
purposefully exploit or manipulate others, or blatantly disregard the legal rights of others.
Malingerers also frequently exhibit signs another personality-related condition, called histrionic
personality disorder. Individuals with this condition habitually and reflexively use excessive
displays of drama and emotion to gain attention from others.
Factitious disorder and malingering can both potentially bear a strong resemblance to a
mental disorder called conversion disorder, which also belongs to the somatic symptom and
related disorders category,
Somatoform Disorder and Criminality: Research Findings
Cloninger and colleagues have also found genetic links between somatization disorder
and antisocial personality and alcoholism (60.6) The biological fathers of adopted-away women
who were “high-frequency somatizers tended to have a history of violent crime Cloninger
suggested that persons with somatization disorder are characterized by distractibility,
impulsivity, and failure to habituate to repetitive stimuli. It is possible that these traits contribute
to the link between somatization and antisocial personality disorder.
Lessons 5 and 6 Practical Exercises. See APPENDIX C, pages 125-12
Lesson 7. Dissociative Disorder
Dissociative disorder refers to one which loses the integration of consciousness, identity,
and memories of important personal events. This includes four recognized varieties:
1. Psychogenic Amnesia. Also known as dissociative amnesia, it refers to the temporary or
permanent loss of a part or all of the memory caused by extreme psychosocial stress. This stress
is most often associated with catastrophic events. The four sub-categories of psychogenic
amnesia, are:
a. Localized Amnesia. It renders the afflicted person unable to recall the details of a usually
traumatic event, such as a violent incestuous rape This is undoubtedly the most common type of
amnesia
b. Selective Amnesia. This is similar to localized amnesia except that the memory retained is
very selective. A person can recall certain general traumatic situations, but not the specific parts
which make it so.
c. Generalized and Continuous Amnesia. This exists when a person either forgets the details of
his/her entire lifetime, or can’t recall the details prior to a certain point in time, including the
present.
2. Psychogenic Fugue. It is also known as dissociative fugue. It is simply the addition to
generalized amnesia of a flight from family, problem, or location. The person may create an
entirely new life (fugue means flight).
3. Multiple Personality Disorder. Also known as dissociative identity disorder (DID), it refers
to the occurrence of two or more personalities within the same individual, each of which during
sometime in the person’s life is able to take control. It is mentally unhealthy when the
personalities vie for control.
4. Depersonalization/Derealization Disorder. This is the continued presence of feelings that
the person is not himself/herself or that he/she can’t control his/her own actions. This is labeled
as disorder when it is recurrent and impairs social and occupational function.(2
Dissociative Disorder and Criminality: Research Findings
Individuals may commit criminal acts while in a dissociated state. A study that tracked 21
reported DID cases found that 47% of men and 35% of women reported engaging in criminal
activity, including 19% of men and 7% of women who committed homicide.
The concept of dissociation is relevant to forensic psychiatry, as illustrated by the fact
that amnesia and dissociation have frequently been associated with violent crimes.
Moskowitz found that higher levels of dissociation were associated with increased
violence’in a diverse range of populations, including college students, military veterans,
psychiatric patients, and perpetrators of sexual/domestic violence and homicide. Amnesia for the
violent crime was reported in nearly one-third (30%) of homicides. Several studies found an
association between amnesia, dissociation and crimes characterized by lack of planning and lack
of premeditation, heightened emotional states, emotional ties to the victim, and alcohol use.
Evans et al. Conducted a systematic and descriptive investigation of amnesia in a group
of 105 young offenders convicted of violent crimes (lethal and nonlethal bodily harm). Twenty
percent reported either partial or complete amnesia for at least the most violent part of the
assault. All recalled the events preceding the violence and most could identify a precise cutoff by
which they could not recall subsequent events. Only one subject had complete amnesia, leading
the authors to conclude that complete amnesia is rare.
Patients with dissociative disorders have higher rates of suicidal ideation, suicide
attempts, and self-injurious behavior than do people with. Other disorders. Moskowitz and Evans
reported that violent offenders experience peritraumatic dissociation and amnesia; dissociative
experiences are more likely to occur when the violence is more extreme.
Lesson & Impulse Control Disorder
Impulse control disorders (CDs) are common psychiatric conditions in which affected
individuals typically report significant impairment in social and occupational functioning, and
may incur legal and financial difficulties as well.
A simple definition of an ICD is one where the individual cannot resist an impulse to
behave in a certain way or cannot stop repeated behavior, even when they know that the beluvior
must stop.
Types of Impulse Control Disorders
1. Intermittent Explosive Disorder. I refer to person’s irresistible others of anger or extreme
temper tantrums
2. Kleptomania. It refers to the urge of an individual to steal small items that only have very little
value
3. Pathological Gambling, it refers to person’s inability to stop gambling
4. Tridobilomasia. It is an impose to twirl and pull hair or an urge to cat hair fot leads to hair loss
5. Unspecified Impulse Control Disorder. It occurs when someone has symptoms from various
impulse-control disordens, but it is not able to be singed down to onc
6. Compulsive Sexual Behavior. It refers to an excessive uncontrolled sexual behavior or
thoughts that leads to marked distress and social, occupational, legal, and/or financial
consequences.
7. Pyromania. It is characterized by the following diagnostic criteria: deliberate and purposeful
fire setting on more than one occasion, tension or affective arousal before the act, fascination
with, interest in, curiosity about, or attraction to fire and its situational contexts, and pleasure,
gratification, or relief when setting fires or when either witnessing or participating in their
aftermath,
These disorders are characterized by difficulties in resisting urges to engage in behaviors
that are excessive and/or ultimately harmful to oneself or others.
Impulse Control Disorder and Criminality: Research Findings
Pathological gambling is associated with impaired functioning, reduced quality of life;
and high rates of bankruptcy, divorce, and incarceration. Financial and marital problems are
common. Many pathological gamblers engage in illegal behavior, such as stealing,
embezzlement, and writing bad checks to fund their gambling or to attempt to past gambling
losses. Suicide attempts have been reported in 17% of individuals in treatment for pathological
gambling.
Although kleptomania typically has its onset in late adolescence or carly adulthood, the
disorder has been reported in children as young as 4 years and in adults as old as 77 years.
Intense guilt and shame are commonly reported by those with kleptomania. Stolen items are
typically hoarded, given away, returned to the store, or thrown away. Many individuals with
kleptomania (64% to 87%) have been apprehended at some time as a result of their stealing
behavior,
Lesson 9. Sleep Disorder
A sleep disorder is a condition that frequently impacts person’s ability to get enough
quality sleep. While it’s normal to occasionally experience difficulties sleeping, it’s not normal
to regularly have problema getting to sleep at night, to wake up feeling exhausted, or to feel
sleepy during the day. Symptoms can differ depending on the severity and type of sleeping
disorder. They may also vary when sleep disorders are a result of another condition. However,
general symptoms of sleep disorders include:
a. difficulty falling or staying asleep.
b. Daytime fatigue,
c. Strong urge to take naps during the day.
d. Imitability or anxiety,
Lesson 10. Schizophrenia
Schizophrenia is a group of disorders characterized by loss of contact with reality,
marked disturbances of thought and perception, and bizarre behavior. At some phase delusions
or hallucinations almost always occur.
Emil Kraepelin first identified the illness in 1896 when he distinguished it from the
mood disorders. He called it dementia praecox, which means a premature deterioration of the
brain. Emil’s thoughts were later disputed by many psychiatrists. One of these was Eugene
Bleuler, an eminent Swiss psychiatrist, who in 1911 gave the term schizophrenia. He developed
the word by combining two Greek words schizein meaning to split and phren meaning mind.
This emphasized a splitting apart of the patient’s affective and cognitive functioning, which are
heavily affected by the disease. Also, schizophrenia came from the New Latin words schizo,
meaning split, and phrenia, meaning mind.
Categories of Schizophrenic Hallucination
1. Tactile (touch). People with Schizophrenia often have the sensation that there are things (like
bugs or insects) crawling across their skin.
2. Visual (sight). This kind of hallucination causes the person to see things that are not really
there.
3. Auditory (hearing). This is the most common type of hallucination. People with auditory
hallucinations hear voices and sounds that others cannot hear.
4. Olfactory (smell). The person experiencing an olfactory hallucination smells thing (usually
foul-smelling things) that others do not smell.
5. Command (hearing). It occurs when a voice commands the person to do something, he/she
would not ordinarily do.
Characteristics of Schizophrenia
Disturbance of Thought and Attention. People suffering schizophrenia often cannot think
logically and as the result of this they cannot write a story, because every word they write down
might make sense, but are meaningless in relation to each other, and they cannot keep their
attention to the writing. The principal disturbance in the schizophrenic’s thought processes is
multiple delusions. This is divided into two sub-categories:
a. Persecutory Delusion. The schizophrenic believes that he/she is being talked about, spied
upon, or his/her death being planned.
b. Delusion of Reference. The schizophrenic gives personal importance to completely unrelated
incidents, objects, or people.
2. Disturbances of Perception. During acute schizophrenic episodes, people say that the world
appears different to them, their bodies appear longer. Colors seem more intense and they cannot
recognize themselves in a mirror.
3. Disturbances of Affect. Schizophrenic persons fail to show normal emotions. This symptom
is easiest described as an excessive lack of correlation between what an individual is saying and
what emotion they are expressing (e.g. a patient may smile while talking over tragic events).
4. Withdrawal from Reality. During schizophrenic episodes, the individual becomes absorbed
in his inner thoughts and fantasies. The self-absorption may be so intense that the individual may
not know the month or day or the place where he is staying.
5. Delusions and Hallucinations. In most cases schizophrenic is accompanied by delusions.
Delusions, as presented earlier, are inflexible misleading beliefs. They appear as a result
exaggerations or distortions of reasoning, as well as false interpretations of things and events.
The most common are beliefs that other persons are trying to control his thoughts, he may
become suspicious of friends (paranoid), and this is the reason why Robert Kennedy was
assassinated.
Kinds of Schizophrenia
1. Paranoid Schizophrenia. Manifestations are:
a. Is very suspicious of others.
b. Has great schemes of persecution at the root of the behavior.
c. Hallucinates and delusions are also the symptoms of this type.
d. Displays the psychotic symptoms.
2. Residual Schizophrenia. Manifestations are:
a. A person being not motivated or interested in everyday life.
b. Advised when an individual has been through at least one episode of Schizophrenia (6
months) but then “recover!.
3. Disorganized or Hebephrenic Schizophrenia. Manifestations are:
a. Person is incoherent verbally and to his/her feeling.
b. Expressing emotions that are not appropriate to the situation.
4. Catatonic Schizophrenia. Manifestations are:
a. Extremely withdrawn, negative, isolated, and has obvious psychomotor disturbances.
b. The subject may be almost immobile or exhibit agitated purposeless movement
c. Symptoms can include catatonic stupor and waxy flexibility.
5. Undifferentiated Schizophrenia. People this schizophrenia exhibit the symptoms of more
than one of the above-mentioned types of schizophrenia, but without a clear predominance of a
particular set of diagnostic characteristics. This is used when the patient’s symptoms clearly
point to schizophrenia but are so clouded that classification into the different types of
schizophrenia is very difficult
Causes of Schizophrenia
1. Genetic Cause. This cause usually lies in a person’s having immediate relatives with a history
of schizophrenia or other psychiatric diseases (schizoaffective disorder, bipolar disorder, and
depression). Some researchers consider schizophrenia to be highly heritable (estimates are as
high as 70%).
2. Environmental/Social Cause. There is considerable evidence indicating that stress may
trigger episodes of schizophrenia psychosis. For example, emotionally turbulent families and
stressful life events have shown to be some of the risk factors for the relapses or triggers of
schizophrenia episodes.
The social drift hypothesis suggests that people affected by schizophrenia may be less
able to hold steady, demanding, or high-paying jobs. As a result, low income and problems
increases stress levels and leave such people susceptible to lapsing into a schizophrenic episode.
3. Prenatal Cause. This cause is thought to initially come together in early neurodevelopment to
increase the risk of later developing schizophrenia such 25 prenatal exposure to infections. One
curious finding is that people diagnosed with schizophrenia are more likely to have been born in
winter or spring. (at least in the northern hemisphere).
4. Substance Abuse Cause. In a recent study of people with schizophrenia and a substance
abuse disorder, over a ten year period, “substantial proportions were above cutoffs selected by
dual diagnosis clients as indicators of recovery Example: illegal drugs, tobacco and the like.
However, Eugene Bleuler, one of the pioneers in the diagnosis and study of schizophrenia,
divided the disorder into two forms, they are:
a. Reactive or Acute Schizophrenia. It is usually sudden and seems to be a reaction to some life
crisis. Reactive schizophrenia is a more treatable form of the illness than process or chronic
schizophrenia.
b. Process or Chronic Schizophrenia. It is also referred to as poor premorbid schizophrenia;
this type is characterized by lengthy periods. Of its development with a gradual deterioration and
exclusively negative symptoms. It doesn’t seem to be related to any major life change or
negative event. Usually this type of schizophrenia is associated with “loners” who are rejected by
society, tead not to develop social skills and don’t excel out of high school.
Schizophrenia and Criminality: Research Findings
The association between schizophrenia and committing violent acts or different forms of
crime is evident, encompassing interpersonal attack and murder (1001011021031 Individuals
diagnosed with schizophrenia are 4 to 6 times more likely to commit a violent crime In Western
countries, 6% of the homicide perpetrators in the populations were labeled schizophrenic,
Existing research also indicates that the prevalence of crime in patients with schizophrenia is
significantly associated with male sex, being single, refusing to accept treatment, substance
abuse and duration of illness.
Schizophrenia patients seem also to be overrepresented among mentally disordered,
seriously violent offenders, murderers, and murderers diagnosed as mentally ill Matricide seems
to be highly specific to schizophrenia patients.
Also, men with a major mental disorder, including schizophrenia, were found to be 2.6
times more likely to have been convicted of a criminal offense than healthy men and were
registered for more crimes of every type.
Suggested Readings:
1. People of the Philippines vs. Danilo Canillo, et al., G.R. No.
106579. August 30, 1994.
2. People of the Philippines vs. Fernando Madarang y Magno, G.R.
No. 132319 May 12, 2000.
Lessons 7, 8, 9, & 10 Practical Exercises. See APPENDIX D, pages 129-131
Lesson 11. Sexual Disorder or Sexual Dysfunction
Sexual dysfunctions are disorders related to a particular phase of the sexual response
cycle. Sexual disorders include problems of sexual identity, sexual performance, and sexual aim.
Symptoms of Sexual Dysfunction
In Men:
a. Inability to achieve or maintain an erection suitable for intercourse. (erectile dysfunction).
b. Absent or delayed ejaculation despite adequate sexual stimulation (retarded ejaculation).
c. Inability to control the timing of ejaculation (early or premature ejaculation).
In Women:
a. Inability to achieve orgasm.
b. Inadequate vaginal lubrication before and during intercourse.
c. Inability to relax the vaginal muscles enough to allow intercourse
In Men and Women:
a. Lack of interest in or desire for sex
b. Inability to become aroused.
c. Pain with intercourse
What is the Human Sexual Response Cycle? It refers to the sequence of physical and
emotional changes that occur as a person becomes sexually aroused and participates in sexually
stimulating activities, including intercourse and masturbation.
The Cycle has four phases: desire (libido), arousal (excitement), orgasm and resolution.
Both men and women experience these phases, although the timing usually is different. The term
was coined by William H. Masters and Virginia E. Johnson in their 1966 book Human Sexual
Response. The cycle is:
1. Excitement Phase. It is also known as the arousal phase or initial excitement phase. It is the
first stage of the Cycle. It occurs as the result of any erotic physical or mental stimulation, such
as kissing, petting, or viewing erotic images, that lead to sexual arousal. It is characterized by an
erection in males and a swelling of the clitoris and vaginal lubrication in females.
2. Platras Phase. It is the period of sexual excitement prior to orgasm. It is the second phase of
the Cycle, after the excitement phase with the following manifestations such as: further increases
in circulation and heart rate occur in both sexes, sexual pleasure increases with increased
stimulation, muscle tension increases further, for those who never achieve orgasm; this is the
peak of sexual excitement. Both sexes may also begin to vocalize involuntarily at this stage
Prolonged time in the plateau phase without progression to the orgasmic phase may result in
frustration if continued for too long.
3. Orgasmic Phase. It is the conclusion of the plateau phase and is experienced by both sexes. It
is accompanied by quick cycles of muscle contraction in the lower pelvic muscles, which
surround both the anus and the primary sexual organs; women also experience uterine and
vaginal contractions; orgasms are often associated with other involuntary actions, including
vocalizations and muscular spasms in other areas of the body, and a generally euphoric
sensation; in men, orgasm is usually associated with ejaculation. Each ejection is associated with
a wave of sexual pleasure, especially in the penis and loins; the first and second convulsions are
usually the most intense in sensation, and produce the greatest quantity of semen Thereafter,
each contraction is associated with a diminishing volume of semen and a milder wave of
pleasure.
Orgasms in females may also play a significant role in fertilization. The muscular spasms
are theorized to aid in the locomotion of sperm up the vaginal walls into the uterus.
4. Resolution Phase (Refractory Period). It occurs after orgasm and allows the muscles to
relax, blood pressure to drop and the body to slow down from its excited state. Men and women
may or may not experience a refractory period, and further stimulation may cause a return to the
plateau stage. This allows the possibility of multiple orgasms in both sexes. However, typically
men enter this refractory period and some may find continued stimulation to be painful after the
orgasmic phase. Women may not have a similar refractory period and may be able to repeat the
Cycle almost immediately.
Major Categories of Sexual Disorder
Category I. Sexual Dysfunctions
Category II. Paraphilias
Category III. Gender Identity Disorders
Category I. Sexual Dysfunction. It refers to a persistent or recurrent problem that causes
marked distress and interpersonal difficulty and that may involve any or some combination of the
following sexual arousal or the pleasure associated with sex, or orgasm. It is a disturbance in any
phase of the Human Sexual Response Cycle.
Types of Sexual Dysfunction
A. Dysfunctions of Sexual Desire (during Excitement Phase):
1. Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder. It is marked by lack or no sexual drive or interest in
sexual activity. It is characterized by a persistent, upsetting loss of sexual desire.
2 Sexual Aversion Disorder. It is characterized by a desire to avoid genital contact with a
sexual partner. It refers to persistent feelings of fear, anxiety, or disgust about engaging in sex.
B. Dysfunctions of Sexual Arousal (during Plateau Phase):
1. Male Erectile Disorder. It refers to the inability to maintain or achieve an erection (formerly
called as impotence).
2. Female Sexual Arousal Disorder. It refers to none responsiveness to erotic stimulation both
physically and emotionally (formerly called as frigidity).
C. Dysfunctions of Orgasm (during Orgasmic Phase):
1. Premature Ejaculation. It is the unsatisfactory brief period between the beginning or sexual
stimulation and the occurrence of ejaculation.
2. Male Orgasmic Disorder. It refers to the inability to ejaculate during sexual intercourse.
3. Female Orgasmic Disorder. It refers to the difficulty in achieving orgasm, either manually or
during sexual intercourse.
D. Sexual Pain Disorders:
1. Vaginismus. It refers to the involuntary muscle spasm at the entrance to the vagina that
prevents penetration and sexual intercourse.
2. Dyspareunia. It refers to painful coitus that may have either an organic or paychological basis.
E. Hyper Sexuality:
1. Nymphomania or Furor Uterinus. It refers to a female psychological disorder characterized
by an overactive libido and an obsession with sex. Female with this disorder is called as nymph
or called as hot or fighter
2. Satyriasis. Refers to males’ overactive obsession with sex. Male with this disorder is called as
satyr.
Category II. Paraphilias. The word paraphilia originated from the Greek para which means
over and philia which means friendship. It is a rare mental health disorder term recently used to
indicate sexual arousal in response to sexual objects or situations that are not part of societal
normative arousal/activity patterns, or which may interfere with the capacity for reciprocal
affectionate sexual activity. The disorder is characterized by a 6 month period of recurrent,
intense, sexually arousing fantasies or sexual urges involving a specific act, depending on the
paraphilia.
Common Forms of Paraphilia
1. Exhibitionism. It is also known as flashing, a behavior that involves the exposure of private
parts of person’s body to another person in a situation when they would not normally be
exposed. It may also be called as apodysophilia or Lady Godiva syndrome. Types of exposure
are:
a. Flashing. It is the displaying of bare breasts and/or buttocks by a woman with an up-anddown lifting of the shirt and/or bra or a person exposing and/or stroking his or her genitals.
b. Mooning. It is the displaying of the bare buttocks while bending down by the pulling-down of
trousers and underwear. It often done for the sake of humor and/or mockery than for sexual
excitement.
c. Anasyrma. It is the lifting up of the skirt when not wearing underwear, to expose genitals.
d. Martymachlia. It involves sexual attraction to having others watch the execution of a sexual
act.
2. Fetishism. It refers to experiencing sexual urges and behavior which are associated with nonliving objects such as an article of female clothing, like female underwear. The fetish begins in
adolescence and tends to be quite chronic into adult life. Types of fetishism are:
a. Sexual Transvestic Fetishism or Transvestism or Cross Dressing. It begins in adolescence,
usually around the onset of puberty. Most practitioners are male who are aroused by wearing,
fondling, or seeing female clothing. Lingerie (bras, panties, girdles, corsets, and slips), stockings,
shoes or boots may all be the fetishistic object.
b. Foot Fetishism. It is a pronounced fetishistic sexual interest in human feet. A foot fetishist
can be sexually aroused by viewing, handling, licking, tickling, sniffing or kissing the feet and
toes of another person, or by having another person doing the same to his/her own feet.
c. Tickling Fetishism. It refers to gaining a specific sexual thrill from either tickling a sex
partner or being subjected to tickling themselves, usually to the point of helpless laughter. This
involves some form of restraint to prevent escape and/or accidentally hurting the tickler.
d. Wet and Messy Fetish (WAM). It refers to getting aroused by substances applied on the
body like mud, shaving foam, custard pudding, chocolate sauce, wet clothes or any of their
combination.
Four Major Categories of WAM
1. Messy. It refers to the applying of largely opaque substances to the body not usually used in
this fashion such as food, shaving cream and mud. It also includes wrestling in mud, oil or
gelatin.
2. Wet. It refers to the act of being completely soaked in clothing. usually involving full clothing
ensembles
3. Quicksand. It refers to the act of sinking in quicksand. In drawn images, the stage where
female characters sink up to their chests and their breasts are up in response.
4. Underwater. It is also called as aquaphilia; it involves swimming or posing underwater. It
includes underwater fashion (models posing underwater, often while fully clothed), scuba, rubber
(people in skin tight rubber wetsuits), simulated drowning, and underwater sex.
e. Pygmalionism. It refers to a sexual deviation whereby a person has sexual desire for statues.
f. Incendiarism. It refers to a sexual deviation whereby a person derives sexual pleasure from
setting fire.
3. Frotteurism (Frottage). It is the act of obtaining sexual arousal and gratification by rubbing
one’s genitals against others in public places or crowds or sexual urges are related to the
touching or rubbing of their body against a non-consenting, unfamiliar woman.
4. Scatologia. It is also called as coprolalia; a deviant sexual practice in which sexual pleasure is
obtained through the compulsive use of obscene language. It may also refer to the act of
satisfying sexual desires through obscene telephone calls (telephone scatologia). Related terms
are copropratia, performing obscene or forbidden gestures, and coprographia, making obscene
writings or drawings.
5. Necrophilia. It is also called us thanatophilia and necrolagnia; it is the sexual attraction to
corpses
6. Zoophilia. It refers to the practice of sex between humans and animals; it is also known as
bestiality or bestosexual or zoosexuality. A person who practices zoophilia is known as a
zoophile.
7. Urophilia (Urolagnia). It refers to sexuoerotic arousal and facilitation or attainment of
orgasm is responsive to, and being urinated upon and/or swallowing urine.
8. Mysophilia. It refers to the obtaining of sexual arousal and gratification by filth or a filthy
surrounding. It is getting hory from smelling, chewing or rubbing against dirty underwear.
9. Hypoxyphilia. It refers to the desire to achieve an altered state of consciousness as an
enhancement to the experience of orgasm. In this disorder, the individual may use a drug such as
nitrous oxide to produce hypoxia, or “high” due to a lack of oxygen to the brain. Autoerotic
asphyxiation is also associated with hypoxic states, but it is classified as a form of sexual
masochism,
Category IIL Gender Identity Disorder or Transsexualism.
Also called as gender dysphoria, it refers to a disturbance of gender identification in
which the affected persons have an overwhelming desire to change their anatomic sex or insists
that they are of the opposite sex, with persistent discomfort about their assigned sex or about
filling its usual gender role. Individuals may attempt to live as members of the opposite sex and
may seek hormonal and surgical treatment to bring their anatomy into conformity with their
belief.
Categories of Sexual Abnormality
A. Sexual Abnormalities as to the Choice of Sexual Partner:
1. Heterosexual. Refers to a sexual desire towards the opposite sex.
2. Homosexual. It refers to a relationship or having a sexual desire towards member(s) of his/her
own gender. The term homosexual can be applied to either a man or woman, but female
homosexuals are usually called lesbians. The kinds of homosexual are:
a. Overt. Persons who are conscious of their homosexual cravings, and who make no attempts to
disguise their intention. They make advances towards members of their own gender.
b. Latent Persons who may or may not be aware of the tendency in that direction but are inclined
to repress the urge to give way to their homosexual yearning.
3. Infantosexual. It refers to a sexual desire towards an immature person such as pedophilia.
4. Bestosexual. It refers to a sexual gratification towards animals. This is similar to bestiality and
zoophilia.
5. Autosexual or Self Gratification or Masturbation. It is a form of “self abuse” or “solitary
vice” carried without the cooperation of another person or the induction of a state of erection of
the genital organs and the achievement of orgasm by manual or mechanical stimulation. The
types of masturbation are:
a. Conscious Type. Person deliberately resorts some mechanical means of producing
sexual excitement with or without orgasm. In male, masturbation is made
through: manual manipulation to the point of emission, and ejaculation produced
by rubbing his sex organ against some part of the female body without the use of
the hand (frottage). In female, masturbation is made by manual manipulation of
clitoris, and introduction of penis-substitute.
b. Unconscious Type. The release of sexual tension may come about via the
mechanism of nocturnal stimulation with or without emission, which may also be
as “masturbation equivalent”.
6. Gerontophilia. It refers to a sexual desire with elder person.
7. Necrophilia. It refers to a sexual perversion characterized by erotic desire or actual sexual
intercourse with a corpse.
8. Incest. It refers to sexual relations between persons who, by reason of blood relationship
cannot legally marry.
B. Sexual Abnormalities as to Instinctual Strength of Sexual Urge:
1. Over Ser:
a. Satyriasis. It refers to an excessive sexual desire of men to intercourse.
b. Nymphomania. It refers to the strong sexual feeling of women.
2. Under sex:
a. Sexual Anesthesia. It refers to the absence of sexual desire or arousal during
sexual act in women.
b. Dyspareunia. It refers to the painful sexual act in women.
c. Vaginismus. It refers to the painful spasm of the vagina during sex.
C. Sexual Abnormalities as to Mode of Sexual Expression or Sexual Satisfaction:
1. Oralism. It refers to the use of the mouth as a way of sexual gratification.
It includes any of the following:
a. Fellatio (Irrumation). The female agent receives the penis of a man into her
mouth and by friction with the lips and tongue coupled with the act sucking the
sexual organ.
b. Cunnilingus. The sexual gratification is attained by licking or sucking the
external female genitalia.
c. Anilism (Anilingus). The person derives excitement by licking the anus of
another person of either sex.
2. Sado-masochism (Algolagnia). It a combination of sadism and masochism. It refers to a
painful or cruel act as a factor for sexual gratification. The example of this is flagellation,
a sexual deviation associated with the act of whipping or being whipped.
A. Sadism (Active Algolagnia). It is by infliction of pain on another,
necessary or sometimes, the sole factor in sexual enjoyment.
B. Masochism (Passive Algolagnia). It is by attainment of pain or
bumiliation as the main factor for sexual gratification.
C.
3. Fetishism. It is a form of sexual perversion wherein the real or fantasized presence
of an object or bodily part is necessary for sexual stimulation and/or gratification.
D. Sexual Abnormalities as to the Part of the Body:
1. Sodomy. It refers to a sexual act through anus of another human being.
2. Uranism. It refers to the attainment of sexual gratification by fingering, fondling
with the breast, licking parts of the body, etc.
3. Frottage (Frotteurism). It telers sexual gratification by rubbing sex organ
against some parts of the body of another.
4. Partialism. It is a form of sexual deviation wherein a person has special affinity
to certain parts of the female body. Sexual libido may develop in the breast,
buttock, foot, legs, etc. Of women.
E. Sexual Abnormalities to Visual Stimulus:
1. Voyeurism. It is characterized by a compulsion to peep to see persons undress or
perform other personal activities. The offender is sometimes called peeping tom.
2. Mixoscopia (Scoptophilia). It refers to the attainment of sexual pleasure by watching
couple undress or during their sex intimacies.
F. Sexual Abnormalities as to Number of Sex Partner:
1. Triolism. It is a form of sexual perversion in which three persons are participating in the
sexual orgies. The combination may consist of two men and a woman or two women and
a man.
2. Pluralism. It is a form of sexual deviation in which a group of person participates in the
sexual orgies. Two or more couples may perform sexual act in a room and they may even
agree to exchange partners for “variety sake” during “sexual festival”
G. Sexual Abnormalities as to Sexual Reversal:
1. Transvestism. Also called as sexo-esthetic inversion, psychical hermaphroditism, or
metamorphosis sexualis paranoiae. It is a form of deviation wherein a male individual
derives pleasure from wearing the female apparel. This condition is found sometimes in
females who desire to dress themselves in male attire.
2. Tramexualism. It refers to the dominant desire in some person to identify themselves
with the opposite sex as completely as possible to discard forever their anatomical sex
3. Intersexuality. It refers to a genetic defect wherein a person show mixture, in varying
degrees, of the characteristics of both sexes including physical form, reproductive organs,
and sexual behavior.
Also, intersexuality is the condition in which an individual has both male and female
anatomical characteristics to varying degrees or in which the appearance of the external genitalia
is ambiguous or differs from that characteristic of the gonadal or genetic
Classifications of Intersexuality
a. Gonadal Agenesis. It is a condition in which the sex organs (testes or ovaries)
have never developed.
b. Gonadal Dysgenesis. It is a condition in which the external sexual structures are
present but at puberty the testes or the ovaries fail to develop.
c. True Hermaphroditism. It is a condition of bisexuality, having both ovaries and
testicles. The nuclear sex is usually female. The character may be neutral or
whichever is dominant.
d. Pseudohermaphrodite. It is a condition in which the sex organ is anatomically of
one sex but the sex character is that of the opposite Sex.
Sexual Disorder and Criminality: Research Findings
Sexual assault is a serious social problem, with high victimization rates among children
(10% of boys and 20% of girls), and adult women (10-20%). Many sexual offenders also engage
in nonsexual criminal activities, the same factors that predict general recidivism among
nonsexual criminals may also predict sexual recidivism among sexual offenders. All sexual
offending is, by definition, socially deviant, but not all sexual offenders have deviant sexual
interests or preferences. Some date rapists, for example, may prefer consensual sexual activities
but misperceive their partners’ sexual interest (e.g.,” ‘No’ means ‘yes”). In contrast, the sexual
lives of some boy object pedophiles may be completely focused on their preferred victim type
Offenders with the most deviant sexual histories tend to show deviant or abnormal sexual
interests on phallometric assessments. Specifically, deviant sexual interests are most prevalent
among those who victimize strangers, use overt force, select boy victims, or select victims much
younger (or much older) than themselves.
Suggested Readings:
1. Mirasol Castillo vs. Republic of the Philippines and Felipe Impas. GR. No. 214064,
February 6, 2017.
2. People of the Philippines vs. Jose Abadies y Claveria, G.R. Nos. 139346-50. July 11,
2002.
Victimology in a direction that eventually led to a reformulation of the definition of
victimization. The first generation victimologists are:
1. Hans Von Hentig. German criminologist Hans Von Hentig developed a typology of
victims based on the degree to which victims contributed to causing the criminal act.
Examining the psychological, social, and biological dynamics of the situation, he
classified victims into 13 categories depending on their propensity or risk for
victimization. His typology included the young, female, old, immigrants, depressed,
wanton, tormentor, blocked, exempted, or fighting (see Lesson 2 below). His notion that
victims contributed to their victimization through their actions and behaviors led to the
development of the concept of victim-blaming and is seen by many victim advocates as
an attempt to assign equal culpability to the victim.”
2. Benjamin Mendelsohn. Benjamin Mendelsohn, an attorney, has often been referred to as
the “father” of victimology. He developed a six-category typology of victims based on
legal considerations of the degree of a victim’s culpability. This classification ranged
from the completely innocent victim to the imaginary victim (see Lesson 2 below).
Benjamin & Master’s Threefold Model. The idea of this model is that conditions that support
crime can be classified into three general categories:
a. Precipitating Factors: time, space, being in the wrong place at the wrong time.
b. Attracting Factors: choices, options, lifestyles (the sociological expression
“lifestyle” refers to daily routine activities as well as special events one engages
in on a predictable basis).
c. Predisposing Factors: all the sociodemographic characteristics of victims, being
male, being young, being poor, being a minority, living in squalor, being single,
being unemployed.
3. Marvin E. Wolfgang. The first empirical evidence to support the notion that victims are
to some degree responsible for their own victimization was presented by Wolfgang who
analyzed Philadelphia’s police homicide records from 1948 through 1952. He reported
that 26% of homicides resulted from victim precipitation. He identified three factors
common to victim-precipitated homicides:
a. The victim and offender had some prior interpersonal relationship,
b. There was a series of escalating disagreements between the parties, and
c. The victim had consumed alcohol.
4. Stephen Schafer. Moving from classifying victims on the basis of propensity or risk and
yet still focused on the victim-offender relationship, Schafer’s typology classifies victims
on the basis of their “functional responsibility.” Victims’ dual role was to function so that
they did not provoke others to harm them while also preventing such acts. Schafer’s
seven-category functional responsibility typology ranged from no victim responsibility
(e.g., unrelated victims, those who are biologically weak), to some degree of victim
responsibility (e.g., precipitative victims), to total victim responsibility (e.g., selfvictimizing).
5. Menachem Amir. Amir undertook one of the first studies of rape. On the basis of the
details in the Philadelphia police rape records, Amir reported that 19% of all forcible
rapes were victim precipitated by such factors as the use of alcohol by both parties;
seductive actions by the victim; and the victim’s wearing of revealing clothing, which
could tantalize the offender to the point of misreading the victim’s behavior. His work
was criticized by the victim’s movement and the feminist movement as blaming the
victim.
B. Second Generation: Theories of Victimization
The second generation of theorists shifted attention from the role of the victim toward an
emphasis on a situational approach that focuses on explaining and testing how lifestyles and
routine activities of everyday life create opportunities for victimization. The emergence of these
two theoretical perspectives is one of the most significant developments in the field of
victimology.
1. Victim Precipitation Theory. It was believed that this theory was the first theory on
victimization propounded by Benjamin Mendelsohn and was propagated by Hans Von
Hentig which applies only to violent victimization.
The basic premise of victim precipitation theory is that by acting in certain
provocative ways, some individuals Initiate a chain of events that lead to their
victimization. Similarly, it suggests that some people may actually initiate the
confrontation that eventually leads to their injury or death. Victim Precipitation can be
either Active or Passive.
a. Active Precipitation. It occurs when victims act provocatively, use threats or
fighting words, or even attack first.
b. Passive Precipitation. It occurs when the victim exhibits some personal
characteristic that unknowingly either threatens or encourages the attacker. The
crime can occur because of personal conflict. This may also occur when the
victim belongs to a group whose mere presence threatens the attacker’s
reputation, status, or economic well-being.
The following are models, concepts or studies associated with victim precipitation theory
which alluded to the criminally provocative, collusive or casual impact of the victim in a dyadic
relation:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
Penal Couple hy Mendelsohn;
Reciprocal Action between Perpetrator and Victim by Von Hentig:
Duet Theory of Crime by Von Hentig
Situated Transaction Model by Luckenbill;
Functional Responsibility for Crime by Schafer, and
Victim-Offender Relationship by Wolfgang.
2. Lifestyle Exposure Theory. This theory was developed by Michael Hindelang, Michael
Gottfredson, and James Garofalo based on their study of the National Crime Survey data
from 1972-1974. They, noticed that certain groups of people, namely, young people and
males, were more likely to be criminally victimized. They theorized that an individual’s
demographics (eg, age, sex) tended to influence one’s lifestyle, which in turn increased
his or her exposure to risk of personal and property victimization. For instance, according
to them, one’s sex carries with it certain role expectations and societal constraints; it is
how the individual reacts to these influences that determines one’s lifestyle. If females
spend more time at home, they would be exposed to fewer risky situations involving
strangers and hence experience fewer stranger-committed victimizations.
Using the principle of homogamy. Hindelang et al. Also argued that lifestyles that
expose people to a large share of would-be offenders increase one’s risk of being
victimized. Homogamy would explain why young persons are more likely to be
victimized than older people, because the young are more likely to hang out with other
youth, who commit a disproportionate amount of violent and property crimes (see more
below).
Further, some criminologists believe that people may become crime victims
because their lifestyle increases their exposure to criminal offenders. Victimization risk is
increased by such behaviors as associating with young men, going out in public places
late at night, and living in an urban area. Conversely, one’s chances of victimization can
be reduced by staying home at night, moving to a rural area, staying out in public places,
earning more money, and getting married. The basis of this theory is that crime is not a
random occurrence but rather a function of victim’s lifestyle. People who have high-risk
lifestyles are: drinking, taking drugs, getting involved in crime- maintain a much greater
chance of victimization. Hence, it offers the following hypotheses:
a. The Equivalent Group Hypothesis. It states that victims and criminals share similar features
since they are not actually separate groups, and a criminal lifestyle exposes people to increased
levels of victimization risks.
b. The Proximity Hypothesis. It states that some people willingly put themselves in jeopardy by
choosing high risk lifestyles or because they are forced to live in close physical proximity to
criminals (they are in the wrong place and the wrong time).
c. The Deviant Place Hypothesis. It states that there are natural areas for crime, eg, poor, densely
populated, highly transient neighborhoods in which commercial and residential property exist
side by side.
3. Routine Activities Theory. Lawrence Cohen und Marcus Felson formulated this theory
to explain changes in aggregate direct-contact predatory crime rates in the United States
from 1947 through 1974. The theory posits that the convergence in time and space of a
motivated offender, a suitable target, and the absence of a capable guardian provide an
opportunity for crimes to occur. The absence of any one of these conditions is sufficient
to drastically reduce the risk of criminal opportunity, if not prevent it altogether. The
theory does not attempt to explain participation in crime but instead focuses on how
opportunities for crimes are related to the nature of patterns of routine social interaction,
including one’s work, family, and leisure activities. So, for example, if someone spends
time in public places such as bars or hanging out on the streets, he or she increases the
likelihood of coming into contact with a motivated offender in the absence of a capable
guardian. The supply of motivated offenders is taken as a given. What varies is the
supply of suitable targets (e.g. lightweight, easy-to-conceal property, such as cell phones
and DVD players, or drunk individuals) and capable guardians (e.g, neighbors, police,
burglar alarms).
Routine Activities Theory briefly says that crime occurs whenever three conditions come
together:
a. Suitable Targets. There are suitable targets as long as we have poverty.
b. Motivated Offenders. There are motivated offenders since victimology assumes
anyone will try to get away with something if they can.
c. Absence of Guardians. It exist when there are few defensible spaces (natural
surveillance areas) and absence of private security: the government can’t do the
job alone.
4. Deviant Place Theory. This theory states that victims do not encourage crime but are viction
prone because they reside in socially disorganized high crime areas where they have the greatest
risk of coming into contact with criminal offenders, irrespective of their own behavior or
lifestyle. Deviant places are poor, densely populated, highly transient neighborhoods in which
commercial and residential property exist side by side.
C. Third Generation: Refinement and Empirical Tests of Opportunity Theories of
Victimization
Researchers’ continued testing of lifestyle exposure and routine activity theories has
generated supportive findings and critical thinking that has led to a refining and extension of
them. Terance Miethe and Robert Meier developed an integrated theory of victimization, called
structural choice theory, which attempts to explain both offender motivation and the
opportunities for victimization. This further refinement of opportunity theories of victimization
was an important contribution to the victimology literature.
One of the first studies of opportunity theories for predatory crimes was conducted by Robert
Sampson and John Wooldredge, who used data from the 1982 British Crime Survey (BCS).
Their findings showed that individual and household characteristics were significant predictors
of victimization, as were neighborhood-level characteristics. For example, although age of the
head of the household was an important indicator of burglary, the percentage of unemployed
persons in the area also predicted burglary, Sampson and Wooldredge’s multilevel opportunity
model were the first to test lifestyle and routine activity theories. Multilevel modeling of lifestyle
exposure and routine activity theories continues to draw the attention of scholars seeking to test
how both individual characteristics and macrolevel ones-for example, neighborhood
characteristics- frame: victimization opportunities.
Victimization theories have been expanded to examine nonpredatory crimes and “victimless”
crimes, such as gambling and prostitution, and deviant behavior such as heavy alcohol use and
dangerous drinking in young adults (The theories have also been applied to a wide range of
crimes in different social contexts, such as school-based victimization in secondary schools,
stalking among college students, and even explanations of the link between victimization and
offending. Other scholars have examined how opportunity for victimization is linked to social
contexts and different types of locations, such as the workplace, neighborhoods, and college
campuses.
D. Fourth Generation: Moving Beyond Opportunity Theories
Work by Christopher Schreck and his colleagues suggests that antecedents to opportunity,
such as low self-control, social bonds, and peer influences, have also been found to be important
predictors of violent and property victimization
Lesson 1 Practical Exercises. See APPENDIX A, pages 169-170
Lesson 2. Victim and Victimization
Who are Victims? Victims, in general, means persons who, by reason of natural disaster or
man-made cause, individually or collectively, have suffered harm, including physical or mental
injury, emotional suffering, economic loss or substantial impairment of their fundamental rights,
through acts or omissions that are in violation of criminal laws operative within Member States,
including those laws proscribing criminal abuse of power.
Victim, in the country, refers to a person who sustains injury or damage as a result of the
commission of a crime. Victims of crime may be any gender, age, race, or ethnicity.
Victimization may happen to att individual, family, group, or community, and a crime itself may
be to a person or property. The impact of came on an individual victim, their loved ones, and
their community depends on a variety of factors, but often crime victimization has significant
emotional, psychological, physical, financial, and social consequences,
Effects and Consequences of Victimization
A. Physical Consequences. The physical consequences of victimization are often visible and
range in seriousness from bruises and scrapes, to broken bones, to fatal injuries. Other, less
foreseeable injuries, such as the threat of sexually transmitted diseases, can also be the result of a
victimization incident. Forensic evidence collection can detect physical injury and other useful
evidence to support the claim of a crime. For example, a specially trained medical nurse can
perform sexual assault forensic examination and document vaginal-anal and oral injury from an
alleged rape victim.
Research Findings:
Physical impact victims of some crime types are at greater risk of being affected physically by
the crime. Victims of violent crime may be left with a chronic physical condition or even a
disability.
A recent Office for National Statistics (ONS) report found that victims sustained physical
injury in 52% of violent incidents. The most common type of injury, accounting for 33% of
cases, was minor bruising or black eyes, followed by cuts (14%), severe bruising (14%) and
scratches (14%). More serious injuries such as broken bones, broken nose, concussion or loss of
consciousness accounted for a lower proportion of injuries (4% 2% and 2%, respectively). Other
injuries included facial or head injuries with no bruising (1%), and broken or lost teeth (3%).
Those who were physically injured reported that the crime had a longer impact on their lives
compared with other victims of violent crime. A quarter (25%) of partner abuse victims reported
that they sustained some sort of physical injury. The most common types of injuries were minor
bruising or black eyes (17%) and scratches (12%).
B. Psychological, Emotional, and Mental Consequences. The psychological, emotional and
mental consequences of victimization may be less externally obvious but are just as serious as
physical injury. Stress, depression, anxiety, and other mental disorders are but a few that crime
victims experience. There are distinct mental stages that follow a victimization incident: At first,
victims feel shock and fear, and perhaps retreat from society, after this initial feeling of shock
begins to subside, victims experience a range of emotions as they begin to readapt to their lives;
finally, but with the consequences that victimization carries, victims attempt to reconcile and
find a balance to allow them to pick up with their lives and routines where they left off.
Persistent mental consequences such as acute stress disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder, and
substance dependency, can occur.
Research Findings:
Existing evidence on the main effects of crime and victims’ needs emotional and
psychological impact. Research has found a widespread emotional effect on victims of different
crime types.
A recent ONS report on violent crime found that 81% of victims of violence reported
being emotionally affected by the incident, including 17% who were affected very much
Whiny and Buchanan found that victims of romance fraud were negatively affected by
the scam, experiencing a wide range of emotional responses such as embarrassment, shame,
worry, stress, denial, fear, shock, anger and self-blame. Some of the victims reported lower
confidence and a reduced sense of self-worth.
Cullina and colleagues found that the most common emotional responses to identity theft
included frustration or annoyance (79%), rage or anger (62%), fear regarding personal financial
security (66%), and a sense of powerlessness or helplessness (54%) The long-term emotional
responses (two months or more) to identity theft included 19% of victims feeling captive and a
sense of grieving, 29% feeling ready to give up, 10% feeling that they had lost everything, and
8% feeling suicidal. The emotional effect on victims of identity theft is still present 26 weeks
after victimization.
Handbag snatching can produce not only a financial but also an emotional, long-term effect on
victims. As well as losing photographs of loved ones that are often carried in a purse, victims’
sense of security may be impaired, they tend to distrust and feel suspicious towards other people,
and develop a fear of walking in public and even in familiar environments.
Wirtz and Harrell reported that victims of burglary showed symptoms of anxiety and fear six
months after the incident. What’s more, the intensity of their fear one or six months after the
crime was no different than that experienced by victims of serious crime such as robbery or
assault. Research into the emotional effect of burglary found that 73% of burglary.
Victims reported considerable fear of revictimization, 70% were very distressed following the
burglary and 40% were afraid to be alone in their property for some weeks following the
incident. Burglary victims also reported long-term worry.
Research suggests that victims of sexual violence experience more acute and chronic
physical health problems than non-victims; they are at higher risk for abdominal and pelvic pain,
gastrointestinal and gynecologic disorders, headaches and physical symptoms associated with
anxiety, panic or PTSD. Sexual assault also affects victim’s sexual health risk-taking behaviors
and places some at greater risk of contracting HIV.
C. Financial Consequences. The monetary costs of victimization to the victim are at times easy
to calculate and at other times impossible to measure. Medical expenses, property losses, lost
wages and legal costs are financial consequences that victims and their families must bear. The
financial consequences of victimization that society must bear include:
1. Victim services,
2. Witness assistance programs,
3. Costs to the criminal justice system, and
4. Negative public opinion.
Research Findings:
Research found out that older victims feel distressed about losing their children’s
inheritance and being unable to financially support themselves. For some victims, the financial
loss was so severe that they became bankrupt, were made homeless, had to sell their home or
business, had to postpone retirement or return to work after retiring, or had to move in with other
family members. Others found that victims of fraud experienced credit problems, were unable to
buy food, had lost all their superannuation, had to pay off loans over months or even years, had
lost their life savings due to paying for lawyers and civil proceedings against the perpetrator, and
had to downsize.
Trauma in Victimization
A. Primary Injuries. It refers to those direct or immediate injuries that victims have suffered as
consequences of criminal act.
1. Physical Trauma. Those crime victims may experience physical trauma such as: serious
injury or shock to the body, as from a major accident. victims may have cuts, bruises,
fractured arms or legs, or internal injuries.
2. Intense Stress Reactions. Those crime victims manifest increase in breathing, blood
pressure, and heart rate, as well as their muscles may tighten. They may feel exhausted
but unable to sleep, and they may have headaches, increased or decreased appetites, or
digestive problems.
3. Emotional Trauma. Those crime victims may experience emotional trauma; emotional
wounds or shocks that may have long-lasting effects. The different forms of emotional
trauma are:
a. Shock or Numbness. Those crime victims may feel “frozen” and cut off from
their own emotions; victims say they feel as if they are “watching a movie” rather
than having their own experiences. They may not be able to make decisions or
conduct their lives as they did before the crime.
b. Denial, Disbelief, and Anger. Those crime victims may experience “denial,” an
unconscious defense against painful or unbearable memories and feelings about
the crime. Or they may experience disbelief, telling themselves, “this just could
not have happened to me!” They may feel intense anger and a desire to get even
with the offender.
c. Acute Stress Disorder. Some crime victims may experience trouble sleeping,
flashbacks, extreme tension or anxiety, outbursts of anger, memory problems,
trouble concentrating, and other symptoms of distress for days or weeks following
a trauma. A person may be diagnosed as having acute stress disorder (ASD) if
these or other mental disorders continue for a minimum of two days to up to four
weeks within a month of the trauma. If these symptoms persist after a month, the
diagnosis becomes posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
Research showed that victims of identity theft and identity fraud reported that even
though the financial loss related to the fraud was substantial, the emotional trauma and stress
were the most difficult aspects of the situation to deal with.
B. Secondary Injuries. It refers to injuries caused by police, prosecutors, judges, social service
providers, the media, coroners, even clergy and mental health professionals, as well as other
government agencies who have corresponding responsibility over victims. By illustration, when
victims do not receive their (aforesaid agencies or entities) support and help, they need after the
crime, they may suffer “secondary” injuries; they may be hurt by a lack of understanding from
friends, family, and the professionals they come into contact with, particularly if others seem to
blame the victim for the crime (suggesting they should have been able to prevent or avoid it).
C. Common Injuries. It refers to those common or similar injuries that different victims have
incurred such as bruises, cuts, scrapes, broken bones, sexually transmitted diseases, and a wide
range of internal injuries. Also, physical reactions (such as rapid heart rate and breathing,
increased blood pressure, nausea or sleeplessness) to the emotional wounds caused by the crime.
Stages of Trauma Recovery
Stage 1: Silence. People who experience adverse situations, such as a traumatic event involving
actual or threatened danger, face incredible challenges. The initial stage following a traumatic
event is often a time of silence for the victim. It is common for recently victimized people to
refuse to talk about what happened. This may be due to a number of things, including stigma,
isolation, shame, guilt, confusion, or denial about the event. A person emerging from trauma
may have low self-esteem at first and may feel overwhelmed and disconnected from the rest of
the world.
Stage 2: Victimhood. Eventually, the traumatized self may start to long for change as the
ongoing suffering interferes with daily life tasks and a need to grow and recover begins to form.
As this need grows, it allows the person to begin exploring ways to move through the trauma.
According to research, there is often a tug-of-war taking place within the individual between a
need to be safe and protect emotions and a need to grow and confront the traumatic memories.
The person may feel compelled to talk openly with everyone about what happened and
the suffering he or she experienced. Some people will likely be more willing than others to listen.
For people working their way through the stage of victimization, having someone to listen and
support them as they process the event can be critical to their ability to move forward into
survivor hood. Many people find support groups helpful during this stage and may seek
counseling or other support.
Stage 3: Survivorhood. Once a person processes the traumatic event and continues transitioning
away from the victim experience, he or she often begins identifying as a survivor. During this
stage, a person has had an opportunity to talk about his or her experience and has gained some
sense of clarity. He or she may begin to identify the ways in which he/she persevered and the
strengths that helped make moving forward possible. The person has not forgotten the event, but
he or she has a greater understanding about what the event means and the impact it has made on
his or her life.
Reaching the stage of survivorhood doesn’t happen overnight. It may take months or
even, years to work through the victim stage and reach the point where one feels that the wounds
are healing and a sense of relief is possible. Also, the process of healing is not linear. Survivors
take one step forward and two steps back sometimes, and moving through it all and persevering
may coincide with feeling hopeful one day and damaged and wounded the next. People in the
survivor stage tend to spend less and less time feeling wounded as they continue learning new
tools and recognizing themselves as resilient.
Stage 4: Thriving and Transcendence. Thuse victims who transformed their experiences into a
meaningful personal narrative and are not being defined by their adversity. They feel healed and
safe, and take appropriate risks in seeking connection with others, such as asking a new neighbor
out for coffee. They do not feel the need to tell their stories unless it benefits someone else.
“Thriver” feel motivated to take part in the community and may seek out volunteer opportunities
or other ways to help others,
Common Victim Behaviors
1. Survivors of Sexual Abuse. The following are observed similar behaviors of sexual abuse
victims, to wit
a. Survivors of sexual assault initially deny they were abused.
b. They wait until their adulthood to share their secret. For many male victims, the shame and
secrecy are compounded by the fear that their own sexuality may have something to do with it,
or at least that others will think so.
c. There is delay in reporting sexual abuse by survivors.
d. Survivors are often terrified that they will not be believed and ashamed that they don’t know
how to stop the abuse. Victims often feel trapped between wanting the abuse to stop and being
terrified of other people learning what has been done to them. That fear can keep victims silent
while the abuse is going on, and for years after it has stopped.
e. Many victims continue to have a relationship with their abuser; it is common for survivors
sexual abuse to continue relationships with their abusers after the abuse has stopped.
f. A victim’s view of the offender’s actions changes over time. An adult understands and views
sexuality very differently than a child. It is common for survivors to not name their experiences
as abuse until they are in adulthood.
g. It is normal for a victim’s story to evolve throughout the investigative process. Initially a
victim may say nothing happened. It is not uncommon for victims to delay reporting sexual
abuse or to deny that they were abused when they are initially questioned, Reasons could include
fear of the stigma associated with the abuse, embarrassment and retaliation.
h. Victims may deny the abuse they have suffered, or misrepresent parts of their story. Many
victims try to hide what is happening to them by outright denying it when other ask (including
classmates who may make jokes, lease or bully them based on the irregular relationship they see
or sense), and by making statements with false bravado. Sometimes victims fear getting in
trouble for their own “bad” or illegal behavior (underage drinking, using drugs, lying to parents
about where they are or who they are with) and will make false statements to friends, family and
even investigators about those acts.)
i. It is normal for victims to freeze and be unable to physically fend off their abuser. When faced
with imminent threat or danger, most humans will freeze as opposed to fighting or fleeing.
j. Male survivor is committed to preventing, heating, and eliminating all forms of sexual
victimization of boys and men through support, treatment, research, education, advocacy, and
activism.
2. Domestic Violence. Victims of domestic violence live in fear, worrying about their safety and
impending danger. Sometimes they need to leave their homes in order to protect themselves and
their loved ones. Even though severing ties with the abuser seems like the best solution, many
victims choose to stay with the abuser for a variety of reasons. Sometimes victims do not leave
because they want to provide a family for their children, depend on the abuser financially,
emotionally or their religion forbids them from breaking up a marriage. Even when victims
decide to leave, it takes them five attempts on average before they succeed.
Likewise, many victims who leave will need to start new independent lives often with
limited resources while feeling mentally and emotionally depleted by the effects of the abuse.
Self-protective skills are also necessary whether victims leave or stay to be able to prevent
further injury.
Stages of Victimization
1. Victim of Crime Model. This model of victimization is applicable to victims of manmade causes such as violation of criminal laws. The stages are:
a. Stage of Impact and Disorganization. This depicts the attitude or activity of the
victim during and immediately following the criminal event.
b. Stage of Recoil. This stage occurs during which the victim formulates
psychological defenses and deals with conflicting emotions of guilt, anger,
acceptance and desire of revenge (this could last 3 to 8 months).
c. Reorganization Stage. This stage occurs during which the victim puts his/her life
back to normal daily living.
2. Victim of Disaster Model. This model of victimization is applicable to victims of natural
causes such us earthquake, volcanic eruption, and analogous circumstance. The stages are
as:
a. Pre-impact Stage. This describes the state of the victim prior to being victimized.
b. Impact Stage. This stage refers to the point when victimization occurs.
c. Post-impact Stage. This stage entails the degree and duration of the persal and
social disorganization following victimization.
d. Behavioral Outcome. This phase describes the victim’s adjustment to the
victimization experience.
Kinds of Crime Victim
1. Direct or Primary Crime Victim. It refers to those directly suffer the harm or
injury which is physical, psychological, and economic losses.
2. Indirect or Secondary Crime Victim. It refers to those who experience the harm
second hand, such as intimate partners or significant others of rape victims or
children of a battered woman. This may include family members of the primary
victims. It also included the first responders and rescue workers who race to crime
scenes (such as police officers, forensic evidence technicians, paramedics, firefighters and the like) as secondary victims because they are also exposed to
emergencies and trauma on such a routine basis and that they also need emotional
support themselves.
3. Tertiary Crime Victim. It refers to those who experience the harm vicariously,
such as through media accounts, the scared public or community due to watching
news regarding crime incidents.
What is Victim Impact Panel? A victim impact panel is a form of community-based or
restorative justice in which the crime victims (or relatives and friends of deceased crime victims)
meet with the defendant after conviction to tell the convict about how the criminal activity
affected them, in the hope of rehabilitation or deterrence. This is a practice in western counties
like the United States of America.
What is Victim Impact Statements? It refers to written or oral information from crime victims,
in their own words, about how a crime has affected them. The states of America allow victim
impact statements at some phase of the sentencing process. Also, the states permit them at parole
hearings, and victim impact information is generally included in the pre-sentencing report
presented to the judge.
What is the purpose of Victim Impact Statements? The purpose of victim impact statements is
to allow crime victims, during the decision-making process on sentencing or parole, to describe
to the court or parole board the impact of the crime. A judge may use information from these
statements to help determine an offender’s sentence, a parole board may use such information to
help decide whether to grant a parole and what conditions to impose in releasing an offender.
Victim impact statements may provide information about damage to victims that would
otherwise have been unavailable to courts of parole boards. Victims are often not called to testify
in court, and if they testify, they must respond to narrow, specific questions. These are often the
victims’ only opportunity to participate in the criminal justice process or to confront the
offenders who have harmed them. Many victims report that making such statements improves
their satisfaction with the criminal justice process and helps them recover from the crime.
Contents of Victim Impact Statements
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Physical damage caused by the crime.
Emotional damage caused by the crime
Financial costs to the victim from the crime.
Medical or psychological treatments required by the victim or his or her family
The need for restitution (court-ordered funds that the offender pays the victim for crimerelated expenses).
6. The victim’s views on the crime or the offender (in some states).
7. The victim’s views on an appropriate sentence (in some states).
Note. The Supreme Court of the United States first recognized the rights of crime victims to make
a victim impact statement in the sentencing phase of a criminal trial in the case of Payne v
Tennessee 301 US 808 (1991).
Victimologists and their Types of Victim
A. Mendelsohn’s Types of Victim
1. Innocent Victims. It refers to those who were victimized because they were just being in
the wrong place at the wrong time.
2. Victims with only minor guilt. It refers to those who were victimized due to ignorance
3. Victims who are just as guilty as the offender or the voluntary victims. It refers to
those victims who bear as much responsibility as the offenders. A person who, for
example, enters into a suicide pact.
4. Timlin Behavior and Victimolo Victims guiltier than the offender. It refers to those
victims who instigated or provoked their own victimization.
5. Most Guilty Victims. It refers to those who were victimized during the perpetration of
crime or as a result of crime. An example of this is that, an attacker was killed by a
would-be victim in the act of defending himself.
6. Imaginary or Simulating Victims. It refers to those who were victimized by reason of
mental disorders or extreme mental abnormalities. Also, it refers to those who fabricated
their victimization; hence, they were not victimized at all.
According to Mendelsohn, the last five types all contributed somehow to their own injury,
and represented as victim precipitation.
B. Von Hentig’s Taxonomy of Murder Victims
1. Depressive Type. It refers to a victim who lacks ordinary prudence and discretion. It is
an easy target, careless and unsuspecting. They are submissive by virtue of emotional
condition.
2. Greedy of Gain or Acquisitive Type. It refers to a victim who lacks all normal
inhibitions and well-founded suspicions. This victim is easily duped because his or her
motivation for easy gain lowers his or her natural tendency to be suspicious.
3. Wanton or Overly Sensual Type. It refers to a victim where females foibles play a role.
This victim is particularly vulnerable to stresses that occur at a given period of time in the
life cycle, such as juvenile victims. Further, this victim is ruled by passion and
thoughtlessly seeking pleasure.
4. Tormentor Type. It refers to a victim of attack from the target of his or her abuse, such
as with battered women.
5. Lonesome Type. It refers to a victim who is considered acquisitive; he or she becomes a
victim by virtue of wanting companionship or affection.
6. Heartbroken Type. It refers to a victim who is emotionally disturbed by virtue of
heartaches and pains.
C. Von Hentig’s Classes of Victim
1. The Young. The Young is weak by virtue of age and immaturity.
2. The Female. Female is physically less powerful and is easily dominated by male.
3. The Old. The old is incapable of physical defense and the common object of illegal
scheme.
4. The Mentally Defective. Mentally defective person is unable to think clearly.
5. The Immigrant. Immigrant is unsure of the rules of conduct in the surrounding society.
6. The Minorities. Racial prejudice may lead to victimization or unequal treatment by the
agency of justice.
Lesson 2 Practical Exercises. See APPENDIX B, pages 171-172
Lesson 3. Rights of Victim
Who may exercise Victim’s Rights? A victim is usually defined as a person who has been
directly harmed by a crime that was committed by another person. To some, victims’ rights
apply only to victims of felonies (more serious crimes) while others also grant legal rights to
victims of misdemeanors (less serious crimes). The family member of a homicide victim or the
parent or guardian of a minor, incompetent person, or person with a disability are the ones who
could exercise victims’ rights on behalf of the victims.
United Nations Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse
of Power
A. Access to Justice and Fair Treatment
1. Victims should be treated with compassion and respect for their dignity. They are entitled
to access to the mechanisms of justice and to prompt redress, as provided for by national
legislation, for the harm that they have suffered.
2. Judicial and administrative mechanisms should be established and strengthened where
necessary to enable victims to obtain redress through formal or informal procedures that
are expeditious, fair, inexpensive and accessible. Victims should be informed of their
rights in seeking redress through such mechanisms.
3. The responsiveness of judicial and administrative processes to the needs of victims
should be facilitated by:
A. Informing victims of their role and the scope, timing and progress of the
proceedings und of the disposition of their cases, especially where
serious crimes are involved and where they have requested suc
information;
B. Allowing the views and concems of victims to be presented and
considered at appropriate stages of the proceedings where their personal
interests are affected, without prejudice to the accused and consistent
with the relevant national criminal justice system;
C. Providing proper assistance to victims throughout the legal process;
D. Taking measures to minimize inconvenience to victims, protect their
privacy, when necessary, and ensure their safety, as well as that of their
families and witnesses on their behalf, from intimidation and retaliation;
and
E. Avoiding unnecessary delay in the disposition of cases and the execution
of orders or decrees granting awards to victims.
4. Informal mechanisms for the resolution of disputes, including mediation,
arbitration and customary justice or indigenous practices, should be utilized where
appropriate to facilitate conciliation and redress for victims.
B. Restitution
1. Offenders or third parties responsible for their behavior should, where appropriate, make
fair restitution to victims, their families or dependents. Such restitution should include the
return of property or payment for the harm or loss suffered, reimbursement of expenses
incurred as a result of the victimization, the provision of services and the restoration of
rights.
2. Governments should review their practices, regulations and laws to consider restitution as
an available sentencing option in criminal cases, in addition to other criminal sanctions.
3. In cases of substantial harm to the environment, restitution, if ordered, should include, as
far as possible, restoration of the environment, reconstruction of the infrastructure,
replacement of community facilities and reimbursement of the expenses of relocation,
whenever such harm results in the dislocation of a community.
4. Where public officials or other agents acting in an official or quasi official capacity have
violated national criminal laws, the victims should receive restitution from the State
whose officials or agents were responsible for the harm inflicted. In cases where the
Government under whose authority the victimizing act or omission occurred is no longer
in existence, the State or Goverment successor in title should provide restitution to the
victims.
C. Compensation
1. When compensation is not fully available from the offender or other sources, States
should endeavor to provide financial compensation to:
A. Victims who have sustained significant bodily injury or impairment of
physical or mental health as a result of serious crimes, and
B. The family, in particular dependents of persons who have died or
become physically or mentally incapacitated as a result of such
victimization.
2. The establishment, strengthening and expansion of national funds for compensation to
victims should be encouraged. Where appropriate, other funds may also be established
for this purpose, including those cases where the State of which the victim is a national is
not in a position to compensate the victim for the harm.
D. Assistance
1. Victims should receive the necessary material, medical, psychological and social
assistance through governmental, voluntary, community-based and indigenous means.
2. Victims should be informed of the availability of health and social services and other
relevant assistance and be readily afforded access to them.
3. Police, justice, health, social service and other personnel concerned should receive
training to sensitize them to the needs of victims, and guidelines to ensure proper and
prompt aid.
4. In providing services and assistance to victims, attention should be given to those who
have special needs because of the nature of the harm inflicted or because of factors such
as those mentioned in paragraph 3 above.
Victims’ Rights in America
1. Right to Be Treated with Dignity, Respect, and Sensitivity. Victims generally have the
right to be treated with courtesy, faimess, and care by law enforcement and other officials
throughout the entire criminal justice process. This right is included in the US
constitution.
2. Right to Be Informed. The purpose of this right is to make sure that victims have the
information they need to exercise their rights and to seek services and resources that are
available to them. Victims generally have the right to receive information about victims’
rights, victim compensation, available services and resources, how to contact criminal
justice officials, and what to expect in the criminal justice system. Victims also usually
have the right to receive notification of important events in their cases. Although state
(country) laws vary, most states require that victims receive notice of the following
events:
a. The arrest and arraignment of the offender.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
Bail proceedings,
Pretrial proceedings,
Dismissal of charges,
plea negotiations,
trial,
sentencing.
Appeals,
probation or parole hearings, and
Release or escape of the offender.
3. Right to Protection. Victims have the right to protection from threats, intimidation, or
retaliation during criminal proceedings. Depending on the jurisdiction, victims may
receive the following types of protection:
a. Police escorts,
b. Witness protection programs,
c. Relocation, and
d. Restraining orders
4. Right to Apply for Compensation. The purpose of compensation is to recognize
victims’ financial losses and to help them recover some of these costs. Some types of
losses that are usually covered include:
a. medical and counseling expenses,
b. Lost wages, and
c. Funeral expenses.
5. Right to Restitution from the Offender. Victims of crime have the right to restitution,
which means the offender must pay to repair some of the damage that resulted from the
crime. The purpose of this right is to hold offenders directly responsible to victims for the
financial harm they caused. The court orders the offender to pay a specific amount of
restitution either in a lump sum or a series of payments. Some types of losses covered by
restitution include:
a. lost wages,
b. Property loss, and
c. Insurance deductibles.
6. Right to Prompt Return of Personal Property. Crime investigators must often seize
some of the victim’s property as evidence for a criminal case. Authorities must return
such property to the victim when it is no longer needed. To speed up the return of
property, some states allow law enforcement to use photographs of the item, rather than
the item itself, us evidence. The prompt return of personal property reduces
inconvenience to victims and helps restore their sense of security.
7. Right to a Speedy Trial. This right, although it is more suitable to accused, affords the
victim/s to obtain justice at minimum time.
8. Right to Enforcement of Victims’ Rights. To be meaningful, legal rights must be
enforced. There should be laws to enforce victims’ rights, and investigate reports of
violations of victims’ rights. Other states (countries) have laws that permit victims to
assert their rights in court.
Victim’s Right in Philippines
A. The 1987 Philippine Constitution: Bill of Rights
Section 1. No person shall be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due process of
law, nor shall any person be denied the equal protection of the laws. One of the aspects of
the equal protection clause provides that parties (accuse or suspects, witnesses, and victims) in
crime should be accorded with equal protection. Hence, victims of crime should be accorded
with their legal rights and benefits (see more below).
Section 11. Free access to the courts and quasi-judicial bodies and adequate legal assistance
shall not be denied to any person by reason of poverty. This Constitutional provision entails
that government shall provide legal assistance to indigent crime victims.
Section 12.
a. Any person under investigation for the commission of an offense shall have the
right to be informed of his right to remain silent and to have competent and
independent counsel preferably of his own choice. If the person cannot afford the
services of counsel, he must be provided with one. These rights cannot be waived
except in writing and in the presence of counsel.
b. No torture, force, violence, threat, intimidation, or any other means which vitiate
the free will shall be used against him. Secret detention places, solitary,
incommunicado, or other similar forms of detention are prohibited.
c. Any confession or admission obtained in violation of this or Section 17 hereof
shall be inadmissible in evidence against him.
d. The law shall provide for penal and civil sanctions for violations of this
section as well as compensation to and rehabilitation of victims of torture or
similar practices, and their families. This sub-section provides that
compensation of victims should be granted which is explicitly enabled by
Republic Act No. 7309.
B. Republic Act No. 7309
It is an act creating a Board of Claims under the Department of Justice for victims of
unjust imprisonment or detention and victims of violent crimes and for other purposes.
Creation and Composition of the Board of Claims
The Board of Claims is composed of one chairman and two members to be appointed by
the Secretary of the said department.
Powers and Functions of the Board of Claims
1. To receive, evaluate, process and investigate application for claims under the Act.
2. to conduct an independent administrative hearing and resolve application for claims,
grant or deny the same.
3. To deputize appropriate government agencies in order to effectively implement its
functions; and
4. To promulgate rules and regulations in order to carry out the objectives of the Act.
Four Claimants or Applicants before Board of Claims
1. Any person who was unjustly accused, convicted and imprisoned but subsequently released by
virtue of a judgment of acquittal;
2. Any person who was unjustly detained and released without being charged;
3. Any victim of arbitrary or illegal detention by the authorities as defined in the Revised Penal
Code under a final judgment of the court; and
4. Any person who is a victim of violent crimes. Violent crimes shall include rape and shall
likewise refer to offenses committed with malice which resulted in death or serious physical
and/or psychological injuries, permanent incapacity or disability, insanity, abortion, serious
trauma, or committed with torture, cruelly or barbarity.
In sum, paragraphs one to three refer to victims of government agencies through their
officials or officers in connection to their public functions while paragraph four refers to those
victims by private individuals.
Award Ceiling. For victims of unjust imprisonment or detention, the compensation shall
be based on the number of months of imprisonment or detention and every fraction thereof shall
be considered one month; Provided, however, that in no case shall such compensation exceed
P1,000.00 per month.
In all other cases, the maximum amount for which the Board may approve a claim shall
not exceed P10,000.00 or the amount necessary to reimburse the claimant the expenses incurred
for hospitalization, medical treatment, loss of wage, loss of support or other expenses directly
related to injury, whichever is lower. This is without prejudice to the right of the claimant to seek
other remedies under existing laws.
Filing of Claims. Any person entitled to compensation under the Act must within six months
after being released from imprisonment or detention, or from the date the victim suffered damage
or injury, file his claim with the Department, otherwise, he is deemed to have waived the same.
Except as provided for in the Act, no waiver of claim whatsoever is valid.
Filing of Claims by Heirs. In case of death or incapacity of any person entitled to any award
under the Act, the claim may be filed by his heirs, in the following order: by his surviving
spouse, children, natural parents, brother and/or sister.
Resolution of Claims. The Board shall resolve the claim within thirty working days after filing
of the application. The Board shall adopt an expeditious and inexpensive procedure for the
claimants to follow in order to secure their claims under the Act.
Lesson 3 Practical Exercises. See APPENDIX C, page 173
End of Chapter IV.