TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page ………………………………………………………………………… i
Declaration ……………………………………………………………………… ii
Certification
…………………………………………………………………… iii
Dedication ……………………………………………………………………… iv
Acknowledgements
……………………………………………………………… v
Abstract ………………………………………………………………………… vii
Table List
……………………………………………………………………… viii
Table of Contents
……………………………………………………………… ix
CHAPTER ONE
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
1.1Introduction …………………………………………………………
1
1.2 Background to the study……………………………………………
2
1.3Statement of the research problem………………………………….
4
1.4 Research Questions
…………………………………………….
4
1.5 Aim and Objectives ………………………………………………
5
1.6 Significance of the study …………………………………………
6
1.7
6
Scope of the study …………………………………………… …
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction …………………………………………………….
1
7
2.2 Speech Community …………………………………………….
8
2.3 The Concept of Codes …………………………………………
9
2.4 The Notion of Bilingualism………………………………………
11
2.5 Code-switching …………………………………………………..
13
2.6 Types of Code-switching ………………………………………..
15
2.7 Motivations for Code-switching……………………… ……….
17
………………………………………………….
18
……….
19
.3.0 Functions of Code-mixing and Code-switching ………………
20
3.1 Theorical Framework ……………………………………………
22
2.8 Code-mixing
2.9 Pains and Gains of Code-switching and Code-mixing
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………
23
3.2
Research Method ……………………………………………
23
3.3
Research Design …………………………………………….
24
3.4 Area of Coverage…………………………………………………
24
Data Collection ………………………………………………
24
3.6 Instrument for Data Collection ………………………………….
24
3.7 Method for Data Collection……………………………………...
25
3.5
CHAPTER FOUR
DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS
2
4.1 Preamble ………………………………………………………
27
4.2 Data Analysis …………………………………………………
27
4.3 Presentation and Analysis of Data ………………………………
27
4.4 Distribution of Questionnaire ………………………………………
28
4.5 Analysis of Tape Recording
……………………………………
34
4.6 Analysis of Observation…………………………………………….
38
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 Summary …………………………………………………………
40
5.2 Conclusion ……………………………………………………….
41
Bibliography
………………………………………………………..
43
Appendix
………………………………………………………..
44
3
CHAPTER ONE
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The existence of two languages or varieties of a language in a speakers’ repertoire
or a particular speech community, is brought about by the concept known as “language
contact”. Bilingualism gives birth to a number of linguistic phenomena. This includes:
alternating between one language and another in a communicative event, the use of two
languages in a single sentence within major and minor constituent boundaries Akindele
and Adegbite (1994: 34).These two closely related illustrations, are respectively referred
to as code-switching and code-mixing.
The concept code-switching and code-mixing are so similar that they are often used
interchangeably, such that it is very difficult to clearly distinguish the two in discourses.
These two terms were initially considered to have emerged as a result of internal
mental disorder (the inability to separate two languages sufficiently to warrant designation
of true bilingualism Ahukanna cited in Lipski (1982). An investigation carried out by
linguist has revealed that this language behaviour is simple and generally necessitated by
the ability to speak more than one language. To be precise, so many speaker unconsciously
engage themselves in this as a result of lack of proficiency in one language (subordinate
4
bilingualism) such speakers go for several element in the other language to cover for their
incompetence in one of the two languages. This linguistic behaviour is also used by writers
such as the late Chinua Achebe, Wole Soyinka and so many others, in a bid to enhance the
beauty of works thereby, making them appealing.
This research examines issues like need for code-switching and mixing, reaction
against the concerns of code-switching among Tiv bilinguals. The heart of the matter
however is the implication of the results of this study in relation to numerous varieties
found in the Tiv language.
1.2 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
Ever since the coming together of the Northern and Southern protectorate of
Nigeria (amalgamation 1914), languages have continued to emerge or develop in large
numbers .In an attempt to study the multiplicity of languages in Nigeria Ahukana (1990)
cited in Brann (1978) and Adekunle (1976) have estimated more than (400) four hundred
mutually unintelligible languages spoken by members of more than (250) two hundred and
fifty ethnic groups that inhabit the country Nigeria. Similar studies have been carried out
in respect to this. Bamgbose (1970) puts it at (250) two hundred and fifty languages. The
Nigerian sociolinguistic situation becomes more complicated with the multiplicity of
dialect (sub-varieties) identifiable within these languages. The Tiv language for instance is
made up of close to (10) ten major dialects which are further sub-divided into many other
varieties.
5
In addition to the indigenous languages is English which has been domesticated in
the Nigerian community. This is the language that was imposed on Nigerians by the
colonial masters. Though foreign, the English language has now successfully dominated
the indigenous languages. Born out of it is the pidgin variety which now functions
independently and widely across the country. Following this multilingual nature of the
country, the question of what language to be used where and when often brings argument
among Nigerian scholars. It is as a result of the lack of consensus that English which is
alien to Nigeria continues to play more prominent roles than the indigenous languages.
Even without a formal legislation English now stands both as national and official language
in the country.
The problem of assigning roles in a multilingual society in Nigeria can also be
looked at from a dialectal level for facility in intra-ethnic context; there is a growing
awareness of the need to develop a generally acceptable standard dialect within each major
language group Ahukana (1990). It is the absence of unanimity that leads many groups into
becoming dialect instead of language loyalties.
It is a known fact that language contact brings external linguistic influence on
languages. The Tiv language which features prominently in this study is not exempted
from this situation .It is one of the minority language groups whose speakers occupy the
north central zone of Nigeria. The geographical setting extends from Benue to the
neigbouring Nassarawa, Plateau, Taraba State. The Tiv ethnic group is linguistically
6
influenced by several other ethnic groups through language contact. Hausa words like
‘riga’, ‘makaranta’, ‘kujira’, ‘kasua’ etc. are found in the Tiv vocabulary. Above all English
takes the biggest share of linguistic influence .The dominance of English over the
indigenous is worth emphasizing as this enhances its involvement in many Nigerian speech
repertories notably, the Tiv speakers who use English as a second language. It is also as a
result of this dominance that many native speakers of Tiv language particularly in Benue
State code-mix and code-switch with English in several instances of communication.
1.3 STATEMENT OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
Language contact situation gives rise to so many linguistic phenomena; some
of them include bilingualism, a situation where one is able to speak more than one or two
languages. This then gives rise to such issues as code-switching and code-mixing. A Tiv
bilingual who uses Tiv and English tends to code-switch between the two languages. This
could be as a result of incompetence in either one of the two languages and it is a major
concern among linguist. There are few works recorded in respect to code-switching and
code-mixing among Tiv speakers of English.
1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
Below are the research questions this research work would provide answers to.
1. To what extent do Tiv speakers use code-switching to communicate effectively?
2 Are the switches inter-sentential or intra-sentential or even both?
7
3. What function does code-switching and ode-mixing serve in the speech community? 4.
Do Tiv speakers switch between these two languages the same way as other bilinguals?
1.5 AIM AND OBJECTIVES
The linguistic behaviour known as code-switching and code-mixing are universal
characteristic of many speech communities with more than one language like Nigeria.
Speakers in such communities tend to understand and make use of the two languages. This
study aims at investigating the linguistic behaviour of communication among the Tiv –
English bilinguals in general, so as to ascertain what happens in communication when Tiv
bilinguals code-switch and code-mix, and this would be achieved through the following
objectives:
1. The study will identify the causes of code-switching and code-mixing and their effects
(positive and negative)
2. It will also investigate the extent to which these concepts are used in the community in
question.
3. Finally, the study will identify the various aspects of code- switching and code- mixing
1.5.1 SIGNIFICANTS OF THE STUDY
The findings of this study will not only help us to address the various issues raised
on the subject matter above, but also serve as a very good contribution to corpus of already
exiting knowledge. The study will also serve as a very useful reference source for future
academic research.
8
1.6 SCOPE OF THE STUDY
This study is basically on the linguistic behaviour of the people of Benue when
code-switching and code-mixing. It looks at these two concepts as elements of
bilingual societies. The study is only with the Tiv speakers of Benue state. It does not
include other Tiv speakers outside the state..
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 INTRODUCTION
9
Much research has been carried out as regards to code-switching and code-mixing
as features of language use in bilingual communities. This only occurs when participants
in a speech event share a bilingual background. This has been observed in the language
behaviour of Malisso-English bilinguals of Philippines and of the French-English
bilinguals of Maine. Earlier on, Sankoff had researched on code-switching among the
Huang people of Marobe district in New Guinea and had concluded that, ‘studies on codeswitching have been shifting towards an appreciation of the complexity of this behaviour
a part of a sociolinguistic system. Demison (1950) has an account of code-switching and
code-mixing among the Sauri inhabitants of German Linguistic Island in North-East Italy.
Green Field and Fishman among other eminent sociolinguistic and psycholinguistic
scholars have carried out similar researches. Different sociolinguists have come with
various views and conclusions on the subject matter. Sankoff for instance, sees codeswitching and code-mixing as a variation in linguistic
Recent studies on code-switching, all point towards its’ sociolinguistic importance.
Mc Charles’ research in the United State indicates that, children usually start codeswitching between languages only when they are eight years old suggesting that, linguistic
proficiency is necessary for code-switching
Code-switching in Nigeria, is more evident in native languages based on speech
events. Oladejo and Ahukana among others have applied this concept to languages like:
Igbo, Hausa and Yoruba in various Nigerian universities based on the languages spoken in
10
such areas. The opinions of linguistic scholars on this topic if limited only to codeswitching alone would not yield a comprehensive result. Therefore, an extended
presentation of the relevant literature on this subject of study is provided to cover concepts
like: speech community, codes, bilingualism et cetera.
2.2 SPEECH COMMUNITY
The term roughly corresponds to a language or linguistic community. In other
words, a speech community refers to a community of speakers whose experience and
patterns of behaviour are reflected in one language. Speech or linguistic community can
also be defined as a social group which may be either, monolingual, bilingual or
multilingual held together by the frequency of social interactional patterns and set off from
the surrounding areas by weaknesses in the lines of communication Gumpers (1982). Such
communities may consist of small groups bound together by face to face contact and may
cover large regions. A speech community as defined above is a group of people who share
same experience as reflected in the language they use. Gumpers classifies speech
communities into three basic types namely, monolingual (a community where one
language is spoken), bilingual (a community which makes use of two languages), and
multilingual (a community which makes use of more than two languages).
A speech community may also be seen as any human aggregate, characterized by
regular and frequent interactions by means of a shared body or verbal signs and set off
from similar aggregate by significant differences in language usage (Gumpers, 1972). The
11
verbal behaviour of a speech community constitutes a system. This is based on finite set of
grammatical rules that underlie the production of well formed sentences. A community
denotes an aggregate of people with shared experiences. The people in a community have
common experiences, conceptions and social life, and their shared experiences are
expressed or recorded in a language or dialect. A speech community is sometimes referred
to by some scholars as speech fellowship (Kachru, 1983). By fellowship, he implies, a
society of people sharing mutual or similar interests, experiences, activities.et cetera
2. 3 THE CONCEPT OF CODE
A code is a system of words, letters, symbols etc used for secret messages and for
recording information. In other words, code refers to any special human medium whether
spoken or written employed by any group of people for the purpose of communication and
interaction. Advanced Oxford Dictionary of English (1961), sees code as system of words
arbitrarily used for other words or for phrases to secure brevity and secrecy. Here, code is
seen as a system used to ensure security for information shared by a group of people. The
code of a language is that which ensures that information is passed only to the people
concerned. Gleason (1968) posits that, a code is an arbitrary pre-arranged set of signals
based on random choice and these codes are arranged before they are used. Rolley
Vershney (1962) in his research has this to say. A language is merely one variety of code.
According to him, the total organization of various linguistic components in a language,
12
are the code of that language. It is an abstract concept which happens to be acceptable to
the community which uses it.
In modern linguistics studies, the idea of code is often simply used to mean,
language. Codes are neutrally labels for system of communication involving language.
Codes are sometimes defined in terms of mutual intelligibility thus controlling the
linguistic repertoire of the individual. Basil Bernstein, a British sociolinguist identifies two
types of codes namely: restricted and elaborate code. These two types of codes can be
defined from a linguistic point of view, in terms of the possibility of predicting for any
speaker which syntactic elements will be used to organize meaning across a representative
range of speech, Akindele and Adegbite (1989:12). An elaborate code is that type of code
which is used in formal context such as debates and academic discussions. An elaborate
code is characterized by accurate grammatical order and syntax, complex sentences with
conjunction and subordination, frequent use of the first pronoun I, wide range of adjectives,
adverbs and prepositions. In contrast, restricted code is used among family members, peer
groups etc. It is characterized by short grammatically simple and unfinished sentences of
poor syntactic forms. Few conjunctions are employed with little subordination, rigid and
limited in the use of adverbs and adjectives.
The presentation of information and conclusion
in restricted code is not well
arranged. The elaborate code is predicated upon the assumption that, the individuals relate
to each other essentially because of the social position or status they occupy. Edward
13
(1979:90) asserts that, an elaborate code arises when there is a boundary between a speaker
and listener. Similarly, Caroll (1979: 81) opines that, the addresser does not assume that
the addressee share the same meaning. It is therefore, individualistic and personal. In a
restricted code, speech is exchanged by those who share the same experience and
knowledge about what is being discussed. Where as in restricted code sociolinguist such
as Akindele believes that, the listeners do not share the same meaning with the speakers.
According to him, listeners have no background knowledge about the topic of discussion.
2.4 THE NOTION OF BILINGUALISM
Bilingualism, according to Bloomfield (1938) is the native-like control of two
languages. This entails that bilinguals must be able to speak two languages proficiently as
native speakers of the languages would. There should be an equal understanding and
production of the two languages as inferred from the utterances of the native speakers of
the two languages. For instance, a Tiv-English bilingual must according to Bloomfield be
able to speak both Tiv and English the same way a native speaker of Tiv from Benue and
English from either Britain or U S A would. Wacky (1967) defines bilingualism as a term
given to the ultimate use of two languages by the same individual. It therefore means that
a bilingual person or society has extreme and total ability in the use of two languages. The
above definitions are said to be narrow in the sense that bilingualism is seen as the act of
being perfect or close to perfect in the use of two languages and not partial aptitude. The
broader perspective of bilingualism is seen in Diebids’ definition. He posits that, a bilingual
14
is anyone who is passively familiar with another language but does speak it. Here a
bilingual must be conversant with a second language (understand the language) but cannot
speak it. This implies that he is able to interpret what he hears but cannot utter the same.
Bilingualism can be classified into two types, in terms of time, user, situation and purpose.
In terms of user, bilingualism is considered to be individual or societal. Individual
bilingualism is a situation where an individual has two languages in his repertoire. While
societal bilingualism can be defined as the presence of two languages functioning
independently in the speech repertoire of a community. This is also known as national
bilingualism. With reference to time, bilingualism is said to be either simultaneous or
sequential (consecutive). Simultaneous as a type of bilingualism here implies, a situation
where by a speaker uses two languages at the same time. While sequential bilingualism on
the other hand, implies the use of two languages at different times. He learns the first
language (L1) at birth and the second (L2) at a later date perhaps in school
2.5 CODE-SWITCHING
Code-switching is a linguistic behaviour which entails the movement of a speaker
from one language to another in a single discussion. In the words of Crystal (1942), an
individual who is bilingual alternate between two languages during his or her speech. Code
switching, between languages occurs among bilinguals and may take a number of forms
including: alternation of sentences, phrases from both languages succeeding each other and
15
switching in a long narration. Similarly, code-switching is described as a means of
communication which involves a speaker alternating between one language and another in
communicative events (Akindele and Adegbite 199:34). Their description entails the use
of two different codes (languages) in a single communication or discourse. These codes
must not necessarily be two independent languages. They may include a language and subvariety or dialect of another language combined in a discussion.
In Hudson’s’ approach to the concept of code-switching, he sees it as a situation
where by a speaker necessarily uses different varieties at different times. This is the
automatic consequence of the existence of different registers implying that the same
speaker must use different registers at different occasions. Hudsun (1980:56) .For clearer
understanding, below are very good examples of code-switching
(a) Avese: Van nam kwagh la I want it now.
Avese: Come and give me that thing I want it now
(b) Mimi: Mngu van amiin immediately.
Mimi: I am bringing it immediately.
(c) Avese: Ne mba nena? Hope all is well
Avese: How are you? Hope all is well
(d) Mimi: I am fine, se wuese Aondo
16
Mimi: I am fine thank God.
Here is another approach from Poplack and Westwaed (1989) as contained in the
Encyclopedia of Linguistics. These scholars are of the view that, code-switching can take
place at various points in an utterance between clauses and phrases. They added that, the
switches are governed by different norms in the various bilingual communities. Hudson
still on the definition of code-switching says, code-switching is the inevitable consequence
of bilingualism. He is simply saying that code-switching is the resultant effect of
bilingualism. Meaning that whenever there are two languages present in the repertoire of
an individual or community, there is bound to be code-switching.
2. 6 TYPES OF CODE-SWITCHING
Code-switching can be classified into different types from two perspectives
namely: the functional and formal types Adegbite and Akindele (1992
(a) FUNCTIONAL TYPES OF CODE-SWITCHING
This include: conversational, situational and metaphorical code-switching. In
conversational code-switching, the same speech act is involved. i.e, the bilingual in an
attempt to communicate, employs the use of items from two languages and these items are
linked together by syntactic and semantic relations. For Example
17
Msoo
ape zan sha tom kpa aluer mhide fele yo, I will come and see you (I want to go to my work
place but if I return in time, I will come and see you)
Situational code-switching occurs when two different languages are assigned to or
used in two different situations. An individual may have knowledge of languages
associated with various situations. The following is a sample utterance observed from the
speech of a Tiv-English speaker to his friend on the phone, and to his wife at home.
All right, I will send it to you, Thanks (and to his
wife in the bedroom)
Udoo kwasa,.Nam ikpa la mtindi wan sha ya u Tersoo.
In metaphorical code-switching, the situational factors such as; setting, activities and
participants remain the same. However, the language used serve as a metaphor representing
a different situation. This may be due to change of topic, or new role relation set up.
(a) FORMAL TYPE OF CODE-SWITCHING
The formal type of code-switching refers to the linguistic realization of codeswitching from language to the other. There are three sub-types under this category and
they are; the inter-sentential, intra-sentential, and the situation where by two languages are
used in a single sentence within major and minor constituent. This sub-type takes within a
sentence at major constituent boundaries such as noun phrase, verb phrase and clause.
Basically, it involves alternating from one language to another. For instance,
18
Yange m za sha ya u Sedoo yo ga, pastor Sughnen kar amo ier, young
Young man, you are blessed.
Intra-sentential code-switching.This is a strategy for demonstrating solidarity, group
identity and excluding strangers from a group discussion. Hudson (1980) in view of this
fact maintains that it is not something which bilinguals do except when talking to a fellow
member of a community. It basically involves the fusion within grammatical utterances
and lexical items during a discussion. For instance,
My sister, nenge ga, you are very beautiful nahan, stop dressing half naked kpa, ior
vea admire we
My sister look, you are very beautiful, so stop dressing half naked but you will be admired.
2.7 MOTIVATIONS FOR CODE-SWITCHING
Lyons (1972) posits that factors which facilitate code-switching are many but the
one found important to this study is, linguistic proficiency. He likens an individuals’
linguistic proficiency not only to ability to speak appropriately in different social contexts
but also, to his skill in manipulating the phonology and syntax of the different linguistic
codes used in the speech community. He is simply saying that code-switching is the
indication of an individuals’ communicative competence.
Crystal (1927) opines that switching to a minority language is very common as a
means of expressing solidarity with a social group. He further states that a language
19
changes signals to the listeners that the speaker is from a certain language background. If
the listener responds with a similar switch then intimacy is established. Crystal has yet
another reason for code-switching. He says code-switching is a repair strategy. This allows
a speaker who cannot express himself adequately in one language to switch to another to
make good his deficiency. Religious influence also contributes to code-switching. Among
the Christians, it is believed that, a person filled with the Holy Spirit should be able to
speak in other tongues (languages) as a proof that he has the Holy Spirit in him,.
(Mark16:17). Similarly the Muslims believe that apart from exchanging greetings in the
Arabic language, a follower should be able to recite some verses from the Holy Qur’an in
Arabic. Another reason is that no language is self sufficient in itself in describing
everything it comes across in another culture. Apart from the above factors, it is observed
that people sometimes code-switch in order to show off. They want to be acknowledged as
people having the ability to converse proficiently in other languages.
2. 8 CODES-MIXING
Code-mixing is the intra-sentential movement of a speaker from one language to
another. Akindele and Adegbite see it as a situation where by two languages are used in a
single sentence within major and minor constituent boundaries. Code-mixing or linguistic
interference as others call it, was earlier a critical investigation taken for internal mental
confusion (the inability to separate two code sufficiently to warrant true bilingualism)
Akimdele (1990) cited in Lipski (198:219). Recent sociolinguistic and psycholinguistic
20
research has however proven that far from being a manifestation of mental confusion, codeswitching is governed by a complex set of constraints indicating a complex and structural
interaction between the two languages in the internal cognitive apparatus of bilinguals
coupled with various external factors Kolers and Macnomarea (1960).
The above and several other scholarly views have always shown that codeswitching and code-mixing have very little differences to talk about. Albert and Obier
(1978) and Akindele and Adegbite (1990) for instance stated clearly that code-switching
and code-mixing are so much interrelated in such a way that it is always very difficult to
separate the two. According to them, the speakers involved are not so conscious of the fact
that they are code-switching and code-mixing. Despite the similarity between these
concepts, they can still be identified with a basic difference and this can be found in the
words of Opara, who refers to code-switching as the ability to move from one language to
another within the same discourse. On a slightly different note, she refers to code-mixing
as the tendency or ability to use two languages within the same sentence. Here, the
emphasis is on the sentence and not on discourse as it is the case in code-mixing.
2. 9 PAINS AND GAINS OF CODE-SWITCHING AND CODE-MIXING
Code-switching is the inevitable consequence of bilingualism. The choice of
language is controlled by rules which members of the community learn from experience as
these rules are part of their linguistic knowledge Hudson (1996).These two concepts have
both advantages and disadvantages like any other phenomena. They include the following
21
GAINS
1 Code-switching and code-mixing make up for the grammatical errors bilinguals make
while speaking. Whenever a bilingual senses the potential of making grammatical
mistakes, they quickly switch or mix codes
2 Code-switching and code-mixing help to maintain solidarity and privacy among
speakers. This is one of the reasons for engaging oneself in this language behaviour as the
speakers do not want others to understand what they are saying.
3 switching and mixing also make up for lack of proficiency in the languages involved
since words and phrases are borrowed from one language into another in communication.
PAINS
1 These concepts do not encourage formality as they are often used in informal situation.
2 Code-switching and code-mixing sometimes affect the speakers’ perfection of the second
languages as the speaker is not conversant with the rules of the second language.
3 Speakers involvement in code-switching and code-mixing could raise suspicion from a
third party who does not understand both or one of the languages.
3. 0 FUNCTONS OF CODE-SWTCHNG ANDCODE-MIXNG
REFERENTIAL FUNCTION
22
Code-switching is used to express referential function in the following categories
;lack of readily available Tiv equivalents,terms with which the speakers are more familiar
in English than in tiv.It also helps the speakers communicate effectively when the speaker
cannot find appropriate expressions in the base language.
SOCIALISING FUNCTION
A speaker wants to signal friendship or solidarity to group,. Common use for codemxing and switching among people who speak one standard language along with another
language in a more vernacular is to use one of the languages for effective functions.
REPETITIVE FUNCTION
This function includes providing definitions of terms and expressions quoting
others and paraphrasing once words in another language
EXPRESSIVE FUNCTION
Code-switching is performed to express emotions particularly for tension relief.
English shear words are inserted particularly for some Tiv words that are considered taboo.
Similarly the English words of affection such as questions ensure anonymity of the
participants hence they can be more honest.
ATTITUDINAL FUNCTION
23
The students consider mixing of English with Tiv a matter of prestige, a mark of
education, urbaneness and sophistication. The speaker perceives that if he uses a smattering
of English he can show himself as educated and broad minded.
3. 1 THEORITCAL FRAMEWORK
COMMUNICATION ACCOMADATION THEORY (CAT)
The Communication Accommodation Theory (CAT) developed by Howard Giles
professor of communication at the University of California, Santa Barbara, seeks to explain
cognitive reasons for code-switching and other changes in speech as a person seeks either
to emphasize or to minimize the social differences between himself /herself and the other
person(s) in conversation. Professor Giles posits that when speakers seeks approval in a
social situation they are likely to converge their speech with that of the other person
speaking, this can include, but is not limited to, the language of choice, accent, dialect, and
paralinguistic features used in the conversation. In contrast to convergence speakers might
also engage in divergent speech with which an individual emphasizes the social distance.
24
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter examines the research methodology employed in this work. By
research methodology, the research simply means a master plan or design consisting of a
set of methods or principles relevant to the investigation at hand. This is an exercise
specifically designed to examine critically those steps and methods employed by the
researcher in this work so as to ascertain how detailed these were employed as well as their
appropriateness to the conclusions derived.
3.2 RESEARCH METHOD
The concept research method refers to the means by which the researchers collect
data for research activities Heuslin (1993) says for every scientific investigation there are
numerous research methods like experiments, survey, observation, literary materials e t c.
In this study, we employed observation, tape recording and case study. A case study is that
aspect of research which is employed for the investigation of a problem as it relates to a
25
particular setting Agberu (2001). The observation method employed here refers to the
process of watching and listening to an individual process, event or situation in a systematic
way so as to obtain some information about a topic or entity in the question. Agbaru
(2011).The interview method entails asking questions to know why bilinguals code-switch
and code3.3 RESEACH DESIEGN
The concept research design is very important and indeed, an indispensable aspect
of research. Agbaru sees it as the specification and analysis of information which would
help to solve the research problem at hand. This term, implies an action plan which
analyzes the problem at hand and provide the alternative procedures to be followed in order
to get the required information.
3.4 SCOPE AND DELIMITATION
The research will be carried out at Makurdi the Benue State capital specifically at
Benue State University. The subjects will be basically students from the department of
Languages and Linguistics and also, Theatre and Performing Arts.
3.5 DATA COLLECTION
This research draws its’ information basically from two sources namely; primary
and secondary. The primary source of data collection include the following; questionnaires,
tape recording and observation. While for the secondary source we have; textbooks,
26
research works, related publication journals and other sources which are considered
necessary for the study.
3.6 INSTRUMENT FOR DATA COLLECTION
To effectively study the language behaviour of code-switching and code-mixing of
the Tiv-English bilinguals, questionnaires, interviews and observation remain the best data
collection instruments.
3.7 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION
The data for this study were collected through;
(1) Questionnaires
(2) Tape Recording
(3) Observation
QUESTIONNAIRE
A questionnaire is a written list of questions which are answered by a group of
people to provide information for a report or survey. On the questionnaire, are several
questions with different structural types. These are sections A and B While section A seeks
27
information on the biodata of the respondent, section B seeks to know the opinion of the
respondent about the linguistic behaviour of code-switching and code-mixing. Some of
questions contained in the questionnaire are polar type questions while others are questions
which allow respondents, free expression of views on the subject matter.
TAPE RECORDING
This tape recording method is designed to get extracts of code-switching and codemixing. Considering the fact that these concepts are realized unconsciously, the researcher
goes around recording conversations of people without their knowledge on different
subject matters and various speech events. It is also noteworthy that the researcher is also
a Tiv-English bilingual who understand the languages used in this research and
consequently, has no difficulty with perceiving instances of code-switching and codemixing and the intention behind each usage.
PERSONAL OBSERVATION
Personally, the researcher listens and observes speakers at social gatherings like
sitting parks theatre, markets, and around lecture halls.
28
CHAPTER FOUR
DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS
4. 1 PREAMBLE
In a research of this nature, it is very important to collect valid and appropriate data
from relevant sources in order to support and prove true the basic assumptions previously
discussed. Thus, the researcher examines the various responses provided by the
respondents with a view to interpreting and analyzing the data. With all sense of neutrality,
the researcher remains focused while making this analysis and interpretations in order to
avoid being biased.
The methods and procedures used in the collection of data for this research had earlier
on been mentioned in chapter three. The following section therefore, deals with
presentation and analysis of the results obtained in the course of gathering information on
the subject matter.
29
4.3 PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA
In the course of the research 100 copies of questionnaire were distributed and 60
returned .The questionnaire contains 9 questions in all. This was designed and distributed
among students from the department of Languages and Linguistics and also those of the
department of Theater Arts. The results of this research are analyzed based on the answers
from the questionnaire, tape recording and observation.
4.4 DISTRIBTION OF QUESTIONNAIRE ACCORDING TO AGE
TABLE 1
Age range of respondents
Number of respondents
Percentage %
15 – 20
5
10
21 – 25
30
50
26 – 25
20
30
31 – 35
5
10
60
100
Total
Ten % of the population falls between the ages of 15-29 years implying that the students
within this age bracket are very few in numbers in the university. The highest % of the
population is 50 which fall within the ages of 21=25.This s to say that most of the students
within the selected departments fall within this age bracket. The second highest percentage
of the population is 30
30
DITRIBUTION OF QUESTIONNAIRE ACCORDING TO SEX.
TABLE 2
Sex range of respondent
Respondents
Percentage %
Female
50
83
Male
10
17
Total
60
100
This table contains the sex range of the respondents. The highest is 83 % which
represents the total number of the female population. This is because the female folk
presented themselves more approachable in the course of administering the questionnaire.
Another very prominent reason here is that there are more ladies offering these courses
compared to their male counterpart.
Table 3
When you speak Tiv do you borrow from English language?
Responses
Respondents
Percentage
Yes
50
83
No
10
17
Total
60
100
31
This question was asked in order to first and foremost introduce the respondent to
the subject matter in question, and also to know whether they actually engage themselves
n the act of code-switching and code-mixing. From the table above, one can clearly point
out the fact that most of the respondents [83%] went for yes while 17% of the total
population answered no to the question. This is to justify the claim that code-switching and
code-mixing are universal concepts and therefore, prominent in all bilingual societies
including the Tiv nation.
Table 4
How often do you do that?
Responses
Respondent
Percentage %
Seldom
10
17
Often
45
75
Never
5
8
Total
60
100
This table represents the frequency of the occurrence of this phenomenon in the
selected departments. The table has been able to prove strongly that 75% of the total
population code-mix and code-switch very often and this is attributed to their ability to
recognize and understand the concepts under consideration, since they are done
32
unconsciously. The % that went for never, have clearly shown that they have little or no
knowledge of the phenomena reason being that these concepts are unavoidable in daily
lives.
TABLE 5
Which of the languages do you speak more?
Languages
Respondent
Percentage %
Tiv
15
25
English
45
75
Total
60
100
45% of the total population as shown in the table above speaks English more than they
speak Tiv. This is a pointer to the fact that the respondents are in an academic environment
and so use the English language which is the language of learning in Nigeria.
TABLE 6
Is mixing two languages of any advantage to you?
33
Responses
Respondent
Percentage%
Yes
50
83
No
10
17
Total
60
100
This question was asked to know whether code-mixing is of any advantage to the students.
83% of the total population admitted that it s indeed advantageous While 17% said no to
the question. From the results above we can conclude that the concept of code-mixing s of
great advantage.
Table 7
Do you mix English and Tiv in your daily conversation?
Responses
Respondent
Percentage %
Yes
60
100
No
0
0
Total
60
100
The question “do you mix English and Tiv in your daily conversation?” is one that seeks
to tell whether the respondents mix English and Tiv in their daily conversation so as to
34
verify the true state of their understanding of the concept as it is impossible for one not to
engage himself in code-mixing for a day so long as he is a bilingual.
Table 8
Is English important in Tiv community?
Responses
Respondents
Percentage
Yes
50
83
No
10
17
Total
60
100
The importance of English Language in the Tiv community is brought to test here.
The respondents were required to state whether it is important in their community or
not.83% said yes while 17% said no. This is so because some words and expressions
present in the English Language are not present in Tiv language for example naira, cup,
television fridge etc.
Table 9
35
How do you code mix the two languages?
Responses
Respondents
Percentage %
Within the sentence
45
75
Outside the sentence
0
0
None of the above
15
25
This question is targeted at how people code-mix i.e whether intra-sentential or
inter-sentential. 45% went for intra-sentential.0 for inter-sentential and 25% for none of
the above.
TEXT ANAYSIS FROM THE QUESTIONNAIRE
Why do you borrow?
In this question, the researcher is interested in finding out the reasons for codemixing and code-switching. Below are their responses.
To communicate effectively, insufficient vocabulary in the Tiv language, it makes
the conversation very interesting, to ease communication, for easy understanding, to ease
expression, some words do not have Tiv equivalents.
4.5 ANALYSIS OF TAPE RECORDING
36
SPEECH ONE
a, How is your result?
b, When I was one hundred level, I was doing better. But yam m va nyoron two hundred
level yo o, I made friends with a girl named Dorcas. Er yam m make friend vea Dorcas je,
G. P yam yange i hii u dropping.
When I was in hundred level, I was doing better. But when I entered two hundred
level, I met a friend by name, Dorcas and immediately my G. P. started going down.
a, Nahan this semester yo o beem there is a difference nahan?
But this semester, there is a difference.
b, Yes there is a difference because m de gbenda u wankwase shun
Yes there is a difference because she is no longer my friend.
a. Mo kpa, I’ve experienced that kind of thing friends can ether make you or mal you. Aluer
u er mba aboki mba bo yo, they can change even your lifestyle .It’s very good that we learn
to choose good friends.
Myself I have experienced that kind of thing. Friends can either make you or mal you
so it’s very good that we learn to choose good friends.
37
b. Yes ior ka ve ka ier, we don’t have good friends around but, with wisdom and God by
your side, you can still have mba aboki mba njaa.Friends that will have you at heart.
People usually say that there are no good friends around but with wisdom and God by
your side,
You can still have good friends that will always have you at heart.
SPEECH TWO
A, Terese man hii nan ve u lu k won nahan? Lectures oov mba going on ga? I’ve always
seen you people outside what’s happening?
Terese why are you standing outside like thishave your lectures not been going on?
b. Lectures mba lun ga .These lectures have not been coming to class. Kwagh u tesen kpa
mba tesen ga.
We haven’t had lectures and our lecturers have not been coming to class.
a, Tso se mbaan yo, we’ve been having lectures since the beginning of the semester man
nenge ase semester nyor ker. How will you write your exams? Exams are at the corner u
nenge gaman ka mnenge aa course mates enev k won
But as for my class we’ve been holding lectures since the beginning of this semester.
b, Kwagh la ka Aondo u ne er ier.
38
Only God can do this thing.
a, So you have to negotiate lam nen a course rep wene a yem aza lam a ior mbela God
doesn’t that are sitting but that are trying.
Negotiate with them talk to your course rep God only helps those who are trying.
b,
Nahan yo msughuu I will go and meet them.
Thanks I will go and meet them.
a,
We need to change the natures of things here nenge imianta ii genev outside the state
Uni Jos and the rest mba eren kwagh nahan ga kpa er nan k tar wase u Tiv i lu nahan?
We need to change the nature of things here. Look at other schools outside the state
like
University of Jos do not do things this way but why are things this way in Tiv land?
b.
Ka ve tsegh ve fa ye.
They are the only ones that know
SPEECH THREE
a.
How are you doing naw?
How are you doing?
39
b. I’m fine
a., I don’t know I just feel very bad about the recent issue I heard about. Kwagh u cultism
hi manta wase ne. Nahan we yo what can you say about it?
I don’t know I just feel very bad about the recent issue of cultism in this school.
b. Well, mo kpa m ungwa kwagh sha min oo that other day kpa yam mlu Karen kpa m
ungwa me i wua wan u genev
Well I also heard about it. The other day I was walking through the campus I heard
they had killed another student from one of the cult groups.
En…… especially when it comes to the university situation. Man nenge ase we’ve
b.
come to learn nahan gba pe se due aa u certificate tsegher tsegher a na se for excellence,
and conduct
Yes especially as it has to do with the university.
a. U nenge nahan joining them aluer a repercussions ve nger ga? Shin ve nger ga?
Can you see that joining them has so many repercussions?
b. Ka ve hide ve wuan ayol ave kpa.
They even kill themselves.
a. U nenge ase ga.
40
Can you see that?
4.6 ANALYSIS OF OBSERVATION
Dressing was the topic for which the participants were observed to code-switch. Two
bilinguals were discussing the inherent practice among the female students seated in one
of the parks on campus.
a. Guy, nenge that kind of trousers u wankwase la a put la yoo.
{Guy look at that kind of trousers that the lady has put on}
b. Yes she is looking sexy, kpa mode of dressing la m admire un ga.
[Yes she is looking sexy, but I don’t admire that mode of dressing}
a. Mimi, for what now?
[Really, for what now?}
b.
U nenge gaa, she is half naked.
[Don’t you see, she is half naked]
a. Pastor pastor, alright de myila un nahan se pase un adua okey?
[Pastor, pastor, alright I will call her so we can preach to her. okay/}
b. U hom yo ga, don’t make believe you are planning to toast her.
41
{You are funny, don’t make me believe you are planning to toast her. ]
a. Mngu a strength ga, please I beg of you.
{I don’t have strength, please I beg of you}
b. Alue ka ijen yo rice dey my room
{If you are hungry, there is rice in my room.]
OBSERVATION
From the data collected it was observed that students code-mix for easy
communication among themselves to show familiarity, solidarity, and informality. Most
times students who code-mix are not sure or don’t even know the words and expressions
to use in the language in which their utterance is started, therefore, they find it easier to
pick out words and expressions from other languages.
It was observed that going by the conventional way of speaking, one language does
not give students the desired satisfaction they need and this makes them resort to codeswitching. It was also observed that code-mixing is unconscious and harphard in nature. It
is used for communication among friends and in social gatherings.
42
CHAPTER FIVE
5.1 SUMMARY
Chapter one of this research work gives a general introduction to the study. This
chapter also includes background to the study which is followed by statement of the
research problem and subsequently research questions and aims and objectives which is
followed by significance of the study and last but not the least, the scope of the study.
In chapter two, scholars views on the topic are considered. In sub-headings, the
section is discussed under introduction, speech community, the concept of code, the notion
of bilingualism, code-switching, types of code-switching, code-mixing and finally pains
and gains of code-mixing and code-switching.
Chapter three contains sources of data collection. These are: questionnaire, tape
recording, and personal observations. It also considers the techniques used in obtaining
information. These include individual administration of questionnaire, personal visits as
well as person to person conversation.
In chapter four, information obtained in the course of the research is presented and
analyzed. This is done in table-like forms, using the percentage method. The TEXT
43
Analysis method is also employed here so as to analyze data collected through tape
recording, and personal observation. Chapter five finally summarizes, concludes and give
recommendations for the problem in discussion.
5.2 CONCLUTION
It has been very clear from the results obtained in the course of the study that, codeswitching and code- mixing is an unconscious behaviour. A greater percentage of the
participants attested to this fact. The subconscious nature of code-switching and codemixing forwards the issues of linguistic representation in the mental organization of the
bilingual. Since a bilingual brings to his linguistic performance his knowledge of two
languages, lexical intrusions in mother tongue- based speech events could only be regarded
as a cognitive activity designed to fill a space in the mother tongue with second language
inputs as it is required by circumstances. It is in place at this point therefore to say that,
code- switching and code mixing as a mental activity could be a function of what Lipski
(1982 : 192 ) describes as an “ inner drive that cannot find ready expression by remaining
within a single language”
As earlier indicated in this work, code-switching and code mixing owes its
development to language contact and the reasons for code-switching and other changes in
speech as a person seeks either to emphasize or to minimize the social differences between
himself /herself and the other person(s) in conversation. Professor Giles posits that when
speakers seeks approval in a social situation they are likely to converge their speech with
44
that of the other person speaking, this can include, but is not limited to the language of
choice, accent, dialect, and paralinguistic features used in the conversation. In contrast to
convergence, speakers might also engage in divergent speech with which an individual
emphasizes the social distance. There is usually a mutual interference among the languages
involved. This interference usually extends to code-mixing and sometimes even to
pidginization. What determines the dominant role of this speech behaviour is the
combination of sociolinguistic and psychological factors deriving from the dominance
subordination relationship between the contact languages.
As a cognitive phenomenon, code-switching and code-mixing are noted not only as
a function of the attitude and motivation of the bilingual and his two languages, but also a
question of the existing language’s input in his brain.
45