Emotion The term emotion is feeling, or affect, that can involve physiological arousal, conscious experience, and behavioral expression. A. Biological Factors in Emotion Arousal The nature of our evolution as a species is that we seek consistency, calmness or an environment in which we know the rules. When this occurs we are more discerning in our decision making, we are more open to the other and our physiology works at its best. The autonomic nervous system (ANS) takes messages to and from the body’s internal organs, monitoring such processes as breathing, heart rate, and digestion. The ANS is divided into the sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous systems. The sympathetic nervous system is involved in the body’s arousal. It is responsible for the body’s immediate reaction to a stressor, sometimes called the fight-or-flight response. There is an immediate increase in blood pressure, a faster heart rate, more rapid breathing to increase oxygen intake, and more efficient blood flow to the brain and major muscle groups. These changes prepare us for action. The parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) calms the body. Whereas the sympathetic nervous system prepares the individual for fighting or running away, the parasympathetic nervous system promotes relaxation and healing. When the PNS is activated, heart rate and blood pressure drop, stomach activity and food digestion increase, and breathing slows. Measuring Arousal One aspect of arousal is the skin conductance level response, a rise in the skin’s electrical conductivity, when sweat gland activity increases. The measurement of this electrical activity provides an index of arousal that has been used in studies of emotion. Another measure of arousal is a polygraph test, used in trying to determine if someone is lying. It monitors changes in the body such as heart rate, breathing, and electrodermal response. The amygdala is a collection of cells near the base of the brain. There are two, one in each hemisphere or side of the brain. This is where emotions are given meaning, remembered, and attached to associations and responses to them (emotional memories). The amygdala is considered to be part of the brain’s limbic system. It’s key to how you process strong emotions like fear and pleasure When you feel threatened and afraid, the amygdala automatically activates the fight-or-flight response by sending out signals to release stress hormones that prepare your body to fight or run away. This response is triggered by emotions like fear, anxiety, aggression, and anger.. The frontal lobes are the two large areas at the front of your brain. They’re part of the cerebral cortex, which is a newer, rational, and more advanced brain system. This is where thinking, reasoning, decision-making, and planning happen. The frontal lobes allow you to process and think about your emotions mindfulness. This refers to staying in the present and being aware of what you’re feeling and thinking, your bodily sensations, and stimuli from your environment. TECHNIQUES TO STOP AMYGDALA HIJACK Reasoning. This means you use your frontal lobes to think the situation through, review the possible options, and choose the most rational and logical way to respond. Meditation. By relaxing your body and mind through meditation or deep breathing, you can change your brain’s focus from responding to a threat or stress to inner peace and calmness. Emotional feedback, negative or positive, is a good thing. It keeps us tuned in to our environment and alert to both threats and opportunities. But constant negative feedback can short-circuit our brain's creative problem-solving ability, turning us into overreacting, anxiety riddled hot heads instead. This is especially true with the patterns and habits that arise from bad memories and trauma Physiological Theories of Emotion The James-Lange theory states that emotion results from physiological states that are triggered by stimuli in the environment. In this theory, emotion occurs after the physiological reaction. The Cannon-Bard theory states that emotion and physiological reactions occur simultaneously. Neural Circuits and Neurotransmitters The amygdala includes circuits that are activated when an individual experiences negative emotions. One of the negative emotions in which the amygdala plays a central role is fear. When the amygdala detects the presence of danger, it steps up its activity, commandeering the brain’s resources in an effort to protect the individual from harm. There are two pathways for fear. One is the more direct pathway from the thalamus to the amygdala. This direct route does not give specific details about the stimulus but is faster. The second is an indirect pathway from the thalamus through the sensory cortex and then sends appropriate signals to the amygdala. The amygdala is also linked to creating and maintaining emotional memories. This is useful because once an individual has experienced something is dangerous, we do not have to unlearn it. Research has also recently shown that the cerebral hemispheres are involved in emotions. Neurotransmitters such as endorphins and dopamine are involved in positive emotions such as happiness. Norepinephrine is involved in regulating arousal. B. Cognitive Factors in Emotion Cognitive theories of emotion hold the premise that emotion always has a cognitive component. The Two-Factor Theory of Emotion The two-factor theory of emotion has two elements to it: physiological arousal and cognitive labeling. Misinterpreted arousal intensifies emotional experiences. The Primacy Debate: Cognition or Emotion? In the 1980s and 1990s there was a debate between Richard Lazarus and Robert Zajonc about which occurred first, thinking or emotion. Lazarus argued for the primacy effect, saying that he believed cognitive activity was a precondition for emotion. Zajonc argued that emotions are primary and an individual’s thoughts are the result of the emotions. Both are essentially correct in that some emotions are instantaneous and do not involve cognitive appraisal, whereas others do. This argument is supported by the earlier description of direct and indirect brain pathways. C. Behavioral Factors Researchers studying emotion have recently been interested in looking at a person’s ability to detect emotion from another person’s facial expressions. The facial feedback hypothesis states that facial expression can influence emotions as well as reflect them. In one study, actors made various facial expressions and their physiological changes were then recorded. Results showed that when the actors made angry facial expressions, both their heart rates and their body temperatures increased. D. Sociocultural Factors Culture and the Expression of Emotion Charles Darwin believed that the facial expressions of humans are innate, are the same in all cultures, and evolved from the expressions of animals. Research has shown that the facial expressions of emotion do not indeed differ significantly from one culture to another. The display rules for emotions—sociocultural standards that determine when, where, and how emotions should be expressed—vary from one emotion to the next. Other nonverbal signals appear to be universal indicators of emotion. However, the nonverbal signals of emotion vary from culture to culture. Gender Influences Researchers have found that females and males are more alike in the ways they express emotions than what had been previously believed. When differences do emerge, women report more feelings of sadness and anxiety than men do, and men report more anger and irritability than women. E. Classifying Emotions Valence The valence of an emotion refers to whether it feels pleasant or unpleasant. Negative affect refers to negative emotions such as anxiety, anger, guilt, and sadness. Positive affect refers to positive things like joy, happiness, love, and interest. Arousal Level The arousal level of an emotion is the degree to which the emotion is reflected in an individual who is being active, engaged, or excited versus more passive, relatively disengaged, or calm. Positive and negative emotions can be high or low in arousal. Ecstasy and excitement are examples of high-arousal positive emotions, whereas contentment and tranquility are lowarousal positive emotions. Examples of high-arousal negative emotions are rage, fury, and panic, while irritation and boredom represent low-arousal negative emotions. Valence and arousal level are independent dimensions that together describe a vast number of emotional states. Using these dimensions, we can effectively create a wheel of mood states. A circumplex model is a type of graph that creates a circle from two independent dimensions. Using the two dimensions of valence and arousal level, we can arrange emotional states in an organized fashion. F. The Adaptive Functions of Emotions Barbara Frederickson’s broaden-and-build model of positive emotion states that the function of positive emotions lies in their effects on our attention and ability to build resources. The broaden-and-build model begins with the influence of positive emotions on cognitive processing. Positive emotions can serve as markers of well-being. They can also improve coping skills. In some cases they can undo lingering negative emotions. Resilience is associated with the capacity to thrive during difficult times. Individuals can bounce back from negative experiences. Resilient individuals are zestful, optimistic, and energetic in their approach to life. They can be distinguished by their tendency to experience positive emotion. They cultivate positive emotion in their lives through the use of humor. They show a kind of emotional wisdom in that they capitalize on the capacity of positive emotions to reverse the stress of negative feelings.
