Chemistry Performance homework
Yigit Koyuncuoglu
CHEMICAL SPECIES
Chemical species are defined as
groups of atoms or molecules that
have specific chemical properties
and exist either in isolation or in
combination with other species. The
main types of chemical species are:
CHEMICAL SPECIES: ATOMS
Atoms are the smallest unit of a chemical element that retains the chemical properties of that element. Atoms are electrically neutral,
meaning they have an equal number of protons and electrons. The number of neutrons in an atom can vary, resulting in different
isotopes of the same element. Atoms can bond with other atoms to form molecules and compounds. The type of bond that forms
depends on the number of electrons in the outermost shell of each atom. Atoms can gain, lose, or share electrons to form chemical
bonds.:
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Hydrogen (H)
Carbon (C)
Oxygen (O)
Iron (Fe)
Gold (Au)
Uranium (U)
Neon (Ne)
Chlorine (Cl)
Sodium (Na)
Mercury (Hg)
CHEMICAL SPECIES: COMPOUNDS
Compounds are substances that are composed of two or more different elements chemically combined together in fixed ratios. In other words, a
compound is a pure substance that is made up of two or more different atoms that are chemically bonded together. Compounds can be formed by
various types of chemical bonds, including ionic bonds, covalent bonds, and metallic bonds. The properties of a compound are different from the
properties of the individual elements that make it up, which means that compounds often have unique physical and chemical properties:
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Water (H2O)
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Sodium chloride (NaCl)
Glucose (C6H12O6)
Calcium carbonate (CaCO3)
Nitric acid (HNO3)
Methane (CH4)
Ethanol (C2H5OH)
Ammonia (NH3)
Sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
CHEMICAL SPECIES: IONS
Ions are atoms or molecules that have a net electrical charge due to the loss or gain of one or more electrons. When an
atom loses one or more electrons, it becomes positively charged and is called a cation. Conversely, when an atom gains
one or more electrons, it becomes negatively charged and is called an anion.:
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Hydrogen ion (H+)
Chloride ion (Cl-)
Sodium ion (Na+)
Calcium ion (Ca2+)
Nitrate ion (NO3-)
Carbonate ion (CO32-)
Sulfate ion (SO42-)
Ammonium ion (NH4+)
Phosphate ion (PO43-)
Iron(III) ion (Fe3+)
CHEMICAL SPECIES: MOLECULES
Molecules are the fundamental units of chemical compounds. They are composed of two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds. Molecules can be made up of
atoms of the same element or different elements.
Here are some key points about molecules:
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Composition: Molecules consist of two or more atoms. These atoms can be of the same element, such as in oxygen gas (O2), or different elements, such as in
water (H2O), which contains hydrogen and oxygen atoms.
Chemical Bonds: Atoms within a molecule are held together by chemical bonds. These bonds can be covalent, where atoms share electrons, or they can be polar or
nonpolar, depending on the electronegativity difference between the atoms.
Molecular Formula: The molecular formula represents the type and number of atoms in a molecule. For example, the molecular formula for glucose is C6H12O6,
indicating it contains 6 carbon, 12 hydrogen, and 6 oxygen atoms.
Molecular Structure: Molecules have a specific arrangement or structure of atoms in three-dimensional space. The arrangement of atoms determines the
molecule's shape, properties, and interactions with other molecules.
Physical and Chemical Properties: Molecules exhibit various physical and chemical properties. These include molecular weight, boiling point, melting point, polarity,
reactivity, solubility, and many others. The properties of a molecule depend on the types of atoms present, the bonding pattern, and the overall molecular structure.
Examples
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Oxygen molecule (O2)
Nitrogen molecule (N2)
Methane molecule (CH4)
Water molecule (H2O)
Carbon dioxide molecule (CO2)
Ethanol molecule
Glucose molecule
Aspirin molecule
Caffeine molecule
DNA molecule
CHEMICAL SPECIES: RADICALS
Radicals, in the context of chemistry, are chemical species that contain one or more unpaired electrons. These unpaired electrons make radicals
highly reactive and often involved in various chemical reactions. Radicals can be formed through processes such as homolytic bond cleavage or the
addition of a single electron to a molecule.
Here are some key points about radicals:
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Unpaired Electrons: Radicals have one or more unpaired electrons in their outermost electron shell. These unpaired electrons make radicals
highly reactive as they seek to pair up with electrons from other atoms or molecules.
Stability: Radicals are generally less stable than molecules with paired electrons. The presence of unpaired electrons gives radicals a higher
energy state and makes them more chemically reactive.
Formation: Radicals can be formed through different mechanisms. One common method is the homolytic cleavage of a covalent bond,
where each atom receives one of the shared electrons, resulting in the formation of two radicals. Radicals can also be generated by
reactions involving free radicals or by the addition or removal of an electron.
Types of Radicals: Radicals can be classified based on the type of atom or functional group involved. For example, organic radicals often
involve carbon-centered species, such as alkyl radicals (e.g., methyl radical, CH3·) or aromatic radicals (e.g., phenyl radical, C6H5·). Other
types of radicals include oxygen-centered radicals (e.g., hydroxyl radical, ·OH) or nitrogen-centered radicals (e.g., amino radical, ·NH2).
Examples
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Hydroxyl radical (•OH)
Nitric oxide radical (•NO)
Methoxy radical (•CH3O)
Methyl radical (•CH3)
Alkyl radical
Peroxyl radical
Carbonate radical
Nitrogen dioxide radical
Superoxide radical
Sulfate radical
CHEMICAL SPECIES: ISOTOPES
Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have different numbers of neutrons in the nucleus, resulting in different
atomic masses. Examples include:
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Carbon-12
Carbon-13
Oxygen-16
Oxygen-18
Uranium-235
Uranium-238
Hydrogen-1
Hydrogen-2
Hydrogen-3
Iron-56
References
Wikipedia
https://www.britannica.com/science/chemical-compound
Thank you for reading