COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES
SCHOOL OF FOOD TECHNOLOGY, NUTRITION AND BIOENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL AND BIOSYSTEMS
ENGINEERING
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN WATER AND IRRIGATION
ENGINEERING
INDUSTRIAL TRAINING AT MAKERERE UNIVERSITY
AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE KABANYOLO
By
AGABA ONAN
19/U/8618/PS
1900708618
AN INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT
OF AGRICULTURAL AND BIOSYSTEMS ENGINEERING IN PARTIAL
FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE
DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN WATER AND IRRIGATION
ENGINEERING OF MAKERERE UNIVERSITY, KAMPALA
NOVEMBER 2021
i
DECLARATION
I, Onan Agaba declare that this report is my original work and has not been submitted to any
college, university or institution for an academic award.
Signed: …………………………………………….
Date: ……………………………………………….
ii
APPROVAL
This report has been under my supervision as a university supervisor and is now ready for
submission to the Department of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering, School of Food
Technology, Nutrition and Bio-Engineering, Makerere University for approval.
University Supervisor
Name of Supervisor: Assoc. Prof. Eng. Isa Kabenge
Signature
…………………………………………………………………….
Date
…………………………………………………………………….
iii
DEDICATION
This industrial training report is dedicated to my parents for the courage, guidance, prayers and
continued financial support in all times of my academics and personal growth.
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude and appreciation to God for His
unconditional love, guidance and protection; and for making the training a success. It is entirely
by His grace that I have reached this far in life in general and the academic journey in particular.
Praise, glory and honor be to Him!
I extend my heartfelt gratitude to the management of MUARIK for granting me the valuable
opportunity to train at their institute.
I also thank all the staff of the MUARIK Engineering Department for the great ideas and thoughts
shared with me during the entire training period and for their hospitality and cooperation that made
it inevitable for me to acquire the much-desired practical knowledge and skills.
Special thanks also go to the Department of Agricultural and Biosystems of Makerere University
for availing me with this study time so as to apply the theoretical skills learnt in class into real life
problem-solving situations and understanding of the Water and Irrigation Engineering profession
at large.
With great honor and in a special way, I thank my university supervisor Assoc. Prof. Isa Kabenge
for his tremendous support and guidance rendered to me both during and after the training.
Sincere gratitude is also expressed to my fellow trainees with whom we shared valuable ideas;
for their support, company and continued team work exhibited during the entire industrial
training period.
Most importantly, heartfelt thanks and love, to my dearest parents Mr. and Mrs. Mubangizi
Nkorenta for their continued assistance, support, love, encouragement and inspiration, and for
paying the greatest price for my education.
Finally, to all those who have supported my academic journey yet whose names are not mentioned
here, I am grateful and very much appreciate all your contributions.
May the ever-good Lord immensely reward you all!
v
ABSTRACT
Industrial training is one of the requirements for the award of the Degree in Bachelor of Science
in Water and Irrigation Engineering of Makerere University and its majorly for the purposes of
professional work experience and cultivation of practical skills. As such, students are required to
write and submit reports at the end of their training. This report is the record of the work I
personally did during my industrial training at Makerere University Agricultural Research Institute
Kabanyolo (MUARIK) from November to December 2021.
This report presents the objectives, background of MUARIK, tools/machinery encountered, the
activities/testing procedures I was involved in while at MUARIK, experience, new skills and
knowledge acquired during my industrial training. The major training activities I was involved in
include; workshop safety, policy and management, Farm tractor operation, driving and its
maintenance, pumps and their operation, irrigation technology, hydraulic system evaluation and
smart irrigation operation. It further goes on to show the analysis of some of the field results
obtained during investigations and after conducting the different field-testing procedures.
Irrigation structures, network layouts, flow control devices, water pumps, tool box, filters, pipe
fittings, fire extinguisher and the farm tractor were the major tools/machinery I encountered.
Furthermore, it summarizes all the new skills and knowledge acquired during my training.
In conclusion, the training was successful and I acquired a number of skills and knowledge through
application of theoretical knowledge learnt in class into the practical operations/reality. Literature
was obtained from both the training center and other credible sources as listed in the references
chapter. However, during the training a number of challenges were encountered and the best ways
to overcome them were recommended as well in the report.
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION........................................................................................................................... ii
APPROVAL ................................................................................................................................. iii
DEDICATION.............................................................................................................................. iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................ v
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................. vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................................................... vii
LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................................... xi
LIST OF ACRONYMS USED................................................................................................... xii
CHAPTER ONE: GENERAL INTRODUCTION .................................................................... 1
1.1 Background .......................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Industrial training objectives ............................................................................................. 1
1.2.1 General Objectives ......................................................................................................... 1
1.2.2 Specific Objectives ......................................................................................................... 1
1.3 MUARIK Background........................................................................................................ 1
1.3.1 Location .......................................................................................................................... 2
1.3.2 Mission of MUARIK ...................................................................................................... 3
1.3.3 Vision statement of MUARIK ........................................................................................ 3
1.3.4 On-Going Research ........................................................................................................ 3
1.3.5 Objectives of MUARIK.................................................................................................. 3
1.3.6 Research and recreational facilities offered at MUARIK .............................................. 3
1.3.7 Future plans .................................................................................................................... 4
1.3.8 Funding ........................................................................................................................... 4
1.3.9 The organizational structure of MUARIK...................................................................... 4
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................ 5
2.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 5
2.1.1 Review on Irrigation ....................................................................................................... 5
2.1.2 Review on Hydraulic System Evaluation for a drip fertigation system in Kabanyolo... 6
2.1.3 Review on farm machinery............................................................................................. 7
2.1.4 Review on smart irrigation ............................................................................................. 7
2.2 Tools/Machinery encountered ............................................................................................ 8
vii
2.2.1 Irrigation structures......................................................................................................... 8
2.2.2 Network layouts .............................................................................................................. 9
2.2.3 Flow Control Devices ................................................................................................... 12
2.2.4 Water Pumps................................................................................................................. 13
2.2.5 Tool box ........................................................................................................................ 15
2.2.6 Filters ............................................................................................................................ 15
2.2.7 Pipe fittings ................................................................................................................... 16
2.2.6 Fire extinguisher ........................................................................................................... 17
2.2.8 Farm tractor .................................................................................................................. 19
CHAPTER THREE: TRAINING ACTIVITIES AND RESULTS ........................................ 20
3.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 20
3.2 Workshop safety, policy and management ..................................................................... 20
3.2.1 Risk at Work ................................................................................................................. 20
3.2.2 Firefighting techniques ................................................................................................. 21
3.2.3 How to operate the fire extinguisher ............................................................................ 21
3.2.4 Key things to note when using fire extinguishers......................................................... 21
3.2.5 Fire Extinguisher Locations.......................................................................................... 22
3.2.6 Organizing the work space ........................................................................................... 22
3.2.7 Workshop Policies and Management ........................................................................... 22
3.3 Farm Tractor operation, driving and its maintenance .................................................. 23
3.3.1 Description of a farm tractor ........................................................................................ 23
3.3.2 Tractor Operation Checks and Maintenance ................................................................ 23
3.3.3 Major Tractor systems and their purposes .................................................................... 23
3.3.3.1 Differential System ................................................................................................ 26
3.3.3.2 Transmission System ............................................................................................. 26
3.3.3.3 Carburetion System ................................................................................................ 27
3.3.3.4 Hydraulics System ................................................................................................. 28
3.3.3.5 Steering System ..................................................................................................... 29
3.3.3.6 Cooling System ...................................................................................................... 29
3.3.3.7 Power Take-off system .......................................................................................... 31
3.3.4 Driving Steps of Farm Tractor...................................................................................... 31
3.3.5 Precautions to be taken while driving a tractor ............................................................ 32
viii
3.4 Pumps ................................................................................................................................. 32
3.4.1 Pump priming ............................................................................................................... 32
3.4.2 Operation of a water pump in a pump house at MUARIK ........................................... 33
3.4.3 Common faults faced by a water pump ........................................................................ 34
3.4.4 Precautions followed to troubleshoot a pump .............................................................. 34
3.5 Irrigation technology......................................................................................................... 35
3.5.1 Description of Irrigation ............................................................................................... 35
3.5.2 Pressurized Irrigation .................................................................................................... 35
3.5.3 Drip Irrigation ............................................................................................................... 36
3.5.3.1 General operation of a drip system ........................................................................ 36
3.5.3.2 Diagnosis/Cleaning of clogged lateral lines in drip system ................................... 37
3.5.4 Sprinkler Irrigation ....................................................................................................... 37
3.5.4.1 General operation of sprinkler system ................................................................... 37
3.5.4.2 Faults encountered by sprinkler irrigation system ................................................. 37
3.5.4.3 Possible solutions to the faults ............................................................................... 37
3.5.4.4 Maintenance of sprinkler irrigation systems .......................................................... 37
3.5.5 Rain spray irrigation ..................................................................................................... 38
3.5.5.1 Major faults encountered by the rain spray irrigation system................................ 38
3.5.5.2 Possible solutions to the faults ............................................................................... 38
3.6 Hydraulics System evaluation .......................................................................................... 39
3.6.1 Tools used ..................................................................................................................... 40
3.6.2 Field procedure ............................................................................................................. 40
3.6.3 Common faults faced with the drip system during systems evaluation ....................... 41
3.6.4 Solutions to the common faults. ................................................................................... 42
3.7 Smart Irrigation ................................................................................................................ 42
3.7.1 Description of smart irrigation technology ................................................................... 42
3.7.1 Tools and equipment used ............................................................................................ 44
3.7.2 Technical procedures followed during operation ......................................................... 44
3.7.3 Determination of the amount of water for irrigation .................................................... 45
3.7.4 Common faults with the smart irrigation system.......................................................... 45
3.7.5 Possible solutions to the faults...................................................................................... 45
3.7.6 Advantages of smart irrigation system ......................................................................... 45
ix
3.7.7 Disadvantages of smart irrigation system ..................................................................... 46
CHAPTER FOUR: SKILLS ACQUIRED, CHALLENGES FACED,
RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION. ..................................................................... 47
4.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 47
4.2 Experience gained/achievements from the training ............................................................ 47
4.3 Challenges faced during the training ................................................................................... 47
4.4 Recommendations ............................................................................................................... 48
4.5 Conclusion........................................................................................................................... 48
REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................................... 49
x
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: The MUARIK plaque ...................................................................................................... 2
Figure 2: The MUARIK Organizational Chart ............................................................................... 4
Figure 3: The MUARIK Water Catchment Area ............................................................................ 8
Figure 4: The Water Reservoir ....................................................................................................... 9
Figure 5: Irrigation Hydrant ............................................................................................................ 9
Figure 6: The Laterals/Pipes ......................................................................................................... 10
Figure 7: Online emitters .............................................................................................................. 10
Figure 8: Inline emitters ................................................................................................................ 10
Figure 9: Integral emitters ............................................................................................................. 11
Figure 10: End plug ...................................................................................................................... 11
Figure 11: Micro Sprinkler ........................................................................................................... 12
Figure 12: The Measuring valve / Meter ...................................................................................... 12
Figure 13: The non-return valve ................................................................................................... 13
Figure 14: The Auxiliary Valve (Priming point) .......................................................................... 13
Figure 15: The Engineer's tool box ............................................................................................... 15
Figure 16: Filters ........................................................................................................................... 16
Figure 17: Connector (Pipe fitting): .............................................................................................. 17
Figure 18: Elbow (Pipe fitting) ..................................................................................................... 17
Figure 19: Personal protective equipment .................................................................................... 20
Figure 20: Fire Extinguisher ......................................................................................................... 21
Figure 21: Layout for Organizing the Workshop ......................................................................... 22
Figure 22: The Farm tractor differential system ........................................................................... 26
Figure 23: The Farm tractor carburetion system........................................................................... 28
Figure 24: The Farm tractor Radiator (Cooling system) .............................................................. 30
Figure 25: The farm tractor fan (Cooling system) ........................................................................ 30
Figure 26: The farm tractor PTO .................................................................................................. 31
Figure 27: Onan Agaba driving a farm tractor.............................................................................. 32
Figure 28: Illustration of Pump priming ....................................................................................... 33
Figure 29: The Instructor guiding me how to assemble and disassemble the filter cylinder ........ 35
Figure 30: The drip irrigation system ........................................................................................... 36
Figure 31: The Rain spray irrigation system................................................................................. 38
Figure 32: Demonstrating the hydraulics system evaluation ........................................................ 39
Figure 33: Evaluating the smart irrigation system ........................................................................ 40
Figure 34: The smart irrigation setup............................................................................................ 42
Figure 35: The smart irrigation hardware layout .......................................................................... 43
Figure 36: The smart irrigation software system layout ............................................................... 43
Figure 37: Garden with drip system laterals under smart irrigation ............................................. 44
xi
LIST OF ACRONYMS USED
MUARIK – Makerere University Agricultural Research Institute
CAES – College of Agricultural & Environmental Sciences
DABE – Department of Agricultural & Biosystems Engineering
PPE – Personal Protective equipment
PTO – Power Take Off
DC – Direct Current
MCU – Micro Controller Unit
AC – Alternating Current
TDC – Top Dead Center
BDC – Bottom Dead Center
EFI – Electrical Fuel Injection System
PVC – Poly Vinyl Chloride
GI – Galvanized Iron
xii
CHAPTER ONE: GENERAL INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Industrial attachment is an industrial based practical training experience that prepares students
for the tasks they are expected to perform on completion of their training.
1.2 Industrial training objectives
The university through its industrial training program aims at achieving a number of objectives
and these include the following;
1.2.1 General Objectives
To produce practical oriented graduates that meet the required job-related competences of their
future employers.
To serve as a go-between the University and the various partners who consume services and/or
products of the University.
1.2.2 Specific Objectives
To equip students with practical skills and knowledge relevant to their field of study
To provide exposure to students to the responsibility of becoming experienced professionals
To teach communication skills that is the daily interaction in the working environment with clients
and colleagues
To develop an understanding of work ethics, employment demands, responsibilities and
opportunities.
1.3 MUARIK Background
Makerere University Agricultural Research Institute Kabanyolo (MUARIK) was established as a
farm in 1953, and upgraded to a fully-fledged Research Institute in 1992 under the then Faculty of
Agriculture. It currently falls under the School of Agricultural Sciences, College of Agricultural
and Environmental Sciences (CAES), Makerere University.
MUARIK is Makerere University's interface with the National Agricultural Research System
(NARS). It houses the Continuing Agricultural Education Center (CAEC), conceived in 1993 as a
project with joint funding from The World Bank and Government of Uganda under the
Agricultural Research and Training Project (ARTP) through the National Agricultural Research
Organization (NARO).
MUARIK also hosts a Biotechnology Lab renowned globally for undertaking continental plant
breeding programs.
The Makerere University Regional Centre for Crop Improvement (MaRCCI) focused on an
African continent free from hunger and malnutrition through the provision of improved varieties
of food crops in Africa
The Graduate Training and Research Laboratory, with state-of-the-art facilities aimed at enhancing
the quality of analysis of practical field work for graduate students
1
The Modern Poultry Unit (KOICA) comprising three (3) sub-units with a capacity of five thousand
(5000) birds each, a brooder house, a drying shed for dehydrating chicken manure and a microbial
facility to grow microorganisms to be used in the fermentation of chicken manure
The Coffee Value Addition Centre (CURAD) focused on agri-business incubation to create
employment opportunities for students. The Dairy Value Chain Unit and the Feed Mill
Undergraduate student hostel and facilities for over 30 graduate students
Departments:
Makerere University Agricultural Research institute, Kabanyolo departments include Agricultural
Production, Agribusiness and Natural Resource Economics and Agricultural Extension &
Innovations.
Climate
Bi-modal rainfall (mean annual 1150m), Temperature: mean 21 degrees Celsius; Soils; largely
Nitsols.
Accessibility
By the road using public and private commuters; a shuttle to Makerere University main campus is
available every day.
1.3.1 Location
The public institution is located 21km North West of Kampala off Gayaza township on the
Kampala-Zirobwe Road. It is situated in Kabanyolo village, Gayaza parish, Nangabo sub-county,
Kyadondo county, Wakiso district with an acreage of 650 acres. The plaque of MUARIK is shown
in Figure 1.
Figure 1: The MUARIK plaque
MUARIK ADDRESS
Makerere University Agricultural Research Institute, Kabanyolo
P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda
Director: +256 776 993827 | Farm Manager: +256772 408712
Email: muarik@caes.mak.ac.ug
2
1.3.2 Mission of MUARIK
To enhance the capacity of professionals and practitioners; disseminate knowledge and
technologies for sustainable development of agricultural and agro-industrial sectors.
1.3.3 Vision statement of MUARIK
To enhance its services to all agricultural stakeholders, particularly to developing farmers and
entrepreneurial agricultural industries and markets in Uganda.
1.3.4 On-Going Research
Makerere University Agricultural Research institute, Kabanyolo on-going research include the
potential of using sweet potatoes’ vines as fodder for livestock-by crop science department the use
of municipal wastes as soil amendments-by soil science department +NARO+KCC use of icc for
linking farmers-researchers-extension-private sector-policy makers.
1.3.5 Objectives of MUARIK
Mobilize and co-ordinate the Human Resource expertise especially on the critical needs for
capacity and human resource development for agricultural modernization and development.
Design and implement short- and medium-term demand driven training programs for the public
and private sector employees in agricultural related organization/businesses, as well as farmers.
Enhance the technical capacity and leadership of public and private sector Agricultural related
organization/businesses through mid-career professional training programs, seminars, conferences
workshops among other activities.
Appropriately package and produce information needed by extension staff, mid-career
professionals and farmers to enhance their performance in delivery of services.
Be the inter-face between Makerere University, the local governments, private sector including
Non-Government Organizations (NGOs), Community Based Organizations (CBOs) and the
farming communities at large through collaborative implementation of training programs and
development of resource materials for various stakeholders in the Agricultural sector.
1.3.6 Research and recreational facilities offered at MUARIK
Makerere University Agricultural Research institute, Kabanyolo training and research facilities
include; a library, laboratories, computer laboratories with internet services, lecture and study
rooms, green and screen houses, pasture museum, meteorological station, a grain crib, gene bank,
farm machinery and implements, carpentry and machinery workshops, a feed mill., workshops,
apiary, fish pond, agro-forestry and woodlots.
Crops produced; Maize, soybean, horticultural crops, flowers, fruits like passion fruits and
avocado, coffee, bananas, cocoyams, forests and woodlots and pasture seeds. Animals raised;
Friesians and guernseys dairy animals, pigs, goats and poultry.
3
Recreational facilities include football pitch, volleyball pitch and a pool table and several indoor
games such as chess.
1.3.7 Future plans
MUARIK will continue being a partner in national and international agricultural development. It
needs re-focusing to include:
1. Restructuring into a College of Agricultural and Natural Science.
2. Establishment of more collaborations and linkages with national and international
institutions.
3. Establishment of a suitable research fund.
4. Designing stronger outreach programmes.
5. Striving for more financial independence and sustainability.
1.3.8 Funding
MUARIK is funded largely by the government of Uganda, development partners and
internationally generated revenue.
1.3.9 The organizational structure of MUARIK
The organizational structure of MUARIK shown in Figure 2. below conveys the institute’s internal
structure by detailing the roles, responsibilities and relationships between individuals in the entity.
DIRECTOR
FARM MANAGER
ASSISTANT FARM
MANAGER CROP
ASSISTANT FARM
MANAGER OPERATION
ASSISTANT FARM
MANAGER LIVESTOCK
FORE MAN CROPS
FOREMAN
OPERATIONS
FOREMAN LIVESTOCKS
ASSISITANT FOREMAN
CROP
ASSISTANT FOREMAN
OPERATIONS
ASSISTANT FOREMAN
LIVESTOCK
GENERAL STAFF
GENERAL STAFF
GENERAL STAFF
Figure 2: The MUARIK Organizational Chart
4
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
This chapter entails both the published information about the various engineering activities and
projects together with the major tools/machinery I was able to interact with during the Industrial
training at MUARIK.
2.1.1 Review on Irrigation
Agricultural irrigation has been one of the key activities for achieving food security throughout
history. The relation of water resources and irrigation is described in more detail, including the
impacts of irrigation methods on farmlands.
Irrigation is defined as the process of artificial application of water to the soil in order to reach
these following objectives: ensure enough moisture for agricultural crop growth, provide crop
insurance against short duration drought, reduce hazards of soil piping, soften the tillage pan (a
dense compact layer), cool the soil and atmosphere to provide a good atmosphere for plant growth,
and wash out or dilute harmful salts in the soil (Mazumder, 1983; Basak, 1999; and Misra, 1981).
Irrigation can be characterized into three categories which are; complete, supplementary and
critical.
Critical Irrigation: this category involves preserving water in tanks and then applying it when the
crops are in critical stages i.e., flowering, Crown root initiation, tillering, jointing, booting, milk
and dough stages.
Supplementary Irrigation: is the application of limited amounts of water to essentially rainfed crops
to improve and stabilize yields when rainfall fails to provide moisture for normal plant growth and
it is implemented through intervention during dry spells and when precipitation is not enough for
normal crop growth.
Complete Irrigation: is the agricultural process of applying controlled amounts of water to land to
assist in the production of crops in areas that receive little or no rainfall. (Mazumdar, 1983; Basak,
1999; and Misra, 1981).
Irrigation system types.
The following are the general types of irrigation systems namely; sprinkler irrigation, surface
irrigation, micro irrigation, including drip, trickle, and spray, Sub surface irrigation systems
Sprinkler Irrigation systems
Sprinkler irrigation systems are used for agricultural or horticultural production. This method
consists of application of water to the soil in the form of spray or rain under pressure through
nozzles and the pressure is usually obtained from a pump. The equipment can be fixed or
continuously movable. Sprinkler systems can be divided into four basic types: single-sprinkler,
solid-set, moved lateral, center pivot systems and moving lateral systems. The components of
sprinkler irrigation system are water pumps, sprinkler, water pipes and sprinklers.
Surface Irrigation
5
Surface irrigation systems refer to systems that deliver water to crops using a gravity-fed or
overland flow of water mechanisms. Surface irrigation is where water is applied and distributed
over the soil surface by gravity and is often referred to as flood irrigation, implying that the water
distribution is uncontrolled at the farmland. Several types of surface irrigation systems include
basins, borders, and furrow systems, and they are used depending on topography, soil texture,
and the types of crops grown. Surface irrigation systems are used on agricultural crops such as
paddy rice, sweet potatoes and landscapes that have moderate slopes.
Micro irrigation systems
Micro-irrigation also known as localized irrigation, low volume irrigation or trickle irrigation
system is a system where water is distributed under low pressure through a piped network, in a
pre-determined pattern, and applied as a small discharge to each individual plant or adjacent to it.
Micro irrigation systems consist of laterals containing emitters for drip/trickle irrigation or micro
sprinklers, or laterals with outflow continuously along their lengths (soaker hose) and they are
usually permanently installed on the farm land which thus results into minimal labor
requirements.
Traditional drip irrigation using individual emitters, subsurface drip irrigation, micro-spray or
micro-sprinkler irrigation and mini bubbler irrigation all belong to the category of irrigation
methods
Sub surface irrigation systems
Subsurface irrigation method can be both natural or artificial and water usually irrigates the soil
by capillary movement. In natural sub surface irrigation, irrigation water is allowed to flow in
series of ditches dug up to the impervious layer where water then moves laterally and wets the
root zone. Natural sub surface irrigation is possible where an impervious layer exists below the
root zone. In artificial sub surface irrigation, perforated or porous pipes are laid out underground
below the root zone and water is led into the pipes by suitable means.
2.1.2 Review on Hydraulic System Evaluation for a drip fertigation system in Kabanyolo.
Drip Irrigation Method is the best method that has been used in the world among the other
irrigation methods because of its good and high uniformity (Mohammed and Alabas, 2013). In
spite of the many advantages of drip Irrigation method, the traditional network in drip irrigation
method has many problems. The main problem is the drop in pressures and discharges distribution
in the network resulting from the amount of pressure losses between the head of the lateral as
compared with that in the end of the lateral. This drop affects the discharge distribution of emitters
and uniformity throughout the system. The uniformity of water application from a drip irrigation
system is also affected both by the water pressure distribution in the pipe network and by the
hydraulic properties of the emitters used (Smajstrla, 1990). The emitter hydraulic properties
include the effects of emitter design, water quality, water temperature, and other factors on emitter
flow rate. Factors such as emitter plugging and wear of emitter components will affect water
distribution as emitters age. Manufacturer specifications are considered the ideal system
performance parameters therefore, conducting a hydraulic system evaluation confirms and
ascertains the actual system operating parameters. Evaluating an irrigation system therefore
6
consists of measuring its performance, identifying problems that prevent the system from operating
at its optimum level and fixing these problems before commissioning.
2.1.3 Review on farm machinery
In the modern agriculture, Farm tractors are an essential necessity of farming as they provide
machine power for performing farm applications. In addition to routine landscape maintenance,
lawn care, clearing bushes & spreading fertilizers the tractors are used to pull a variety of farm
equipment for ploughing, planting, harvesting & cultivating crops.
Tractor is a self-propelled power unit having wheels or tracks for operating agricultural
implements and machines including trailers. Tractor engine is used as a prime mover for active
tools and stationary farm machinery through power take-off shaft (PTO) or belt pulley.
Classification of tractors
Tractors can be classified into three classes on the basis of structural-design:
i.
ii.
iii.
Wheel tractor: Tractors, having three of four pneumatic wheels are called wheel tractors.
Four-wheel tractors are most popular everywhere.
Crawler tractor: This is also called track type tractor or chain type tractor. In such tractors,
there is endless chain or track in place of pneumatic wheels.
Walking tractor (Power tiller): Power tiller is a walking type tractor. This tractor is usually
fitted with two wheels only. The direction of travel and its controls for field operation is
performed by the operator, walking behind the tractor.
On the basis of purpose, wheeled tractor is classified into three groups:
a) General purpose tractor: It is used for major farm operations; such as ploughing, harrowing,
sowing, harvesting and transporting work. Such tractors have (i) low ground clearance (ii)
increased engine power (iii) good adhesion and (iv) wide tyres.
b) Row crop tractor: It is used for crop cultivation. Such tractor is provided with replaceable
driving wheels of different tread widths. It has high ground clearance to save damage of
crops. Wide wheel track can be adjusted to suit inter row distance.
c) Special purpose tractor: It is used for definite jobs like cotton fields, marshy land, hillsides,
garden etc. Special designs are there for special purpose tractor.
2.1.4 Review on smart irrigation
This is an ongoing project at MUARIK whereby, Smart parsimonious and economical ways of
irrigation have been built up to fulfill the sweet water requirements for the habitants of this world.
In other words, water consumption should be frugal enough to save restricted sweet water
resources. The major portion of water was wasted due to incompetent ways of irrigation. We
utilized a smart approach professionally capable of using ontology to make 50% of the decision,
and the other 50% of the decision relies on the sensor data values. The decision from the ontology
and the sensor values collectively became the source of the final decision which is the result of a
machine learning algorithm (KNN) (Munir et al., 2021).
7
2.2 Tools/Machinery encountered
This sub-chapter entails the major equipment encountered with during industrial training at
MUARIK. The equipment include;
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Irrigation structures
Network layouts
Flow Control Devices
Fire Extinguisher
Water pump
Tool box
Farm tractor
Smart Irri-Kit
2.2.1 Irrigation structures.
For an irrigation system to fully accomplish its purposes, irrigation structures must be included
and these were;
1. Water catchment area
This was the primary source of water for irrigation at MUARIK and it is shown in Figure 3.
this water was collected from the wetland
Figure 3: The MUARIK Water Catchment Area
2. Reservoir.
The reservoir at MUARIK (Figure 4) served a purpose of storing water for irrigation and
this tank was placed at a height of about 2m to attain a high-pressure head in the irrigation
distribution system. Simply because, the greater the height of the water tank, the more
water pressure in the irrigation systems due to maximum gravitational force.
8
Figure 4: The Water Reservoir
2.2.2 Network layouts
These were permanent and temporary conduits (pipes) that supplied water to farmland from an
irrigation source. This system majorly consisted of conveyance and distribution lines.
The distribution system consisted of hydrants, mains, submains and control station (gate valves)
and these supplied irrigation water from the reservoir direct to the garden.
The conveyance pipes were permanently buried underground to prevent physical damage due to
exposure to direct sunlight and farm machinery and their major purpose was to convey water from
the water source to the reservoirs
Purposes of the components of the network system
i.
ii.
iii.
The control stations (gate valves)
The controller is the brain of the system, telling/instructing the control valves when and
how long to supply water to the irrigation system depending on the farmers preference.
Each valve controls a specific group of laterals called a watering station.
Mainline and submain
Main line conveys water from the source and distributes it to the submains. The submains
convey water to the laterals which in turn supply water to the sprinklers.
Hydrants
Irrigation Hydrants as shown in Figure 5 are designed to get connection from the piping, to
regulate pressure, to limit flow and to meter consumption.
Figure 5: Irrigation Hydrant
9
iv.
Laterals
Lateral pipes (Figure 6) have emitters that emit water directly to the root zones of crops
Figure 6: The Laterals/Pipes
v.
Emitters
These were fitted on the irrigation systems. Drip emitters or drippers deliver small amounts
of water directly to the plant roots by optimizing soil moisture with less water lost to
evaporation, runoff and wind.
The emitters/drippers were further categorized into; inline, online and integral
1. Online emitters
These are manually inserted to the outside wall of the lateral pipes and it is
illustrated in Figure 7
Figure 7: Online emitters
2. Inline emitters
These are pre-inserted along the length of the pipe during the extrusion process at
fixed intervals. An inline emitter is shown in Figure 8
Figure 8: Inline emitters
10
3. Integral emitters
These are hidden inside the drip irrigation pipe with only small outlet holes visible
from the outside. An integral emitter is as shown in Figure 9
Figure 9: Integral emitters
vi.
End plugs
End plugs (Figure 10) seal the end of drip lines and they provide a leak-free seal for the
drip tape. They also create an anchor spot for staking down drip tapes to keep them properly
in place.
Figure 10: End plug
vii.
Sprinklers
Irrigation sprinklers shown in Figure 11 are devices used to irrigate agricultural crops in a
controlled manner similar to rainfall. The sprinkler shoots jets of water into air and spreads
it to the field in form of rain drops in a circular pattern. They vary in nozzle sizes, flow
discharges, operating pressures and wetted diameters. Sprinklers are classified as low,
medium and high, angle and pressure according to the angle of the water jet projection and
the height of the water jet respectively.
At MUARIK, the sprinklers cover a radius of 15-25m and their rotation can be guided
by a guard to avoid watering other areas out of the confines of the garden. The rate
of discharge is 1.5 to 3.0 m3/h basing on pressure fluctuations.
11
Figure 11: Micro Sprinkler
Micro sprinklers.
These are small sprinklers of low flow capacities less than 0.3m3/h and their operating pressure is
1.5 to 2 bars. They are desirable for their rapid rotations less than a minute per rotation and
produce very small droplets at low angles of projection. Their wetting diameter is 10 to 12 m and
spacing is 6m in the field.
2.2.3 Flow Control Devices
Flow control devices are devices that regulate the flow or pressure of liquid in the irrigation system
from the conveyance point to the final destination in the correct portions and pressures. Effective
management of flow is done by use of flow control valves. These include;
i)
Measuring valves
These valves were necessary for obtaining accurate information about flow with in the
irrigation system and regulating flow in the irrigation system. Water and flow meters
and pressure gauges were looked and I learnt more about their instrumentation. A
measuring meter is as shown in Figure 12.
Figure 12: The Measuring valve / Meter
ii)
Directional valves
12
Directional valves (Figure 13) are majorly designed to regulate the water flow within
an irrigation system. They are installed directly in the pipe line to enable stopping and
starting of the flow. Examples of such valves include stop valves, gate valves and radial
valves
Figure 13: The non-return valve
iii)
Auxiliary Valves
Auxiliary valves shown in Figure 14 don’t directly influence fluid flow in the irrigation
system but they ensure an undisturbed functioning of the irrigation system. These
include the air valves and safety valves. These protect the pipe network from damage
by the trapped air. (Cavitation)
Figure 14: The Auxiliary Valve (Priming point)
2.2.4 Water Pumps
A water pump is an electrical or motorized machine used to increase the pressure of water by
pumping it from the water source to the desired area for irrigation or a water reservoir. At
MUARIK, the major pump was situated in the pump house near the water catchment area.
Pumps are classified into; Motorized and electrical,
13
Motorized pumps: These use fuel to generate energy and they work on a principle of the electric
motor rotating at a relatively constant rate. Fuel used can be petrol or diesel.
Electric water pump: An electric water pump requires electricity to run, and the transformer
provides the necessary electricity through a switchboard. The motor of the electric pump converts
electrical energy into mechanical energy. Thus, the water would be conveyed through the
conveyance system.
Types of pumps and their working principle
Generally, Pumps classification done on the basis of its mechanical configuration and their
working principle. Classification of pumps mainly divided into two major categories:
1. Dynamic pumps / Kinetic pumps
Dynamic pumps impart velocity and pressure to the fluid as it moves past or through the pump
impeller and, subsequently, convert some of that velocity into additional pressure. Kinetic pumps
are subdivided into two major groups and they are centrifugal pumps and positive displacement
pumps.
Classification of Dynamic Pumps
1.1 Centrifugal Pumps
A centrifugal pump is a rotating machine in which flow and pressure are generated dynamically.
The energy changes occur by virtue of two main parts of the pump, the impeller and the volute or
casing. The function of the casing is to collect the liquid discharged by the impeller and to convert
some of the kinetic (velocity) energy into pressure energy.
1.2 Vertical Pumps
Vertical pumps were originally developed for well pumping. The bore size of the well limits the
outside diameter of the pump and so controls the overall pump design.
2. Displacement Pumps / Positive displacement pumps
Positive displacement pumps, the moving element (piston, plunger, rotor, lobe, or gear) displaces
the liquid from the pump casing (or cylinder) and, at the same time, raises the pressure of the
liquid. So, displacement pump does not develop pressure; it only produces a flow of fluid.
Classification of Displacement Pumps
2.1 Reciprocating pumps
In a reciprocating pump, a piston or plunger moves up and down. During the suction stroke, the
pump cylinder fills with fresh liquid, and the discharge stroke displaces it through a check valve
into the discharge line. Reciprocating pumps can develop very high pressures. Plunger, piston and
diaphragm pumps are under these types of pumps.
2.2 Rotary Type Pumps
14
The pump rotor of rotary pumps displaces the liquid either by rotating or by a rotating and orbiting
motion. The rotary pump mechanisms consisting of a casing with closely fitted cams, lobes, or
vanes, that provide a means for conveying a fluid. Vane, gear, and lobe pumps are positive
displacement rotary pumps.
2.3 Pneumatic Pumps
Compressed air is used to move the liquid in pneumatic pumps. In pneumatic ejectors, compressed
air displaces the liquid from a gravity-fed pressure vessel through a check valve into the discharge
line in a series of surges spaced by the time required for the tank or receiver to fill again.
2.2.5 Tool box
An engineer’s kit is a metallic or plastic case where general tools used in the workshop are kept
for example spanners, screw drivers, nuts and bolts, stars and many more equipment. Figure 15
shows the engineer’s tool box
Figure 15: The Engineer's tool box
2.2.6 Filters
Filters are porous media. These were used to remove impurities such as algae, silt, organic matter
and coarse particles from the irrigation water which was being obtained from the water catchment
area in order to avoid clogging and plugging of pipe emitters and the water pumps.
Types of Filters
The three filtration methods commonly used with irrigation systems are screen filters, disc filters
and sand media filters.
1. Screen filters
These are filters which use a screen to collect contaminants and the screens are usually made of a
stainless-steel mesh, but also available in plastic as well.
15
2. Disc filters
Disc filters use a series of discs with grooves that are stacked and compressed on a spine, with the
grooves on each disc running opposite the adjacent disc. As the water moves through the disc
system, contaminants are trapped and removed.
3. Sand media filters
These use a bed of sand to collect contaminants. Sand media filters are cleaned by backwashing.
Backwashing forces clean water back through the media bed thereby dislodging the contaminants
and piping them to waste.
The major filter that was employed at MUARIK was a screen filter shown in Figure 16 and it was
housed in a cylinder which was installed before and after the water pump in the irrigation system
to help remove the impurities. They were equipped with interchangeable perforated filtering
elements,
Figure 16: Filters
2.2.7 Pipe fittings
Pipe fittings are used in pipe systems to connect straight and non-straight sections of pipe or tube
to different sizes of pipes, and for other purposes such as regulating and measuring fluid flow.
These fittings are used in irrigation systems to manipulate the conveyance of water, liquid
fertilizers on farmlands within a system of pipes. The pipe fittings include; Adapters, elbow (Figure
18), coupling, Union, Tee, Cross, Diverter tee, plug, reducer, Valve, bushes, nipple, connector
(Figure 17). Below are some of illustrations for pipe fittings
16
Figure 17: Connector (Pipe fitting):
Figure 18: Elbow (Pipe fitting)
Valves
Foot valves: The foot valve is a lift check valve which is usually installed together with suction
strainers in the suction line. It prevents the suction line from running empty after the pump is
stopped.
Non return valves: These are designed to allow fluid to flow in one direction only, therefore
preventing the irrigation water from flowing back upstream of the valve to the water pump.
2.2.6 Fire extinguisher
This is a portable device that discharges a jet of water, foam, gas, or other material to extinguish a
fire.
Classes of fire
In the workshop, there are different classes of fire which usually break out and these are as
explained below;
Class A: freely burning, combustible solid materials such as wood or paper
Class B: flammable liquid or gas
17
Class C: energized electrical fire (energized electrical source serves as the ignitor of a class A or
B fire – if electrical source is removed, it is no longer a class C fire)
Class D: metallic fire (titanium, zirconium, magnesium, sodium)
Class K: cooking fires – animal or vegetable oils or fats
Types of extinguishers
There are six main types of fire extinguishers and their uses are as discussed below:
1. ABC powder fire extinguisher
An ABC powder fire extinguisher has numerous advantages as it is a multi-purpose extinguisher
and is therefore one of the most common extinguishers to have on hand. A powder extinguisher
sprays a very fine chemical powder composed most commonly of monoammonium phosphate
which acts to blanket the fire and suffocate it.
Powder extinguishers are effective for class A, B and C fires, since it is not an electrical conductor
and since it can effectively break the chain reaction in a liquid or gas fire, something a water
extinguisher cannot do.
2. Carbon dioxide fire extinguisher
A carbon dioxide fire extinguisher (CO2) is one of the cleanest types of extinguishers to use as it
leaves no residue and requires no cleanup. The CO2 extinguisher does exactly that extinguishes
CO2. By doing so, it removes oxygen from the fire, effectively suffocating it of oxygen. It is
perfect for use on class B fires that involve flammable liquids and on electrical fires.
3. Wet chemical fire extinguisher
The wet chemical extinguisher is a specialized type primarily focused on class K fires, those
involving cooking media such as animal and vegetable fats or oils. These extinguishers contain a
solution composed of potassium that effectively launches a two-pronged assault on fires. First, the
liquid mist it sprays acts to cool the fire. Second, due to the chemical reaction of the solution with
the cooking medium, a thick soap-like substance forms, sealing the surface of the liquid to prevent
re-ignition. The wet chemical extinguisher, then, is ideal for a kitchen setting and class K fires.
However, it can also be effective for class A fires where a material such as wood or paper has
caught fire.
4. Water mist fire extinguisher
The water mist extinguisher uses a newer technology that works across most classes of fire. This
type of extinguisher releases microscopic water molecules that fight the fire on a variety of levels.
First, because so much water is dispersed in such a microscopic fog-like form, the level of oxygen
in the air is decreased, which helps to suffocate the fire. Second, the water particles are drawn to
the fire and, as water always does, acts to cool it, reducing the temperature. Finally, and perhaps
what is most unique about the water mist extinguishers, is that the water has been de-ionized (the
minerals have been removed). As a result, it can actually be used on electrical fires, as the de-
18
ionized water will not act as a conductor, as well as on burning liquids/gases that a standard water
extinguisher could not be applied to. Thus, a water mist extinguisher is safe and effective for use
on classes A, B, C and K fires.
5. Foam fire extinguisher
Foam fire extinguishers are suitable for class A and the flammable liquids of class B, though not
effective for gaseous fires. They spray a type of foam that expands when it hits the air and blankets
the fire. This blanket prevents the vapors from rising off the liquid to feed the fire, thus starving it
of fuel. Also, because the foam is mixed with water, it has a cooling effect as well. Foam
extinguishers are some of the bests for liquid fires, such as gasoline fires, but can also be used on
Class A fires involving solid combustibles like wood.
6. Clean agent fire extinguisher
A clean agent fire extinguisher is a type of gaseous fire suppression. Stored in its liquid form, when
it is sprayed and hits the air, it converts to its gas form which is non-conductive, safe for use while
humans are present, leaves no residue, and has a very short atmospheric lifetime, making it ecofriendly. The gas, often composed of Halon, extinguishes fire by reducing the oxygen levels and
impeding the chain reaction. Because it is non-conductive and so clean, it is ideal for rooms or
businesses filled with electrical and computer equipment. They are most commonly used for class
B and C fires.
2.2.8 Farm tractor
The tractor shown in Figure 27 is a prime-mover for active tools which can be used for carrying
out farm operations such as ploughing; harrowing, seeding, inter cultivation, harvesting,
transportation, land levelling and operating stationary machines such as irrigation pumps,
threshers, chaff cutters, cane crusher through power take-off shaft (PTO) or belt pulley.
19
CHAPTER THREE: TRAINING ACTIVITIES AND RESULTS
3.1 Introduction
During my training at MUARIK, I participated in different practical activities where I applied the
theoretical knowledge and skills acquired in class into real-world problem-solving situations. The
activities included among others; workshop safety, policy and management training, firefighting
techniques, tractor driving, operation and its maintenance, irrigation techniques i.e., pressured and
non-pressurized, hydraulic system evaluation for drip irrigation, diagnosis and correction of faults
in the pump house, smart irrigation and RWDs.
3.2 Workshop safety, policy and management
Safety training was conducted at the workshop to provide information necessary to the new
operators. The following were emphasized;
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
How to describe and identify the hazards associated with each machine.
How to use safe guards and why.
How and under what circumstances safeguards can be removed, and by whom.
What to do and what action to take if a safety incident occurs.
Providing all the necessary Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
3.2.1 Risk at Work
A thorough Risk assessment was undertaken at the workshop and this was majorly done to reduce
and control common accidents in the workshop. Risks included; hazardous substances such as
chemicals, fumes and dust, Sprains, Strains and Pains due to poor working posture and
carelessness, electrical risks such as electric shocks, fire outbreak, explosions, working with
flammable materials for example during welding and finally avoiding working with Asbestos were
generally emphasized to ensure safe working environment for the trainees.
Personal Protective Equipment (Figure 19) were a mandatory for every trainee at the workshop for
its major purpose was to curb the risks. PPE is the equipment that protects the user against health
or safety risks at work. It includes items such as safety helmets, gloves, eye protection, highvisibility clothing, safety footwear, it includes respiratory protective equipment (RPE)
Hand; Gloves
Face; Face Shield, Welding shield.
EE
Eye; Glasses, Goggles
Ear; Ear Plugs, Ear Muffs
Lung; Mask, Respirator
Head; Safety and Hard helmet
Ensuring a well escape route while working with
complex machines was emphasized as it was the
best ways to redeem self in case of risk outbreak.
Figure 19: Personal protective equipment
20
3.2.2 Firefighting techniques
The fire hazard in the workshop is usually caused by presence of three elements i.e., fuel, oxygen,
heat. Poor arrangement of the workshop, storage of waste and combustible materials can be a
problem in the workshop as it can spark off the fire hazard. The easiest way to reduce the risk of
fire is to use the fire extinguisher. The Figure 20 below shows the fire extinguisher
Figure 20: Fire Extinguisher
3.2.3 How to operate the fire extinguisher
The operation of fire extinguisher bases on a principle of PASS which basically means pull, aim,
squeeze and sweep as explained below,
PULL the pin: This unlocks the operating lever and allows you to discharge the extinguisher.
Some extinguishers may have other lever-release mechanisms.
AIM low: Point the extinguisher nozzle (or hose) at the base of the fire.
SQUEEZE the lever above the handle: This discharges the extinguishing agent. Releasing the
lever will stop the discharge. (Some extinguishers have a button instead of a lever.)
SWEEP from side to side: Moving carefully toward the fire, keep the extinguisher aimed at the
base of the fire and sweep back and forth until the flames appear to be out. Watch the fire area. If
the fire re-ignites, repeat the process.
3.2.4 Key things to note when using fire extinguishers
1. The operator must know how to use the extinguisher
2. The extinguisher must be within easy reach, in working order, and fully charged the
operator must have a clear escape route
21
3. The extinguisher must match the type of fire Being fought. (Extinguishers containing
water are unsuitable for use on electrical fires.)
4. The extinguisher must be large enough to put out the fire.
5. Many portable extinguishers discharge completely in as few as eight to ten seconds.
3.2.5 Fire Extinguisher Locations
1.
2.
3.
4.
Near Exits
They are set at specific heights from the ground
Never obstruct access to a fire extinguisher
Be knowledgeable of the location and types of fire extinguishers in your area
3.2.6 Organizing the work space
The workshop was organized by taking everything out and sweeping it clean. Different equipment
was then arranged and sorted basing on their categories. The layout flow chart shown in the Figure
21 was followed during the arrangement.
Figure 21: Layout for Organizing the Workshop
During organization, the workplace is always provided with a safe means of access and exit so that
in the case of an emergency such as fire no one will be trapped
3.2.7 Workshop Policies and Management
Training about management and policies was acquired to obtain exposure and communication at
the engineering workshop. Management involves the process of planning, decision making,
documentation, monitoring, organizing, leading, motivation and controlling the human resources,
financial, physical, and information resources of an organization to reach its goals efficiently and
effectively.
22
This training majorly involved learning about;
1.
2.
3.
4.
How to improve a technician’s performance
Organizing the workshop
Utilizing technology
Policy related objectives/strategies/goals.
3.3 Farm Tractor operation, driving and its maintenance
3.3.1 Description of a farm tractor
Tractor is a self-propelled power unit having wheels or tracks for operating agricultural
implements and machines including trailers. The tractor is a prime-mover for active tools which
can be used for carrying out farm operations such as ploughing; harrowing, seeding, intercultivation, harvesting, transportation, land levelling and operating stationary machines such as
irrigation pumps, threshers, chaff cutters, cane crusher through power take-off shaft (PTO) or belt
pulley.
A tractor is made of the following main components; I.C engine, Clutch, Transmission gears,
Differential unit, Final drive, Rear wheels, Front wheels, Steering mechanism, Hydraulic control
and hitch system, Brakes, Power take-off unit, Tractor pulley and Control panel.
3.3.2 Tractor Operation Checks and Maintenance
Pre-Operational Checks
Items that were to checked before operating the farm tractor.
1. Fuel level
2. Coolant level
3. Engine Oil level
4. Hydraulic Oil level
5. Battery condition
6. Lug nuts and wheels
7. Tire Condition
8. Loose or defective parts
Preventative Maintenance
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
9. SMV emblem
10. Fluid Leaks
11. Operators’ platform/steps
12. Seat adjustment
13. Seat belt
14. Fire extinguisher
15. Visibility from operator’s seat
Be sure to follow the pre-operation check list
Checking all fluid levels
Batteries Require special care when charging and jump starting
Tires and wheels must also be inspected
The operator’s platform must be free of obstructions i.e., tools and debris
Taking care while refilling the radiator in cases where the tractor motor overheats
Cleaning the tractor after every operation to reduce risks of rust
3.3.3 Major Tractor systems and their purposes
23
During the industrial training under the tractor operation and maintenance module, I learnt about
the different systems of the tractor and how they operate. These systems are as explained below
3.3.3.1 Differential System
Differential unit (Figure 22) is a special arrangement of gears to permit one of the rear wheels of
the tractor to rotate slower than the other. While turning the tractor on a curved path, the inner
wheel has to travel lesser than the other for the tractor to move faster.
The driving axle is one of the cross members which supports the load of the tractor, and has the
driving wheels at its ends. The driving axle consists of a housing, a differential, worm wheel or
bevel gear, four differential bevel pinions mounted on small axles carried by differential housing,
two axle shafts and final drives.
Figure 22: The Farm tractor differential system
The main purposes of a differential system
The differential is an important component of the driving axle and the main functions it performs
are;
1. Further reduces the rotations coming from the gear box before the same are passed on to
the rear axles.
2. Changes the direction of axis of rotation of the power by 90o i.e., from being longitudinal
to transverse direction.
3. To distribute power equally to both the rear driving axles when the tractor is moving in
straight ahead direction.
4. To distribute the power as per requirement to the driving axles during turning i.e., more
rotations are required by the outer wheel as compared to the inner wheel – during turns.
3.3.3.2 Transmission System
The transmission system is the drive line of a tractor and it consists of components that are used
to transmit the torque developed by the prime-mover or the engine to the driving wheels and to
vary the torque and direction of rotation of the ground wheels.
The component parts of the transmission system and their purposes;
26
Clutch
A clutch is required to connect the rotational power from the flywheel of the engine to the gearbox
especially at the time of selection of proper gear and at the time of starting or moving a tractor
from position of rest.
Gearbox
The purpose of the gearbox is to adjust the speed of the engine to the speed at which it is required
to drive the tractor, that is, the speed of the wheels. The main function of the gearbox is speed
reduction in cases where the engine runs at high speed and the speed required at the tractor wheels
is much less. It also helps to adjust the speed-torque requirements.
The main purposes of a transmission system
A power transmission system for a tractor has several functions:
➢ To transmit the torque in a smooth manner without shocks and jerks.
➢ To reduce the engine speed as desired based on tyre size and forward speed
required.
➢ To change the axis of rotation of power to align it as per the orientation of the drive
wheels.
➢ To change engine torque and speed into the torque and speed required by the wheel
for different task required of a tractor.
➢ To provide for auxiliary power outlet in the form of Power Take Off for powering
the implements and also for stationary machinery.
3.3.3.3 Carburetion System
Carburetion system (Figure 23) in the tractor houses the carburetor. The carburetor is the doorway
into the tractor engine and its primary function is to bring fuel and air into the engine to create
combustion.
How carburetion system operates
As the engine's piston moves downward on the intake stroke, a low pressure is created in the
combustion chamber. This low pressure pulls air through the air filter and into the carburetor
throat. As air passes through the venturi, the velocity of the moving air speeds up and in this area
of low pressure, fuel is pulled from the carburetor bowl, through the emulsion tube, and into the
venturi where it is atomized by the fast-moving air. Together the fuel and air mixture continue to
travel past the intake valve and into the combustion chamber.
On the compression stroke the piston further compresses the air/fuel mixture creating an ideal
scenario for combustion and just before the piston reaches Top Dead Center the spark plug ignites
and the compressed air fuel mixture turns into a steady burn of energy.
Some components of the carburetion system and their purposes
Air cleaners. These are majorly designed to filter air to prevent dust or other impurities from
entering the carburetion system.
27
Fuel tank. The fuel tank is the main storage for the fuel that runs the farm tractor.
Figure 23: The Farm tractor carburetion system
3.3.3.4 Hydraulics System
It is a mechanism in a tractor used to raise, hold or lower of mounted or semi-mounted equipment
by hydraulic means. Tractors are equipped with hydraulic control system for operating three-point
hitch of the tractor.
Operation
The hydraulic pump draws up oil from the oil reservoir and sends it to the control valve under high
pressure. From the control valve, the oil goes to the hydraulic cylinder to operate the piston, which
in turn, raises the lifting arms. The lifting arms are attached with implements. The hydraulic pump
is operated by suitable gears, connected with engine.
Components of the hydraulic systems and their importance
Hydraulic tank: Hydraulic tank is used for storing hydraulic oil for the system. In some tractors,
transmission chamber itself works as a hydraulic tank and same oil is used for transmission system
as well as hydraulic system. In some tractors, separate tank is there for hydraulic oil.
Hydraulic cylinder: It is a bigger size cylinder, fitted with a piston and a connecting rod. It is also
called ram cylinder. The connecting rod transmits power from the piston to the lifting arms. Piston
moves in the hydraulic cylinder and causes reciprocating motion in the cylinder. The lifting arms
are raised by the hydraulic pressure while raising the implement but it is lowered by its own weight.
Hydraulic pump: There are several types of hydraulic pump, such as gear pump, plunger pump,
vane pump, and screw pump. They are basically used in tractors to allow flow of bigger amounts
of oil through pumping.
Oil filter: It is small filter, located at a convenient position in the passage of the oil.
Control valve: Control valve is a type of valve, which controls the movement of hydraulic oil to
have desired direction, magnitude and speed of lifting. Thus, the control valve is to perform three
functions: to change the direction of lifting, to change the power of lifting and to change the speed
of lifting.
28
Maintenance of a hydraulics system
The following precautions should be taken;
➢
➢
➢
➢
➢
The operating manual should be consulted before any adjustments are made to the levers
The level of oil should always be kept at recommended level
Extreme care must be taken to keep oil free from dirt
Hose connections should be kept clean and tight
Only buy and use recommended type of oil.
3.3.3.5 Steering System
The steering system is required to control the direction of motion of the tractor. This is done
through a series of links used to convert the rotation of the steering wheel into change of angle of
the axis of the steering wheels
Operation of a Steering system
When the operator turns the steering wheel, the motion is transmitted through the steering shaft to
tire angular motion of the pitman arm, through a set of gears. The angular movement of the pitman
arm is further transmitted to the steering arm through the drag link and tie rods. Steering arms are
keyed to the respective kingpins which are integral part of the stub axle on which wheels are
mounted. The movement of the steering arm affects the angular movement of the front wheel.
Functions of a Steering system
➢ It provides directional stability
➢ It governs the angular movement of front wheels of a tractor
3.3.3.6 Cooling System
The cooling system (Figure 24) of the tractor has water jackets around the engine cylinders and
these jackets contain water that circulates inside and absorbs heat from the surface of the
cylinder. The heated water then cools down by the air passage inside the radiator. The watercooling system contains some essential components, such as a thermostat valve, radiator, water
pump, water jackets, fan, pulley, and belt. Water is the primary coolant in this system since it
helps to obtain and maintain higher engine efficiency.
Component parts of the cooling system;
Radiator
The radiator (Figure 24) is a device that assists in cooling the water before it is recirculated. It
consists of an upper tank and lower tank which are connected by vertical tubes for water to pass
from one to another and these tubes also have fins to provide greater surface area for cooling.
The radiator transfers heat from the fluid inside the cooling system to the air outside thereby
cooling the fluid which in turn cools the engine. This is done by passage of the fluid through the
radiator jackets.
29
Figure 24: The Farm tractor Radiator (Cooling system)
Fan
The fan system (Figure 25) cools the engine by forcing hot air through the radiator, and this hot air
is usually due to radiation of heat from the tractor engine. The fan is run by a belt or gears from
crankshaft which increase its velocity to blow away heat.
Figure 25: The farm tractor fan (Cooling system)
Maintenance of a cooling system
The following are some of remedies for maintaining a cooling system of the tractor;
➢
➢
➢
➢
Lubricating the fan bearings
Adjusting the fan belt occasionally
Inspecting the cooling fluid level occasionally and refilling if it necessitates
Cleaning the radiator fins and air passages by using air blowers to give sufficient room for
cooling.
➢ Replacing the old and broken parts of the system
30
3.3.3.7 Power Take-off system
The PTO shaft shown in Figure 26 obtains the power from the tractor engine and transmits to the
mechanical implements that are always attached to it, such implements are mowers, combiners,
harvesters and corn binders.
The drive is transmitted through the clutch to the shaft which extends to the rear of the tractor
where it couples to an extension shaft which drives the farm implement
Figure 26: The farm tractor PTO
3.3.4 Driving Steps of Farm Tractor.
The following procedures were followed to drive a farm tractor,
➢ With the tractor parked in free space, pre-operational checks were carried out.
➢ I took a seat in the farm tractor as shown in Figure 27, the seat belt was tightened and I
engaged the emergency brakes followed by pressing the clutch down and shifted the
gearlever and the range lever in neutral.
➢ The ignition key was then turned on to warm glow plugs and the kill switch was pushed
inwards. The engine was then fired by turning the key right and the tractor RPM was
increased by pulling down the lever located at the right of the steering wheel.
➢ During takeoff, the right leg was placed on the twin rear wheel to release the emergency
brake and clutch pedal was pushed down slowly, engaged the range lever to low, then the
gear lever was shifted to gear 1 and slowly I let the foot off the clutch as it started moving
while looking in front to align the wheels using the steering wheel and pressed the
accelerator pedal slowly
➢ The tractor gears were changed by pushing down the clutch, shifting the lever to neutral
then to the extreme right to engage gear 2 and R (reverse) at the extreme left then releasing
the clutch.
➢ It was then stopped by slightly reducing the speed while engaging the brakes and the clutch
was moved down while putting the gear lever and range lever in Neutral.
31
➢ The kill switch was slightly pulled out and the key removed.
Figure 27: Onan Agaba driving a farm tractor
3.3.5 Precautions to be taken while driving a tractor
The following are the precautions that must be followed while driving farm tractor
1. Driving at low speeds to ensure safety for everyone on the road or at the farm.
2. The clutch must be engaged gently especially when climbing steep slopes to reduce the
risk of accidents.
3. The PTO must be stopped before dismounting from a tractor
4. Always ensuring a clear pathway and not allowing anyone else to jump onto the tractor
when in operation to reduce the risk of accidents
5. Never dismounting the tractor when in motion
6. Never refueling a tractor while the motor is in motion
3.4 Pumps
Water pumps (Figure 29) are machines for moving water, they play a fundamental part in
agriculture as they move water from its source to the fields and crops. Water pumps can be used
with many forms of irrigation, such as drip, sprinklers or with a hose.
3.4.1 Pump priming
Pump Priming is the process of removing air from the pump and suction line. In this process the
pump was filled with water being pumped and this water forced all the air, gas, or vapor contained
in the passage ways of pump to escape out through a small pipe with a valve know as a priming
point. Priming at MUARIK was done manually simply because of the type of the pump they were
using which was a centrifugal surface pump and the procedure that was followed is as shown in
Figure 28. There are Self Priming Pumps and also some layout situations where priming is not
required and this is common in submersible pumps.
32
Figure 28: Illustration of Pump priming
Priming reduces the risk of pump damage during start-up as it prevents the pump impeller to
becomes gas-bound and thus incapable of pumping the desired liquid.
3.4.2 Operation of a water pump in a pump house at MUARIK
At MUARIK, I was introduced to a pump house near the fish pond (water catchment area) and
inside the house was a pump.
1. The water pump had a revit connection that joins two 2-inch diameter aluminum pipes
together for continuous water flow.
2. Filters were disassembled from their cylinder housing and I observed that filter grooves
were of different sizes depending on the sizes of the particles that were allowed to pass
through during pumping process. With the filter cylinder disassembled, sieve filters were
removed washed inside and out to clear off clog and dirt which was reducing the rate of
flow and after words they were reinstalled
3. I connected and disconnected different pipe fittings such as elbows and tee joints in the
pump house to demonstrate my skills as an industrial trainee at MUARIK and before
connection, gaskets were placed first followed by pipe fittings and then setup screwed
using spanners.
4. Further inspections were done on the foot valve before pumping by removing it from the
pond by pulling out the suction pipe on to which it was attached using an adapter. The foot
valve contains the non-return valve which prevents the back flow of water.
5. The foot valve was then cleaned by removing the dirt, silt and organic matter which had
blocked the entry points. After cleaning, it was then tightened back onto the suction pipe
placed into the pond.
6. With the suction pipe in connection to the water pump, priming process was carried out by
opening the valve on the priming pipe slowly until it got filled with water as shown in
Figure 28. Valve was later closed after priming with the water pump turned off.
7. Inspections of all pipe lines in the pump house were carried out on both suction and
distribution lines and no leakages where observed.
33
8. The main switch was turned on and at the electricity distribution panel, the red knob was
turned on for the motor to start operating with the non-return valves before and after the
pump closed. The return valve after the pump prevents water hammering to the pump.
9. From the circuit board, the red light indicated the pump was working and the blue light
indicated flow of water being pumped.
10. Finally, Water was pumped from the pump through the filter to main pipes, sub-mains
finally to laterals of decreasing diameters respectively basically to increase pressure.
3.4.3 Common faults faced by a water pump
Common faults faced by centrifugal water pump were as follows;
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Overheating of the pump
Coolant leakages
Pipe blockage on suction side
Clogged filters
Whining noise due to cavitation
Corroded water pump due to lack of service
3.4.4 Precautions followed to troubleshoot a pump
1. The pump suction lift was checked whether it was within the limits.
2. Air leak from the suction pipeline and all connections was checked. All connections and
flanges were made air tight.
3. The strainer of the foot valve was checked for blockage.
4. Check that the flap in the foot valve in free to open fully.
5. Pump glands were checked for air leaks. And it was recommended that thick grease could
be used to seal the glands satisfactorily.
6. During priming process, the gate valve on the delivery line was fully closed during priming
and opened fully when the pump was running.
7. Direction of rotation of the pump was checked and found to be correct.
8. Cleaning and washing filters
9. Filters with plastic circular discs of decreasing grooves were recommended to trap stone
particles before reaching the pump.
34
Figure 29: The Instructor guiding me how to assemble and disassemble the filter cylinder
3.5 Irrigation technology
3.5.1 Description of Irrigation
Irrigation is used to supply additional water for crop production in addition to rainfall majorly in
areas where it's insufficient or ill-timed. Irrigation can specifically serve to:
1.
Extend the growing season, by providing crops with additional water after most of the
rains in the rain season have fallen
2.
Secure crop growth during dry spells within the rainy season. A dry spell is an extended
period of dry days, where a dry day is a day with precipitation less than a preselected
threshold. These dry spells may last up to several weeks within the rainy season, so harvests
will be affected without supplementary irrigation.
3.
Produce crops during the dry season when irrigation is a primary source of water for
production.
Irrigation technology can be characterized into three categories which are; complete,
supplementary and critical.
Critical Irrigation: this category involves preserving water in tanks and then applying it when the
crops are in critical stages i.e., flowering, Crown root initiation, tillering, jointing, booting, milk
and dough stages.
Supplementary Irrigation: is the application of limited amounts of water to essentially rainfed crops
to improve and stabilize yields when rainfall fails to provide moisture for normal plant growth and
it is implemented through intervention during dry spells and when precipitation is not enough for
normal crop growth.
Complete Irrigation is the agricultural process of applying controlled amounts of water to land to
assist in the production of crops in areas that receive little or no rainfall.
Furthermore, irrigation system technology types are classified as both pressurized and nonpressurized irrigation systems.
3.5.2 Pressurized Irrigation
35
This is an irrigation technology type which requires mechanical or electrical energy to draw water
from the water source to the farmland and then uses pressure to supply the suitable amount of
water to crops, it involves;
1. Sprinkler irrigation type
2. Drip irrigation
3. Rain spray irrigation
3.5.3 Drip Irrigation
At the block where drip irrigation system was installed, I was able to carry out different operations
such operating the system, understanding the layouts of the pipe lines, cleaning and flushing of
clogged pipes, understanding the concept of irrigation scheduling. Drip irrigation system shown
in Figure 30 is a system for supplying filtered water and sometimes fertilizer, directly onto or into
the soil.
Figure 30: The drip irrigation system
3.5.3.1 General operation of a drip system
In drip irrigation system, water is dissipated from a pipe distribution network under low pressure
in a predetermined pattern. The outlet device that emits water to the soil is called an "emitter."
Emitters dissipate the pressure in the pipe distribution networks by means of a narrow nozzle or
long flow path and thereby decrease the water pressure to allow discharge of only a few gallons
per hour.
After leaving the emitter at an emission point, water flows through the soil profile by capillarity
under gravity. Drip systems can be operated daily or less frequently if desired.
Drip irrigation is a most convenient means of supplying each plant, such as a tree or vine, with a
low-tension supply of soil moisture that is sufficient to meet demands imposed by
evapotranspiration and it offers unique agronomical, agrotechnical and economical advantages for
efficient use of water
36
3.5.3.2 Diagnosis/Cleaning of clogged lateral lines in drip system
1. End plugs were firmly fixed at the end of each lateral line with the gate valves closed.
2. Gate valves were then opened and this allowed water to flow at a very high pressure since
the extreme ends of the pipelines were closed.
3. End plugs were then opened, water gushed out at a very high pressure and this made the
pipeline clog or trash free.
3.5.4 Sprinkler Irrigation
In sprinkler irrigation system, it was learnt that it’s the method of applying water to crops in a
controlled manner in that is similar to rainfall. The water is distributed through a network that
consist of pumps, valves, pipes, and sprinklers.
System losses in sprinkler irrigation are caused by the following:
1. Direct evaporation in the air from the spray, from the soil surface, and from plant leaves
that intercept spray water.
2. Wind drift depending on wind speed and droplet size.
3. Leaks and system drainage
4. Surface runoff and deep percolation resulting from nonuniform application within the
sprinkler pattern.
3.5.4.1 General operation of sprinkler system
Sprinkler irrigation system works like normal rainfall. Water flow under pressure and passes
through a system of pipes mainly by pumping. It is then separated through sprinklers so that it
splits up into tiny water drops that fall to the ground. Spray heads at the terminals distribute the
water over the entire soil surface thus providing water to plant root zone for proper growth.
3.5.4.2 Faults encountered by sprinkler irrigation system.
1. Leakage from couplings of fittings
2. Sprinklers do not turn
3. Pump does not deliver
3.5.4.3 Possible solutions to the faults
1. Operation speed of the pump should be regularly checked
2. Check that the nozzle is not blocked by unscrewing the nozzle and clearing the blockage.
3. Ensure proper connection of fittings such as bends, tees and reducers to overcome leakage
in the system.
3.5.4.4 Maintenance of sprinkler irrigation systems
Irrigation system maintenance is necessary to ensure most efficient use of water that is being
applied. Maintenance deals with system installation and improper installation will cause trouble
throughout the life of the system. An irrigation system like any other farm equipment needs
maintenance to keep it operating at peak efficiency.
37
Parts of the sprinkler system subject to wear are the rotating sprinkler heads, the pumping set, the
couplers and the pipeline. General principles and precautions regarding the maintenance of
different parts of the sprinkler system are given below
1. Sprinkler usually has a sealed bearing and the bottom of the bearing there are washers.
Usually, it is the washers that wear and therefore the washers should be checked for wear
once a season or replace the washers if worn.
2. Any dirt or sand that accumulates on the groove of the coupler in which the rubber sealing
ring fits should be occasionally cleaned
3. It is necessary that all nozzles are replaced at least every two years (four seasons), in order
to maintain the correct flow and distribution of water from the sprinkler.
3.5.5 Rain spray irrigation
Rain hose irrigation systems (Figure 31) are systems which involve watering crops intensely under
moderate pressure in form of rain. Each kit has approximately 100m long pipe as the main
accessory. The pipe is sequentially perforated at determined intervals using Nanotechnology to
create tiny holes from which crops are irrigated.
Components of the Rain spray irrigation system;
Major components are; Endcaps, Mini valves, Laser pipes, Pipe connectors
Figure 31: The Rain spray irrigation system
3.5.5.1 Major faults encountered by the rain spray irrigation system
1. Clogging of the emitters on the laser pipe
2. Over irrigation can occur since the system is very hard to evaluate
3. Wind speed which drifts away the water being supplied
3.5.5.2 Possible solutions to the faults
1. Regular cleaning of the irrigation system by flushing out dirt.
2. Irrigation should be carried out at optimal conditions when wind is less
38
3.6 Hydraulics System evaluation
This was carried out at the field block which had drip/trickle irrigation system, we measured how
much water was needed for irrigation and how long it would last to supply sufficient amount to
the soil for crop growth. The process involved measuring the amount of water emitted by each
emitter in one hour. Demonstration of hydraulic systems evaluation is as shown in Figure 32 and
Figure 33 below,
The data needed for evaluating a drip irrigation system was determined from;
1. Duration, frequency, and sequence of operation of normal irrigation cycle.
2. Rate of discharge at the emission points and the pressure near several emitters spaced
throughout the system.
3. Changes in rate of discharge from emitters after cleaning or another repair.
4. The percent of soil volume wetted.
5. Spacing and size of plants being irrigated.
6. Location of emission points and uniformity of spacing of emission points.
7. Losses of pressure at the emitters.
Figure 32: Demonstrating the hydraulics system evaluation
39
Figure 33: Evaluating the smart irrigation system
3.6.1 Tools used
Water catchment bottles, stop clock, funnel, graduated measuring cylinders, note books
3.6.2 Field procedure
1. Inspection was carried out at the field by fixing end plugs to reduce continuous flow of
water, identification of emitters on the system and carrying out a test to check whether the
system was functioning properly.
2. Field characteristics about topography were extracted and it was found out that the garden
was being prepared for planting
3. Water catchment bottles were then placed in the holes which were dug strategically under
the laterals at specific emitter positions.
4. Gate valves were opened to allow water to flow through the system and the stop clock was
started.
5. After a duration of seven minutes, gate valves were closed and water catchment bottles
were removed from the holes
6. Water in each catchment bottle was measured using a graduated measuring cylinder and
the results were obtained and tabulated. These results included the volume of water
collected; time taken
Observations and results from three water catchment bottles for one emitter were then tabulated
as shown in Table 1
Table 1: Results obtained after evaluating the drip system
Bottle
Volume of water
collected(ml) in 7.5
minutes
1
2
3
429
405
499
40
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 = 7.5 × 60
Bottle 1.
= 450𝑠
𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 7.5 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠 = 429𝑚𝑙
= 0.429𝑙
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑛𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 =
0.429 × 3600
450
= 3.432𝑙/𝑠
Bottle 2.
𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 7.5 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠 = 405𝑚𝑙
= 0.405𝑙
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑛𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 =
0.405 × 3600
450
= 3.240𝑙/𝑠
Bottle 3.
𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 7.5 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠 = 499𝑚𝑙
= 0.499𝑙
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑛𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 =
0.499 × 3600
450
= 3.992𝑙/𝑠
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐻2𝑂 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑛𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 =
3.4321 + 3.240 + 3.992
3
= 3.5567𝑙/𝑠
3.6.3 Common faults faced with the drip system during systems evaluation
Clogging. Clogging of emitters was the most difficult problem encountered in using trickle
irrigation systems as some emitters were observed releasing more water as compared to others.
The most common cause of clogging is presence of mineral and organic particles in the water
supply.
Topography. The area of study was not gentle and had some undulations and this caused the water
to flow with low pressure in drip pipes which were on a higher elevation as compared to those on
a low elevation. Thus, this caused variations in the obtained results.
41
3.6.4 Solutions to the common faults.
1. Filtration of the water and preventing contaminants from entering or forming within the
system since clogging is difficult to detect and expensive to clean or replacing the clogged
emitters in the system.
2. Leveling the land should be emphasized and pipes should be clearly laid to obtain
consistent results.
3.7 Smart Irrigation
3.7.1 Description of smart irrigation technology
This was an automated irrigation technology that was majorly setup to reduce crop growth
dependence on the climatic and seasonal changes and farmers presence at the farm all the time.
The smart irrigation technology setup as shown in Figure 34 consisted of a conceptual design of
the smart Irri-kit which featured a solar-powered system that powered a water pump and a
Microcontroller Unit (MCU) all mounted onto a movable framework. The MCU connected the
water pump, the tank’s water level sensor, the soil moisture sensors and the solenoid valve on the
water tank and the system used solar power which drove water pumps that lifted water from a
water source to an overhead tank. The tanks were refilled automatically when the water-level
sensor inside the overhead tank detected that tank’s critical low level was reached. A DC battery
was alternatively used to store the solar power as backup just in case of weather changes. The
water was then drained from the overhead tank by drip irrigation systems feeding the precise
amounts of water to crops in the garden.
Figure 34: The smart irrigation setup
42
Figure 35: The smart irrigation hardware layout
Figure 36: The smart irrigation software system layout
43
3.7.1 Tools and equipment used
Battery, solar panel, moisture sensors, 2 water tank of capacity 5000L each, submersible pump,
float switch
3.7.2 Technical procedures followed during operation
The following technical procedures were undertaken to demonstrate the operation of the smart
irrigation technology and to obtain the total number of crops irrigated in the garden shown in
Figure 37.
1. Water was filled in the underground tank from the tap and it was advised to always collect
water from runoff.
2. With the irrigation kit solar panel as the power source, the submersible pump was
submerged into the underground tank and was able to pump water to the overhead tank.
The underground tank had a float switch and this switch was used to determine the
maximum level of water in the tanks and would send signals to the water pump to cut off
the pumping activity.
3. The overhead tank had ultrasonic sensors to determine water height, to trigger refill or
draining. Of which was followed by activation of the solenoid switch to allow flow after
sensing moisture drop in the soil.
4. Water flow from the overhead tank was controlled by the solenoid switch that was
triggered by information fed in the kit with a by-pass connection in case of any override,
to the submains then drip lines.
5. We measured the size of the garden irrigated using a tape measure as 10m × 6m.
5 ridges were counted each of length 10m, width0.85m, height (with 4 furrows and the
distance between one ridge to another was 0.5m.
6. The crop-to-crop distance (Sukuma wiki) was 0.5m and row to row was 0.6m.
The number of inline emitters were 40 pairs on each of the two drip lines on each ridge
and the total crops in the garden were 210 with 21 crops along each row.
Figure 37: Garden with drip system laterals under smart irrigation
44
After demonstrating the operation of smart irrigation technology, I planted Sukuma Wiki in two
fields where one acted as the main field and the other acted as the control experiment. The
procedures that were undertaken are as follows,
1. Both gardens were prepared by making ridges
2. Drip irrigation pipes with emitters were then laid along the already made ridges in the main
field.
3. Small holes were dug both in the ridges along the pipeline on each emitter of the main field
and the control experiment field.
4. In both fields, seedlings were planted together with application of organic fertilizers.
5. The control experiment field was irrigated manually using the water can whereas the main
field was irrigated using the smart irrigation system.
6. After a given time, it was observed that Sukuma wiki in the field under smart irrigation
was healthier as compared to the one in the control experiment.
3.7.3 Determination of the amount of water for irrigation
Hydraulic evaluation was conducted by use of water catchment bottles that were selectively
positioned under different inline emitters along the ridges. Using a time interval of five minutes
the amount water collected was measured using a measuring cylinder and the procedure was
repeated three times for each emitter. The averages were then obtained.
3.7.4 Common faults with the smart irrigation system
1. Electricity wasn’t stable due to improper wiring in the kit
2. Soil dropping into the cans during water collection which would in turn affect the volume
of water being collected for further analysis.
3. Clogging of the water filters.
3.7.5 Possible solutions to the faults
1. Carrying out proper wiring and tightening the battery terminal connections.
2. Cleaning filters regularly.
3.7.6 Advantages of smart irrigation system
1. System is mobile thus can be moved from one field to another
2. It can irrigate automatically and at the right time by availing the right amount of water to
the crops in absence of the farmer.
3. It is less cost effective since it requires solar panels which are cheap compared to other
sources of power.
4. System has sensors thus it is easy to detect the amount of water required for irrigation
which reduces the risk of leaching and salinity.
45
3.7.7 Disadvantages of smart irrigation system
1. High initial cost for the equipment
2. System seems to be complicated thus requires several trainings for one to be familiar with
it.
46
CHAPTER FOUR: SKILLS ACQUIRED, CHALLENGES FACED,
RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION.
4.1 Introduction
This chapter covers the skills acquired from the field attachment training, challenges faced at
work, recommendations and conclusion.
4.2 Experience gained/achievements from the training
From the industrial training, I acquired a number of skills and knowledge through the application
of the theoretical knowledge learnt in class into the practical operations which led to an
improvement and widening of my engineering knowledge. All activities were carried out while
taking note of all the safety precautions necessary to prevent accidents and produce the desired
results accurately and in time while using the right tools and following the correct procedures.
The following were the achievements from the training.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Maintenance of the workshop, its safety precautions and management.
Appreciation of the professional and therefore better work ethics.
Improvement in identification of problems and solving them
I was able to learn and increase my communication skills both oral and written in the real
technical engineering world.
Stood a chance to know and understand the specific modules I learnt and where they could
be applied and this increased my confidence in problem solving.
I got exposure to the demands and challenges of the workplace.
I learnt how to work with other engineering professionals and the value of team work in
engineering.
How to relate to different categories of people likely to be met in real-life situation.
Learnt how to interpret assignments and come up with appropriate solutions
4.3 Challenges faced during the training
During the training, a number of challenges were faced as given below.
1. Unfavorable weather conditions like heavy rainfall often disrupted activities in the field.
In such cases, operations were always halted till when the conditions stabilized and this
resulted into time wastage.
2. Student-instructor relationship was still lacking as some students were not closely
monitored and this resulted into reluctancy at the institute.
3. In the early days of the training, several accidents and injuries were sustained for
example cuts on fingers but with time, vigilance on work was increased which reduced
on injuries.
4. Inadequate tools and equipment like angle grinders, welding torches, lathe machines,
spanners, cutting and marking tools caused delay of the work hence creating work backlogs
5. Lack of well scheduled training program and an immediate person who is responsible for
the affairs of the trainees. This made trainees not to fully exploit some of the most
important engineering aspects of the institution as there was no serious monitoring.
47
6. Inadequate financial support to cater for my daily expenses like transport, meals and
others.
7. Limited space in the engineering workshop to accommodate all engineering trainees as
some were seen standing outside.
8. We worked in large groups and this resulted into poor communication between the
instructors and the trainees as some were spotted whispering and this resulted into
distraction.
9. Training involved walking long distances as some fields were located at a far distance.
4.4 Recommendations
Following what transpired during the industrial training especially the challenges I encountered,
I recommend the following to MUARIK.
1. All the necessary tools in the workshop should be availed to enable each trainee take part
in the practical sessions and thus reducing the work backlogs.
2. A well-designed training program for trainees and an immediate person responsible for
their affairs.
3. Training duration should be extended since the water and irrigation engineering field is
very wide and therefore cannot be fully exhausted within the allocated 10 weeks of
internship.
4. Management should consider expanding the workshop so as to accommodate increasing
number of trainees at MUARIK.
5. More trained staff should be deployed to enable easy handling of large groups of trainees.
6. Student-instructor relationship should be bridged and emphasized by the department to
enable students get more exposure.
7. More safety gadgets such as welding shields, gloves should be acquired especially for
welding and fabrication.
4.5 Conclusion
From the analysis of observations, it is conclusive that the industrial training was a success and a
fruitful experience through the application of the theoretical knowledge into real-life problemsolving situations, I gained a lot of experience especially in the criterion of workshop safety,
management, firefighting, fabrication, tractor operation and its maintenance, operation of smart
irrigation, diagnosis of pump faults, irrigation technology, Operation of Refractive Window Driers
and basically communication skills. I also got insight into professional practice, learnt how life
can be fruitful as well as challenging under employment; and how to face and deal with these
challenges.
It was also a great opportunity for developing personal networking activities and making
contacts with influential people; which is of great value to me as far as my career is concerned.
The training also enabled me to discover my strengths and weaknesses. This further helped me to
identify areas to improve on. In a nutshell, I achieved most of my learning objectives from the
training.
48
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