Tools of the Trade
Drawing is such a key part of an architectural process, people say that drawing is thinking out loud. It is a
skill we hone and develop as we work through our studies and on into our careers – there is always
room for improvement. Although hand drafting is being replaced by computer aided drafting, there is
still, and in my opinion will always be a place for the skill and techniques of a hand drafted drawing.
In this article we will look at all aspects of the architects drawing tools, what they are, what they do, and
so forth.
Equipment:
Drawing Board
A drawing board is sized according to the output of a standard paper size, generally being A0 – which
provides a working area of 1270mmx 920mm or A1 which provides a working area of 920mm x 650mm.
There are also desktop drawing boards available at the size of A3. The drawing boards are generally
made out of MDF, plastic and melamine. The drawing board comes with a horizontal bar for drawing
horizontal lines, referred to as either a T-square or a parallel bar or parallel motion. A parallel motion is
preferable to a T-square and are more common.
Paper
Different types of paper are used for architectural drawing depending on the required outcome and
stage of design. Paper is graded according to its weight which is measured by grams per metre square.
As a point of reference, average office photocopy paper is about 80gsm (grams m2).
Sketch Paper
Sketch paper and butter paper available in sheets and rolls, are a staple in the studio. They are
lightweight, around 25-50gsm, and generally used for freehand sketching, overlays, and trying out
different ideas over hard line drawings.
Tracing paper
Tracing paper is sold in rolls, pads or sheets, in a variety of sizes, and quality. Tracing paper is used for
overlays, sketch layouts and the like, but due to its increased thickness over sketch paper, it can be
copied well and therefore used for some working drawings. Weights range from about 60gsm all the
way to 112gsm, which is a better quality, and is easier to work with and gives a smoother finish than the
thinner lighter trace. I really enjoy working on about 90gsm trace, it gives a good feel for drawing, but
not too thick that you feel you are using a paper that is too high quality for sketch and development
work. A great medium for practicing and developing your skills.
Layout paper
Layout paper (sometimes referred to as detail paper) is similar to trace but does not have quite the
same level of transparency. It is usually white, and used for overlays, sometimes in conjunction with a
lightbox to improve transparency. It is a very light paper at about 45gsm.
Presentation papers
Drawing paper is available in a variety of weights, textures and colours in both sheets and rolls. If
working with pencils it is better to use a more textured paper, while pens are more suited to a smoother
surface. Cartridge paper comes in the usual standard sizes, and a range of weights varying from about
110gsm to 200gsm. Cartridge paper is used for presentation work. It is not really suitable for overlays as
it does not really have transparency. Watercolour paper is a lovely thick and textured paper, that is
available in varying colours, textures and weights. Beautifully hand rendered drawings can look stunning
on the right watercolour paper.
The standard sizes (according to European methods) of drawing papers is shown below, known as the
ISO system. The ISO system allows a paper size to be scaled without compromising the aspect ratio of
the paper.
Set Squares
Adjustable set squares are used to draw lines at any angle. The square can be set according to the angle
you want to draw and fixed into position.
Templates and Curves
A french curve is made from clear plastic and is used for drawing irregular or complex curved lines,
which cannot be made from arcs of circles.
Templates are also available for circles, ellipses, along with other standard shapes and even furniture,
people and fittings at varying scales.
Compass
The compass is used to describe precise circles or arcs. One side of the compass has a needle point,
while the other carries the lead. Some have a joint so that when drawing wider arcs or circles the needle
is able to be kept perpendicular to the paper. Attachments can also be used for pens or felt tips.
Pencils
Pencil leads are available in a range of grades, according to the degree of softness or hardness of the
lead. 9H is the hardest and 6B is the softest. The extremes are used less so, and the most common
grades are HB or F. Technical pencils and clutch pencils are a popular choice for architects. The technical
pencil holds small lead shafts which can be released as required. The technical pencil is refillable. The
clutch pencil is slightly different in that it is possible to sharpen the lead, and the pencil itself is heavier
and balanced, as such it tends to be preferred by many architects.
Drawing Pens
Technical ink pens are the standard architectural drawing office pen. They are not used so much these
days although some university courses still do a module or two teaching the techniques of using this
type of drawing. These pens are very accurate at achieving a precise line width, and require refilling with
ink manually when they run out. These pens take some getting used to but I love to work with them.
They are more suited to hard line presentation drawings rather than sketching.
Fine Pens
For sketching, sketch details and more development work there are a multitude of pens available to suit
different functions and preferences. Fine pens come in a variety of thicknesses, 0.1mm to 0.5mm are
the most common ones. There are also good quality felt tip pens that some architects prefer. It is all
about testing types of pens and finding your own preference and style. If you want to learn a bit more
about the different types of fine pens available I would highly recommend you read this article from
Jerry Teo.
Scale Rule
A scale refers to the relationship between an original object and the drawing or model of that object.
The original, life size scale is 1:1, that is 1 unit is equal to 1 unit. A scale rule allows you to measure a
drawing and ascertain the actual measurement at a scale of 1:1 or actual size.
The standard scales on a metric rule are:
·
1:1
·
1:100
·
1:20
·
1:200
·
1:5
·
1:50
·
1:1250
·
1:2500
The rules are available as both flat or triangular, I think the flat version is easier to use.
Sketchbook
Your sketchbook is a vital tool for practicing your skills, developing ideas, observing the world around
you and collecting information. It is good to get into the practice of taking your sketchbook with you
everywhere and using any free moment as an opportunity to carry out a quick sketch, whether it is a
two minute observation sketch, or a half hour study. This kind of practice will help you build your
technique and confidence and make your sketching ability a natural extension of your thought process
as you work on your designs.
My favourite sketch book range is the Moleskine brand which come with good quality pages allowing
you to draw with different mediums whether it be pencil, ink or even a light watercolour. You can pick
up a Moleskine sketchbook in a range of sizes and with a variety of paper types, be it plain, lined or
graph paper.
Drywall T-Square
A T-square is a tool used in technical drawing, primarily as a guide for drawing straight horizontal lines
on a drafting table. It can also be used in conjunction with a set square to draw vertical and angled lines.
Its name is derived from its resemblance to the letter ‘T’. A drywall T-square is a T-square designed to
cut drywall or other plasterboard. A drywall T-square is usually larger than a regular T-square because
the material worked with is larger than drafting paper. A T-square of either type has two parts. The
‘blade’ is longer shaft, and the shorter shaft is the ‘stock’ or the ‘head.’ A T-square can be made of wood,
plastic or metal.
How to Use a Drywall T-Square
1. Set up the square of the plasterboard by aligning the stock with the edge of the material. The blade
will run down the surface.
2.
Measure where you want to cut and mark it using the hash marks along the blade.
3.
Holding the T-square securely, use the blade as a straight edge to cut the material along your mark.
For other how-to instructions on correct tool use, visit Johnson Level’s how-to guide on levels and tools.
The Set Square
There are two types of set squares and they are named according to the angles present on each.
Set squares are useful for drawing parallel lines and perpendicular lines.
Parallel Lines
Lines that lie in the same plane and do not meet one another are said to be parallel lines.
In the accompanying diagram, the line AB is parallel to the line CD. This is indicated by the similar
arrows.
Drawing Parallel Lines
A ruler and set square can be used to draw parallel lines as described below.
Step 1: Position an edge of the set square against a ruler and draw a line along one of the other edges.
Step 2: Slide the set square into a new position while keeping the ruler fixed exactly at the same
position.
Step 3: Draw a line along the same edge that was used in Step 1.
Example 17
Use a ruler and set square to draw a line that is parallel to a given line, AB, and passes through a given
point, P.
Solution:
Step 1: Position an edge of the set square along the given line, AB.
Step 2: Place a ruler against one of the other edges.
Step 3: Slide the set square along the ruler until the edge used in Step 1 passes through the given point
P.
Step 4: Draw the line CD through P.
The line CD passes through the given point, P, and is parallel to the given line AB.
Perpendicular Lines
Lines that are at right angles to each other are said to be perpendicular lines.
Note that a vertical line is perpendicular to the horizontal, whereas perpendicular lines can be drawn in
any position. Bricklayers use a plumb-bob to set out vertical lines and a spirit level to set out horizontal
lines.
Drawing Perpendicular Lines
A set square can be used to draw a perpendicular at a point on a given line as described below.
Step 1: Set an edge of the set square on the given line so that the other edge is just in contact with the
point.
Step 2: Draw a line that passes through the given point with the help of the set square.
Example 18
Use a set square to draw a perpendicular to a given line, AB, through a point, P, not on the line.
Solution:
Step 1: Set an edge of the set square on the given line so that the other edge is just in contact with the
point.
Step 2: Draw a line that passes through the given point with the help of the set square.
Understanding the lines Used in Architectural Drawings
The structure that is planned to be built is described by using lines, symbols and notes in architectural
drawings. This method is a universal language of describing a structure to be built and are called as
Drafting.
Lines can be considered as the most expressive aspect when dealing with working drawings. Every line
that is used in the drawing must have certain significance or else there won’t exist no significance in its
existence.
The significance of the lines is mostly conveyed through the thickness of the line. If the thickness of the
line is thin, it is less significant. If the line width is thick, it is more significant.
Before drawing a line, its significance must be kept it mind. This can come only through practice. This
principle is followed and exercised in the CAD drawings too (Computer aided drafting).
Certain lines in the drawing are drawn very thick so that they clearly bear other unique form of
information on the drawing. Other lines are drawn thin, which will convey other information.
Thin lines when compared with the thick lines are not necessarily less important. But the thin lines are
subordinate lines compared with thick ones for the means of identification.
Outlines Used in Architectural Drawings
The outline lines are employed in the architectural drawings to define the outline as well as the
characteristic features of the plan components of the architecture. This method of presentation varies
with different office.
There are different alternatives that are used for outline presentation in architectural drawings, which
are mentioned below:
1. One main alternative is by employing a style of enhancing the main and important feature of the
drawing under consideration, so that it clearly will stand out from other elements in the drawing.
For example, as shown in the figure-1, the floor plan wall outlines or the outlines of the partitions and
beam cross section can be made thicker while drafting. This makes them different from other normal
thin lines used in the drawing.
Fig.1: Thick Lines Used in Architectural Drawings
2. Another method is by drawing all the lines of same thickness. This method won’t bring any kind of
differentiation between the elements of the drawing. All lines look the same.
This technique is used where the accentuate features like the wall in the floor plans can be provided
with dark shading. The figure-2 below shows the drawing done by this method.
Fig.2: An architectural drawing where all lines are of same thickness
Fig.3: An architectural drawing provided with shading for the accentuate features (wall)
Dashed Lines in Architectural Drawings
To represent and show those features that are not visible or have no relationship with the view of the
plan dashed lines are used in the architectural drawings. These dashed lines used are subordinate to the
main features of the drawings.
Some of the features where the dashed lines are used are the beams and the headers as shown in
figure-4, electrical circuit runs as shown in figure-5.
Fig.4: The dashed line is used to represent the beam and the header above.
Fig.5: The above drawing uses dashed lines in order to represent the electric circuit lines, upper cabinets
in the kitchen as well as the dishwasher
Extension and Dimension Lines in Architectural Drawings
The dimension lines are used in the drawing to show the length of the dimension. The extension lines
show how long the dimension extent.
The dimension lines terminate at the respected extension lines. This termination is represented by
means of slashes, dots or arrowheads.
The dimension may be numeral in feet, millimeters or inches that will be placed above and near the
center of the solid dimension of the line.
The figure-6 shows several examples of the dimension and the extension lines.
Fig.6: Drawing showing the use of dimension lines and the extension lines
Leader Lines
In order to connect the notes that is related to certain features in the drawing, leader lines are used. The
figure -7 shows several examples:
Fig.7: The sample figure showing the use of leader lines to explain the footing and the wall details
Break Lines
There are two types of break lines. One is the long break line and the other is the short break line. The
long break line is the type of line that is associated with the architectural drafting.
To terminate a feature on the drawing, after the clear definition of the feature extend, break lines can
be used. The figure-8 shows several examples of the of long and short break lines
Fig.8: Use of short and long break lines in structural drawings
The short break lines are used in some drawings of structures. The lines that are shown in figure-8 are
irregular lines which are mostly used in shorter areas.
The figure-9 shows the use of break lines inn cylindrical objects. The steel bars and pipes comes under
this category.
Fig.9. Break lines used in cylindrical and tubular objects
Types of Drawings used in Building Construction
Different types of drawings is used in construction such as architectural drawings, structural, electrical,
plumbing and finishing drawings. These drawings provides layout plans and details for construction of
each and every part of the building.
Drawings plays an important role in the construction field to convey the ideologies and perspective of
the designer to the layman at site. The drawings may be used to indicate the overall appearance, inside
or outside the structure, or they may be used to indicate precise measurements and other details for
construction.
Types of Construction Drawings
There are different type of drawing used for the construction process. Depending upon the purpose
they serve, construction drawings are divided into 5 types,
1. Architectural Drawing
Architectural drawing can be termed as the mother drawing for all the other drawings used for
construction. It contains all the details of the project such as location site plan, setting out plan,
elevations, sections and other details.
Site Plan
This is primary drawing used for marking out the plan on the ground. It represents the location,
orientation and information about the site’s topography, landscaping utilities ,and site work.
Fig 1: Layout Plan
Working Plan
This drawing gives the information of horizontal dimensions of the building, thickness of walls, clear
spaces inside the building and column locations. it also shows the openings required in the building such
as doors, windows and ventilators.
Section Drawings
Section drawings represents the material of construction to be used, heights and measurement of the
different components of buildings, type of structural components such as type of slab , etc. Its
represents the drawing when the building is cut through a vertical plane.
Elevation Drawing
Elevation drawing represents the information of openings, size and shape of external surface, height of
building and finish of the building after completion. These drawings are made by having a aesthetic view
of the building.
Structural Drawing
Structural drawings can be termed as the backbone drawing of the building. It consists all the
information about the structural intervention that are coming on a building. It contains many type of
drawing with very minute details and description.
General Note
This is more of a codes and by laws of the buildings. No drawing is found in this, but the details of all the
structural drawings are mention in this such as concrete mix, lapping length, curing time, abbreviation,
codes and other work procedures.
Excavation Drawing
This drawing represents the footing excavation dimension, column position, footing plan and grid lines
of column.
Column Layout
This drawing represents the position and orientation of columns and column reinforcement details.
Fig 4: Column Layout
Plinth Beam Layout
This drawing represents the dimensions, position and section of plinth beam and the details of
reinforcement in plinth beam.
Fig 5: Plinth Beam Layout
Fig 6: Plinth Beam Details
Lintel Beam Layout
This drawing represents the dimensions, position and section of lintel beam and the details of
reinforcement in lintel beam.
Fig 7: Lintel Beam Layout and Details
Roof Beam and Shuttering Layout
This drawing represents the details of reinforcement of roof beam, its section and shuttering details.
Fig 8: Roof Beam and Shuttering Layout
Roof Slab Layout
This drawing represents the details of reinforcement of roof slab, its section and openings in the roof for
various purpose such as stairs or skylight.
Fig 9: Roof Slab Layout
Electrical Drawing
Electrical drawing represent the details of electrical fixtures, location of switches, fan, light and others. It
also represents the load calculation, tapping for electricity, wiring path and other interventions such as
AC and UPS and its components.
Fig 10: Electrical Drawing
4. Plumbing Drawing
Plumbing drawings give the location of sanitary, piping for water supply system, fixture, and the process
to connect every fixture.
Fig 11: Plumbing Drawing
Finishing Drawings
Finishing drawings represents the finish type of every component of the building such as flooring
pattern, painting color, false ceiling shape, plastering texture and elevation design. These details are
sometime given in elevation drawings also.
There is no standard rule of drawings required for a project. Depending upon the type of building and
requirement, types of drawings are made and issued .
Types of Section Drawings
Sections can be drawn of a total building, interior space, or object. These are referred to as full sections.
However, if only an isolated area needs to be illustrated, a partial section can also be drawn. Sections
can be cut in a variety of ways to show more detailed information. A section might be cut all the way
through a building (called a building section), or only through a wall (wall section).
Both may be needed, because the small scale and complexity of a building section generally means the
materials and details related to the walls cannot be drawn there. A symbol on the building section
shown in Figure 8-4 marks the wall area to be enlarged. The wall section (Figure 8-5) is drawn to
accurately show the many details and materials that are needed in the assembly.
fin. floor fin. louer floor
WOOD HOUSSES
1/16' OBS. GOOF SHEATHING
r-40 insulation
WOOD HOUSSES
1/16' OBS. GOOF SHEATHING
r-40 insulation fin. floor fin. louer floor
/2" ceiuns chase
Figure 8-6 An enlarged section might just show part of a building assembly to depict specific details,
such as this built-in cabinet construction.
/2" ceiuns chase
WALL SECTION
Figure 8-5 This is the enlarged wall section keyed on the building section in Figure 8-4.
Figure 8-6 An enlarged section might just show part of a building assembly to depict specific details,
such as this built-in cabinet construction.
BULKHEAD ABOVE
reveal - paint black cabinet doors -
2 adjustable shelves ■ 3/4' mdf blocking betond finished drtujall
CABINET SECTION
BULKHEAD ABOVE
reveal - paint black cabinet doors -
2 adjustable shelves ■ 3/4' mdf blocking betond finished drtujall finish underside of cabinetry" to match
vertical surfaces full height backsflash
3/4" mdf w/ 1-1/2' lip cabinet drawer w/ accuride (OR equal/ glides
3' stainless steel wire pulls- typ. • lower drawer « cabinetry adjustable shelf f3/4' mdf; on pin-in hole
system- i 1/4' increments w/ chrome shelf supports cabinet doors- 3/4" mdf and kick base
In addition to building and wall sections, there may also be a need to draw a section through built-in or
custom components within a space, such as shelving, reception desks, credenzas, bars, display cases,
cabinets, and counters. Figure 8-6 shows a built-in cabinet section. These types of sections are discussed
in more detail in Chapter 9.
CABINET SECTION
In interior construction drawings, sometimes the terms section and detail are interchanged, thus causing
some confusion. Section cuts through small portions of construction or objects, for example, are often
referred to as details. But details are not always drawn in section. They may also include enlarged
portions of the floor plan or elevation.
The scale of section drawings may range from y%" to 3" (3.17 mm to 76 mm), depending upon the size
of the drawing paper, the size of the building (or component), and the desired features to be shown. The
specific information a section shows may vary, depending on whether it is a design or construction
drawing. Construction drawings show only the items or components of a space that are built in or
attached to the structure. Movable furniture is not shown in this type of drawing.
Scale drawing
Scale drawings are used to illustrate items that it is not useful or convenient to draw at their actual size
This may be because drawing the item at full size would be unmanageable, or would not easily fit on a
single sheet of paper (such as a building), or alternatively because items need to be drawn larger than
full size to adequately represent all the detail that needs to be communicated (such as a complex
connection).
The scale of drawings is described as a ratio using the notation:
A distance at full size : The distance at the scale used that would be the same length.
For example:
§ A full size drawing would be 1:1 (or sometimes 1/1 or ‘one to one’).
§ A half size drawing would be 1:2.
§ A tenth size drawing would be 1:10.
§ A double size drawing would be 2:1.
In the construction industry a range of scales are generally used depending on the nature of the drawing.
For example:
§ A location plan at 1:1000.
§ A site plan at 1:200.
§ A floor plan at 1:100.
§ A room plan at 1:50.
§ A component drawing at 1:5.
§ An assembly drawing at 1:2.
It is important that the scale used is noted on the drawing. In addition, because of the ease of
reproducing, printing and re-sizing drawings, it is important to note the original sheet size that the scale
was drawn at, so for example A4, A3, A2, A1, A0, and so on.
In some cases, it may be appropriate to use more than one scale on a single drawing, for example, to
show the elevation of land across across a significant distance. In this case, differences in elevation
might be illustrated at a larger scale and a smaller scale used for horizontal distances. Here, the scale
might be noted on the axes of the drawing, or actual distances shown on the axes.
In other cases a scale might use more than one unit of measurement. For example, the length of an
arrow on an air flow diagram might represent the velocity of the air, e.g. 1 cm = 0.1 m/s.
The use of computer aided drawing (CAD) and building information modelling (BIM) has introduced a
new concept to this process, as in this case, digital models are created at full size. Drawings of any scale
can then be generated from the model.
Section drawing
A 'section drawing', 'section' or 'sectional drawing' shows a view of a structure as though it had been
sliced in half or cut along another imaginary plane.
For buildings, this can be useful as it gives a view through the spaces and surrounding structures
(typically across a vertical plane) that can reveal the relationships between the different parts of the
buildings that might not be apparent on plan drawings. Plan drawings are in fact a type of section, but
they cut through the building on a horizontal rather than vertical plane.
The direction of the plane through which the section is cut is often represented on plan drawings and
elevations by a line of long and short dashes, called a section plane. If there are a number of sections,
the line may have letters at each end indicating the name of the section drawing and an arrow showing
the direction that the view takes.
The section line can take an indirect route through a building if this helps show the most important
features or junctions in the building, as illustrated on the drawing below.
In this case, the section drawing would be named 'Section B-B'.
Shading, cross hatching or other fill styles and / or thicker lines can be used to indicate parts of the
structure that have been cut through, such as walls, roofs and floors.
The scale of a section drawing will depend on the size of the building being drawn and the level of detail
that needs to be shown. Sections may show the entire building, or may focus on a particular component,
junction or assembly. In this case they can be similar to assembly drawings but differ in that they don’t
usually include details of the actually assembly process.
Different types of cross hatching can be used to differentiate between different types of component on
detailed sectional drawings. Standards exist for hatching that should be used on some common
materials, for example, double diagonal lines indicate brickwork, a wave indicates insulation and so on.
Perspective sections include 3D projection of the spaces beyond the section plane and can be used to
give a graphical illustration of the relationship between spaces and building components as well as their
depths that can be very helpful in trying to interpret a complex design.
Increasingly, section drawings can be generated automatically by 3D modelling software, including
perspective sections where required.
Symbols on architectural drawings
This article catalogues some of the more commonly used symbols on architectural drawings and designs.
Please help develop this article by adding to the list.
Single switched wall socket
Double switched wall socket
Double switched wall socket above worktop level
Single switched fused spur
TV aerial
1 gang light switch
2 gang light switch
2 gang 2 way light switch
Dimmer switch
Pendant light
Recessed downlight
Adjustable recessed spotlight
Recessed spotlight
Wall light
Telephone point
Consumer unit
Shaver socket
Ethernet socket
Thermostat
Lamp
Passive vent
Mechanical fan vent
Radiator
Towel rail
Wash basin
Sink
Bath
Shower tray
wc
Rainwater outlet
Soil vent pipe
Boiler flue
Blockwork
Brick
Stonework
Concrete
Hardcore
Sand
Stone
Rubble
Insulation
Sawn timber
Hardwood
Plywood
Window (plan)
Window (elevation) showing direction of opening - point of triangle indicates hinged side
Door (plan)
North point
Existing tree
Existing tree to be removed
Proposed tree
Incline (steps, stairs or ramp) with arrow head at the higher side
Stairway with arrow head at the higher side
Types of Measured Survey Drawings
A measured survey is a crucial part of any design development and should be undertaken prior to any
design development. The end result of a measured survey is the production of computer-aided design
(CAD) drawings which your architect/designer uses as a base for their new design. When sending a
measured survey specification to your survey team, your architect will ask for a number of different
drawing types depending on the size and complexity of the proposed design. This article aims to outline
the various types of drawings they may specify.
Drawing Types Explained
Floor Plan Drawings
Floor plan drawings are one of the most common drawing types in architecture and building engineering
projects. A floor plan is a scaled drawing showing a view from above which clearly defines the
relationship of rooms and areas to each other. Floor plans are important as they show elements of a
building and where they are positioned. Elements include doors, windows, walls, stairs, overhead beams
etc.
A floor plan is one of the first places a designer will start when coming up with their designs. They can
help to understand the layout of a room and see whether furniture fits, and obtain accurate floor areas
for contractor pricing.
Section Drawings
A section drawing shows a cut through a building as if it has been sliced with a knife and one part has
been removed. A section through a building is very useful for a designer as they can clearly see the
relationships of the spaces to each other, which may not be clear on a plan. They are also useful for
getting a clearer picture of heights within a building and can show important relationships between
items such as ceiling and floor levels. The direction and location of the section lines are usually stated on
the floor plan drawing and if drawn correctly will show the section as it is at that exact location.
Elevation Drawing
An elevation drawing is a view showing one side of a building. It’s the most common method to show
the outside of a building and is useful as it can clearly show what an existing or proposed situation looks
like. An elevation drawing can pick up basic information such as the location of doors, windows and
steps, as well as more complex features of the building’s facade, such as architectural details above
windows and ironmongery.
Depending on the building works taking place an elevation will be required on the building faces that are
being changed. For example, a rear extension may require both a rear elevation and a side elevation
drawing.
Interested in our measured surveys?
Roof Plan
A roof plan is a view looking from overhead, and it details the arrangement of the roof layout. It will
outline the arrangement of the roof as well as noting where items such as the ridges, chimneys, eaves
extents are. Roof plans are useful for designers as the layout of a roof could impact a new construction
such a loft conversion. Having a good idea of the roof’s specifications can help save money and avoid
future problems as issues can be sorted prior to construction.
Surveying a roof can be difficult due to access issues and not being able to see it from ground level. If
this is the case then sometimes a roof plan will need to be assumed using internal measurements within
the loft area.
Site Plan
A site plan can be defined as a slightly simplified topographical survey. This will show your building in
relation to important features such as property boundaries, other buildings on site, large trees etc. A site
plan may also show where inspection chambers are and note their details, including invert levels and
drain run directions. Sometimes it is crucial to know where your proposed development sits in regards
to other features so issues like planning permission are nullified.
ISOMETRIC DRAWING AND DESIGNERS
Isometric drawing is way of presenting designs/drawings in three dimensions. In order for a design to
appear three dimensional, a 30 degree angle is applied to its sides. The cube opposite, has been drawn
in isometric projection.
FREE HAND SKETCHING IN ISOMETRIC:
Designs drawn in isometric projection are normally drawn precisely using drawing equipment. However,
designers find ‘free hand’ sketching in isometric projection useful.
The mobile phone / music player opposite, has been sketched in free hand isometric projection. It
allows the designer to draw in 3D quickly and with a reasonable degree of accuracy. The design is still
drawn at a 30 degree angle, although this is estimated, rather than drawn with graphics equipment.
Limited colour/shade has been added to the menu of the phone. This means that the sketch is not
presented entirely as a ‘plain’ design.
These drawings are quick sketches, that allow the designer to put his / her thoughts down on paper
rapidly. This helps him/her develop an idea or design concept quickly, without the need for complex
drawings, at an early stage in the design process.
In early meetings with a client, the designer can display 3D drawings of this type in order to ascertain if
the design is developing the way the client wants.
Drawing in isometric projection, normally means drawing very accurately using traditional drawing
equipment. This includes using T-Square, set squares and measuring accurately.
The isometric drawing seen opposite has been drawn precisely, using skills learned through hours of
practice. When these skills have been developed, sketching in isometric becomes second nature.
EXPLODED ISOMETERIC PROJECTION
Designers use ‘exploded’ views, often drawn in isometric projection, to show parts of products that are
hidden from sight. For example, all the parts of the pen, drawn below, can be seen because it has been
taken apart using the drawing technique called 'Exploded Isometric Projection'.
With exploded isometric projection, all the parts are in line with each other, along a centre line. This is
drawn precisely through the centre of the product being drawn.
With a normal isometric drawing, all the parts are in their assembled positions. This means that vital
hidden detail cannot be seen.
Designers also use exploded views to explain their designs to clients/customers and manufacturers.
Furthermore, exploded views of products are often supplied to customers, who in turn assemble the
product. A good example of this is 'knock down' furniture. When the flat pack is opened, an instruction
sheet or booklet explains how the furniture is assembled, often in the form of isometric exploded views.
The drawings seen below, were supplied with an instruction booklet. They are two of numerous
diagrams drawn in isometric projection. They help explain how the cabinet and all its component parts
are assembled, to form the finished product.
These are accurate drawings constructed by a designer, that explain how the product he/she has
designed is assembled.
Report Cover Page Designs
The cover page, also known as title page, is the first and front page of the book, report, business
proposals, magazines, any other document. It is an important part of the document as it gives the
introductory information regarding what the document is about as well as who has written it.
It basically gives a reflection of the whole document and what is contained in it. The cover page helps
the reader in deciding whether the document is of interest to him or not. In addition, the cover page is
also important because it sets the first impression on whoever glances at the document.
The cover page of the report gives the ‘Big Idea’ of what the report is about as it states the report’s title.
It should be clear, professional, formal and appropriate for the topic or area covered in the report. The
cover page of the report varies slightly based on the formatting style (such as APA, MLA, Harvard, etc.)
that is being used by the report. However, the main information included is:
Title of the report.
Subtitle if any.
Author and co-authors.
Details of the authors such as title, email, contact, etc.
Submission place such as the name of institute, organization, journal, publisher, etc.
Company logo or any other image if any.
Date of report.
Header if any.
A brief summary of the report.
The information required on the cover page depends on the type of report being written. For instance,
for an academic report, the instructor might provide specific instructions for the cover page. However,
for other reports, a catchy cover page might be an important part of the overall presentation of the
report.
The cover page is designed based on the information that is to be included. Sometimes the authors opt
for the available cover page templates or designs and sometimes they design their own. The main
advantage for the author of using the available templates or designs is the time that is being saved.
The available templates, usually designed in MS Word, are easily available and downloadable. They are
pre-formatted, easy to update and customize and hence the author can change them according to his
requirements.
The designs or templates in MS Word are attractive and catchy so that a good impression of the report
can be made by using an appealing cover page. Therefore, when designing a cover page or selecting a
template, the following things should be kept in mind:
Purpose of the report
Images that are being included if any.
Compelling title and subtitle (if any).
Overall layout and presentation.
Summary content.
Making the selection of a cover page is important especially in the business world. As the reader firstly
glances at the cover page, it usually makes an impression on his mind whether the report would be
worth attention. Therefore, the right choice of the cover page template is critical as the success of the
report is, somehow, dependent on it.
#1
A catchy combination of deep and bright red on the lighter base color is the first cover page we have to
offer. This cover page has a unique look to it. It basically divides the whole page into sections. The top
area is for any heading that the user may wish to tell the viewer. This is the best way to highlight the
main point. The second part of the page steals the show as it bears the title of the cover page in a
prominent font style and size. Any detail account can follow the title.
#2
The black base gives this cover photo a bold look. A very few people usually opt such dark cover page
but trust us; it has its own grace. You can’t deny the fact that black never disappoints, does it? To give it
some colors, shades of orange color are used in places. Overall, this report cover page has its own
impact and impression. This can be used for all the professional reports without any question. Title of
the cover page will be the most prominent feature here. The user can add any type of detail just below
the title.
#3
This is one of the most downloaded reports cover page we have in this category. The reason being the
professional look it has to offer. White can never disappoint when it comes to business documents. The
image and the border used and the color used for it enhances the overall feeling. Another unique aspect
that it has is that the cover page title is placed at the bottom along with space for general details while
the top space is fixed for the heading and contact information. So this cover page is not very textual
rather, it is pictorial.
#4
A very unique and innovative design is on our list of the report cover pages. If you take a note of this
design, it has many shades of blue in it, which gives it amazing and the coolest look possible. The top of
the page is for the title of the cover page. Headline along with necessary details will go in the space in
the middle of the page. This gives the much-needed attention to this detail. The bottom of the page has
another text box for some heading if the user wishes to communicate something important to the
viewer.
#5
The last cover of our amazing list is a masterpiece in its own unique way. This design is like no other in
the list. This special cover is divided into distinct two parts. The lower portion is dyed in deep red color
which is giving it a life for sure. The upper plain portion is for the title of the page and any contact detail
that the company may wish to give. The lower colored part bears all the major and minor details that
need to be put on a report cover page. This cover page has an organized look and feels to it which will
create the same impression about the report itself.
Line Types
Lines are drawn to describe objects, hidden conditions, and important relationships between
components and space. A line drawn on a surface has both direction and weight. The weight of a line
refers to its thickness and intensity; a line can also be continuous or dashed. The direction can be
straight, curved, diagonal, or a combination of these. In drafting, continuous lines of various weights are
used to represent objects and major elements such as structural walls and columns. Dotted lines are
usually used to denote objects hidden from view. However, they can also be used to denote other things,
such as a wheelchair turning radius or ceiling height changes on a floor plan. The following are the most
commonly used line types
• Cutting lines: show major slices in a building or object.
• Object lines: show major outlines of building elements or objects.
• Hidden lines: indicate areas or objects not visible on the surface, or objects hidden behind others.
They are also used to show objects above the cutting plane of a floor plan, such as wall cabinets, beams,
arches, etc.
• Centerlines: locate the symmetrical center of objects such as windows, doors, beams, and walls.
• Dimension lines and extension lines: indicate the physical dimensions of objects. Dimensions are
placed directly above the dimension line or inserted within it.
• Leaders: line extending from text and ending with an arrow, pointing to an object or place.
• Break lines: indicate where an object or area is not drawn in its entirety.
• Layout lines: are used in the preliminary blocking out of components and for lettering guidelines.
Line Weights and Their Uses
Line weight refers to the blackness (intensity) and width of a line on the drawing surface. In general,
heavy (dark) lines are used to represent cutting planes and contours (or outer boundaries) of an object.
In a floor-plan view, it is often the walls that are drawn with the darkest lines in order to define the
spaces (Figure 3-8). These lines appear to be the closest to the viewer and are perceived as major
elements. Medium and lighter lines appear to be farther away from the viewer and are used for
secondary emphasis.
border line cutttngt plane line
object line
o z dimension i extension line
--"inbreak line
Figure 3-7 These are common line types used in drawings to describe objects, hidden conditions, and
important relationships between components and space.
Drawings for interior design projects generally use three line widths: thick (dark), medium, and thin
(light). Thick lines are generally twice as wide as thin lines, usually V32 inch or about 0.8 mm wide. Thin
lines are approximately V« inch or 0.4 mm wide. Medium lines fall between these two extremes. In
pencil drawings, each type can be further broken down, depending on the variety of lead and level of
pressure. With the variety of mechanical pencils on the market today, it is easy to control line widths. As
discussed in Chapter 2, fine-line mechanical pencils are available in a 0.3, 0.5, 0.7, or 0.9 mm lead. By
switching to different pencils, the drafter can vary line weight easily.
Figure 3-8 In a floor plan, the walls are often drawn darkest to define the spaces. The viewer tends to
see these lines first, and thus they are perceived as major elements.
Figure 3-9 Dark, thick lines are commonly used in building sections to denote where a plane is cut.
Figure 3-9 Dark, thick lines are commonly used in building sections to denote where a plane is cut.
BUILDING SECTION
Thick, Dark Lines
Thick, dark lines are used for major sections (Figure 3-9), details, borderlines, and cutting plane lines. A
thick, intense line can represent the walls on a floor plan or structural members, such as fireplaces or
stairways, the outline of a ceiling on a reflected ceiling plan, or the outline of a building on a site plan.
Thick, intense lines are also used to emphasize an object or element.
Medium Lines
Medium-weight lines are used for hidden objects and are usually drawn dashed or dotted. They are also
used for outlining the planes of objects and for centerlines, as well as for furniture and equipment. Thin,
Light Lines
Thin, light lines are generally used as guidelines, drawn to help line up certain details or to help with
lettering height. These lines should be barely visible and should disappear when a print or copy is made.
Lines that are a little darker are used for dimension and extension lines, leaders, door swings, and break
lines.
Drawing for Architects Basics: Line Weights
Line weight is the visual lightness, darkness, or heaviness of a line within a drawing. In any architectural
drawing, from a sketch to a construction drawing, the interplay of different relative line weights is used
to communicate depth, importance, and proximity.
THE WEIGHT OF YOUR LINES
Weight refers to the strength, heaviness, or darkness of a line against the background. It can be
achieved through different thicknesses, intensities, and sometimes even different patterns - dashes,
dots etc. Traditionally, you would generate a heavier line by applying more pressure, or by angling the
pencil to produce a thicker line. Today, you can find pens with different nib sizes, and pencils and leads
with different hardnesses to aid the process of producing different line weights.
Additionally, all architectural computer-aided design programmes have in-built systems for generating
and managing line weights in architectural drawings. These systems range from the simple (closest lines
are darkest, further away are lighter) to the highly complex (elements in the drawing have predetermined line-weights, based on value-decisions make by the architect).
Before jumping in to these more intensive situations, it is important to have a grasp on what line
weights mean and how they are read, and what you should consider when incorporating them into your
own work.
HOW DO ARCHITECTS USE LINE WEIGHTS?
There are a number of different situations in which architects use line weight. Line weight is a notational
device, and can be used to identify different types of information which are layered in the same drawing.
It is used in all drawing types - sketches, sections and elevations, plans, diagrams, perspectives, and
details.
Dimensioning Floor Plans
A floor plan is carefully dimensioned to ensure that items such as walls, columns, doors, windows,
openings, stairs, and other particulars are correctly located for construction. Sometimes after a plan is
drawn accurately to a scale, its reproduction causes a slight enlargement or reduction of the drawing. In
such cases, the floor plan is slightly out of true scale, but this is acceptable because the written
dimensions are the controlling factors. In fact, most designers add a note on the drawing that says, "do
not scale drawing, follow written dimensions."
Generally, elements such as walls are dimensioned to the frame (Figure 6-32), as the builder first erects
this and then adds the finishes to it. This dimensioning technique gives the exact location of the studs,
columns, and beams and is generally placed to the face of these. In some cases, however, the centerline
of the wall might be located and dimensioned, as illustrated in Figure 6-33.
Figure 6-31 A portion of a floor plan can be keyed with a symbol to a larger, more detailed plan that is
drawn elsewhere. For example, this part of the plan is referenced as area 6 and enlarged on sheet A4.
Figure 6-32 Dimensions on a floor plan generally locate the framework of the building, such as the face
of these 2x4 studs.
As noted in Chapter 5, dimensioning is done in a hierarchical manner. Buildings, structural framework,
rooms, and fixtures are dimensioned in decreasing size order. The actual number of dimensions on a
plan is dependent upon how much latitude the designer affords the contractor. A very detailed and
dimensioned plan gives the builder little room for deviation from the original design. However, if only a
few key dimensions are shown, the builder is trusted to determine exact locations of interior
components. A good guideline for dimensioning falls somewhere between these two approaches. An
overdimensioned plan allows the builder little freedom to make field adjustments or substitute costsaving techniques. However, too few dimensions can produce a lot of guesswork and increase the
chances for error in the field and in coordination between subcontractors.
Figure 6-31 A portion of a floor plan can be keyed with a symbol to a larger, more detailed plan that is
drawn elsewhere. For example, this part of the plan is referenced as area 6 and enlarged on sheet A4.
Figure 6-32 Dimensions on a floor plan generally locate the framework of the building, such as the face
of these 2x4 studs.
Figure 6-33 All dimensions in this floor plan are to the face of a stud, except for the wall between the
closets. It is dimensioned to the centerline of the wall. The cen-terline technique can also be used to
locate exterior windows and doors, as seen in this example.
Figure 6-33 All dimensions in this floor plan are to the face of a stud, except for the wall between the
closets. It is dimensioned to the centerline of the wall. The cen-terline technique can also be used to
locate exterior windows and doors, as seen in this example.
Figure 6-34 Note that the dimensions on this partial floor plan are placed outside of the spaces. The
extension lines do not touch the walls, and dark 45-degree tick marks indicate the extent of the
dimensions.
Dimensioning Techniques
Dimensions are placed on the floor plan as shown in Figure 6-34. Note that the dimension lines are
drafted lighter than wall lines and are generally done as a continuous group or string of numbers along a
line. The extension line begins slightly away from the object (a minimum of Vi6 inch or 1.58 mm), never
touching it. It extends about V8 inch (3.17 mm) beyond the dimension line. Arrows, dots, or 45-degree
tick marks (most common) are used at the extension line and dimension line junction (Figure 6-35). The
arrows, dots, or tick marks are drawn with a thicker and/or darker line to make them stand out
graphically. The 45-degree tick marks are drawn in a consistent direction. However, some draftspersons
slope the tick marks for vertically read dimensions from left to right and horizontally read dimensions
from right to left. When using the computer, any of these three graphic symbols (arrows, dots, or ticks)
can be called up and consistently inserted for all dimensions.
Dimensioning on a floor plan usually requires two or three continuous dimension lines to locate exterior
walls, wall jogs, interior walls, windows, doors, and other elements, as shown in Figure 6-36. Exterior
walls of a building are dimensioned outside the floor plan. The outermost dimension line is the overall
building dimension. The next dimension line, moving toward the plan, indicates wall locations and
centerlines to doors and windows. Other miscellaneous details in the plan (such as minor offsets, jogs,
or cabinetry and fixtures) are located on a third dimension line. This hierarchy of line work allows the
carpenters and other trades to quickly locate major framing elements and minor details by referring to
the appropriate dimension line.
BAR STOOLS
30VS4' SOFA END TABLE
BAR STOOLS
30VS4' SOFA END TABLE
Figure 6-36 Dimensioning on a floor plan is grouped hierarchically, working from the overall dimension
of the exterior walls to the smaller components of a building or space, such as wall jogs, interior walls,
windows, doors, and other important elements.
Figure 6-35 Dark tick marks at 45 degrees to a dimension's extension line are the most common
technique for indicating junction points.
Figure 6-36 Dimensioning on a floor plan is grouped hierarchically, working from the overall dimension
of the exterior walls to the smaller components of a building or space, such as wall jogs, interior walls,
windows, doors, and other important elements.
Figure 6-37 A leader is used to indicate the distance of 1'-3J'2" from a wall corner to the check-in shelf
on this partial plan, as the space within the dimension line is too small to letter in.
Figure 6-38 Floor plans in small residential projects often depict material finishes, such as this tiled floor
in the entry, kitchen, breakfast area, and utility room.
Floor plan
Orthographic projection is a technique for drawing a three dimensional object in two dimensions, by
‘projecting’ its surfaces into a two dimensional representation, where the projection lines are
orthogonal to (perpendicular to) the projection plane (that is, there is no foreshortening or perspective).
Floor plans are a form of orthographic projection that can be used to show the layout of rooms within
buildings, as seen from above. They may be prepared as part of the design process, or to provide
instructions for construction, often associated with other drawings, schedules, and specifications.
Floor plans may include key dimensions and levels, and may also use, hatching, symbols and other
standard annotations and abbreviations to indicate materials, fittings and appliances, and so on.
Depending on the size of the building, floor plans are typically drawn at scales of between 1:200 and
1:20. Different line types, colours and weights can be used to differentiate between the types of drawn
information they include.
Floor plans can be drawn for whole buildings, a single floor of a building, or just a single room. The more
detailed the floor plan is in terms of layout, fittings and so on, the more useful and instructive it will be
for the project. However, if spaces are complex, it is normal for separate drawings to be prepared for
different trades, such as electrical and lighting drawings, plumbing drawings, and so on.
The lower-right-hand corner of the sheet is typically reserved for a title block. This provides a space to
record the name of the project, the name of the drawing, the scale, the originators name, the date,
revision history, and so on.
The floor plan view should be roughly centred on the sheet, with the front of the building typically
drawn along the lower side of the sheet. A north point may be included to show the orientation of the
floor plan.
Typically, the outside walls are drawn first, to lay the plan out on the sheet, then the internal walls, then
windows, doors, stairs, lifts, ramps, and so on, are added. An arrow is used to indicate the upward
direction of stairs and ramps. It is usual for a faint dotted line to be drawn around stairs (or other
openings) where they are open at ceiling level.
Rooms should be clearly labelled, with block lettering in the centre of each room. The correct symbols
should be added for elements such as; appliances, fixed furniture, fittings, building services, and so on.
Electrical symbols should be added to the drawing, indicating; power sockets, light switches, wall and
ceiling lights, detectors and alarms, extract fans, and so on.
Items that are ceiling mounted, are generally drawn on the floor below their place of installation.
Dimension may be added to indicate the size and location of key elements such as; rooms, fittings,
appliances or fixtures, external walls, window and door openings, and so on.
Section lines may be added where there are section drawings associated with the floor plan. Grid
references may also be added to help co-ordinate the floor plan with other drawings.
Some floor plans may include notional furniture to help gauge the likely size of circulation spaces.
If a window or door schedule is to be prepared, doors and windows may be labelled with a number or
letter, corresponding to an item on the schedule.
Floor plans should not duplicate information that is presented in specifications or schedules because of
the potential for conflict. Instead they should refer to the specification or schedule.
ELEVATIONS
An elevation is a scaled drawing that shows a vertical surface or plane seen from a point of view
perpendicular to the viewers’ picture plane. An elevation is also a type of orthographic multiview
drawing (discussed in Chapter 4). The various elevation views include the front, sides, and rear. Planes
perpendicular to the picture plane are seen on edge, and other angles are seen foreshortened.
Elevations are drawn as straight-on views, so there is no distortion as in a perspective or isometric
drawing. Architectural elevations illustrate the finished appearance of an exterior or interior wall of a
building, as shown in Figure 7-1. Elevations serve as a primary source to show heights, materials, and
related information that cannot be seen in floor plans, sections, or other drawings. For example, a
lavatory and vanity shown on a floor plan gives no information about the number, heights, and sizes of
doors and drawers located beneath the basin unit. An elevation is drawn to convey this information.
Elevations are drawn as exterior or interior views of a building, or they might be specialized views of
objects such as furniture or free-standing cabinetry. Elevations generally show
Exterior Elevations
Exterior elevations illustrate the finished appearance of an exterior wall of a building. They convey the
types of materials proposed, types of doors and windows, the finished grade, roof slope, foundation,
footings, and selected vertical dimensions. Elevations assist the designer in visualizing how proposed
door and window types and locations on the floor plan will influence the appearance and style of the
structure (Figure 7-5).
Exterior elevations are identified with a title and scale. Generally, exterior elevations are titled according
to the compass direction they are facing, either North Elevation, East Elevation, South Elevation, or West
Elevation. If a building is not facing true north, the side that is oriented the most nearly north is
identified as such. Then the other elevations are titled according to the compass direction most closely
related to them. In some cases, exterior elevations are titled Front, Rear, Left, and Right.
Figure 7-5 Exterior elevations convey the materials used and particulars of doors, windows, roofs, and
footings, as well as important vertical dimensions.
In most cases, architects and engineers draw exterior elevations. However, interior designers may be
required to draw exterior elevations for residential or small commercial projects, such as retail store
facades, as shown in Figure 7-6. When remodeling a building or adding space to an existing structure, it
may be necessary for the interior designer to draw partial exterior elevations for clarity and
understanding.
Interior Elevations
An interior elevation is a vertical projection of a wall or other surface inside a building and shows the
finished appearance of that wall or surface. It is seen as a straight-on view of the surface, as there is not
a lot of need to show depth. Curves, spheres, and slanted surfaces disappear on the flat vertical plane of
an elevation, as illustrated in Figure 7-7. However, depth can be indicated if desired by adding shading
and shadowing. In most cases, the real importance of an elevation is to show vertical elements,
dimensions, and details that cannot be explained clearly in plan view. Interior elevations are particularly
useful for showing the height of openings in a wall, materials and finishes of a wall, vertical dimensions,
wall-mounted items (such as shelves and/or cabinets), location of switches, and special wall treatments.
For example, an interior wall elevation might show the height of a grab bar and the location (height and
cut-out size required) of a recessed tissue dispenser in a commercial bathroom, as illustrated in Figure 78.
The scale of the drawing is noted directly beneath the drawing, as shown in Figure 7-9, or elsewhere on
the sheet if the same scale is used throughout the entire sheet.
Axonometric projections
Introduction —first attempt
In the Western world, we are accustomed to the linear perspective, which tries to achieve visual realism
in paintings of 3-dimensional environments. The linear perspective, which was perfected throughout the
17th century in Europe, is based on Euclidean optics: the eye as a point object that catches straight light
rays and that senses only the colour, the intensity and the angle of the rays, not their length.
Another perspective had developed in oriental art: the "Chinese perspective" was an intrinsic part of the
classical scroll painting (actually, "Chinese perspective" is a bit of a misnomer because the same
perspective was also used in Japanese art and that of other oriental countries). A typical Chinese scroll
painting had a size of approximately 40 centimetres high by several meters wide. One views the painting
by unrolling it (from right to left) on a table in segments of about 60 centimetres wide. The Chinese
scroll paintings show a development in time —a form of "narrative art", in contrast to the paintings that
were made in Europe at the time, which show a "situation" rather than a development.
For these scroll paintings, the Chinese painters needed a perspective that had no explicit vanishing
points; every scene of the scroll painting would be seen individually and a vanishing point that lies
outside the viewport creates a disoriented view of the scene. (For the same reason, the Chinese scroll
paintings usually do not have an explicit light source or cast shadows.) The Chinese painters solved the
problem by drawing the lines along the z-axis as parallel lines in the scroll painting. This has the effect of
placing the horizon at an imaginary line, infinitely high above the painting. The axonometric projection is
a technical term for a class of perspectives to which the Chinese parallel perspective also belongs. These
perspectives are not only lacking a vanishing point, they also have a few other, mostly useful,
characteristics. These are discussed below.
A scroll painting
Introduction —second attempt
Technical drawings need to be precise, accurate and unambiguous. Technical drawings are for engineers
and fitters. National institutes formally standardize technical drawings, so that a carpenter will build the
particular chair that the furniture designer imagined. Technical drawings are a means of communication,
for those who can understand it.
If the world were populated by engineers, nothing else would matter —but it isn't and engineers (and
fitters and carpenters alike) need to communicate with managers and customers. The problem is, of
course, that technical drawings are difficult to decipher for the uninitiated. Although they show an
object from up to six angles, all of those angles are unrealistic: directly from the front, directly from
above, etc. What is needed to convey the general shape of the object is a perspective drawing that
shows three sides of a cube at once.
At this point, the next issue is: how? Engineers being as they are, they want a simple technique that
does not loose much of the accuracy of the original drawings and that does not require artistic skills.
Also note that in most cases the object that you must draw does not yet exist, so usually you cannot
take a look at the object to get a sense for its proportions. That makes it nearly undoable to adequately
position the vanishing points and to estimate the foreshortening.
The compromise, that became to be known as axonometry, is a drawing technique where the
orthogonal x-, y- and z-axes of the (3-dimensional) world space are projected to (non-orthogonal) axes
on paper. In the projection, the y-axis usually remains the vertical axis, the z-axis is skewed and the xaxis may either be horizontal, as in the figure at the right, or be skewed as well. A more important
property of axonometry is its fixed relation between sizes of objects in world space and those on
projected space, independent of the positions of the objects in projected space. In linear perspective,
objects become smaller when they move farther away; not so in axonometric perspective. This means
that you can measure the size of an object of a axonometric drawing and know how big the real object is
(you need to know the scale of the drawing and the properties of the projection, but nothing else),
something that cannot be done with linear perspective. This leads to the name of the projection: the
word "axonometry" means "measurable from the axes".
Although there are countless possible axonometric projections, only two are standardized for technical
drawings. These are described in detail below.
Introduction —third attempt
Computer games have traditionally been brimming with graphics and animation. In fact, games are
categorized according to the kind of graphics they used. Two popular types of games are "platform
games" where you look from the side, and "board games" where you look mostly from above. These
games also have in common that they often use tiles to build the "world" from. Given these similarities,
and given the dullness of the unrealistic viewpoints of both platform games and board games, the
attempt to make a compromise between these extreme viewpoints is a logical next step.
So what one does is take a board of a board game, scale its height (it will become the z-axis, for "depth")
and skew it so that this z-axis on the computer display is a diagonal line. For a better appearance, you
can also skew the x-axis. The (new) y-axis remains vertical. This is all that is needed, provided that you
get the proportions for scaling and skewing right.
Due to the coarseness of digital coordinates and the requirement that the edges of (chequerboard) tiles
should match precisely, without any pixel overlaps or gaps, the skewing angles and scaling factors that
game designers use are an approximation of the visually optimal proportions. One of the simplifications
that game designers have made is to use an axonometric projection where a unit along an axis is equally
long for all of the three axes. That is, every axis has the same metric; hence, the projection is named
"isometric". Axonometric projections and tile-based images are not necessarily related. But most
computer games that use an isometric perspective also use tile-based images.
The isometric projection
In an isometric projection, the x-, y- and z-axes have the same metric: a unit (say, a centimetre) along
the x-axis is equally long along the y- and z-axes. In other words, if you render a wire frame cube, all
edges in the 2-dimensional picture are equally long. Another property of the isometric projection is that
the projected wire frame cube is also symmetric. All sides of the projected cube are rhombuses.
NEN 2536 describes an isometric projection that is symmetric with regards to the vertical axis; the angle
between the x- and y-axes, and between the z- and y-axes, is 60 degrees. The projection shows three
sides of a cube, and the surfaces of each side are equal. The 30° angle between the x- and z-axes and the
"horizon" is convenient for technical drawings, because the sine of 30° is ½. This projection is attributed
to William Farish who published a treatise about it in 1822 (reference: Jan Krikke). NEN 2536 has been
revised and republished as the international standard ISO 5456-3.
The figure below shows a cube in the isometric projection as defined by ISO 5456-3.The first object from
the left in the figure is the cube unadorned; the second object is the same cube with angles and
measures annotated around it. The third and fourth graphics are the top and side views of the
perspective scene and they give the camera position that fits the perspective view. The camera position
is what you would feed into a 3D renderer (or ray tracer) to create the sprites or tiles for the isometric
projection.
The 30° isometric projection (NEN/ISO)
Computer games with isometric maps are often tile-based. To make tiles match, the game designer
must take into account how diagonal lines are plotted in discrete steps (Bresenham and all that). As it
turns out, a line at 30 degrees (sine is 0.5) produces steps that are too irregular. A line at an angle where
the tangent is 0.5 does have a nice regular pattern: two steps to the right, one step up. Thus, the
isometric projection used by most games tilt the x- and z-axes with approximately 27 degrees (the exact
angle is "arctangent(0.5)"). By the way, because the tangent of the angle of the rhombus is 0.5, the
rhombus is twice as wide as it is high. This is why many sources mention a 1:2 scale for isometric
perspectives. (To make the edges of the rhombuses match, the width of the rhombus should be a
multiple of four pixels and the height should be one pixel less than ½ width. In other words, the
height:width ratio of a rhombus is usually not exactly 1:2, but rather near 1:2.1. This makes no
difference for the principles of the isometric perspective.)
Again, the figure below shows what this isometric projection looks like.
The 1:2 isometric projection
The two isometric projections mentioned above "skew" all faces of the example cube. In applications
where the most important faces are the horizontal ones, for example in applications where maps or
floor plans are paramount, another isometric projection is common. It is called the "military" projection,
probably because of its origin or use.
The "military" projection
In the military projection, the angles of the x- and z-axes are at 45°, meaning that the angle between the
x-axis and the z-axis is 90°. That is, the x-z plane is not skewed. It is rotated over 45°, though.
In the side view of the military projection (the graph at the right), I have indicated that the viewing angle
downwards onto the object (the cube) is approximately 45°. The military projection gives a quite
inaccurate perspective —numerically speaking, and the scheme that I used to calculate the angles does
not work on this projection. This angle is therefore just an estimate, based on a concept of symmetry
rather than visual accuracy.
The dimetric projection
In the dimetric projection, one of the three axes has a different scale than the other two. In practice, the
scaled axis is the z-axis and, hence, a cube drawn in a dimetric projection is not a symmetrical graphic
(like in the isometric projection).
Dimetric projections are more flexible than the isometric projections, as you vary the scale factor (and
adjust other parameters in accordance). The asymmetry in the dimetric projection also provides you
with an additional angle to play with. From an artistic viewpoint, I also like dimetric projections better
than isometric projections, because of the asymmetry. Or rather, the symmetry of an isometric
projection makes the scene look "artificial" or surrealistic. Another advantage is, in a computer game,
that if you mirror the graphics of a dimetric projection, you are looking at a scene in a new, "fresh",
perspective, while the basic computations for the coordinate system stay the same.
NEN 2536 also presents a dimetric projection for technical drawings. It is summarized in the figure
below. Any distance along the z-axis (drawn at 42°) is scaled at a factor ½.
The 42°/7° projection (NEN/ISO)
The introduction mentioned Chinese scroll paintings, and I took some time taking the metrics of
(reproductions of) two scroll paintings. The projection is different in these two paintings, and I assume
that more variations exist. Noticeable in all scroll paintings that I have seen so far, is that the x-axis stays
horizontal.
The first scroll painting projects the z-axis to quite a low angle (approximately 30 degrees). As a result,
the perspective view is, computationally, far from accurate. The reasons that we still see a 3dimensional cube, rather than some kind of flat polygon, is that the angle in the "side view" of the
perspective view is also low and because our visual system is quite forgiving for errors in perspective
correction.
The scale of the z-axis could not be accurately determined from the scroll painting. My estimate is that
the z-axis on the painting (with a 30° projected z-axis) is scaled by half (50%).
The "Chinese perspective"
Also note (again) that the perspective is distorted and that the angles of the top view and the side view
should be taken as a "rule of thumb"; I calculated these angles in the same way as the angles in the
dimetric projection presented in NEN 2536/ISO 5456-3, but these calculations are, actually, no longer
applicable.
The other painting, reproduced below, has the projected z-axis at a bit less than 40 degrees, but slanted
in the other direction. On the one hand, I could say that the z-axis is slanted to approximately 130° (90°
+ 40°), but on the other hand the the direction of the slant is insignificant for the discussion of
axonometric projection.
A reproduction from an 18th century remake of an 11-meter handscroll by artists of the Qing court,
published in "A City of Cathay"
I can give only a rough estimate of the scaling of the z-axis in this scroll painting ("a City of Cathay"):
between 0.6 and 0.7 (but probably closer to 0.6).
Dimetric projections for computer graphics and games
As was the case with the isometric projection, in computer graphics some angles are preferable to
others. The first dimetric projection that I propose for (tiled) computer graphics is very similar to the
projection of Chinese scroll paintings. The difference is the scale of the z-axis, and the angle that it
makes with the x-axis. To start with the angle, the z-axis is slanted with approximately 27 degrees (the
exact angle is "arctangent(0.5)"). This is the same angle as the isometric projection for computer
graphics uses. The scale is such that the width of the side view of a cube, when measured along the xaxis, is half of the width of the front face. The key phrase in the previous sentence is "when measured
along the x-axis". In the two former projections, the scale factor applied to distances measured along
the z-axis.
Dimetric 1:2 projection "side-view"
The above projection gives a perspective that is viewed mostly from the side. I might be useful to add
some depth to a side-scrolling (or "platform") game. For board-like games, a perspective that is viewed
from a greater height is more appropriate. The second proposed dimetric projection for games serves
this end.
Dimetric 1:2 projection "top-view"
Again, note that the perspective of the two projections suggested above is distorted. The angles in the
top and side views are really approximate. For example, in the second projection the angle at which one
looks from above at the scene is given as 24 degrees. However, using an angle of 30 degrees may
actually look better. In addition, a 30-degree angle lets you use the same objects for both the dimetric
and the isometric projections for games.
Other dimetric projections are summarized in the table below. These projections were taken from the
CARTESIO program. For each projection, I give the name that the program gives to the projection, the
slant for the x- and z-axes and the scale for the z-axis. In all the projections presented here, the the yaxis remains vertical and the x- and y-axes have the same scale.
projection name
x-axis angle
z-axis angle
z-axis scale
130, 130, 100
10
40
0.59
1, 1, 2/3
12.8
38.6
0.667
1, 1, 3/4
16.3
36.8
0.75
The CARTESIO program lists more projections than the few above, including those of the NEN 2536/ISO
5456-3 standards and a few ones that are so distorted that I see no practical use for them.
Moving across an axonometric projection
Converting from space coordinates (x,y,z) to a pixel coordinate (x',y') in the projection requires only
trivial geometry. The table below presents the formulae for completeness. Please refer to the
coordinate system in the figure at the right for my definition of the x-, y- and z-axes; in 3D space, the yaxis points upwards and the plane is defined by the x- and z-axes.
Note that in the above equations, the various sines and cosines are constant for a given projection and
they need to be calculated only once.
Converting coordinates in the projection to space coordinates is a different matter. In its general form, it
simply cannot be done: you cannot calculate three independent output parameters from two input
parameters. If you can "fix" one of the output parameters, the other two can be calculated from the
input parameters. An example: if the axonometric projection represents a map and you can assume that
the area on the map has little or no relief, then you can fix the position on the y-axis to zero (ground
level), and you only have to calculate x and z from x' and y'. (Again, note that in the three-dimensional
coordinate system that I am using, the y-axis points upwards.)
The denominators of all fractions and many of other the factors in the above equations are constant,
and need to be calculated only once. For example, the complex looking denominator
cos2(7∘)⋅ sin(42∘)+cos(7∘)⋅ cos(42∘)cos2(7∘)⋅ sin⁡(42∘)+cos⁡(7∘)⋅ cos⁡(42∘) in one the fractions for the
NEN 2536 projection is a constant with the (approximate) value of 1.397.
A refinement of the above is to support some amount of relief. The calculation of the output
coordinates starts as before, only now the y-coordinate is an estimate, rather than a "known" value.
After calculating the x- and z-coordinates, you can look up the corresponding "height" value at the
position (x,z). Typically, they will not match with the y-coordinate that you guessed when calculating the
x- and z-coordinates. Now you can adjust you estimate of the y-coordinate and calculate the matching xand z-coordinates again. This iteration continues until the estimated y-coordinate (before calculating x
and z) comes close enough to the looked-up value (after calculating x and z).
The principal question in following this iterative procedure is: "does it converge?" Following intuition,
the procedure is considered to converge if no spot on the project surface obscures another location in
3D space. That is, if the slopes of the surface relief stays below the viewing angle (in the "view
direction"), every location on the map in 3D space has a unique "sibling" location in the axonometric
projection, which is visible from the view point.
In the above image, the viewing angle from the horizontal plane is 30 degrees and the steepest slope in
the view direction is approximately half of that. The figures with the wire-frame cubes in this article
show the angle at which you look on the plane (for the NEN 2536 isometric projection, it is 35° and for
the 1:2 projection used in most isometric games, it is 30°). If the slopes in your board stay below this
limit, the iterative procedure of calculating x and z given y and then adjusting y, until y does not change
any more, will converge.
If you have extreme relief, or overlapping "ground levels" such as bridges or buildings, I suggest that you
separate the projected map into parts that, themselves, adhere to the limitation of no steeper angles
than the viewing angle. These parts can be separate "layers" or "sprites" and you build the full map by
combining them. To calculate (x,y,z) from (x',y') you first decide on what layer/sprite the location (x',y') is
and then use the iterative procedure to find the values of x, y and z.
How to Draw in One Point and Two Point Perspective
To create the illusion of the 3rd dimension we need to understand how we see depth so that we can
recreate it convincingly. For more than 500 years artists have used a simple process for creating the
illusion of depth. That is perspective drawing. 3d games and programs employ this method, but until the
1990s most of this was done by hand by artists, illustrators, architects and mechanical draftsman. It is
the most important Key to understanding how to draw convincingly. Through understanding and
training in perspective as an artist, your imagination is expanded and you have the knowledge to draw,
distort and create anything you want, but I am getting ahead of myself so I will start with the most basic
ideas of perspective. Perspective starts with an understanding of a few basic concepts. Let’s have a look
at them.
Parallel Lines – In math, you may have been taught parallel lines never meet, but in perspective parallel
lines do meet at a vanishing point. Like if you have been on a long stretch of straight road. Far in the
distance, the road seems to come to a point. We call that a “vanishing point.”
Vanishing Point – A vanishing point is where parallel lines come together another word for that is
“converge.” The vanishing point, for now, will always be on the “horizon line.”
The Horizon line or The Eye Line– This is “the eye line” or other words the height of our eyes off the
ground. So if I was lying down looking at the horizon “the eye line” might be 6 inches off the ground. If I
was kneeling on the ground my eye line might be around 36″ off the ground and if I was standing “the
eye line” why do you keep saying “Eye Line” instead of the “Horizon Line”. Well if I am looking at the
horizon where the sky meets the earth my Eye Line and the Horizon Line is the same, but if I was in a
forest of tall trees and looked straight up. I wouldn’t see the horizon at all I would see the tops of the
trees and the sky no horizon at all. This would be a situation where the Horizon Line and the Eye Line
don’t meet up. So we always reference this as our Eye Line because it’s the relationship of our eyes to
the object that decides the perspective. Not
Right Angles or Perpendicular Angles – Perspective is all about breaking things down into squares and
boxes or cubes. That means we need nice straight corners. Those straight corners are 90 degrees we
refer to these types of angles as “Right Angles” or “Perpendicular Angles”, so since we are using boxes
or cubes we are always using 90-degree angles.
There are Different Kinds of Perspective
There are different types of perspective depending on how many vanishing points we are using. The
most common perspective that is employed by most by the artist is “One Point Perspective” and “Two
Point perspective.”
One Point Perspective– This is where all the parallel lines converge at One Point on the Horizon
Line/EyeLine. With one point we are seeing most of the front of the cube or box sometimes called the
“front face” of the cube. Below are the steps for creating boxes using One Point Perspective.
Two Point Perspective
Two Point Perspective – As the name implies this approach use 2 vanishing points on the
Horizon/Eyeline. The reason for this perspective is we are now looking at our box or cube from it’s
“corner” and not the ‘front face.” Instead of starting with a rectangle or square. We start with a
“straight Line” the “straight line” is the corner’s edge that is facing us. Below is how you develop boxes
in perspective.
This gets you familiar with the ideas on one an two-point perspective. If you would like to know more
about the steps of creating cubes and boxes visit youtube they have some great in-depth videos on the
basic steps of one and two-point perspective. Unfortunately, there aren’t a lot of great explanations on
youtube on how to use the perspective effectively in your drawing.
In my drawing and painting classes, we go in-depth into how to use perspective and unlock its power. If
you would like to learn more about how and why to use perspective sign up for a class today.
Architectural Rendering
Do you ever wonder what that vacant lot in your downtown would look like filled in with a building? Or
perhaps if that one story building near your office had a few extra floors above it? I do, and I often want
to show others what I’m visualizing in my head. I've considered taking a photo and sketching over the
top of it, but I’m not skilled at perspective drawing so the result would not look good it. Instead, I've
come up with some ways I can use the computer to do most of the work for me.
I went from an idea to a 3D rendering of a site in about 12 hours. I'm going to share what I went through,
since it'll be useful for anyone who wants to do 3D rending of their own projects. I’m not an architect,
artist, or trained in any of this. This is the layman’s guide to architectural rendering.
Sketching
The first step is to choose a site. The site I chose was a vacant lot that was 25 feet by 65 feet.
The next step is to come up with some basic measurements for the building - the number of floors, and
the height of each floor. I chose to do four stories that fits in with the scale of the area. I like 11 foot tall
ceilings and 1 foot interstitial space, so that’s 12 feet per floor. I noticed that the ground floor is slightly
higher on many of buildings, so I made the ground floor 2 feet higher (giving me an extra 2 feet to do a
decorative transition between the ground floor and the upper floors, as many buildings do.) I made the
roof slightly shorter (10 feet sounds like a nice round number.) Add these numbers together, and my
building from ground to rooftop would be 60 feet tall.
1. Do a rough sketch.
Let's grab a pencil and paper and sketch out the design of our building. You'll need to pick a scale to
draw at. The scale needs to be small enough to keep the entire image on the page, but big enough that
you have room to fill in the fine details. I was going to go metric, but I had a ruler with useful 1/32 inch
notches so I went with a scale of 1 inch : 8 feet.
The 25x60 foot front side of my building with guidelines dividing the floors and placement of the doors
and windows.
2. Add guidelines.
Knowing our scale and dimensions, we should sketch out some guidelines. Draw lines where the floors
are divided. I even added vertical lines where the columns of doors and windows will line up.
3. Add design elements.
Now it's time to go outside and look around at real buildings and copy the elements you like. Look at the
windows and doors. If it's a multi-story building, notice how there's often a transition between the
ground floor and the upper floors. Look at how those buildings deal with framing different elements and
dealing with corners.
As an unintended consequence, now everytime I see a building I am trying to look for patterns and
ratios in their elements to see how they answered the same questions I had to when I was sketching my
building
Use your ruler and guidelines to line things up so they are symmetric and balanced. Come up with
templates and common measurements you can reuse so there is consistency. For example, I noticed
many real buildings have ground floor windows that are twice as tall as they were wide, but the very top
is arched. I copied this for my ground floor windows. Remove the semi-circle at the top, and the window
has a ratio of 1:1.5. By reusing common ratios and measurements, we decrease the chance of things
looking out of place.
I noticed that many buildings I referenced were infilled with details of lions and floral patterns, but, I’m
not a good artist so I stuck with geometric patterns I could not get wrong with a ruler.
Front of my building done. (Sorry about the page being crumpled. Our cat kept attacking my sketches.)
4. Repeat for side views.
Now repeat for any side views. I'm fairly slow at this; each window took me a good 15 minutes to draw,
and by completing one side I had a fairly good idea of what the other side would look like because I'm
going to be reusing all of the same elements, so I decided to be lazy and not waste my weekend and just
place markers on the side view of where my elements would go.
I left out the detail on my sideview and instead just left guidelines where things would line up.
Modeling
It’s now time to turn this into a 3D model. I chose SketchUp because it’s free and easy to use. I have
dabbled in 3D modeling before, but only making basic shapes, so this is my first time making anything in
SketchUp. I found SketchUp very intuitive.
1. Model the front of the building.
Start by modeling just the front of the building first—recreating your front-view sketch in SketchUp. I
first started by using the pencil tool to draw a 25 foot line across the ground (you can get exact
measurements in SketchUp by starting to draw then typing in your measurement such as 25'), then a 14
foot line into the air. Loop it around (25 feet left, 14 feet down) and SketchUp fills in the shape with a
face. I repeated this for each of my floors until I had something that looked like my initial paper
guidelines.
Drawing the windows. Don't waste time building the same thing twice; just copy and paste each
element.
2. Add lines and design elements.
Once you have the blank front face of your building, use the pencil tool to recreate your sketch in 2D.
Having the sketch done on paper first should make this straight forward as you have the measurements
of all the lines you need to draw. The measuring tape is your best friend. It allows you to place
guidelines that the pencil will snap to without actually drawing lines you have to erase later.
Once you have a shape you can use the push/pull tool to add some depth. Only build one of each
element such as a window, and save yourself a lot of time by copy and pasting in the rest of them.
Watch a ton of YouTube videos if you want to learn how to do something (I watched videos of people
using the Arc and Follow Me tools to create balusters, like this one.)
Adding in detail. The measuring tape guidelines (dotted lines) are your friend.
When you actually see the result in 3D, you might find some things don't work as well as you thought it
did when you sketched it on paper. I changed the frame around the door once I saw how it looked in 3D.
The front side of the building is just about done!
4. Complete the sides of the building.
For the side of the building, draw a line starting from the bottom corner of your existing wall back into
the scene. Create guidelines for where everything should go. Filling in the side should be mostly copypaste-rotate.
My ground level wall is complicated so I cut it into pieces I could paste and snap together.
The finished model without any materials.
5. Apply materials.
It's now time to apply materials. Open the materials window and use the paint bucket tool to paint faces.
I used the built-in materials that come with SketchUp, but you can create custom materials by doing a
Google image search for '[material] seemless texture' and loading in the image. Painting the faces is
somewhat tedious. I regret not having the foresight to do this from the start when I could have copied
and pasted the windows with materials already applied, rather than going through and painting them
one by one.
Our fully painted building that is ready to go.
Rendering
SketchUp has a cool feature called Photo Matching (find it in the menu under Camera > Match New
Photo) that let's you import a real photo. You then line a few reference lines with straight lines in your
photo and SketchUp matches the perspective with that of the photo. This is where you can load in a
photo of where you'd like to see the building - in my case, the vacant lot.
Aligning my model with the photo. Notice the red and green reference lines.
My model imposed over the the vacant lot in the SketchUp editor.
SketchUp doesn't come with a renderer, other than what you see in the editor, which doesn't do
realistic shading or high-resolution exports. There are a ton of third party renderers out there that
integrate into SketchUp. I used Twilight Renderer as I found it worked out of the box without any
tweaking.
The final result. I replaced the sandstone texture with one slightly better than the stone material that
SketchUp comes with.
Conclusion
Sketching, modeling, and rendering a building is time consuming, and I'm definitely no professional (in
3D modeling or in architecture.) It took me about 12 hours from start to the finished result. But, the
process isn't complicated or difficult if you break it into easily maneagable steps. Anyone with the time
to spare can learn to draw and render architecture - whether it be to share their vision, sell a project, or
just for fun.
Presenting Effective Presentations with Visual Aids
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this discussion is to provide basic, comprehensive information to assist you in developing
effective presentations. The use of visual aids, coupled with good public speaking skills, work hand-inhand to create effective presentations. Your speaking style and stage presence are personal talents that
you can refine with much practice and experience. Each aspect of effective presentations, however,
could not be detailed in this discussion. Instead, much emphasis is given to visual aids which are
essential to all successful presentations.
DESIGNING THE PRESENTATION
There is no secret to developing an effective presentation. Establishing your objectives, planning and
organizing your material, and using appropriate visual aids are the essential ingredients. The recipe for
effective presentations calls for all three ingredients, and you must use them in the order in which they
are presented here. By establishing your objectives first, you can prepare material that supports each
objective. The use of visual aids will move you further along toward your objectives by illustrating and
emphasizing your ideas more effectively than words alone. Let's begin, then, at the beginning: As you
start to design your presentation, you must ask yourself, "What do I want to accomplish by making this
presentation?"
Establishing the Objectives
For any successful presentation, you must know your objectives. It is these objectives that drive your
presentation and move the audience to your end goals. Your end goals may be that the attendees take a
particular action, adopt a new perspective, or respond to facts and information. Establishing these goals
requires careful planning. The key to designing your presentation is determining these objectives. After
all, they become the foundation upon which your content, organization, and visual aids are built.
Establishing the objectives for your presentation requires an analysis of your own goals, as well as your
audience's needs and expectations. By considering the nature of your audience, you can more easily
determine what you will present and how you will present it. An audience analysis will enable you to:
Select appropriate points of emphasis in your presentation
Develop a useful level of detail
Choose and prepare appropriate visual aids
Create a tone that is sensitive to your audience's circumstance
Your presentation will ideally form a bridge between something you have and your audience wants. Let
the audience analysis influence the form of information presented so you can create this bridge.
Planning and Organizing Your Material
When you have determined the characteristics of your audience, then you are ready to plan and
organize your material. The tips listed below will assist you in tailoring your approach accordingly. Keep
in mind that the use of visual aids will help to produce effective one-way or two-way communication.
Many factors are involved in choosing these visual aids, and the type of interaction you want to develop
with the audience will influence your choice.
Planning Your Material
Do not wait to prepare your presentation while on you way to the training session. You cannot do your
best at presenting or persuading by "winging it."
At a minimum, prepare an outline of goals, major issues to be discussed, and information to be
presented to support main themes.
Limit content to your major point and no more than five key supporting points.
Analyze your audience. Prepare your content considering such things as whether they are likely to be
friendly or unfriendly, lay or technical in their background, and whether they want only to listen or to
respond and contribute.
Select appropriate visual aids and a presentation style that will be effective in the physical setting for
your training session.
Organizing Your Material
When organizing your material, consider an "old chestnut" of public speaking - "Tell 'em what you're
going to tell 'em; tell 'em; and tell 'em what you told 'em." This recommendation:
Recognizes the importance of reinforcement in adult learning
Completes the communication for the listener
Informs people who arrive late of what they missed
Recognizes the importance of organization, highlighting, and summarizing main points for the audience
Serves to clarify main themes for the audience at the end of the presentation
Using Visual Aids
Visual aids help your presentation make things happen. Visual aids help you reach your objectives by
providing emphasis to whatever is being said. Clear pictures multiply the audience's level of
understanding of the material presented, and they should be used to reinforce your message, clarify
points, and create excitement.
Visual aids involve your audience and require a change from one activity to another: from hearing to
seeing. When you use visual aids, their use tends to encourage gestures and movement on your part.
This extra movement reinforces the control that you, the speaker, need over the presentation. The use
of visual aids, then, are mutually beneficial to the audience and you.
Visual aids add impact and interest to a presentation. They enable you to appeal to more than one sense
at the same time, thereby increasing the audience's understanding and retention level. With pictures,
the concepts or ideas you present are no longer simply words - but words plus images. The chart below
cites the effectiveness of visual aids on audience retention.
People tend to eye-minded, and the impacts visual aids bring to a presentation are, indeed, significant.
The studies, below, reveal interesting statistics that support these findings:
In many studies, experimental psychologists and educators have found that retention of information
three days after a meeting or other event is six times greater when information is presented by visual
and oral means than when the information is presented by the spoken word alone.
Studies by educational researchers suggest that approximately 83% of human learning occurs visually,
and the remaining 17% through the other senses - 11% through hearing, 3.5% through smell, 1%
through taste, and 1.5% through touch.
The studies suggest that three days after an event, people retain 10% of what they heard from an oral
presentation, 35% from a visual presentation, and 65% from a visual and oral presentation.
The use of visual aids, then, is essential to all presentations. Without them, the impact of your
presentation may leave the audience shortly after the audience leaves you. By preparing a presentation
with visual aids that reinforce your main ideas, you will reach your audience far more effectively, and,
perhaps, continue to "touch" them long after the presentation ends.
ADDING THE VISUAL DIMENSION
Visuals add an important dimension to a presentation, and you, the speaker, must capitalize on this
dimension. It is critical that you prepare visual aids that reinforce your major points, stimulate your
audience, and work well in the physical setting of your presentation.
Visual aids and audio-visuals include a wide variety of communication products, including flip charts,
overhead transparencies, slides, audio-slide shows, and video tapes. Demonstrating a process or simply
passing around a sample of some equipment or model are also effective way to clarify messages visually.
If visual aids are poorly selected or inadequately done, they will distract from what you are saying. The
tips listed below will help you in the selection and preparation of visual aids.
Tips on Preparing Visual Aids
Start with at least a rough outline of the goal and major points of the presentation before selecting the
visual aid(s). For example, a particular scene or slides may trigger ideas for the presentation, providing
the power of images. Do not proceed too far without first determining what you want to accomplish,
what your audience wants to gain, and what the physical setting requires.
Each element of an audio-visual product - a single slide or a page of a flip chart presentation, for
example, - must be simple and contain only one message. Placing more than one message on a single
image confuses the audience and diminishes the potential impact of visual media. Keep visual aids BRIEF.
Determine the difference between what you will say and what the visual aid will show. Do not read
straight from your visuals.
Ask the audience to read or listen, not both; visual aids should not provide reading material while you
talk. Rather, use them to illustrate or highlight your points.
Give participants paper copies of various graphic aids used in your presentation. They will be able to
write on the paper copies and have them for future reference.
Assess your cost constraints. An overhead transparency presentation can always be used in a formal
environment if 35 mm slides are too expensive.
Account for production time in your planning and selection process. Slides must be developed,
videotape edited - you do not want to back yourself against a wall because the visuals are not ready.
You can often get production work done in 24-48 hours, but it is much more expensive than work that is
done on an extended schedule.
Use local photographs and examples when discussing general problems and issues. While a general
problem concerning welding safety, for example, may elude someone, illustrating with a system in use
at the site can bring the issue home.
Use charts and graphs to support the presentation of numerical information.
Develop sketches and drawings to convey various designs and plans.
When preparing graphics, make sure they are not too crowded in detail. Do no over-use color. See that
line detail, letters, and symbols are bold enough to be seen from the back of the room.
Do not use visual aids for persuasive statements, qualifying remarks, emotional appeals, or any type of
rhetorical statement.
If you have handouts, don't let them become a distraction during the presentation. They should provide
reinforcement following your address. Consider giving them out after the presentation, unless the
audience will use them during the presentation or will need to review them in advance of the
presentation.
Practice presenting the full program using graphic materials so you are familiar with their use and order.
If you use audio-visual materials, practice working with them and the equipment to get the timing down
right.
Seek feedback on the clarity of your visuals and do so early enough to allow yourself time to make
needed adjustments.
The question of what to use and how to choose is an excellent one. The next several pages will help you
answer this question by identifying the advantages and limitations of each type of visual, as well as the
development techniques required in preparing each. By looking at these pros and cons, you can more
easily decide what will work best for your presentation.
Flip Charts
Flip charts are quick, inexpensive visual aids for briefing small groups. The charts, felt-tip markers and
graphic materials are readily available, and with a modest ability at lettering, the presenters can
compose the desired visual aid in-house.
Flip Charts:
Help the speaker proceed through the material
Convey information
Provide the audience with something to look at in addition to the speaker
Can be prepared prior to, as well as during, the presentation
Demonstrate that the speaker has given thought to his or her remarks
Can be used to record audience questions and comments
Can be converted to slides
Limitations:
May require the use of graphics talent
Are not suitable for use in a large audience setting
May be difficult to transport
When Developing Flip Charts:
Each sheet of paper should contain one idea, sketch, or theme.
Words, charts, diagrams, and other symbols must be penned in a large enough size to be seen by people
farthest from the speaker.
In general, make each letter at least 1/32" high for each foot of distance from the material. For example,
a 1-inch letter is legible from 32 feet, and a 2-inch letter from 64 feet. Divide the distance from the back
of the room to the visual by 32 to determine the minimum size of letters.
Use block lettering, since it is easiest to read. Use all capital letters, and do not slant or italicize letters.
Use and vary the color. Also, check from a distance to make sure the color works well and is not
distracting.
Overhead Transparencies
Overhead transparencies are useful for audience settings of 20 to 50 people and can be produced
quickly, easily, and inexpensively. Any camera-ready artwork, whether word charts, illustrations, or
diagrams can be made into transparencies using standard office paper copiers.
Most manufacturers of paper copiers offer clear and colored acetate sheets that run through copying
machines like paper, but transfer a black image into acetate for use as overhead transparencies.
The standard transparency size is 8=" x 11''. The only piece of hardware required is an overhead
transparency projector.
Overlay transparencies provide a good cumulative presentation.
Speaker can use an overhead projector with significant light in the room, thereby enabling the speaker
to maintain eye contact with the audience.
Limitations:
The projected image size is sometimes too small to be seen from the back of a large room.
Often, the image does not sit square on the screen, as the head of the projector is tilted to increase the
size of the image.
It is difficult to write on the transparency while it is on the projector.
Sometimes the projector head gets in the audience's way.
Some speakers feel captive to the machine, because they must change each transparency by hand.
When Developing Overhead Transparencies:
To add color, simply cut a piece of colored acetate gel, available at art stores, to the shape and
dimensions needed to highlight a particular part of a transparency. The second (or third) color is taped
to the edges of the transparency with clear tape, or glued over an area with clear invisible adhesive such
as spray adhesive.
Permanent and/or water-soluble ink color marker pens are available for use in hand-coloring parts of an
overhead transparency.
Overhead transparencies can be developed during a presentation by marking on acetate sheets with
water-soluble or permanent transparency pens. The same approach can be used to add information to
existing transparencies. In both cases, a damp tissue can be used to wipe information off a transparency
that has been marked with water-soluble ink.
When removing a transparency from the machine during the presentation, slide the next immediately
underneath it to achieve a smooth transition. Don't leave the screen blank with the light on.
A 45-degree angle to the audience is the most effective location for an overhead projector and screen.
This provides for the least obstructed view. Ideally, set the projector on a table lower than the
surrounding tables or platforms to make it less imposing.
Transparencies with too much information - especially typed pages designed for a printed piece and
transferred to acetate - are confusing. Keep transparencies simple.
When typing words for transparencies, use bold typing elements such as HELVETICA and capitalize.
Consider making use of a laser printer that can produce good quality transparencies in a variety of bold
type styles. These printers, coupled with desktop or portable personal computers are widely available,
and prices have dropped significantly. The quality of type and variety of type styles make this a superior
option when compared with transparencies done on an office typewriter. If resources permit, color
printers are also available.
Posters
Posters are prepared graphic devices that can be made of a variety of materials and media photographs, diagrams, graphs, word messages, or a combination of these. Posters work best in smaller
audience sizes.
Posters are permanent and portable.
Posters can be simple or very elaborate.
Posters can be used alone or in a series to tell a story.
Limitations:
Posters tend to contain too much detail.
Transporting them can be difficult.
The more elaborate posters require extensive preparation and can be quite costly.
When preparing posters:
Each poster should contain one message or theme.
Words, charts, diagrams, and other symbols must be penned in a large enough size to be seen by
everyone in the room.
Use all capital letters, and do not slant or italicize letters.
Use and vary the color. Also, check from a distance to make sure the color works well and is not
distracting.
35 Millimeter Slides
35 mm slides enliven a presentation for virtually any size audience. They can project a professional
image, are relatively inexpensive to produce, and if necessary, can be produced quickly.
Slides have high credibility with audiences because viewers looking at photographic slides taken in the
field often feel that seeing is believing.
The only hardware required is a slide projector and a screen. Slide programs are easy to package in slide
trays.
Changes in slides or in their sequencing can be done rapidly to meet changing conditions or audiences.
Limitations:
Slides cannot be made using a photocopying machine. Therefore, they require more time and money to
produce than overhead transparencies.
The lights must be dimmed more for slides than for overhead transparencies.
Slides require a great deal of preparation and rehearsal.
When Developing a Slide Presentation:
Use the outline or text of your talk to note places for appropriate visuals.
The best slide programs often mix field photographs with slides of charts, graphs, and other supporting
images.
Catalog and categorize slides, and place a date, location, and other relevant information on each slide.
Vendors can make word slides and illustrations by computer, though they tend to be costly.
Audio-Slide Show
Audio-slide shows are self-contained programs having pre-recorded sound tracks that are coordinated
with slides by use of electronic synchronizers. The recording tape includes electronic signals that
activate a connected slide projector so that an image appears simultaneously with the appropriate voice
message, music or sound effects. Audio-slide programs can serve audiences ranging from a handful to a
couple of hundred people.
For a fraction of the cost of films, audio-slide programs can achieve many of the same program needs.
They can impart considerable information because color and a wide array of audio-techniques and visual
images can be used.
If multiple projectors are used with dissolve units that allow images to "fold" into one another, even a
sense of movement can be created.
They usually can be produces in-house, equipment is accessible, and they offer a presenter the flexibility
of changing slides to meet the needs of specific audiences.
Limitations:
Time must be allotted for developing script, sound-track, title and credit slides, visuals, and for
production.
Each presentation requires securing and assembling proper equipment synchronizer, tape recorder,
projector(s), screen(s).
Good maintenance must be given to slides so that a warped slide doesn't malfunction and throw off an
entire presentation.
When Developing a Program:
Identify all components to the program and possible resources to assist in developing these components
(e.g., photo lab, recording studio, slide library, graphic artists, a person who has prepared similar
programs).
Make an initial contact with resource personnel to see what services they can provide, time frames and
their scheduling requirements.
Develop a tentative production schedule.
Prepare a script or a story board and carry this script with you.
Photograph or borrow slides of scenes that emphasize your points. Also, gather charts, drawings, books,
or other resource materials pertinent to the subject which may be photographed or reproduced
graphically as slides.
Keep images to one message per frame.
Test-run the slide-tape show with enough time to replace slides that are unclear.
Secure permission to use commercial or otherwise copyrighted music or material.
Keep credit slides to a minimum and use simple design for clarity.
Videotape
Videotape electronically carries both a picture and a sound track. Its features of sound, movement, vivid
image, color, and variety hold an audience's attention the way film does. Videotape can be used to
program an entire presentation, or to support a speaker's remarks by highlighting certain topics.
Limitations:
Videotape productions can be expensive to create and require experienced production teams.
In large meetings, the audience may not be able to see the monitor. (If resources permit, video
projectors are available.)
When Developing Videotape:
Practicing with the equipment by filming, as well as showing, is the best way to overcome hesitancies
about its use.
To cover the basics if you are brand new to video use, budget yourself a one hour session with an
experienced video producer, whether amateur or professional. University extension programs and the
local cable T.V. station are good places to check for a no-cost session. Discuss your ideas. Your budget
will determine whether you should tape on your own or have a professional make the videotape.
Composing and editing a 15-minute video production can easily consume dozens of hours whether you
do all of the work or contract to have part of it done. In order for this kind of investment to pay off, it
usually means that the final product should be viewed by a large audience or multiple audiences.
Consider the facilities available before choosing to use videotape.
TESTING THE DESIGN OF YOUR PRESENTATION
When you have prepared the visuals you want to use in your presentation, you must practice using
them. Do a practice run in full, preferably with someone you know well and with someone you do not
know well. Alternatively, use a video or audio tape recorder, or a mirror.
If you are making a group presentation, do a complete practice run in full. A practice run will ensure that
each presentation builds on the previous one and that all the points are covered. These colleagues can
also provide valuable feedback. The tips below will help you make the most out of your practice runs:
Seek feedback at the point when you have your material well organized but not committed to memory.
This will enable any needed changes to be incorporated easily.
This feedback should include an evaluation of the presentation's length, logic, clarity, and interest level;
the speaker's rate of delivery, voice level, and conversational pattern; and the usefulness of the visual
aids.
Once you are satisfied with the content of your presentation, make sure that the technical supports are
in place or lined up:
Check with the meeting organizer to make sure the equipment you need will be there.
If at all possible, arrive at the location of your presentation an hour early to check your equipment and
room arrangements. Practice using your visuals with the equipment provided. Make sure that you know
where the on/off switch is and make arrangements to have the lights dimmed, if necessary.
Rehearsal is a fundamental step in developing and refining effective presentations. Practicing your
presentation and working closely with the meeting organizer to secure the necessary technical supports
will assist you in making a smooth performance.
Printable Cover Page Templates
1.
Project cover pages
A cover page plays a vital role in the representation of the project. The cover page is usually used to
indicate what you have included in the project. It includes very precise details that can only give an idea
of the area project has covered and some other necessary details.
The cover page is attached with the project before sending it to the recipient. The cover page should be
designed in an attractive way so that it can compel the reader to go through the entire project before
making the final decision.
Assignment cover pages
It is the desire of every student to make an assignment that can stand out. An assignment created in an
impressive way will get more marks. The person who will check the assignment should be given the
reason to read the whole assignment so that he can give it good grades.
Just like any other cover page, the cover page of assignment should also be eye-catching. The student
should add his name, registration number, the topic of the assignment, contents of the assignment and
some other details on the cover page.
Report cover pages
A cover page of the report is the first page you will see. The purpose of the cover page is to give the
reader a clear idea about what has been included in the report. There is a specific title given to the
report, the name of the author, date of report submission and lots of other details which are able to
answer many questions arising in the mind of the reader.
Sometimes, the reader does not want to spend his time reading the entire report. Such readers focus on
the cover page and get a clear idea about the report.
Book cover pages
A book cover page is the first page you see after you open the book. The book cover holds important
information about the book such as the title, the name of the author, date of book publishing, contents
of the book and a lot more. A book is usually judged by its cover page.
Many people design a very attractive cover page in order to increase the sales of the book. You can add
some additional details after evaluating what is important for the reader. Make sure that the content of
the cover page and the design are congruent to each other.
Cover page templates
Since the cover page is required to be very attractive and catchy, everybody desires to have a unique
and good looking cover page. If you don’t like any of the cover pages available to you, you can design
your own with the help of cover page template.
The cover page template enables you to get the cover page that represents the content in it. Moreover,
the easy to customize feature of the template allows the user to design it the way he wants.
The template of cover pages should be chosen according to the content it is covering. For example, the
cover page of the book should not be like the report cover page.
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