Chapter 3.
Theoretical Frameworks
about Culture and Cultural
Responsiveness
• Self-Study Quizzes: Short quizzes are associated with each unit.
These quizzes will not be graded, and I will not see them. They are for
your own study, are not required, and can be taken or not at your
own discretion.
• REFERENCES: Part of being a professional is being able to provide
evidence for your ideas. When turning in any paper/any assignment,
you should provide in-text citations and a reference list.
• In text citations are citations embedded in a sentence or paragraph, e.g.,
Culture is dynamic (Hyter, 2017).
• Reference list are the collection of sources cited presented at the end of the
paper
• In-text and bibliographic references must be presented in APA 7th edition
formatting
Theory
• Everyone is already a “theorist”
• We all have our own beliefs and opinions about the world and how it works
(Gramsci, 1971; Jones, Bradbury, & Le Boutillier, 2011).
• For example, a behavioral theorist may have the belief that all learning is
due to behavioral responses to rewards and/or punishments in our
environment.
OR
• A social development theorist (Vygotsky, 1978) believes that child
development and cognition are dependent on social interactions between
learners (e.g., a child) and a more experienced/knowledgeable
communication partner (e.g., parents, siblings, teachers, clinicians, etc.)
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Social Theory
• Social theory, according to Harrington (2005) includes “how societies
change, how social behavior is organized,” and about roles that social
structures play in the world.
• Think school of thoughts or intellectual ideas.
• Social theories attempt to describe the links that exist between social structures in
a society (i.e., Totality)
• Social theories help explain social events and behaviors.
• Social structures include:
• Economics (i.e., access of to and control of resources)
• Politics (i.e., relations of power)
• State control (i.e., military and the state’s arm of coercion such as the judicial
system)
• Culture (i.e., assumptions and beliefs that drive daily practice).
• Culture includes race, gender identity, and family and religious structures.
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Social Theory continued…
• Social theory is not an opinion or uncritical judgements about social
reality.
• This differs from ideology, which Brookfield (2012) and Verschueren (2012)
define as an unquestioned assumptions or unexamined beliefs about the way
the world works.
• Ideology leads to widespread ideas of what is “normal” (i.e., common sense).
• The idea of what is “normal” is subjective in nature and may be different amongst different
levels of power.
• Being aware and knowledgeable about social theories is useful since
much of our existence and communication as humans is social.
• This knowledge will help us provide services in a culturally responsive
manner.
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Components of a Theory
• I. The conceptual framework
• Consists of concepts, their definitions, and how they are related to each
other.
• Is like a cognitive map that serves as a guide for decision making
• Concepts are ideas expressed in words (e.g., “Play” and “Gender”) and are
defined in a specific manner that connect to the premises of the theory.
• II. Premises
• Premises are statements on which some belief is based (e.g., if statement one
is true then the conclusion is also true).
• Premises are not assumptions.
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Four Theoretical Paradigms (AKA Social
Theories)
• Positivism
• Interpretivism
• Critical perspectives
• Postmodernism
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Positivism
• Often considered “real science” or the only legitimate form of science.
• The premises of positivism include:
1) Things in the world exist separately from perceptions of those things.
2) “Science” is the use of “objective” practices to discover what exists in the world
(Monette, Sullivan, & DeJong, 2011).
3) Knowledge is observable, measurable and value free.
• Positivism believe that what people are observed to do is ultimately more
important and more telling than what they think, believe, or desire.
Example of a Positivist thought: “A student can learn about people who stutter by
observing what people who stutter do.”
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Interpretivism
• Interpretivism refers to several types of social theories which include:
•
•
•
•
•
Ethnography
Ethnomethodology
Hermeneutics
Phenomenology
Symbolic Interactionism
• These theories approach scientific inquiry from an inductive process
• The premises of Interpretivism include:
1)
2)
3)
Cultural and historical bases for how the world operates (Dillon, 2010; Neuman, 2003; 2006)
That humans “attach subjective meaning” to behaviors, interactions, and communicative acts
(Dillon, 2010, p. 118)
That reality is based on how people perceive it (Monette et al., 2011)
Example of an interpretivist thought: “If I want to learn more about my client with cerebral
palsy and their family, I will conduct an ethnographic interview to learn about the challenges
my client and her/his family face in their daily life. I will find out what is important for me to
know about my unique client and their family, and how my client’s disability shapes their world.
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Critical Perspectives
• Critical Social theories are used to examine and understand reality
within:
•
•
•
•
Historical Contexts
Economic Contexts
Political Contexts
Cultural Contexts
• Examples of Critical Social theories include:
• Marxism, Anarchism, Structural Marxism, Cultural or Western Marxism,
Radical Feminism, etc.
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Critical Perspectives continued…
• Premises of Cultural Perspectives include:
1) Reality is continually changing (Dynamic, NOT static)
2) Reality is based on conflicting interests and unequal distributions of power, which
manifest as unequal distributions of capital (money), resources, land, and property
3) Critical and dialectal thinking (see earlier slides for definitions) are repressed by
cultural institutions such as media and schooling, and by the arms of the state,
such as the law, police, and military (Herman & Chomsky, 2002; Dillon, 2010;
Marcuse, 2012)
Example of a Critical Perspective thought: “If I want to find out why local children with
disabilities are unable to attend services at the local clinic, I must find out what problems these
children and their families are faced with living in the city (i.e., transportation, access to
internet/phone, impoverishment, etc.) If I can find out the troubles clients are facing, can I work
with someone in the community and improve potential client attendance to the clinic?”
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Postmodernism
• Postmodernism refer to the a category of antifoundational theories
that go against foundational ideas.
• These theories focus on deconstructing most aspects of Western thinking and
science that occurred after the 18th century. Postmodernists do not agree
with grand narratives because they are told based on assumptions and values
of one group at the expense of other groups.
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Meaning of Illness, Disease, and Disability
• Cultures are unique in that they may have beliefs, values,
assumptions, and world views about what “health, wellness, and
disabilities” (Hyter, 2014)
• This also assumes that these beliefs can also influence how people view
diagnosis and treatment of communication disorders (Kleinman & Benson,
2006).
• Do you believe “stuttering” is viewed as a disorder in every culture? What are
your beliefs, premises, and assumptions about people who stutter? Discuss
with a classmate.
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The Tip of the Iceberg
• Ting-Toomey (1999) use an iceberg as a way to view culture.
• There are many things that can be seen above the waters surface (i.e., culture
artifacts such as hair styles, jewelry, and music preference)
• Below the surface is the underlying beliefs, values, and assumptions that
drive the visible aspects of a culture.
• Also includes human needs such as the need for safety, inclusion, dignity, recognition,
connections, meaning, creativity, and well-being.
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Hofstede’s Dimensions of Culture
• According to Hofstede there are six dimensions of culture:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
Power Distance
Uncertainty-Avoidance
Individualism-Collectivism
Masculinity-Femininity
Time Orientation
Indulgence-Restraint
• The six cultural dimensions occur on a continuum!
• Caution: avoid generalizing cultures. Cultural groups are NOT
homogeneous (i.e., all the same). Some members of the same
cultural group will have similar and different beliefs and values.
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Power Distance
• Refers to the extent which people in a cultural group believe that
there should be unequal relations and distributions of power in their
society, and whether institutions and/or people in power should be
contested or accepted (Hofstede, 2010, 2011) Cultural groups who
fall on the small power distance of the continuum will work to
minimize inequalities and believe that it is appropriate to contest or
challenge people and systems in power (KEY WORD FOR NEXT
CHAPTER = Equity)
• Cultural groups who fall on the larger power distance of the continuum will
be less likely to question people perceived as having authority, and may
believe that it is “natural” for there to be stratifications in a society, and
therefore will necessarily question them.
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Uncertainty - Avoidance
• Refers to how comfortable a culture is with unstructured contexts
and uncertain outcomes (Hofstede, 2011).
• Cultures with strong uncertainty avoidance may attempt to prevent
uncertainty by enacting laws and rules that outline specific ways to behave,
and these societies are often resistant to change.
• Cultures with weak uncertainty avoidance may see ambiguity as a natural
part of life and exhibit a high tolerance for unpredictability. These cultures
may be viewed as more “laid back,” and “relaxed.”
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Individualism - Collectivism
• Refers to how members of a cultural group see themselves as
individuals and independent, or as part of a larger collective group
(Hofstede, 2011)
• Cultures that are closer to the individualistic end of the continuum value
independence, see themselves as being accountable for their decisions, and
to make their own decisions individually.
• Cultures that are closer to the collectivistic end of the continuum see
themselves as part of a larger society and are accountable to that society.
These cultures may exhibit “unquestioning loyalty” from family (Hofstede,
2011)
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Masculinity - Femininity
• Refers to the types of gender characteristics that are valued
predominantly within a society or cultural group.
• Masculine features include assertiveness, competitiveness, and the
preference of facts over feelings.
• Feminine features include modesty, sensitivity, and caring for others.
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Long Term Orientation - Short Term
Orientation
• Refers to how people think about goals and challenges.
• Groups with short-term orientation hold on to traditions and have the
tendency to perceive changes in society as problematic or disconcerting.
Tend to focus on past and present events or issues.
• Groups with long-term orientation are inclined to adapt to changing society,
be persistent, and have an outlook in life that focuses on preparation for the
future.
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Indulgence - Restraint
• Refers to how groups control or delay desires or happiness.
• Groups on the indulgent end of the continuum will more frequently engage in
enjoyable pleasures than groups on the restraint end of the continuum. Focus
on individual gratification, personal freedom, and the importance of leisure
time.
• Groups on the restraint end of the continuum delay social pleasures, which
are often managed through social norms, and where self-gratification, and
personal freedoms are not as highly valued.
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Models from Speech, Language and Hearing
Sciences
• The VISON Model (Bellon-Harn & Garrett, 2008)
• Horton-Ikard and colleague’s (2009) Pedagogical Framework
• Salas-Provance’s (2012) Hierarchical Model of Cultural Knowledge
• Hyter’s (2014) Conceptual Framework for Globally and Culturally
Responsive service.
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The VISION Model (Bellon-Harn & Garrett,
2008)
• For SLPs working in family partnerships. Comprised of six
components:
V= Values and belief systems.
I= Interpretation of experiences
S= Structured relationship between the professional and family
I= Interaction style that is preferred by the family and by the clinician.
O= Operational strategies on how goals will be carried out.
N= Need (perceived) for outcomes agreed upon by the family, client, and
professional
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Horton-Ikard and Colleagues (2009)
Pedagogical Framework
• A framework for teaching a multicultural course in communication
sciences and disorders.
• Focused on awareness, knowledge, and skills.
• Components include:
• Cultural awareness: which include self-awareness, examination of personal biases,
and awareness of diverse worldviews. Knowledge of one’s own cultural values,
beliefs and assumptions is an important first step in learning to become more
culturally responsive.
• Acquiring knowledge: learning about “theoretical perspectives, research
frameworks, ASHA position papers, and the assessment and treatment literature”
addressing practice with populations from diverse cultural and linguistic
backgrounds (Horton-Ikard et al., 2009)
• Skill development: developing the ability to differentiate cultural communicative
differences from disorders
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Salas-Provance’s (2010) Hierarchy of Cultural
Knowledge
• A model to organize knowledge and move systematically from basic levels
of knowledge of cultural stereotypes to an advanced level of knowledge of
cultural value. Levels include:
• The stereotypical level: this level is influenced by limited information of cultures
based on media which include overgeneralizations of an individual trait to an entire
group.
• The peripheral stage: The information we receive about individuals from cultures is
limited to our own personal experiences.
• The event stage: having an appreciation of other ethnic groups and their culture, but
not a deep understanding. We may attend or participate in a major holiday or event
of another culture and enjoy the even, but not understand. The stage that most
well-meaning individuals remain.
• The value stage: the highest level of cultural responsiveness. This stage values the
diversity of clients and makes a commitment to expanding their knowledge through
additional training or readings.
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Developing Knowledge and Skills for Serving
Diverse Clients
• Knowledge and skills are best acquired through a combination of
education and direct experience.
• It is important to remember that members of some cultures may
have more differences than similarities even within the same group.
• With this idea in mind, we must consider EACH client as a unique individual
who will have their own se of beliefs and behaviors in the clinical and/or
educational process.
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Hyter’s (2014) Conceptual Framework for
Responsive Global Engagement
• Based of a critical social science perspective.
• A conceptual framework for providing responsive services in a
culturally diverse and globalized world.
• Emphasizes the importance of approaching speech, language and
hearing services from a macro level perspective, incorporating a focus
on policies and practices and other contextual factors that affect
communication outcomes.
• Having a conceptual framework (map) that helps guide responsive services.
• A conceptual framework = theoretical position + concepts associated with
your personal stance. The framework will help to guide decisions and
practices.
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References
Brookfield, S. (2012). Teaching for critical thinking: Tools and techniques to help students question
their
assumptions. San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Dillon, M. (2010). Introduction to sociological theory: Theorists,
concepts, and their applicability to the twenty first century. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing.
Harrington, A. (2005). Modern social theory: An introduction. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Herman, E. S., & Chomsky, N. (2002). Manufacturing consent: The political economy of mass media.
New York: Pantheon Books.
Hofstede, G. (2010). The GLOBE debate: Back to relevance. Journal of International Business
Studies, 41(8), 1339 – 1346.
Hofstede, G. (2011). Dimensionalizing cultures: The Hofstede model in Context. Psychology and
Culture, 2(1). Retrieved on 12 December from http://dx.doi.org/10.9707/2307-0919.1014.
Horton-Ikard, R., Munoz, M. L., Thomas-Tate, S., & Keller-Bell, Y. (2009). Establishing a pedagogical
framework for the multicultural course in communication sciences and disorders. American
Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 18, 192 – 206.
Hyter, Y. D. (2014). A conceptual framework for responsive global engagement in communication sciences and
disorders. Topics in Language Disorders, 34(2), 103 – 120.
Culturally Responsive Practices in Speech,
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References
Jones, P., Bradbury, L., & Le Boutillier, S. (2011). Introducing social theory (2nd ed.). Cambridge:
Polity
Monette, D. R., Sullivan, T. J., & DeJong, C. R. (2011). Applied social research: A tool for the human
services. Eighth edition. Australia: Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning.
Salas-Provance, M. (2010). Hierarchy of cultural knowledge. Unpublished document.
University.
Ting-Toomey, S., & Chung, L. C. (2012). Understanding intercultural communication. Oxford,
UK: Oxford University Press.
Verschueren, J. (2012). Ideology in language use: Pragmatic guidelines for empirical
research. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
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