Объектом изучения лексикологии как науки о языке является слова и словарный состав языка. В
курс лекции по лексикологии включается учение об устойчивых словосочетаниях,
фразеологической системе языка. Основное внимание в курсе лексикологии уделяется раскрытию
основных факторов и закономерностей развития слова и фразеологической единицы, лексической
и фразеологической систем языка, категориальных признаков слова и фразеологической единицы,
особенности структуры и семантики слова фразеологической единицы. К основным задачам курса
по лексикологии относится также выявления характера системной организации лексики и
фразеологии, рассмотрение основных путей и способов развития словарного и фразеологического
состава языка, правил семантической и речевой манифестации единиц лексики и фразеологии,
социальной обусловленности развития и дифференциации словаря и т.д.
Методической
основой курса лексикологии является понимание языка как системно-структурного образования,
универсального
средства
коммуникации,
необходимости
конкретно-исторического,
функционального, страноведческо-культурологического подхода к анализу форм существования и
функционирования языка.
Lecture No
The Subject and Parts of Lexicology
Lexicology comes from Greek words lexis-word and logos –science. Lexicology is the part of
Linguistics, which studies the word and vocabulary of the language. The vocabulary of the language is a
totality of all existed words and equivalents.
Equivalent of the word is the existence of all stable combinations or set expressions, which are
made over again but are brought into speech in ready forms. Lexicology is divided into several parts:
General Lexicology and Private Lexicology. General Lexicology studies the word-stock of several
languages in comparison. Private Lexicology studies one separate language.
Lexicology is divided into 1. Historical Lexicology and Descriptive Lexicology. Historical
Lexicology studies the origin and the development of the vocabulary structure. Descriptive Lexicology
studies the lexis of the contemporary language of the given historical stage in all its originality, which
differs English from all other languages.
Lexicology has two ways of methods of investigation: 1. Synchronical 2. Diachronical.
The study and description of the language system at the different stage of its development is called the
synchronical study. The study of the historical development of the elements of the language system is
called the diachronical study.
The examination of the vocabulary of the language as the system, which is characterized by its
special features and developing this system in time includes the description of the different types of words
and ways of their formation, description of word equivalents, the fate of the loans and their role in the
enrichment of the vocabulary.
The examination of the vocabulary also includes the analysis of the different lexical groups and
layers in the contemporary language such as bookish, terms, conversational, slangs, neologism, at last the
semantical relations between the words.
The task of Lexicology
The task of Lexicology of contemporary English are to determine the definite facts on the basis of
the deep and detailed investigation of the concrete data of the language. It means to give the general
characteristics of the Modern State of the word-stock, its peculiarities and models, to show the productive
and non-productive types and means of word building, to establish the systematic character of the English
lexis is closely connected with the mentality. The mentality develops together with the society. That's
why the lexis must be studied together with the history of the society. Each word of the language is the
reflection of a small part of the reality. It isn't possible to understand the changes is the vocabulary, if one
doesn't know changes in the social life, culture, science, everyday life, which are reflected in the
language.
Lexicology also studies the Linguistics links. All the words in the language are connected
between themselves and with other sides of the language by the numeral links. And those links exist as
one unite. It is a lexical system of the language. Usually the new facts of the language cause the
redistribution of the meaning of the words. That's why the words can't be studied as single and
independent from each other elements. The main methodological principles are to investigate the lexics of
the English language in its national originality, in its development, dependence with history of the
English language and English people. The determinant of reasons of every lexical phenomena, its place in
the language system and demonstration of the objective laws are the tasks of Lexicology as well. As the
vocabulary of the language exists and eventually develops in time, there are always new, old, typical
phenomena for a certain epoch. That’s why the synchronical description must be done in connection with
the diachronical one. It means to investigate the evolution of the whole lexical system and its tendencies
to the further changes.
Grammar and Lexicology
Grammar and Lexicology are especially closely connected in the sphere of word-building. All the
changes in the vocabulary take place in the accordance with the peculiarities of the grammatical structure
of the given language. Thus, the analytical structure of the English language leads to the strong
development of the conversion, compound parts of the speech and idioms. For the formation of the new
words with the new meanings the language uses just the same ways as for the grammatical forms, by
joining morphemes and changing root vowels joining the words to each other.
Joining to word: power will + power – compound word (lexical joining).
Will + work – grammatical form appears. It is used for the Future Tense. New
form of the same word.
Joining morphemes: power + full – new meaning, derived word (lexical joining)
Lexicology is closely connected with such sciences as Stylistics and the History of the English
Language.
Lecture No
Phraseology
Plan
1.Free combinations and set expressions
2.Direct set expressions phraseological units
3.Classification of phraseological units
4.Ways of appearance of idioms
5. Proverb and sayings
1.Free combinations and set expressions
The enrichment of the word-stock of any language takes place not only by appearance of the new
words, but also by new set expressions.
Expressions is a unit of no less than two words with full meaning, which are organized according
to the laws of the given language and expression one meaning. The expression may be free and set, the
difference is seen in the examples.
'She took several books' and 'She was taken aback'
In the first case the verb 'to take' is in free expression with the object, in the second case the verb has
change greatly its semantics under the influence of the second element and they both are used in one and
the same compositions they are not varied in the sentence and are put in the sentence as the words being
ready. For example, the verb 'to take' forms several expressions of the kind: to take into account, to take
advantage of, to take notice of, to take part in, to take one's heels, to take into one's head, to take things
easily, etc.
In all these expressions the semantical links between the elements are so close that their meaning
changes and becomes phraseologically. The phraseologically fixed meaning is derived from the basic one
and differs from it. The set expression is equivalent to one word in the speech and can be a synonym to it.
To take part – to participate, to take aback – to amaze. To set expression like the word can only be one
part of the sentence. 'He took to his heels' / He-subject, took to his heels – predicate/.
2.Direct set expressions phraseological units
The direct set expressions are used without the emotional expressiveness, they do not show the
speaker's attitude to the object of speech, and they are often the only name for the expressed notion.
The most investigated expressions are substantive and verbal. For example, deportment store,
health resort, high school, labour productivity, reading hall, mineral resources, point of view. Some term
like Milky Way, the Middle Ages, the House of Commons. Sometimes they are the equivalents to these
expressions made by the ellipsis – Zoological garden – zoo, motor car – car, telephone receiver –
receiver. The difference between the synonyms is stylistic; the short variant is used in informal style.
The verbal set expressions: ’to take place, to give a look, to have a smoke, to take advantage of’
are characterized by the weakening of the lexical meaning of the verb. Most of them have one-word
synonyms (to take part-to participate). But there are such expressions that are the only way to express the
notion – to catch cold.
Phraseological units differ from the direct set expressions by the emotional and stylistic colouring.
They have not only naming but also the evaluation function, expressing the speaker’s attitude to the
objects of speech.
The brightest examples of such usage are the expressions ’to take to one’s heels’, ’to take into
one’s head’, when the ironical attitude and the belonging to the colloquial speech and clearly seen.
3.Classification of phraseological units
Phraseological unit is a complex phenomenon with a number of important features, which can be
approached from different point of view. The exist a considerable number of different classification
system, suggested by different scholars and based on different principles.
The traditional and the oldest principle for classifying of phraseological units is based on their
original content and might be considered as ’thematic’. The approach is widely used in numerous guides
to idioms, phrase books, etc. In his classification depending on their sours of origin sphere of human
activity, of life, of nature, of natural phenomena etc. In his classification Smith gives groups of idioms,
used by sailors, fishermen, soldiers, which are associate with the conditions of their occupation. He
points out that word-groups associated with the sea are especially numerous. Most of them has developed
metaphorical meaning which have no longer any association with the sea.
’To be all sea’ – to be unable to understand; to sing or swim – to fail or succeed; to deep water –
in in trouble or danger; in low water (on the rock) – in strained financial circumstances; to under false
colours – to pretend to be what one is not; to show one’s colours – to betray one’s real character or
intentions; to weather the storm – to overcome adventures; three sheets in the wind – very drunk.
Vinogradov’s classification system is based on the degree of semantic cohesion between the
components of a phraseological unit. Unit with a partially transferred meaning show the weakest cohesion
between components, the more distance the meaning of a phraseological unit from the current meaning of
its constituent parts, the greater is its degree of semantic cohesion. Vinogradov classifies phraseological
units into three classes: phraseological combination, unities and fusions.
Phraseological combinations are word group with a partially changed meaning. They may be said
to be clearly motivated, i.e. the meaning of the unit can be easily deduced from the meaning of its
constituents, for example ’to be good at something’, ’to take something for granted’, ’to stick to one’s
word’.
Phraseological unites are word groups with a completely changed meaning, i.e. the meaning of
the unit doesn’t correspond to the meaning of its parts, for example ’to lose one’s head’, ’to lose one’s
heart to somebody’, ’to look gift horse in the mouth’, ’a fish out of water’.
Phraseological fusions are word-groups with a completely changed meaning, but in contrast to
the unites they are demotivated, i.e. their meaning can’t be deduced from the meaning of its parts: the
metaphor on which the shift of meaning was based has lost its clarity and is obscure. Example, ’neck and
crop’ (entirely altogether), ’at sixes and sevens’ (in confusion or disagreement), ’a fishy story ’
(выдумка), ’a mare’s nest’ (вздор), ’to set one’s cap at somebody’ (to try ant attract a man)(spoken about
girls and women), ’to show to the white feather’ (to betray one’s cowardice (kauadis трусость)).
This classification system doesn’t take into account the structural characteristics of phraseological
units. The structural classification is based on the ability of phraseological units to perform the same
syntactical functions as words. There are only following principal groups:
a.
Verbal - ’to take through one’s hat’, ’to make a song and dance about something’
b.
Noun - ’dog’s life. Cat-and-dog life’
c.
Adjectival – ’safe and sound’, ’spick and span’.
d.
Adverbial - ’by hook or by crook’, ’in cold blood’.
4.Ways of appearance of idioms
Phraseological units appear from free expressions which in the result of long and often use are
fixed in the language as equivalents of the words in their figurative meaning.
Phraseological units can appear in different spheres of communication and then are transferred
from special lexis to the general speech they may appear from technics: ’to blow off steam’ – выпустить
пар, дать выход своим чувством; agriculture - ’to sow one’s wild oats’, ’to put the plough before the
oxen’, ’to get somebody’s goal’, to die in harness’, ’navy affair’, ’to be in low waters’, ’to run into into
difficulties’, ’to hoist sail’, ’to make sail’, ’to see land’; trade ’to talk shop’, ’to have all one’s goods in
the shop’, ’to make the best of the bargain’, ’best seller’, ’ sports and hunting’, ’as hungry as a hunter
(wolf) ’, ’to back the wrong horse’, ’that cock won’t fight’, ’to hit below the belt’.
There are a lot of idioms that appear from many professional spheres. Most of them are of
historical origin. They demand commentaries for the learners of the English language, for example, ’by
hook or by crook’, ’to win one’s spurs’, ’peeping Tom’, ’to be out of scalps’.
A lot of idioms take their beginning in the literature and especially in Shakespeare’s works: as
good as one’s word’, ’to make assurance double sure’, ’ marriage of true minds’
A great number of international idioms exist besides the special national- coloured
phraseological units. They have penetrated to the Modern European languages from the Geek and
Latin classics works and are based on the mythology: ’without fear and without reproach’, ’to
take the bulls by horns’, ’Procruster’s bed’, ’the apple of discord’
There are f lot of Latin,French, Italian and other phrases that came into the language without
the translation, but with some changes in spelling , Latin-vice versa , viva voce , bona Fides , there are
some idioms from the Bible- ’the tower of Babel’, ’ Jude’s kiss’,
5. Proverb and sayings
The proverbs are closely connected with phraseology, but they are different from the
phraseological units. The first distinctive feature is the obvious structural dissimilarity. Phraseological
units are a kind of ready-made blocks, which fit into the structure of a sentence performing a certain
syntactical function more or less words do. For example, George liked him for he never put on airs
(predicate). Proverbs if viewed in their in the structural aspect are sentences and so can’t be used in the
way in which phraseological units in the semantic aspect the difference seems to become more obvious.
Proverbs would be best compared with minute fables, for like the latter they sum up the collective
experience of the community. They moralize (’Hell is paved with good intentions’): give advice (’Don’t
judge a tree by its park’): give warning (’If you sing before breakfast, you’ll cry before night’): criticize
(’everyone calls his own geese swans’).
No phraseological unit ever does only of these things. They don’t stand from a whole statement as
proverbs do, but for a single concept. Their function in speech is purely to nominate. The function of
proverbs in speech is communicative, i.e. they impart certain information.
The sayings are called the characteristics expressions, which have come to the language from
literary works. They differ from the proverbs by their literary not folk origin: for example, ’stony limits
hold love out’ (Shakespeare). ’So said-so done’(Shakespeare). ’Truth is always strange, stranger them
fiction’ (Byron).
Lecture No
Phraseological
Word-groups with transferred meanings.
Phraseological units or idioms are the most interesting part of the language's vocabulary. Let's
remind only 'dark horses', 'white elephants', 'bulls in china shops', 'to wear one's heart in one's sleeves'
(душа нараспашку), or in my mouth or even in my boots (душа в пятки ушла), and you may find our
that the leading component of the idiom is expressed by the verb or a noun.
We can state that word-groups or phraseological units are characterized by double sense: the
current meaning of constituent words build up a certain picture, but the actual meaning of the whole unit
has little to do with that picture, in itself creating an entirely new image.
Who is a 'dark horse'?
Who is a 'bull in the china shop'?
A 'white elephant' is a very valuable thing.
The green-eyed monster-jealousy. This images was taken from Shakespeare's Othello.
'To let the cat out of the bag' – to let some secret become known.
'To bark up the wrong tree' – but the meaning is to look for somebody or something in a wrong
place; to expect from somebody what he is unlikely to do.
The ambiguousness of this word-groups may lead to an amusing misunderstanding. For example:
'To cut somebody dead' – to rudely ignore somebody, to pretend not to know or recognize him.
'To drop a brick' – to say unintentionally a tactless thing that shocks and offends people.
So together with synonymy and antonymy phraseology is an expressive resource of vocabulary.
Idioms should be used with care, not to overload the speech, not to become pure clichés. Academician
Vinogradov, being one of the prominent Russian scholars, first used the term phraseological unit.
Western scholars use the term 'idiom', it is applied only to a certain type of phraseological units. There are
some other terms denoting the same linguistic phenomenon, they are: set-expressions, set-phrases, fixed
word-groups, collections. That’s why it is pretty difficult to distinguish phraseological units from free
word-groups.
But when we say the free word-group we must remember that the linear relationships are governed
restricted and regulated by requirements of logic and common sense, by grammar rules and
combinability. Free word-groups are ready-made units with fixed and constant structures.
Difference between phraseological units and free word-groups
There are two major criteria for distinguishing between phraseological units and free word-groups:
semantic and structural.
To carry cools to Newcastle – у со своим самоваром
To carry coal Liverpool. – Here is the semantic difference. According to academician Vinogradov there is
a semantic change in phraseological unit as ' a meaning resulting from a peculiar chemical combination of
words'. In the phraseological units an entirely new quality comes into existence. The semantic shift is not
merely a change of meaning of each separate constituent part of the unit. The meaning of separate parts
produce an entirely new meaning. For example: 'to have a bee in one's bonnet' means to be a little mad.
'Go bananas' means the same.
Phraseological units are word-groups having a single concept (in free word-group each meaningful
component stands for separate concept).
Somehow phraseological units are similar to words because both possess semantic unity.
According to professor Koonin 'a phraseological unit is a stable word-group characterized by a
completely or partially transferred meaning'. The degree of semantic change may vary. For example, 'to
skate on a thin ice, to wear one's heart on one's sleeve, to have one's heart in one's boots, to have one's
heart in the right place (to be a good fellow), a crow in borrowed plumes, (a person pretentiously and
unsuitably dressed (ворона в павлиньих перьях), a wolf in a sheep's clothing.
The second type is represented by phraseological units, in which one of the component preserves
its current meaning and the other is used in transferred meaning – to lose one's temper, to fall ill, to stick
to one's word (to promise), to arrive at a conclusion, bosom friend.
Idioms are phraseological units with completely transferred meaning where the meaning of the
whole unit does not correspond to the meaning of the components.
The structural criterion also contributes to the distinction of phraseological units and free wordgroups.
Phraseological units possess structural invariability. But there are a number of restrictions:
1) Restriction in substitution. No word can be substituted for any meaningful component of a
phraseological unit without destroying the sense. For example, to carry cools to Manchester (no
Liverpool); to give somebody the cold shoulder (no warm shoulder). In free word-group substation is
quite possible - ' The cargo ship is carrying cool to Liverpool' – all the components may be changed and
substituted.
2) Restriction in introducing any additional components into the structure of a phraseological unit in a
few word-group. Such changes can be made easily.
3) Grammatical invariability (to find fault – with somebody). But there are some exceptions – to build
castles in the air.
Proverbs
We never know the value of water till the well is dry
Those who live in glass houses shouldn't throw stones.
The proverbs, differ from the phraseological units, this is structural dissimilarity.
Phraseological units are ready-made blocks. Proverbs are sentences and cannot be used as phraseological
units (the structural point of view). If we take the semantic aspect the proverbs may be compared with
minute fables, for they sum up the collective experience of the community. They moralize (Hell is paved
with good intentions), give advice, give warning. Phraseological units do not do this. The proverbs stand
for a whole statement, but phraseological units don’t. They only denote an object, an act. The function of
proverbs is communicative.
Professor Koonin classifies proverbs as communicative phraseological units. He think that one of the
main criteria of a phraseological unit is its stability. If the quotient of phraseological stability in a wordgroup is not below the minimum, it means that we are dealing with a phraseological unit. The structural
type is irrelevant.
The criterion of nomination and communication can not be applied here either (Koonin), because
there are considerable number of verbal phraseological units which are word-groups (i.e. nominative
units), when the verb is used in the Active Voice and sentences ( i.e. communicative units), when the verb
is used in the Passive Voice. For example, to cross the Rubicon – the Rubicon is crossed. We may say
that there is no rigid or permanent border-line between proverbs and phraseological units, as the latter
rather frequently originate from the former.
More of that, some of the proverbs are easily transformed into phraseological units. - 'Don't put all
your eggs in one basket'. - to put all one's eggs in one basket.
Some examples of phraseological units:
- to take to one's heels – удирать, улепетывать
- ellipsis – эллипс, овал
- to talk through one's hat — хвастать, нести чушь
- by hook or by crook — правдами и неправдами, не мытьем, так катаньем
- in cold blood - хладнокровие
- to sow one's wild oats (овес) — отдаваться увлечениям юности, прожигать молодость; he has
sown his wild oats – он перебесился
- to get somebody’s goat — рассердить кого-лб
- to die in harness (упряжь, сбруя) — умереть за работой
- to run in double harness — быть замужем, женатым
- to hoist sail — ставить паруса, убираться
- to make sail — ставить паруса, убираться
- to talk shop — говорить в обществе о своих профессиональных интересах
- to win one's spurs (шпоры) — заслужить звания рыцаря; перен. добиться признания, составить
себя имя
- peeping Tom — чрезмерно любопытный человек
- to be out for scalps — агрессивно или очень критически настроенный
Workshop
Theme: Phraseology. Word groups with transferred meaning. Principles of classification.
Aim: to teach the students to understand the meaning of the phraseologycal units.
Procedure:
1. Revising the material:
1) What does it mean: an idiom has a double meaning?
2) Why is it very important to use idioms with care?
3) What are the other names for phraseologycal units?
4) What are the two major criteria for distinguishing between phraseologycal units and free
word-groups?
2. Show that you understand the meaning of the following phraseologycal units by using them in a
sentence.
a) Between the devil and the deep blue sea.
b) To have one heart in one's boots ( душа в пятки ушла).
c) To have one's heart in the right place.
d) To hear one's heart on one's sleeve ( душа в пятки ушла).
e) To swear black is white.
f) Once in a blue moon (very seldom).
g) In the blues ( в плохом настроении).
h) Out of the blue - (unexpectedly).
3. Make up dialogues using the following phraseologycal units:
- to have a bee in one's bonnet,
- to drop a brick,
- to carry cools to Newcastle,
- a bosom friend,
- to let the cat out of the bag,
- a dark horse,
- to cost pearls before swine,
-
to give somebody the cold shoulder,
to fall in love, to fall ill,
to wear one's heart on one's sleeve,
a wolf in a sheep's clothing,
to fly into a temper.
to stick to one's word,
to add fuel to the fire,
to bark up the wrong tree,
to have one's heart to one's sleeve,
a bull in a China shop.
3. Explain whether the semantic changes in the phraseological units are complete or partial. Paraphras
them.
4. Give the Russian equivalents or explain their meaning:
A cat in gloves catches no mice.
A good beginning is half the battle.
A new broom sweeps clean.
Don't look a gift horse in the mouth.
Work-shop
Theme: Phraseology. Word groups with transferred meaning. Principles of classification.
Aim: to teach the students to understand the meaning of the phraseologycal units, to use the
phraseologycal units in their everyday speech.
Procedure:
1. Revising the material:
a) classification of the phraseologycal units. Thematic classification. Idioms are classified
depending on their source of origin, sphere of human activity, life, natural phenomena;
b) Vinogradov's classification: the phraseologycal combinations, unities and fusions;
c) ways of appearance of idioms.
2. Make up dialogues using different the phraseologycal units.
3. Give Russian equivalents of the following English proverbs and sayings:
a) Knowledge is a treasure, but practice is the key to it.
b) Men make houses, but women make homes.
c) Two heads are better than one.
d) Better die standing than live kneeling.
e) A candle light others and consumes
4. Translate or paraphrase:
a) What we acquire without sweat we give away without regret.
b) A stitch in time saves nine.
c) A fault confessed is half redressed.
d) As the baker so the bun, as the father, so the son.
e) The devil is not so black as he is painted.
5. Complete the following phrases so that they make English proverbs and phraseologycal units:
a) a stitch in time
b) half the battle
c) a new room.
6. Translate the following units giving their literal and figurative meaning:
a) to add fuel to the flame.
b) to keep one's powder dry.
c) to throw dust into the eyes.
Lecture No
Formal and informal style.
Formal style.
Formal words fall into two main groups:
1) Words, associated with professional communication
2) Learned words.
Learned words.
They are mainly used in printed page,words,used in poetry and fiction. The term for this-learned
words-is not precise. An old term for this was bookish. Here we can find words used in scientific prose,
e.g. comprise, compile, experimental, heterogeneous, homogeneous, conclusive, divergent.
Officialese (концеляризмы) also belongs to this group. E. Partridge in his dictionary 'Usage and
Abusage' gives a list of Officialese, that that he thinks should be avoided in speech, assist-help,
endeavour-try, proceed-go, approximately-about, sufficient-enough, inquire-ask.
- We hereby to inform the that the book in question has been sent to you.
Learned words found in fiction also belong to this group. Sometimes these words are called
literary words. Mostly they have been borrowed from Romance languages and are polysilabic. They are:
solitude, sentiment, fascination, fastidiousness (примере длилось, брезгливость), meditation, cordial,
illusionary.
Modes of poetic fiction-is another subdivision of learned words. Some of them sometimes have
archaic colouring- Alas, constancy, wroth (routh)- разгневанный.
Learned words can also be used by any educated English-speaking individual, who used them not only in
his formal letters but in his everyday speech as well. This makes their speech richer. But the excessive
usage of these words in conversational speech overloads the utterances they seem pretentious. Writers use
this phenomenon for stylistic purposes. It helps to produce a comic effect, when a person uses too many
learned words. Let's remember Lady Bracknell in Oscar Wild's 'The Importance of being Ernest'. - to
produce vibration, to make a definite effort to produce at any rate one parent of either sex, before the
season is over'. It is funny.
Let's remember Gwendolyn -- irresistible fascination.
Elisa Doolittle - no indications of any get change. But we cannot say that these words produce
only comic effect. It is the selection of words, which makes the description what it is: serious, devoid of
cheap sentimentality and yet charged with grave forbodings (предвещает, предчувствия) and tense
expectations.
The role of learned words in the language learning and language teaching.
Students should learn these words just for passive recognition, to read fiction and to listen to
lectures delivered in the foreign languages. Some of these words should be carefully selected and
activated to become part of the students' functional vocabulary.
Archaic and Obsolete Words.
These words are close to learned words. Many learned words may also be used in conversational
situations. But archaisms are only used in print. These words are partly or fully out of circulation. Their
last refuge is in historical novels and on poetry, which is sometimes rather conservative in its choice of
words.
Thou, thy, aye (yes), nay (no) - they are archaic and are out of usage. Numerous archaisms can be
found in Shakespeare's works. Here are some more examples of archaisms:
Morn-morning, eve-evening, moon-month, damsel-girl. Some of the archaic words revive: kin-
relatives (now in common use in America).
Archaisms and obsolete words somehow interchange, but some authors think that obsolete words
have gone completely out of use. Sometimes it is difficult to decide to which group a belongs.
Professional terminology.
Every field of modern activity has its special vocabulary. There is a special terminology for
psychology, botany, music, linguistic, and teaching methods.
Term is a word or a word-group, which is specifically employed by a particular branch of science,
technology, trade or the arts to convey a concept, peculiar to this particular activity. So, bilingual
assimilation, labialisation, ate the terms of theoretical phonetics.
It often happens when under the numerical circumstances terms pass into general usage without loosing
connection with their specific fields.
TV, radio, science, fiction.
Exchange between terminological systems and the 'common' vocabulary is quite normal.
Polysemy and synonymy of the terms.
Polysemantic terms may lead to misunderstanding. But in the language everything is quite
different. There are a lot of Polysemantic words, for example the word support may mean подложка,
подставка, носитель.
Colour - цвет, краска, оттенок.
Basic vocabulary.
The words are stylistically neutral they oppose to formal and informal words. Due to their stylistic
neutrality they may be used in different situations ( formal and informal ). Words of the basic vocabulary
are used everyday, everywhere and by everyone, regardless of profession, age, and education. They
denote the objects of every day importance.
Bread, air, mother
The basic vocabulary is the central group of the vocabulary, it's historical foundation. The meaning of the
basic words are broad, general and directly convey the concept, do not supply any additional information.
Walk - to stride, to jog, to stagger.
In foreign language teaching basic words comprise the first and absolutely essential part of the
students' functional and recognition vocabularies. They constitute the beginner's vocabulary. But the
students shouldn't be restricted to the basic vocabulary, for their speech would lack the colour, richness,
expressiveness and emotions.
Lecture No
Formal and Informal Speech
There is formal and informal speech. The social come determines the mode of dress and the modes
of speech. When placed in different situations pet instinctively choose different kinds of words and
structures to express their thoughts. The suitability or unsuitability of a word for each particular situation
depends on its characteristics or on the functional style it represents.
The term 'functional style' is generally accepted in modern linguistics. Professor Arnold defines it
as a system of expressive means peculiar to a specific sphere of communication. By the sphere of
communication we mean the circumstances attending the process of speech in each particular case:
professional communication, a lecture, an informal talk, a formal letter, an intimate letter, a speech in
court.
All these circumstances or situations can be roughly classified into two types: formal and
informal. Accordingly functional styles are classified into two groups.
Informal style
Informal vocabulary is used in the family, with relatives, friends. Informal style is relaxed, free
and easy, familiar and unpretentious. Informal words and word-groups are traditionally divided into 3
types: colloquial, slang and dialect word and word-groups.
Colloquial words
Everybody uses colloquial words. Their sphere of communication is wide, at least of literary
colloquial words. These words are used in everyday conversational speech both by cultivated and
uneducated people of all ages groups.
Reading an extract from 'Pigmation' by B. Shaw
However in Modern fiction words are not restricted to conversation in their use, they frequently
appear in descriptive passages as well. In this way the narrative is enriched with conversation features:
- pal, chum - frien
- girl - a woman of any ages, - bite and snack - stand for meal,
- hi, hello - informal greeting. - so long - when parting
- to have a crash on somebody - to fall in love.
A considerable number of shortening are found among words of this type, for example, exam,
fridge, flu, zip and movie.
Verbs with post positional adverbs are also numerous among colloquialisms: put up, put over,
make up, make out, do away, turn up. Literary colloquial words are to be distinguished from familiar,
colloquial, and low colloquial, though the borderline between the literary and familiar colloquial is vague.
These words are used mostly by the young and the semi-educated.
Doc-doctor, hi - how do you do, ta-ta- good bye,
to kid somebody - to tease,
to pick up somebody - to make a quick and easy acquaintance,
go on with you - let me alone, shut up - keep silence.
Low colloquial is a group stocked with words of illiterate English. It is a sign for the students of restirical
usage.
Slang
The Oxford English dictionary defines slang as a language of highly colloquial style, considered
as below the level of standard educated speech and consisting either of new words or of current words
employed in some special sense. We think this definition to be inadequate.
H. Bradley writes that 'slang sets things in their proper places with a smile:
- hat - lid,
- guy - man,
- blighter - man,
- rotter - man,
- mug - face,
- flipper - hand
All or most slang words are current words whose meanings have been metaphorically shifted. Each slang
metaphor is rooted in a joke. This is the criterion for distinguishing slang from colloquialisms: most slang
words are metaphors often with a coarse, mocking cynical colouring.
Why do people use slang?
The circle of users of slang is narrower than that of colloquialisms. It is mainly used by the young and
uneducated.
Dialect words.
H.W. Fowler defines with dialect as a variety of a language, which prevails in a district with local
peculiarities of vocabulary, pronunciation and phrase. There are many dialects in English though it is a
smart country.
So dialects are regional of English. Standard English is defined by the Random House Dictionary
as the English as it is spoken by literate people in both formal and informal usage and that is universally
current while incorporating regional differences.
Dialectal peculiarities, especially those of vocabulary are constantly being incorporated into
regional differences.
Dialectical peculiarities, especially those of vocabulary are constantly being incorporated into
everyday colloquial speech or slang. From these levels they can be transferred into the common stock, i.e.
words which are not stylistically marked and a few of them even into formal speech and into the literary
language. For example such words as trolley and tram began as dialect words.
Dialectisms
Auxiliary verbs: hae (have), sold (should), mountain (must).
Pronounce: sic (such), while (which), none (none).
Proverb: afore (before), astir, aye (always), mair (more), muckle (much)
Adjective: auld (old), cauld (cold), gud (good), puir (poor).
Among the nouns there are many dialectal names of animals, plants and birds and other words
connected with the natural peculiarities of Scotland:
Bent - болото, склон, поросший вереском,
Burnie - ручеек,
Cleugh - овраг,
Fell - скалистый холм,
Muir - вереское болото,
Skerry - скалистый остров.
You can come across the words denoting different clothes and footwear in the Scotland novels by
W. Scott:
Brogue - грубый башмак,
Maul - серый плед, который носят пастухи,
Pinner - шапка ушанка,
Sark - рубашка.
Some Scotlandisms entered the English language as the name for objects specific for the Scottish
national culture and everyday life:
Bagpipe - волынка,
Clan - клан, родовая община,
Kilt - короткая клетчатая юбочка горца,
Plaid - плед,
Some other words name common notions:
Glamour - обаяние, очарование,
Lass and Lassie - девушка,
Raid - налет,
Slogan - лозунг, боевой клич,
Whiskey - виски.
Relations between the dialect and the basic vocabulary may be different. The dialects keep some
Old-English words, which are completely out of use nowadays, for example:
Brain - ребенок < bearn
Weird - судьба < weird
Work shop
1. Questionnaire
a) What are the main characteristics of the learned words?
b) Give examples of the officialese.
c) Speak about archaic and obsolete words.
d) What is the sphere of circulation for the terminology? Give examples of terminology in
Physics, Psychology, etc.
e) What words belong to the basic vocabulary?
2. Doing exercises 2, p.39 and 3. p.41.
Work shop
The aim: to teach the students to distinguish between formal and informal speech.
Procedure:
1. Questionnaire
a) What words belong to the basic vocabulary?
b) Where is informal vocabulary used?
c) Give examples of shortening used as colloquial.
d) What is the difference between colloquial and slang?
2. Make up dialogues using colloquial words and slang.
3. Listen to the dialogues where the slang words and colloquials are used.
Examples of shortening used as colloquials:
Ambish - ambition
Armo - armored
Bi - bisexual
Bro - brother
Crim - criminal
Demo - demonstration
Dino – dinosaur
Doc – doctor
Dunno – don't know
Fab – fabulous
Grad – graduate
Homo – homosexual
Jee! - Jesus
Pub- public house
Thru – through
U – you
Vibes – vibration
Wanna – want you
X-mas – Christmas
Info – information
Memo – memorandum
Dialogue
- Hey, What's up, Dude!
- Hey, What's up!
- Have you any greens?
- What a hell you asking for?
- I mean to go to the pub and have a rest!
- I dunno, let me see. Er. … I know a good pub.
- Oh, fire away.
- Down the sheet. And we can pick up cool girls.
- Oh, man, why you were shuttled shill.
- Now you are talking.
- Shut up and let's go quickly.
LECTURE No
Borrowings
English vocabulary contains an immense among the world's languages number of words of foreign
origin. We can explain this fact, it is may be found in the history of language which is closely connected
with the history of the nation, speaking the language. In order to understand the problem better we should
have a look at the historical facts, which took place in different epochs.
The 1st century B.C. Europe is conquered by barbarians - Germanic tribes. In comparison with
Romans they are rather primitive, underdeveloped, but the Romans are civilised and refined. The tribal
languages of the Germanic tribes contain only Indo-European and Germanic elements.
After a number of wars the two peoples come into peaceful contact. Trade is carried on and the
Germans get to know about new and useful things. The Germans knew only meat and milk. The Romans
thought them how to make butter and cheese and as a sequence of this they acquired the names for these
words from the Romans that were absent in their languages.
(Lat. Butyrum, caseus)
Germanic tribes also acquire from the Latin the names of fruit and vegetables:
Cherry (Lat. Cerasum)
Pear (Lat. Pirum)
Plum (Lat. prunus)
Pea (Lat. Pisum)
Beet (Lat. Beta)
Pepper (Lat. Piper)
Plant (Lat. Planta)
Cup (Lat. Cuppo)
Kitchen (Lat. Coquno)
Mill (Lat. Molina)
Port (Lat. Portus)
Wine (Lat. Vinum)
The language of the Germanic tribes gained a great number of new words, and as a result it was enriched.
Latin words - is the earliest group of borrowings in the English Language, which was built on the
basis of the Germanic tribal languages.
The 5th century AD.
Several Germanic tribes ( the Angels, the Saxons, the Jutes) migrated across the sea ( English Channel) to
the British Isles, where the Celts lived (the original inhabitants of the Isles). The Celts tried to defend
their territories, but failed and yielded most of their territory.
Thus a number of Celtic words entered the vocabulary of the English language ( Modern English).
Bald, down, bard, cradle
Place names, names of the rivers entered the English vocabulary and they remained the same, in spite of
the fact that the Germanic tribes occupied the land.
For example: Avon, Exe, Esk, Usk in Celtic language mean river.
London - Llyn (river) +dun (fortified hill)
The 7th century AD.
It was a new period of Latin borrowings because England at that time was Christianized, and Latin was
the language of the Christian church. It was church Latin. The borrowed words were mostly of church and
religion.
Priest (presbyter)
Bishop (episcopes)
Monk (monachus)
Educational terms were also among the borrowings.
School - Lat schola
Scholar - Lat. Scholar (-is)
Magister - Lat. magister.
In the period between the end of the 8th century and the middle of the 11th century Scandinavian
language.
Call, take, window, die, law, husband (hus+bondi) - (inhabitant of the house), ill, love, weak.
The vivid characteristics of the Scandinavian borrowings is the combination of the initial -sk- letters.
Sky, skill, skin, skirt.
Some English words changed their meanings under the influence of Scandinavian words of the same root.
OE bread - (piece) acquired its modern meaning by association with the Scandinavian braud.
1066. Norman Conquest. Battle of Hastings. Normans under William the Conqueror defeated the English.
England become a bi-lingual country. French words penetrated from the Norman dialect to every aspect
of social life.
Norman French borrowings
Administrative words: state, government, parliament, counsel, power.
Legal terms: court, judge, justice, crime, prison.
Military terms: army, war, soldier, officer, battle, enemy.
Educational terms: pupil, lesson, library, science, pen, pencil.
Everyday life: table, saucer, dinner, supper, river, autumn, uncle.
The Renaissance period.
It was an epoch which produced titans.
Latin borrowings: abstract words - minor, major, filial, intelligent, permanent, to elect, to create.
Greek borrowings: philosophy, method, music, atom, cycle, ethics, esthete.
Parisian borrowings (French borrowings): regime, police, machine, ballet, matinee, scene, techniques,
bourgeois.
Italian borrowings: piano, violin, opera, alarm, colonel.
Some suffixes and prefixes help to guess if a word is a borrowing and what is the source of borrowing Latin suffixes:
-ion - opinion, union
-tion - revolution
-ate - graduate
-ute - contribute
-the remnant suffix -ct- conduct, applaud, divide
Prefix: -dis - dislik
Suffix: -able- curable
Suffix: -ate - accurate, initiate
-ant - important
- ent - absent, evident
- or - major, minor, junior
- al - cardial, final, initial
- ar - solar, familiar
French affix:
- ance - annoyance
- ence - partial
- ment - experiment
- age - vallage, passage
- less - actress, directress, clowness
- ous - enormous
Prefix: - en - enable, enrich, enslave
The percentage of borrowed words in the English vocabulary is 65-70%. It's explained by the country's
history and numerous international contacts.
Though the English language has been influenced by French, Latin, Celtic, Normans, we cannot
say that it's of international origin. The native elements in English comprise a large number of high
frequency words: prepositions, pronouns, conjunctions and names for everyday objects - house, child,
water, go, come, eat, good, bad.
The grammatical structure remained Germanic.
If we structure etymologically the English vocabulary, we shall distinguish such elements as IndoEuropean elements, the Germanic elements and English proper elements.
I. Indo-European elements. English words of this group denote elementary concept.
1) Family relations
2) Parts of the human body - nose, lip
3) Animals - cow, swine
4) Plants - tree, birch
5) Time of Day - night, day
6) Heavenly bodies - sun, moon
7) Adjectives - red, new, glad
8) Pronouns - from 1-100
9) Verbs - stand, sit, eat,
II. The Germanic element
1) parts of the human body - head, hand, arm, finger, bone.
2) Animals - bear, fox, calf
3) Plants - oak, fir, gras
4) Natural phenomena - rain, frost
5) Seasons of the year — winter, spring, summer
6) Landscape feature - sea, land
7) Human dwellings and furniture - house, room, bench
8) Sea going vessels - boat, ship
9) Adjectives - green, blue, grey
10) Verbs - see, hear, tell, speak, say, answer, make, give, drink.
English proper element.
The words of this group are specifically English - bird, boy, girl, lord, lady, women, daisy, always.
Words are borrowed due to the nations' contacts. Nature of contacts may e different - wars,
invasions or conquests or in the peaceful time the process of borrowing is due to trade and international
cultural relations.
If the process of borrowing takes place in the war time the oppressed nation reject the language of
the conquerors ( the exception is the Normal conquest: the Mongol-Tatar Yoke is an example).
The reason for this may be found in the explanation that the level of civilisation of the two
conflicting nation is different. Russian civilization was superior to that of the invaders.
Normal culture of the 11th century was higher to that of the Saxons. As a result the English
language preserved its structure and borrowed many French words, thus enriching the vocabulary.
Why are the words borrowed?
1) to fill the gap in the vocabulary. For example, take Latin words butter, beet - there were no
such words in the English vocabulary.
2) The words or word express some particular concept - almost the same, but not exactly.
This new word represent the same concept in some new aspect, colouring or meaning. This type of
borrowing increases groups of synonyms.
Friendly - cordial (Lat.) Wish - desire (Fr.) Like, love - admire (Lat.), adore ( Fr.)
Entering the language the majority of the borrowed words adjust themselves to the new
environment and adapt to the norms of the recipient language. They change sometimes so greatly that we
cannot say they were borrowings.
Dinner, cat take, cup
Borrowed words are adjusted in the three main areas of the new language system: the phonetic, the
grammatical and the semantic.
If you have a look at such French borrowings as table, plate, courage you will never say they are
borrowing. They have fully assimilated.
But the other borrowings have not been completely assimilated and they still sound foreign.
Grammatical adaptation occurs when a word changes its paradigm - system of the grammatical forms.
But this process takes some time.
Russian пальто, Greek datum, phenomenon, criterion.
By semantic adaptation we mean adjustment to the system of meanings of the vocabulary. The
words are borrowed to fill a gap or sometimes blindly, for no reason. Some words are forgotten, some
words semantically adjust and take a new meaning.
- Large
International words.
Words are often borrowed y several languages. Many of them are of Greek or Latin origin.
- Names of sciences; Terms of art; Political terms.
Scientifical and technological advances of the 20th century provided for many borrowings. English
language contributed great number of international words, especially sports terms. Fruit and vegetables
bring their names being imported to many countries.
Etymological doublets
Words originating from the same etymological source, but differing in phonemic shape and in
meaning are called etymological doublets.
Skirt shirt
They may enter the vocabulary by different roots. These pairs may consist of a borrowed word and
a native word - Skirt-shirt - or they may consist of 2 borrowing from different languages.
Senior (Lat.) - sir ( Fr.)
Canal (Lat.) - channel (Eng.)
Others were borrowed from the same language twice but in different periods
Corpse-corps
Etymological triplets
Hospital (Lat.) - hostel (Norm.-Fr.) - hotel (Par.Fr.)
A doublet may consist of a shortened word and the one from which it was delivered - history, story.
Translation loans
They are compound words: collective farm -колхоз, wonder child - Germ. Wunderkind, five - year plan - 5летка.
In the basic vocabulary there is a considerable number of native words, but there are also Latin
and French borrowings. Not all short common words are native. Some words of foreign origin are not
three or four-syllables - poor, oil, hour. So we may say that though there are native words in the basic
vocabulary there are also old borrowings.
Learned words and terminology comprise the great part of the borrowings. If we compare French
and English words may see that the French word is more formal and less emotionally charged - childish infantile.
Work-shop
Theme: Borrowings
Aim: to learn to distinguish the borrowed words in the English stock.
Procedure:
1. Questionnaire
a) What words are called borrowings?
b) How did barbarians conquer Europe in the 1 century before Christ?
c) Latin borrowings.
d) Celtic borrowings.
e) New period of Latin borrowings.
f) Scandinavian influence.
g) Norman conquest: Norman French borrowings, administrative words, legal terms, educational
terms, and words of everyday life.
h) The Renaissance period (Latin and Greek borrowings), Parisian borrowings, Italian borrowings.
2. Suffixes, which help to identify if a word is a borrowing.
3. Contest: make up a list containing the largest number of words with: Latin suffixes - ion, tion, ate, ute,
ct, d(e), Latin prefixes dis, able, ate, ant, ent, or, al; French affixes ance, ence, ment, age, ess, ous, en.
Lecture No 2
Word-building
As far as you know the words are divided into smaller parts (units) called morphemes. Morphemes
cannot function independently but as constituent part of words they can. But they possess their own
meaning.
All morphemes are subdivided into roods and affixes. Affixes are subdivided into prefixes and
suffixes.
Derivatives are words that consist of a root and an affix. The derivatives are produced by the
process of Word-building known as affixation ( or derivation). Number of derived words in English is
enormous.
There is also a great number of root words, having one morpheme in its structure. These words
belong to the original English stock or to earlier borrowings.
House, room, port, work, street, table.
With the help of the conversion this type of words has been enlarged.
Hand-to hand, can-to can, arm-to arm.
Composition - another type of Word-building - as a result we have a compound word consisting
of two or more stems.
Sitting-room, do-it - yourself method, a big-trouble - boss
Word of this structural type are produced by the Word-building process called composition.
Shortenings are produced by the way of Word-building, called Shortenings (contraction).
Flu, memo, info, doc, lab, limo, cap.
Root words, derived words, compounds, Shortenings are the main structural types of Modern English.
Conversion, derivation, composition are the most productive ways of Word-building.
Affixation
A new word is obtained by adding an affix or several affixes to some root morphemes.
Affixes are classified into two large groups: native and borrowed.
Native affixes are subdivided into noun-forming, adjective-forming, verb-forming, adverb-forming.
Noun-forming - er, -ness, -ing, -dom, -hood, -ship, -th.
Adjective-forming - ful, -less, -y, -ish, -ly, -en (wooden), -some.
Verb-forming - en.
Adberb-forming - ly, (warmly).
Affixes may be productive and non-productive. Productive affixes - are affixes, which participate
in deriving new words in the particular period of language development.
How can we see that an affix is productive? If we have a look at the neologisms and nonce-words
(words made and used only for this particular occasion). We will see which affixes are productive.
- able - is highly productive. Isedorable.
- ish - thinnish, baldish, foolish, girlish.
The productivity of the affixes shouldn't be confused with their frequency of occurrence. For example,
native adjective-forming suffixes: -ful, -ly,
Suffixes of Latin origin -ant, -ent, -al.
Examples of productive affixes:
- noun-forming suffixes -er, -ing, -ness, -ism, -ist.
- Adjective-forming suffixes - y, -ish, -able, -less.
- Adverb-forming suffixes - ly.
- Verb-forming suffixes - ize, -ise, -ate.
- Prefixes - un, -re, -dis.
None-productive affixes.
Noun-forming suffixes - th, -hood.
Adjective-forming suffixes - ly, some, -en, -ous.
Verb-forming suffixes – en.
Semantics of affixes.
The morpheme and as a sequence, affix, which is a type of morpheme – is the smallest indivisible
component of the world, which has its own meaning.
Affixes have their own meaning but it differs from the meaning of the root-morpheme. The
meaning of the affixes is generalized and they refer the concept, covered by the whole word to a certain
category.
For example, noun forming suffix – er points to a person, not to be object; adjective-forming
suffix - ful has the meaning full of; -ish -implies insuffieciency of quolity; greenish, childish.
But the meaning of the derived word is not always the same of the meaning of its morphemes.
- un-forgettable.
The constituent morphemes with derivatives do not always have their current
meaning.
Semantic shift takes place usually.
Shiny
Chatty
But fish and touchy – the meanings of the words have changed.
Suffix adds its own meaning to the word and the root gives its meaning to the suffix, which
undergoes semantic changes. So they mutually influence each other.
Words from the same root by means of different affixes are very interesting. There is a semantic
difference between them.
- womanly – as a woman
- womanish – a man as a woman
Conversion.
Conversion is an affixless way of word-building or even affixless derivation. In conversion a new word
is formed from the exiting word, changing the part of speech. The morphemic shape of the word remains
anchanged. The meaning of new word is easily understood though it differs. It has a new paradigm.
Form n - Substsntive paradigm: -s (pl.), 's (possessive case singular), -s' (possessive form plural)
To form v - Verbal paradigm: -s (3rd person singular), -ed – (past I, II), -ing (present participle
and gerund).
Some scientists consider this act of conversion not as the word-building, but as a functional
change. This is functional approach. But nowadays conversion is considered to be one of the major ways
of enriching English vocabulary with new words, semantic change that is observed in conversion supports
this theory. The change of meaning is even more obvious in such pairs as
Hand-to hand, face-to face, to go – a go, to make – a make (remark).
The other argument is that converted units have a regular and complete paradigm of a new part of speech.
V category, already has all the V-forms.
Many recent English way of word-building. What helps to facilitate this process?
- analytical structure of Modern English,
- English parts of speech have a simple paradigm
- One-syllable words, which are more mobile.
Conversion is highly productive in speech where numerous occasional cases can be found. Every English
speaker can potentially make a word into another part of speech when there is a need for it. Nouns and
verbs are easily converted. Main parts of the words produced by conversion are verbs made from nouns.
To honeymoon, to room, to floor.
Nouns are also frequently made from verbs: to do – a do (event), to go – a go (energy), to move – a
move.
Verbs can be made from adjectives: to gray, to cool, to yellow.
Other parts of speech are not easily subjected to conversion: to down, to out, ups and downs, the ins
and outs.
It has been stated that a word may be conversion has a different meaning from the meaning of the word
from which it was made, but the two meaning may be alike. There are some rules for their likeness. For
example, if verbs are made from the nouns:
- the noun is the name of tool, the verb – is the action performed by the tool.
- The noun is the name of an animal; the verb denotes an action peculiar for this animal. - monkeyto monkey.
- Noun – is a part of human body, verb – is an action, performed by the noun – to eye, to elbow, to
shoulder.
- Noun is the name of a profession or occupation, verb – activity – nurse – to nurse, cook – to
cook, groom – to groom.
- Noun – is the name of place, verb – is the process of occupying the place: to room, to house.
- Noun - is the name of the container, verb – is the act of putting smth into it: to supper, to meal.
Composition.
Along with conversion and affixation this type is the most productive type of word-building.
Composition is a process when two stems are combined together. We shall speak about the three aspects
of composition.
1. Structural aspect. Compounds are not homogeneous in structure. There are three types of compounds –
neutral, morphological and syntactic.
Neutral compounds: there are no linking elements; only two stems are placed together.
Sunflower, bedroom, cloakroom
Neutral compounds may be 1) simple, 2) derived or 3) contracted.
Simple compounds are compounds, consisting of simple affixless stems
Derived or derivational compounds are compounds having affixes in their structure.
Long-legged, pain-killer, late-comer, double-decker, great-heartedness.
This type is considered to be a productive one, because a lot of new words formed appeared recently.
Teenager, warmonger, babysitter.
Some words produced like these are nonce words because of the high productivity of this method, for
example luncher-out. So you can try and make up your own words. For example, room-sharer, questionasker, breakfast-cooker, latecomer.
Contracted compounds. They have a shortened contracted stem in their structure.
TV-set, DVD, V-Day, FBI agent, H-bag, T-shirt, Hi-tech, X-Ray.
Morphological compounds are not numerous because of their low productivity. Here stems are combined
together by a linking vowel or consonant:
Anglo-Saxon, handiwork, handicraft, spokesman, statesman.
In syntactic compounds we see an example of English word structure. These words are formed from
segments of speech and contain in their structure articles, prepositions, adverbs: Jack-of-all-trades, goodfor-nothing, mother-in-low.
A great number of neologisms can be found here. - One – way ticket, no-left – turn.
You can easily trace the origin of these words-combination. - to pull one's leg – to deceive, leg-pulling –
deceiving, if – what - what – iffing, what – iffs, no buts.
Let's speak about the meaning of a compound word. Can it be derived from the meaning of its constituent
parts?
Classroom, sitting room, reading room, dancing room.
1) Yes, here the meaning of the compound is the sum of the meanings, but not in all of them. There is a
shift of meaning in the words sleeping-car, reading-room. The first component in these word denotes an
action or a state of the doer of the action. But a sleeping car doesn't sleep itself.
2) Or let's take another group of examples:
Blackbird, blackboard.
Board is not usually black. Chatterbox is not a box, but a person. We cannot say that the meaning of the
compound is the sum of meanings, much more of this. Sometimes the constituent parts meaning doesn't
correspond to the free form – white blackboard, pink bluebell.
3) In the third groups of the words it is impossible to deduce the meaning of the whole word from the
meanings of its constituent parts, - ladybird – an insect, tallboy – a piece of furniture, bluestocking – a
person, man of war – war-ship(военный корабль), merry-go-round – a person unsuitable for his
position.
The compounds whose meaning can't be derived from the meanings of its separate parts are called
idiomatic compounds. The firs group is called non-idiomatic.
This subdivision is based on how tightly the parts of the compounds are connected. In the third the
constituent parts are so closely connected and new meaning is produced.
The structural type of compound words and the word-building type of composition have certain
advantages for communicating purposes.
Composition is rather flexible but not flexible as conversion.
Mouse gray, turtle green, dove white.
It is obvious that the meaning of all these 'multi-coloured adjectives is based on comparison.
Let's have a look at the English word 'blue' which has one word either for синий and for голубой. But
this disadvantage is compensated: navy blue, forgrt-me-not, and sapphire blue or by compound
adjectives: dark blue, pale blue.
In composition there is a problem of distinguishing between a compound and a word-combination.
Usually English compounds originate directly from word combinations and are often homonymous with
them.
A tall boy – a tallboy.
And distinguish between them one should take into account:
1) graphic criterion – a tall boy, a tallboy.
2) Semantic criterion – a tall boy, a tallboy.
3) Phonetic criterion – a single stress a 'tall 'boy, a 'tallboy.
4) Morphological (if we can treat the constituent parts of speech morphologically independently) and
syntactic criteria.
So we acn see state that to define a lexical unit either it is a compound word or a word-group it is
necessary to apply several criteria.
Semi-affixes.
Shock-proof, water-proof, bomb-proof – these words stands between compounds and derived words in
their characteristics.
1) proof at first looks as a stem.
2) The meaning has become so generalized, that it is approaching a suffix. So this component between a
stem and affix is considered to be a semi-affix. Another semi-affix is – man. - sportsman, gentleman; land, like, worthy – trustworthy.
Shortening (Contraction)
There are two ways of production shortening:
1) a new word is made from a syllable of the original word – phone – telephone, fence – defense, hols –
holidays, vac – vacation, props – properties, ads – advertisement, flu – influenza, fridge.
2) UNO, BBC, MP, LC – initials letters are taken. G.-f. - girl-friend, even names PJ. But this may lead to
confusion and they characterize uncultivated and informal speech.
3) Movie, gents, specs (spectacles), lib (liberty), I ♥ NY, CERT – CERTAINLY, EXAM, LAB, PROF, VAC,
HOL.
Minor types of word-building.
1. Sound imitation – to moo, to cock-a – dooble-doo.
2. Reduplication, when the stem doubled – bye-bye, ping-pong, chit-chat, walkie-talkie, dilly-dallying –
means wasting time.
3. Back formation (reversion) – beg – from French borrowing beggar. A verb is produced from a noun by
substraction. - To buttle – from butler, to baby-sit – babysitter, to blood-transfuse – from blood
transfusion, to finger – means to print.
Work-shop.
Theme: Word-building
Aim: to teach the students the ways of word-bulding
Procedure:
4. Preliminaries.
5. Questionnaire
a) What is a morpheme?
b) What words are called derivatives?
c) Give examples of conversion.
d) Give example of composition.
e) What is affixation?
f) What kind of affixes do you know?
g) Give examples of productive affixes.
h) Give examples of non-productive affixes.
i) Speak about the non-forming affixes.
j) Speak about the adjective-forming adjectives.
k) Ggive examples of your own to show that affixes have meaning.
l) what language lent the greater number of affixes to the English language?
m) What parts of speech are mostly subjected to conversion.
n) Prove that the word finger and to finger ( to touch or handle with the fingers) are two
words and not the one.
6. Doing exercises 2,3,4 p.95.
7. Explain the etymology of each borrowed affix: refreshments,bountifully, hostess, expression,
satisfaction, delicious, startling, glorious, passenger,
distant, porter, uncertain, driver, restarted,
admirable, painlessly, dislocate,
inspector, slightly, overcrowded, abnormal, teacher, congratulation.
8. Say what part of speech can be formed with the help of suffixes: -dis, -over, -al, -ness,-ous, ly, -y, -al, -ful, -dom, -ish, -tion, -ed, -un, -en, -es, -or, -er, -re,
-hood, -less, -ate, -ing, -im (-in).
Doing ex.6.p.98.
9. State the origin and explain the meaning of the suffixes in the following words: childhood,
frienship, freedom, manhood, brotherly, rider, granny,
teacher, hatred, village, student, and
drunkard.
10. Translate the following words into English, using words with the affixes: липкий, сероватый,
обобщать, мобилизовать, бесполезный, могущественный, бессильный, дружественный,
бородатый, доступный, классический, читатель, поэтический, львица, чтение, бухгалтерия,
небрежность, врач, профессор, учитель, рабочий, коммунист, коммунизм.
11. Give the corresponding words, denoting living beings of the female sex: hero, don, signor,
windower, duke, mister, poet, governor, count, doctor, singer, lion, tiger, bachelor, boy, brother, father,
gentleman, husband, king, man, nephew, son, uncle, bridegroom, bull, cock, horse.
12. Analyze the structure of the following words and translate them: Looking – glass, sea-coast,
fountain-pen, stay-at-home, red-hot, will-to-live, heart-broken, hair's breadth, bird's eye, Anglo-Saxon,
no-longer young, mother-in-low, non- stop flight, up-to-date, gas-light, officer-in-charge, front –
benchers, workday, handiwork.
Lecture No
Homonyms
Homonyms are words identical in sound and spelling in different in their meaning.
Bank, ball, bar.
The identical of homonyms is accidental. Many homonyms coincided due to the phonetic changes that
occurred during their development. Homonyms are accidental creations and they are purposeless, while
synonyms and antonyms are the expressive resources of the language. Sometimes they lead to confusion
and misunderstanding and are the source of humour.
Proper homonyms – are homonyms, which are the same in sound and spelling.
Homophones – are homonyms, same in sound but different in spelling night – knight
peace – piece
sea – see
Homographs – are homonyms, which have the same spelling, but different sound.
Lead-lead (свинец)
Tear – tear
Sources of homonyms:
1) Phonetic changes – knight-night (k was pronounce).
2) Borrowings – bank – bank, fair – fair.
3) Word-building, especially conversion; such pairs of words as to face – face, to make – make called
lexico-grammatical homonyms.
4) Shortenings also increase the number of homonyms – Fan (fanatic) – fan(a blowing device for drying
hair); Rep (tissue) has three homonyms: a) rep – representative, rep – reputation, rep – repertory.
5) Split Polysemy – is another source of homonyms. Two or more homonyms can originate from different
meaning of the same word, when for some reason the semantic structure of the words breaks into several
parts. The semantic structure of a polysemantic word presents a system, in which all its constituent
meanings are held together by logical associations. In most cases the function of the unity is determined
by one of the meanings (fie – flame). If this meaning disappears from the semantic structure of a word,
associations between the rest of the meanings may be lost, the semantic structure loses its unity and falls
into two or more parts, which than became independent lexical units.
Spring – родник, весна, прыжок, скачок, пружина.
Historically all four nouns originate from the same verb with the meaning to jump. So the meaning of the
word homonym is the oldest. The meanings of the second and third homonyms were originally based on
metaphor.
We may state that split Polysemy as a source of homonyms is not recognized by some scholars. It's
sometimes impossible to decide whether we deal with different meanings of one and the same word or
with homonyms.
Classification of homonyms.
Professor Smirnitskiy divided homonyms into full and partial homonyms.
Full lexical homonyms have the same category of parts of speech and have the same paradigm, for
example, match. Partial homonyms are divided into simple lexico-grammatical partial, complex lexicogrammatical partial and partial lexical homonyms.
1) simple lexico-grammatical partial homonyms – are words belonging to the same category of parts of
speech. Their paradigms have one identical form, but it's never the same form – to found – found.
2) complex lexico-grammatical homonyms – are words of different categories of parts of speech which
have one identical form in their paradigm rose (n) – rose (rise), maid – made.
3) partial lexical homonyms – are the words of the same category of parts of speech which are identical
only in their corresponding forms – to can (canned, canned) – can (could).
Work-shop
Theme: Homonyms
Aim: to teach to distinguish homonyms from polysemantic words.
Procedure:
1. Questionnaire
a) Which words do we call homonyms?
b) What classifications of homonyms do you know?
c) Speak about Professor Smirnitsky's classification.
d) What are the main sources oh homonyms?
2. Find the homonyms of the following words, translate them: Heir, cent, tale, sea, dye, week, peace, sun,
meat, steel, knight, sum, wrire, sight, hare.
3. Classify the homonyms into homonyms proper, homographs and homophones: sea-see, bread-bred,
left-left, to drink – a drink, tale-tail, match-match, made-maid, right-right, wind-wind, face-to face, leftleft, lead-lead, to drink – a drink.
4. Explain how the following words became homonyms: ads-adds, match-match, bank-bank, springspring, fan-fan.
5. Provide homonyms, classify them according to Professor Smirnitsky's classification system: here -,
can-, found-, buy-, sun-, face (v)-, to lie-.
6. Classify the following homonyms according to Professor Smirnitsky's classification system: ball-ball,
left-left, light-light, rose-rose, bear-bear, can-can.
Lecture No
Synonyms
Synonyms are one of the most difficult problems of Modern English. The linguists dispute about
the existence of synonyms, the nature and essence of the relationships of these words.
But we still keep to the point that in the language there are words which clearly develop regular
and distinct relationships when they are used in speech. Let's take the words like – love – admire – adore,
or prodigy – miracle. Each word describes the same feeling of liking in its own way. Somehow like and
love are opposed to each other.
Synonyms possess such feature as duality: they are somewhat the same and yet they are different.
These characteristics help to reveal different aspects, shades and variations of the same phenomenon:
like – love – admire – adore
synonyms add precision to each detail of description and show how the correct choice of a word from a
group of synonyms may colour the whole texts:
to look, to gaze, to glare, to glance, to stare
big, large, tremendous, huge, enormous
smile – grin,
speak – mumble
The second synonym in each pair is contrasted and opposed to the first.
Synonyms are the most expressive means of a language. The principal function of synonyms is to
represent the same phenomenon in different aspects, shades and variations. Synonyms are also used for
stylistic purposes.
In earning in foreign language it is very essential to develop a skill to choose a suitable word for a
situation or context.
Criteria of synonymy.
This problem of criteria of synonymy is very controversial. The scholar still have not come to the
conclusion, which words are considered to be synonyms and what are the characteristic features of the
synonym
According to traditional linguists synonyms are words belonging to the same category of speech ,
conveying the same concept, but different in shades of meaning or in stylistic characteristics. This
definition has been several criticized.
In contemporary research on synonymy semantic criterion is widely used. Is we take into
consideration componential analysis synonyms may be defined as words with the same denotation, or the
same denotative component, but differing in connotation or in connotative component.
According to this methods we can analyze synonyms using new methods. A group of synonyms
may be studied with the help of their dictionary definitions (definitional analysis). The data from various
dictionaries are analyzed comparatively. Then the definitions are transformed for analysis. The semantic
components of each analyzed word are singled out.
You may find the definitional and transformational analysis of the synonyms of the word to look:
to look, to glare, to gaze, to glance, to peer (вглядываться). Denotation – to look, but connotation is
different. For example, to stare – in surprise, curiosity; to glare – in anger, rage, fury; to gaze – in
tenderness, admiration, wonder.
The common denotation convincingly shows the according to the semantic criterion, the words are
synonyms. The connotative component shows their differentiation.
Criterion of interchangeability. Here synonyms are defined as words, which are interchangeable
at least in some context without any considerable alteration in denotational meaning. This criterion has
been also severely criticized..Because one may think that there are very few synonyms or they are not
interchangeable. Sometimes substitution of one word for another is impossible. Cp .: in Russian :
скоропостижно только скончаться, но не обрадоваться.Of course, context keeps the words in their
proper places, but not only context, but individual connotative structure of each individual word also.
Types of synonyms
Academician Vinogradov, the famous Russian scholar classified the synonyms as follows:
1) ideographic- words conveying the same concept, but differing in shades of meaning;
2) stylistic- they differ in stylistic characteristics,
3) absolute- which coincide in all their shades of meaning and in all their stylistic characteristics.
Still his classification is open to discussion: absolute synonyms are rare in the vocabulary and on the
diachronic level the phenomenon of absolute synonymy is not adequate and temporary: the vocabulary
system neglects it. It either rejects one of the absolute synonyms, or develops differentiation
characteristics in one or both of them. That's why it is not necessary to include absolute synonyms in the
system of classification, because they are temporary exceptions. Also the subdivision of synonyms into
ideographic and stylistic is debatable.
Synonyms may be classified according to definition, describing synonyms as words, differing in
connotation. We shall classify connotations by which synonyms differ, but not synonyms themselves.
Types of connotation
1. The connotation of degree or intensify:
to surprise-to astonish-to amaze;
to satisfy-to please-to gratify-to delight;
to shout-to yell-to roar;
to like-to admire-to love-to adore-to worship.
2. Connotation of duration:
to stare-to glare-to gaze-to glance;
to say-to speak-to talk.
3. Emotive connotations. The synonyms are differentiated by emotive connotations and from each other
by the nature of emotion they imply:
to stare-in surprise;
to glare-in anger, rage, fury;
to gaze-in tenderness, admiration, wonder;
alone-lonely-single-solitary.
4. The evaluative connotation conveys the speaker's attitude; it gives the label good or bad.
Well-known-famous-notorious-celebrated. A notorious may be murderer, but a scholar-celebrated.
In the group to produce-to create-to manufacture-to fabricate to create means inspired and noble
process, while to manufacture there is no inspiration. So, to create has a positive evaluative connotation
and to manufacture – has a negative connotation.
5. The causative connotation: to blush - to redden. To blush means коаснеть от смущения - modestly,
shame, embarrassment; to redden from anger, indignation.
6. The connotation of manner (IN some groups of verbal synonyms): to stroll (прогуливаться) - to side
(круто шагать, перешагнуть) - to trot ( бежать рысью) - to pace (шагать, идти, измерять
шагами) - to swagger (важничать) - to stagger(идти шатаясь).
All these synonyms denote different types of walking but in the semantic structure the length of peace,
tempo, gait and carriage, purposefulness or lack of purpose are shown.
7. The connotation of attendant circumstances: peer - вглядываться. So, in the semantic structure of to
peer there are encoded circumstances preventing one from seeing clearly.
8. Connotation of attendant feature: beautiful is associated with classical features, pretty - with delicate
features.
9. Stylistic connotations. They somehow stand apart.
1) some scholars do not think that the work stylistic characteristic is a connotative component of
its semantic structure.
2) stylistic connotations may be further classified into colloquial, slang, dialect, learned, poetic,
terminological, archaic. For example, to leave - to be off - to clear out (coll.) - to be it - to hoof it to take the air (slang) - to depart - to retire - to withdraw (formal ).
The dominant synonym.
Most synonymic groups have a 'central' word whose meaning is equal to the denotation common
to all the synonymic group.This word is called the dominant synonym.
To make - to produce - to create - to fabricate - to manufacture.
Any dominant synonym is a typical basic vocabulary word. Its meaning is broad and generalised and
covers the meanings of the rest of the synonyms, it may be substituted by any of them. But in this case
additional information, supplied by connotative component of each synonym is lost as well as precision,
expressiveness and colour.
Euphemisms.
People in their speech are usually avoiding some words. Why? They are usually described by
using substitutes called euphemisms.
Such word as 'lavatory' has a lot of euphemisms; pregnancy is described as to be in an interesting
condition, to be an expectant mother, to be in a family way, to be with a baby coming; trousers unmentionables, unwhisperables.
The words associated with drunkenness, which are very numerous, are usually substituted with
euphemisms: fresh, high, merry, full, boiled, drunks as a lord, fried, soaked, half-sea-over. Of course,
euphemisms may be used not to hurt somebody's feelings: a liar - person who doesn't always tell the
truth; a full - not exactly brilliant.
All these euphemisms are used to avoid the social taboo. There are also superstitious taboos when the
words denoting evil spirits and dangerous animals or the powers of nature are substituted by euphemisms:
mortal disease-Black Death.
Euphemisms are the oldest type of synonyms. The Christian religion also made certain words taboo:
devil-the black one, old Nick; God-Good Lord, By Heavens, My goodness gracious, Gracious me!
Nowadays people still avoid using the word “to die”, instead of it they use: to kick the bucket,
to pass away, to close one's eyes, to join the majority. The names of mental diseases are also substituted
with euphemisms: a mad person – insane, mentally unstable, unbalanced, cuckoo, a mental defective.
Antonyms
Antonyms are words of the same category of parts of speech, having contrasting meaning. There
are a lot of examples of antonyms. Most antonyms are adjectives-high-low; verbs- to lose-to find,to liveto die. Together with synonyms antonyms are the most expressive means of the language.
Work-Shop
Theme: Synonyms.
Aim: to teach the students to distinguish the denotative and connotative meaning of synonyms.
Procedure:
1. Questionnaire
a) What is the principal function of synonyms?
b) Criteria of synonymy ( semantic criterion), criterion of interchangeability.
c) Types of synonyms
d) Types of connotation.
2. Explain the difference of the synonyms where the words are familiar: chatter – talk – speak – say – tell
– converse; shiver – tremble – shake; glance – look – gaze – peep; to watch – wander – stroll; slender –
slim.
3. Give as many synonyms as you can: baby, reply, experience, to die, governess, little, celebrate, want,
start, lonely, shout, tell, cry, small, inquire, examine.
4. single out the denotative and connotative components of meaning: smile-grin, celebrated - notorious,
alone – lonely, shiver – shudder, surprised – astonish, to stare – glare – gaze; produce – fabricate, anger
– indignation.
Lecture No
Lexicography.
1. Types of dictionaries.
2. History of English Lexicography
3. History of American Lexicography
4. Dialectical, etymological and ideographic dictionaries
5. Dictionaries of synonyms
6. Other types of dictionaries.
The word lexicography consists of two words: lecicos - word and grapho write.
Lexicography is the practice of compiling dictionaries and a part of language study, which deals with the
theory of compiling dictionaries.
Dictionary is a collection of words, compiled in alphabetical, thematical order and containing all the
word-stock of a language or a dialect.
Russian term словарь has three equivalents in English. They are dictionary, vocabulary and glossary.
Dictionary is the most full collection of words of the whole dialect, language or specialty.
Vocabulary contains fewer words , doesn't explain their meaning or contains only a parts of words,
referring to this subject. Vocabulary you may find in the textbooks, they explain the words that you come
across in the given textbook. Pupils' word-notebooks are also called vocabularies. This word may used
when speaking about a writer's language. In Foreign language teaching methods vocabulary is the pupil's
word-stock.
Glossary is the list of explanations to the specific words and expressions of a book. For example, in
the technical textbooks, there is always a glossary with definitions of the technical and scientific terms,
used by the author.
There are also encyclopedic and biography dictionaries. English biography dictionaries are numerous
and they are called Who's who.
There are not only bilingual dictionaries, but also explanation (толковые), etymological, historical,
ideographic, phraseological, pronunciational, dictionaries of synonyms, antonyms, proverbs, and
citations, dialects, slang, terminological.
2. History of English Lexicography.
English explanatory dictionaries.
Since XI century new English lexicography has developed. Bi-lingual English-French, EnglishLatin, English-German and many other dictionaries appeared. New dictionaries which task was to explain
the meaning of difficult words have appeared since XVII century. Robert Cawdrew was the first to
compile such a dictionary 'A table...'. It was published in 1604. The compiler recommended the reader the
best ways of using, pronouncing and writing words.
The first etymological dictionary by Nathan Bailey was published in1721. Bailey focuses on the
variability of the language, gives etymology almost to every word, presenting OE words and their
German, Dutch and Iceland equivalents. Proverbs are used to illustrate the meaning of the words.
Samuel Johnson's 'A dictionary of the English language' in which the words are deduced from
their originals and illustrate in their different significations by examples from the best writers, was
published in 1775. It influenced the development of English lexicography greatly.
There were two trends in the history of lexicography. Representatives of the first trend considered
dictionaries to be a practical guide to the correct usage, pronunciation and spelling of words. The second
trend representatives considered the main ask of dictionaries only to register everything, which is already
available in the language. This second type of dictionaries was called 'thesaurus' (словарь,
сокровищница). Oxford dictionary belong to this type it took a lot of people more than 70years of hard
work.
There are also 'The shorter Oxford English Dictionary', 'The Concise Oxford Dictionary', 'Large
Oxford Dictionary' contains more than two million of citation.
3. History of American Lexicography.
What a coincidence! The first American dictionary was also compiled by Samuel Jhonson in
1798. it was a school dictionary. But the most famous are dictionaries by Noa Webster. A modern
Webster's dictionary contains more than 600 000 words and etymological dictionary. There are
paragraphs in the introductory parts dedicated to English pronunciation, phonetic transcription,
dependence between a sound and a letter and so on. The edition is highly illustrated.
We may also mention such dictionaries as Thorndike's dictionary, Chamber's dictionary, Funk and
Wagnall's dictionary.
4. Dialectical, etymological and ideographic dictionaries
1. The English Dialectical Dictionary by Joseph Wright contains 6 volumes. The dictionary
contains all words, met in England for the past 200 years and Ireland, Scotland, Wales; differentdialectal
pronunciation, etymology and phraseology are given.
Walter Skeat's 'An Etymological Dictionary of the English Language' is also of great interest, as
well as Ernest Weekly's 'An Etymological Dictionary of modern English'.
Ideographic dictionaries arrange the words not according to their phonetic form, but according to
their meanings, i.e. the lists of words - notions with their synonyms are given. The most famous is
'Thesaurus of English words and phrases' by Peter Roget, London, 1925. The dictionary focuses on the
search of more suitable and exact words in order to express this or that idea or emotion. It is aimed to
assist lecturers, translators into English. The dictionary consists of 6 parts: 1. Abstract relations. 2. Space.
3. Substance. 4. Mind. 5. Will. 6. Feelings.
5. Dictionaries of Synonyms.
One of the famous dictionaries of synonyms is 'A dictionary of English synonyms and
synonymous expressions' by R.Soule and others dictionaries. Some dictionaries thoroughly explain the
difference between meanings of the synonyms; the others give a complete enumeration of the words close
in meaning.
Word articles in different dictionaries are arranged differently depending on the purpose of its
usage.
Other types of dictionaries.
Besides the dictionaries mentioned above there are many other types of dictionaries:
phraseological, proverbs, citation, abbreviations, slang, terminological, dictionaries of linguistic terms,
pronunciational and many others.
Flower's Dictionary of Modern English Usage is of great interest. It looks more like a linguistic
directory of reference book, where different data English grammar, lexicology, and stylistics presented.
M. West Dictionary is a bilingual and explanatory dictionary.
Great difficulty is connected with compiling bi-lingual dictionaries, because a word notion system
in one language doesn't coincide with the notion system of the analogous word in the other language. For
example,
-хороший, хорошенький, прекрасный, и превосходный- fine, good-looking, pretty, handsome,
beautiful.
-Красивая женщина, красивый мужчина, красивые слова – a beautiful woman, a handsome man,
fine words.
-Прекрасная погода,прекрасный человек, прекрасные глаза- fine weather, beautiful eyes, an
excellent man.
Russian and English notions are connected with great difficulty.
Students must get accustomed to use big dictionaries, because working with a dictionary contributes to
better acquiring the language.
Here are the most well-known modern English – Russian dictionaries by Muller, Arakin, RussianEnglish- by Smirnitsky.
Lecture No
Meaning of the Word
The linguistic science till nowadays is unable to answer this question. But we can state that as far
a word functions as a unit of communication, it should possess a meaning. So, the meaning is the most
important characteristics of a word.
Meaning can be defined as a component of the word though which a concept is communicated,
this helps the word to denote real objects, qualities, actions and abstract notions.
Thought or reference
Symbol
Reference( object, denoted by the words)
The triangle represents the relationship between referent( object, denoted by the word), concept
and word.
We mean here by” symbol” the word thought or reference is concept. The doted bottom line
suggests that
there is no immediate relation between word and referent. It is established only through
the concept.
But there is an opinion that concepts are realized through words. This mechanism is not quite
understood to the end. It means when the concepts( mental phenomena) are converted into words( I.e
linguistic phenomena) and the reverse process by which a heard or a printed word is converted into a kind
of a mental picture.
Semantics as the branch of linguistics deals with the study meaning.
“Semantics, according to Mario Pei is language in its broadest most inclusive aspect. Sounds,
words, grammatical forms, syntactical constructions are the tools of language. Semantics is language's
purpose.
Modern scientists treat the inner form of the word as the structure of the word. Polysemy is
closely connected with the problem of semantics.
Polysemy. Semantic structure of the word.
A word having several meanings is called polysemantic. Polysemy is the ability of the word to
have more than one meaning. Most English words are polysemantic. The more developed the Polysemy
of a language the more wealthy and expressive the language.
Some uncultivated people think that if there is a phenomenon of Polysemy, the language is poor
and lacks words. Vice verse, a well – developed Polysemy is not a drawback, but a great advantage in a
language. Because, if one word can convey two concepts, instead of one, the expressive ability of the
vocabulary increases.
On the other hand, the human being can produce a limited number of sound combinations. And
here Polysemy helps to enrich the vocabulary.
A polysemantic word develops its system of meaning gradually: new meaning are added to old
ones, and some old ones (meanings) are omitted. In general English language increases the number of
meaning and the expressive resources of the language grow quantitatively and qualitatively.
There are two levels of analysis of the semantic structure of a polysemantic word. On the first
level the semantic structure of a word is treated as a system of meaning.
Semantic structure of the noun fire.
I
I
Fire
flame
2) a forest fore – пожар
3) a camp fire – костер
4) speech – lacking fire – жар вдохновения
5) fire – увольнять
The first meaning somehow dominates over the other meanings, generalizes. The other meaning
are connected with special circumstances, aspects and instances of the same phenomenon. Meaning I is
considered to be the main meaning and is the center of the semantic structure of the word. Other
meanings are called secondary meanings.
It is impossible to establish any logical associations between the meanings of some nouns.
Dull 1) скучный
2) тупой
3) пасмурный
4) глухой (звук)
5) тупой (нож)
6) вялый (trade is dull) and so on.
But still we can feel that there is something that unites all these miscellaneous meanings –
deficiency.
1) uninteresting – deficient in interest
2) stupid – deficient in intellect and so on.
So we can state that according to the semantic structure of 'dull', in the center there is not one meaning,
but a certain component that can be distinguished in every separate meaning.
In the second level of analysis the semantic structure of the word is divisible at a deeper level.
Each separate meaning may be represented as a set of semantic components in the structural analysis.
According to componential analysis the meaning of a word is a set of elements of meaning and they are
not the part of the vocabulary of the language itself, but theoretical elements, given in order to describe
the semantic relations between the lexical elements of a language.
So, the semantic structure of a word should be investigated at 2 levels:
1) of different meaning
2) of semantic components within each separate meaning.
Types of semantic components.
In the semantic structure of a word the main semantic component is termed denotative component.
It expresses the conceptual content of a word.
Distinguished – widely known
To gaze – to look
We can see that the definitions incompletely describe at the meaning of their corresponding words.
If we want to have full picture of the meaning of a word, we should include some additional semantic
components – connotative components. They are: emotive connotations, evaluative connotations,
negative, positive, connotation of duration, of cause and so on.
We can see that in order to understand what the word really means we should single out
denotative and connotative components. A word can have two or more denotative components.
Meaning and context
Polysemantic words sometimes lead to misunderstanding. This is the source for all kids of jokes.
Light-light
Context plays a great role in preventing all kinds of misunderstanding.
Current research helps to know the semantic structure of the word by studying is combinability and
collocability.
Scholars have stated that the semantic of words characterized by common occurrences (i.e. words, which
regularly appear in common context ) are correlated and therefore one of the words within such a pair can
be studied through the other. For example, semantic structure of an adjective: N+1 (link verb) + A
a) bright colour, flower, dress (intensive in colour)
b) bright metal, gold – shining
c) bright student – capable
d) bright face – gay
So, we may say that context is a good and reliable key to the meaning of the word.