CONTENTS:
INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………..
CHAPTER.I About Charles dickens biography.
1.1. A short biography of Charles Dickens…………………………..
1.2. Charles Dickens’s famous works………………………………..
CHAPTER.II The problem of character and the function of the plot ending in
the novel by Charles Dickens "Great Expectations ".
2.1. The novel by Charles Dickens "Great Expectations "………….
2.2. The problem of character and the function of the plot ending in the novel by
Charles Dickens "Great Expectations"………………………………
CONCLUSION……………………………………………………..
REFERENCES……………………………………………………...
1
INTRODUCTION
Nоwаdаys, thе impоrtаnсе оf suссеssful соmmuniсаtiоn bеtwееn
rеprеsеntаtivеs оf diffеrеnt соuntriеs is grоwing in thе соnditiоns оf а high lеvеl
intеgrаtiоn оf wоrld pоlitiсs аnd есоnоmiсs, dеvеlоpmеnt оf intеrnаtiоnаl
rеlаtiоns in suсh sphеrеs оf humаn асtivity аs pоlitiсs, sсiеnсе, сulturе аnd
есоnоmy. Thе First Prеsidеnt оf Uzbеkistаn, I. А. .Kаrimоv, rеpеаtеdly nоtеd in
his spеесhеs thаt "in thе соnditiоns оf wоrld intеgrаtiоn, knоwlеdgе оf fоrеign
lаnguаgеs is thе guаrаntее оf еffесtivе сооpеrаtiоn with fоrеign stаtеs". In
ассоrdаnсе with Prеsidеntiаl Dесrее Nо. PD-1875 оf Dесеmbеr 10, 2012, spесiаl
аttеntiоn is pаid tо thе imprоvеmеnt оf thе соmplеx systеm оf tеасhing fоrеign
lаnguаgеs аimеd аt thе fоrmаtiоn оf а hаrmоniоusly dеvеlоpеd, highly еduсаtеd,
mоdеrn thinking yоungеr gеnеrаtiоn, аs wеll аs furthеr intеgrаtiоn оf thе Rеpubliс
intо thе wоrld соmmunity.
Thе Prеsidеnt оf Uzbеkistаn Sh. M. Mirziyоyеv аlsо strеssеs thаt "thе priоrity
tаsks fоr us аrе thе dеvеlоpmеnt оf thе sphеrе оf еduсаtiоn, upbringing аnd sсiеnсе
thе сrеаtiоn оf соnditiоns fоr thе асtivе mаstеry оf prоfоund knоwlеdgе, fоrеign
lаnguаgеs by yоung pеоplе.
Litеrаturе is wоndеrful lifе with strugglеs оf gооdnеss аnd bаdnеss whеrе
gооdnеss аlwаys wins. It dоеs nоt еxist аs аnоthеr wоrld frоm оurs. It is rеflеctiоn
оf оur cоmmоn rеаl lifе. It is likе а mirrоr which rеflеcts lоvе, hаppinеss, sаdnеss,
difficultiеs аnd еtc. Thе mаin tоpic оf my cоursе pаpеr is to give some information
about Romanticism in American literature. The Dream of American Romanticism
the Romantic Movement seized America from 1800 to 1860. A romantic is the
name given to those who value feeling and intuition over reason. During this time
period, Americans were migrating westward to explore the land of America.
Moving towards the countryside, they pursued beauty and tried evading their daily
2
troubles. Romantics argued that art rather than science could best express universal
truth. The romantics took a less rational approach with their beliefs. Rationalists
and romantics had a very different look on cities. Rationalists looked at them as a
place for success. Romantics ran from these cities viewing them as a place of
poverty and death. During this time Americans felt a sense of freedom from
English rule. Frontier promised opportunity for expansion, growth, freedom.
Americans felt the need to explore science and the land of North America. This
movement brought literature of fireside poetry to the American Hero. Over the
course of the American Romantic Period, focusing on emotions, changed the way
Americans comprehended upward mobility in the American dream, which in turn
changed the way authors wrote and lived their lives. The numerous characteristics
of the romantic period helped shape the era. Romantics obsessed over the idea of
individuality. They felt the need to have self-expression. They felt that they could
do anything with self-reliance. “One could live without fear not because it was
possible to control events but because it was possible to achieve self-control”.
Thе аim оf thе cоursе pаpеr is Great Expectations, by Charles Dickens, is
a novel that deals with the formative years and spiritual education of the main
character, Pip. About a year before Dickens began writing the novel, Charles
Darwin published his theory on human development. The question of human
development and the effects of nature-versus-nurture on development immediately
became an important topic for public debate. Dickens incorporated this debate into
his novel by experimenting with the effects of nurturing and environment on
development. Keeping in mind that Pip is on a journey through his formative years,
Dickens places Pip in a world layered with guilt and describes the effect that this
environment has on his development.
Thе tаsks оf thе invеstigаtiоn includе:
3
- Tо givе infоrmаtiоn аbоut Charles Dickens’s biography;
Thе оbjеct оf thе cоursе pаpеr is tо invеstigаtе Charles Dickens’s litеrаry
wоrks аnd thе lеаding thеmеs;
Thе subjеct оf thе cоursе pаpеr is tо cоnduct rеsеаrch аbоut The Theme of
Guilt and Its Function in "Great Expectations" by Charles Dickens
Thе mаin lаnguаgе mаtеriаl оf thе rеsеаrch pаpеr hаs bееn gаthеrеd frоm
thе litеrаry wоrks оf vаriоus аuthоrs аnd intеrnеt sоurcе. Thus, thе infоrmаtiоn аnd
dаtа аnd еxаmplеs аrе tаkеn frоm thе аuthеntic Еnglish sоurcеs, sо thаt thе
еvidеncе оf thе rеsеаrch rеsults cоuld bе dоubtlеss.
Thе cоursе pаpеr includеs: intrоductiоn, 2 chаptеrs, cоnclusiоn аnd а list
оf usеd litеrаturе.
- intrоductiоn givеs infоrmаtiоn аbоut thе mаin аims оf оur cоursе pаpеr,
оbjеcts аnd subjеct mаttеrs оf thе givеn cоursе pаpеr.
- chаptеr I includеs infоrmаtiоn аbоut About Charles dickens biography.
- chаptеr II аlsо includеs The problem of character and the function of the
plot ending in the novel by Charles Dickens "Great Expectations ".
- cоnclusiоn will еnd thе cоursе pаpеr by giving gеnеrаl, privаtе оpiniоn
rеgаrding thе prоcеss оf prеpаring cоursе pаpеr.
- list оf usеd litеrаturе includеs thе nаmеs оf thе bооks аnd mаgаzinеs thаt I
utilizеd during thе rеsеаrch.
4
CHAPTER.I About Charles dickens biography.
1.1. A short biography of Charles Dickens
Charles Dickens, in full Charles John Huffam Dickens, [born February 7,
1812, Portsmouth, Hampshire, England—died June 9, 1870, Gad’s Hill, near
Chatham, Kent], English novelist, generally considered the greatest of
the Victorian era. His many volumes include such works as A Christmas
Carol, David Copperfield, Bleak House, A Tale of Two Cities, Great Expectations,
and Our Mutual Friend. Dickens enjoyed a wider popularity during his lifetime
than had any previous author. Much in his work could appeal to the simple and
the sophisticated, to the poor and to the queen, and technological developments as
well as the qualities of his work enabled his fame to spread worldwide very
quickly. His long career saw fluctuations in the reception and sales of individual
novels, but none of them was negligible or uncharacteristic or disregarded, and,
though he is now admired for aspects and phases of his work that were given less
weight by his contemporaries, his popularity has never ceased. The most
abundantly comic of English authors, he was much more than a great entertainer.
The range, compassion, and intelligence of his apprehension of his society and its
shortcomings enriched his novels and made him both one of the great forces in
19th-century literature and an influential spokesman of the conscience of his age.
Dickens left Portsmouth in infancy. His happiest childhood years were spent
in Chatham [1817–22], an area to which he often reverted in his fiction. From 1822
he lived in London, until, in 1860, he moved permanently to a country house,
Gad’s Hill, near Chatham. His origins were middle class, if of a newfound and
precarious respectability; one grandfather had been a domestic servant, and the
other an embezzler. His father, a clerk in the navy pay office, was well paid, but
his
extravagance
and ineptitude often
5
brought
the
family
to
financial
embarrassment or disaster. [Some of his failings and his ebullience are dramatized
in Mr. Micawber in the partly autobiographical David Copperfield.] In 1824 the
family reached bottom. Charles, the eldest son, had been withdrawn from school
and was now set to manual work in a factory, and his father went to prison for
debt. These shocks deeply affected Charles. Though abhorring this brief descent
into the working class, he began to gain that sympathetic knowledge of its life and
privations that informed his writings. Also, the images of the prison and of the lost,
oppressed, or bewildered child recur in many novels. Much else in his character
and art stemmed from this period, including, as the 20th-century novelist Angus
Wilson has argued, his later difficulty, as man and author, in understanding
women: this may be traced to his bitter resentment against his mother, who had, he
felt, failed disastrously at this time to appreciate his sufferings. She had wanted
him to stay at work when his father’s release from prison and an improvement in
the family’s fortunes made the boy’s return to school possible. Happily, the
father’s view prevailed.
His schooling, interrupted and unimpressive, ended at 15. He became a clerk
in a solicitor’s office, then a shorthand reporter in the lawcourts [thus gaining a
knowledge of the legal world often used in the novels], and finally, like other
members of his family, a parliamentary and newspaper reporter. These years left
him with a lasting affection for journalism and contempt both for the law and for
Parliament. His coming to manhood in the reformist 1830s, and particularly his
working on the Liberal Benthamite Morning Chronicle [1834–36], greatly affected
his political outlook. Another influential event now was his rejection as suitor to
Maria Beadnell because his family and prospects were unsatisfactory; his hopes of
gaining and chagrin at losing her sharpened his determination to succeed. His
feelings about Beadnell then and at her later brief and disillusioning reentry into
6
his life are reflected in David Copperfield’s adoration of Dora Spenlow and in the
middle-aged Arthur Clennam’s discovery [in Little Dorrit] that Flora Finching,
who had seemed enchanting years ago, was “diffuse and silly,” that Flora, “whom
he had left a lily, had become a peony.”
Much drawn to the theatre, Dickens nearly became a professional actor in
1832. In 1833 he began contributing stories and descriptive essays to magazines
and newspapers; these attracted attention and were reprinted as Sketches by
“Boz” [February 1836]. The same month, he was invited to provide a
comic serial narrative to accompany engravings by a well-known artist; seven
weeks later the first installment of The Pickwick Papers appeared. Within a few
months Pickwick was the rage and Dickens the most popular author of the day.
During 1836 he also wrote two plays and a pamphlet on a topical issue [how the
poor should be allowed to enjoy the Sabbath] and, resigning from his newspaper
job, undertook to edit a monthly magazine, Bentley’s Miscellany, in which he
serialized Oliver Twist [1837–39]. Thus, he had two serial installments to write
every month. Already the first of his nine surviving children had been born; he had
married [in April 1836] Catherine, eldest daughter of a respected Scottish
journalist and man of letters, George Hogarth. For several years his life continued
at this intensity. Finding serialization congenial and profitable, he repeated
the Pickwick pattern of 20 monthly parts in Nicholas Nickleby [1838–39]; then he
experimented with shorter weekly installments for The Old Curiosity Shop [1840–
41] and Barnaby Rudge [1841]. Exhausted at last, he then took a five-month
vacation in America, touring strenuously and receiving quasi-royal honours as a
literary celebrity but offending national sensibilities by protesting against the
absence of copyright protection. A radical critic of British institutions, he had
expected more from “the republic of my imagination,” but he found more vulgarity
7
and sharp practice to detest than social arrangements to admire. Some of these
feelings appear in American Notes [1842] and Martin Chuzzlewit [1843–44].
8
1.2. Charles Dickens’s famous works
His writing during these prolific years was remarkably various and, except
for his plays, resourceful. Pickwick began as high-spirited farce and contained
many conventional comic butts and traditional jokes; like other early works, it was
manifestly indebted to the contemporary theatre, the 18th-century English
novelists, and a few foreign classics, notably Don Quixote. But, besides giving
new life to old stereotypes, Pickwick displayed, if sometimes in embryo, many of
the features that were to be blended in varying proportions throughout his fiction:
attacks, satirical or denunciatory, on social evils and inadequate institutions;
topical references; an encyclopaedic knowledge of London [always his
predominant fictional locale]; pathos; a vein of the macabre; a delight in the
demotic joys of Christmas; a pervasive spirit of benevolence and geniality;
inexhaustible powers of character creation; a wonderful ear for characteristic
speech, often imaginatively heightened; a strong narrative impulse; and a prose
style that, if here overdependent on a few comic mannerisms, was highly
individual and inventive. Rapidly improvised and written only weeks or days
ahead of its serial publication, Pickwick contains weak and jejune passages and is
an unsatisfactory whole—partly because Dickens was rapidly developing his craft
as a novelist while writing and publishing it. What is remarkable is that a
first novel, written in such circumstances, not only established him overnight and
created a new tradition of popular literature but also survived, despite its crudities,
as one of the best-known novels in the world. His self-assurance and artistic
ambitiousness appeared in Oliver Twist, where he rejected the temptation to repeat
the successful Pickwick formula. Though containing much comedy still, Oliver
Twist is more centrally concerned with social and moral evil [the workhouse and
the criminal world]; it culminates in Bill Sikes’s murdering Nancy and Fagin’s last
9
night in the condemned cell at Newgate. The latter episode was memorably
depicted in an engraving by George Cruikshank; the imaginative potency of
Dickens’s characters and settings owes much, indeed, to his original illustrators
[Cruikshank for Sketches by “Boz” and Oliver Twist, “Phiz” [Hablot K. Browne]
for most of the other novels until the 1860s]. The currency of his fiction owed
much, too, to its being so easy to adapt into effective stage versions. Sometimes 20
London theatres simultaneously were producing adaptations of his latest story, so
even nonreaders became acquainted with simplified versions of his works. The
theatre was often a subject of his fiction, too, as in the Crummles troupe
in Nicholas Nickleby. This novel reverted to the Pickwick shape and atmosphere,
though the indictment of the brutal Yorkshire schools [Dotheboys Hall] continued
the important innovation in English fiction seen in Oliver Twist—the spectacle of
the lost or oppressed child as an occasion for pathos and social criticism. This was
amplified in The Old Curiosity Shop, where the death of Little Nell was found
overwhelmingly powerful at the time, though a few decades later it became a
byword for what would be referred to, broadly, as “Victorian sentimentality.”
In Barnaby Rudge he attempted another genre, the historical novel. Like his later
attempt in this kind, A Tale of Two Cities, it was set in the late 18th century and
presented with great vigour and understanding [and some ambivalence of attitude]
the spectacle of large-scale mob violence. To create an artistic unity out of the
wide range of moods and materials included in every novel, with often several
complicated plots involving scores of characters, was made even more difficult by
Dickens’s writing and publishing them serially. In Martin Chuzzlewit he tried “to
resist the temptation of the current Monthly Number, and to keep a steadier eye
upon the general purpose and design” [1844 Preface]. Its American episodes had,
however, been unpremeditated [he suddenly decided to boost the disappointing
sales by some America-baiting and to revenge himself against insults and injuries
10
from the American press]. A concentration on “the general purpose and design”
was more effective in the next novel, Dombey and Son [1846–48], though the
experience of writing the shorter, and unserialized, Christmas books had helped
him obtain greater coherence. A Christmas Carol, suddenly conceived and written
in a few weeks in late 1843, was the first of these Christmas books [a new
literary genre thus created incidentally]. Tossed off while he was amply engaged in
writing Chuzzlewit, it was an extraordinary achievement—the one great
Christmas myth of modern literature. His view of life was later to be described or
dismissed as “Christmas philosophy,” and he himself spoke of “Carol philosophy”
as the basis of a projected work. His “philosophy,” never very elaborated, involved
more than wanting the Christmas spirit to prevail throughout the year, but his great
attachment to Christmas [in his family life as well as his writings] is indeed
significant and has contributed to his popularity. “Dickens dead?” exclaimed a
London costermonger’s girl in 1870. “Then will Father Christmas die too?”—a
tribute both to his association with Christmas and to the mythological status of the
man as well as of his work. The Carol immediately entered the general
consciousness; William Makepeace Thackeray, in a contemporary review, called it
“a national benefit, and to every man and woman who reads it a personal
kindness.” Further Christmas books, essays, and stories followed annually [except
in 1847] through 1867. None equalled the Carol in potency, though some achieved
great immediate popularity. Cumulatively they represent a celebration of
Christmas attempted by no other great author. He was indeed very much a public
figure, actively and centrally involved in his world, and a man of confident
presence. He was reckoned the best after-dinner speaker of the age;
other superlatives he attracted included his having been the best shorthand reporter
on the London press and his being the best amateur actor on the stage. Later he
became one of the most successful periodical editors and the finest dramatic
11
recitalist of the day. He was splendidly endowed with many skills. “Even
irrespective of his literary genius,” wrote an obituarist, “he was an able and strongminded man, who would have succeeded in almost any profession to which he
devoted himself ” [Times, June 10, 1870]. Few of his extraliterary skills and
interests were irrelevant to the range and mode of his fiction.
Privately in these early years, he was both domestic and social. He loved
home and family life and was a proud and efficient householder; he once
contemplated writing a cookbook. To his many children, he was a devoted and
delightful father, at least while they were young; relations with them proved less
happy during their adolescence. Apart from periods in Italy [1844–45] and
Switzerland and France [1846–47], he still lived in London, moving from an
apartment in Furnival’s Inn to larger houses as his income and family grew. Here
he entertained his many friends, most of them popular authors, journalists, actors,
or artists, though some came from the law and other professions or from commerce
and a few from the aristocracy. Some friendships dating from his youth endured to
the end, and, though often exasperated by the financial demands of his parents and
other relatives, he was very fond of some of his family and loyal to most of the
rest. Some literary squabbles came later, but he was on friendly terms with most of
his fellow authors, of the older generation as well as his own. Necessarily solitary
while writing and during the long walks [especially through the streets at night]
that became essential to his creative processes, he was generally social at other
times. He enjoyed society that was unpretentious and conversation that was genial
and sensible but not too intellectualized or exclusively literary. High society he
generally avoided, after a few early incursions into the great houses; he hated to be
lionized or patronized.
12
He had about him “a sort of swell and overflow as of a prodigality of life,”
an American journalist said. Everyone was struck by the brilliance of his eyes and
his smart, even dandyish, appearance [“I have the fondness of a savage for finery,”
he confessed]. John Forster, his intimate friend and future biographer, recalled him
at the Pickwick period: He was proud of his art and devoted to improving it and
using it to good ends [his works would show, he wrote, that “Cheap Literature is
not behind-hand with the Age, but holds its place, and strives to do its duty”], but
his art never engaged all his formidable energies. He had no desire to be narrowly
literary.
A notable, though unsuccessful, demonstration of this was his being founder-editor
in 1846 of the Daily News [soon to become the leading Liberal newspaper]. His
journalistic origins, his political convictions and readiness to act as a leader of
opinion, and his wish to secure a steady income independent of his literary
creativity and of any shifts in novel readers’ tastes made him attempt or plan
several periodical ventures in the 1840s. The return to daily journalism soon
proved a mistake—the biggest fiasco in a career that included few such
misdirections or failures. A more limited but happier exercise of his practical
talents began soon afterward: for more than a decade he directed, energetically and
with great insight and compassion, a reformatory home for young female
delinquents, financed by his wealthy friend Angela Burdett-Coutts. The benevolent
spirit apparent in his writings often found practical expression in his public
speeches, fund-raising activities, and private acts of charity. Dombey and
Son [1846–48] was a crucial novel in his development, a product of more thorough
planning and maturer thought and the first in which “a pervasive uneasiness about
contemporary society takes the place of an intermittent concern with specific social
wrongs,” as the scholar Kathleen Tillotson observed. Using railways prominently
13
and effectively, it was very up-to-date, though the questions posed included
such perennial moral and religious challenges as are suggested by the child Paul’s
first words in the story: “Papa, what’s money?” Some of the corruptions of money
and pride of place and the limitations of “respectable” values are explored, virtue
and human decency being discovered most often [as elsewhere in Dickens] among
the poor, humble, and simple. In Paul’s early death Dickens offered another
famous pathetic episode; in Mr. Dombey he made a more ambitious attempt than
before at serious and internal characterization. David Copperfield [1849–50] has
been described as a “holiday” from these larger social concerns and most notable
for its childhood chapters, which the critic Edmund Wilson described as “an
enchanting vein which he had never quite found before and which he was never to
find again.” Largely for this reason and for its autobiographical interest, it has
always been among his most popular novels and was Dickens’s own “favourite
child.” It incorporates material from the autobiography he had recently begun but
soon abandoned and was written in the first person, a new technique for him.
David differs from his creator in many ways, however, though Dickens used many
early experiences that had meant much to him—his period of work in the factory
while his father was jailed, his schooling and reading, his passion for Maria
Beadnell, and [more cursorily] his emergence from parliamentary reporting into
successful novel writing. In Micawber the novel presents one of the “Dickens
characters” whose imaginative potency extends far beyond the narratives in which
they
figure; Pickwick and Sam
Weller, Mrs.
Gamp and Mr.
Pecksniff,
and Scrooge are some others. Dickens’s journalistic ambitions at last found a
permanent form in Household Words [1850–59] and its successor, All the Year
Round [1859–88]. Popular weekly miscellanies of fiction, poetry, and essays on a
wide range of topics, these had substantial and increasing circulations, reaching
300,000 for some of the Christmas numbers. Dickens contributed some serials—
14
the lamentable Child’s History of England [1851–53], Hard Times [1854], A Tale
of Two Cities [1859], and Great Expectations [1860–61]—and essays, some of
which were collected in Reprinted Pieces [1858] and The Uncommercial
Traveller [1861, later amplified]. Particularly in 1850–52 and during the Crimean
War, he contributed many items on current political and social affairs; in later
years he wrote less—much less on politics—and the magazine was less political,
too. Other distinguished novelists contributed serials, including Elizabeth
Gaskell, Wilkie Collins, Charles Reade, and Edward George Bulwer-Lytton. The
poetry was uniformly feeble; Dickens was imperceptive here. The reportage, often
solidly based, was bright [sometimes painfully so] in manner. His conduct of these
weeklies showed his many skills as editor and journalist but also some limitations
in his tastes and intellectual ambitions. The contents are revealing in relation to his
novels: he took responsibility for all the opinions expressed [for articles were
anonymous] and selected and amended contributions accordingly; thus, comments
on topical events and so on may generally be taken as representing his opinions,
whether or not he wrote them. No English author of comparable status has devoted
20 years of his maturity to such unremitting editorial work, and the weeklies’
success was due not only to his illustrious name but also to his practical sagacity
and sustained industry. Even in his creative work, as his eldest son said. The novels
of
these
years, Bleak
House [1852–53], Hard
Times [1854],
and Little
Dorrit [1855–57], were much “darker” than their predecessors. Presenting a
remarkably inclusive and increasingly sombre picture of contemporary society,
they
were
inevitably
often
seen
at
the
time
as
fictionalized propaganda about ephemeral issues. They are much more than this,
though it is never easy to state how Dickens’s imagination transformed their many
topicalities into an artistically coherent vision that transcends their immediate
historical context. Similar questions are raised by his often basing fictional
15
characters, places, and institutions on actual originals. He once spoke of his mind’s
taking “a fanciful photograph” of a scene, and there is a continual interplay
between
photographic realism and
“fancy”
[or
imagination].
As Walter
Bagehot noted, in 1858, Dickens “describes London like a special correspondent
for posterity,” and posterity has certainly found in his fiction the response of
an acute, knowledgeable, and concerned observer to the social and political
developments of “the moving age.”
In the novels of the 1850s, he was politically more despondent, emotionally more
tragic. The satire is harsher, the humour less genial and abundant, the “happy
endings” more subdued than in the early fiction. Technically, the later novels are
more coherent, plots being more fully related to themes, and themes being often
expressed through a more insistent use of imagery and symbols [grim symbols,
too, such as the fog in Bleak House or the prison in Little Dorrit]. His art here is
more akin to poetry than to what is suggested by the photographic or journalistic
comparisons. “Dickensian” characterization continues in the sharply defined and
simplified grotesque or comic figures, such as Chadband in Bleak House or Mrs.
Sparsit in Hard Times, but large-scale figures of this type are less frequent [the
Gamps and Micawbers belong to the first half of his career]. Characterization also
has become more subordinate to “the general purpose and design”; moreover,
Dickens was presenting characters of greater complexity who provoke more
complex responses in the reader [William Dorrit, for instance]. Even the juvenile
leads, who had usually been thinly conceived conventional figures, are now often
more complicated in their makeup and less easily rewarded by good fortune. With
his secular hopes diminishing, Dickens became more concerned with “the great
final secret of all life”—a phrase from Little Dorrit, where the spiritual dimension
of his work is most overt. Critics disagree as to how far so worldly a novelist
16
succeeded artistically in enlarging his view to include the religious. These novels,
too, being manifestly an ambitious attempt to explore the prospects of humanity at
this time, raise questions, still much debated, about the intelligence and profundity
of his understanding of society.
Dickens’s spirits and confidence in the future had indeed declined: 1855 was
“a year of much unsettled discontent for him,” his friend John Forster recalled,
partly for political reasons [or, as Forster hints, his political indignation
was exacerbated by a “discontent” that had personal origins]. The Crimean War,
besides exposing governmental inefficiency, was distracting attention from the
“poverty, hunger, and ignorant desperation” at home. In Little Dorrit, “I have been
blowing off a little of indignant steam which would otherwise blow me up…,”
Dickens wrote, “but I have no present political faith or hope—not a grain.” Not
only
were
the
present
government
and
Parliament contemptible,
but
“representative government is become altogether a failure with us,…the whole
thing has broken down…and has no hope in it.” Nor had he a
coherent alternative to suggest. This desperation coincided with an acute state of
personal unhappiness. The brief tragicomedy of Maria Beadnell’s reentry into his
life, in 1855, finally destroyed one nostalgic illusion and also betrayed a perilous
emotional immaturity and hunger. He now openly identified himself with some of
the sorrows dramatized in the adult David Copperfield: This comes from the
correspondence with Forster in 1854–55, which contains the first admissions of his
marital unhappiness; by 1856 he was writing, “I find the skeleton in my domestic
closet is becoming a pretty big one”; by 1857–58, as Forster remarked, an
“unsettled feeling” had become almost habitual with him, “and the satisfactions
which home should have supplied, and which indeed were essential requirements
of his nature, he had failed to find in his home.” From May 1858, Catherine
Dickens lived apart from him. A painful scandal arose, and Dickens did not act at
17
this time with tact, patience, or consideration. The affair disrupted some of his
friendships and narrowed his social circle, but surprisingly it seems not to have
damaged his popularity with the public. Catherine Dickens maintained a dignified
silence, and most of Dickens’s family and friends, including his official
biographer, Forster, were discreetly reticent about the separation. Not until 1939
did one of his children [Katey], speaking posthumously through conversations
recorded by a friend, offer a candid inside account. It was discreditable to him, and
his self-justifying letters must be viewed with caution. He there dated the
unhappiness of his marriage back to 1838, attributed to his wife various
“peculiarities” of temperament [including her sometimes labouring under “a
mental disorder”], emphatically agreed with her [alleged] statement that “she felt
herself unfit for the life she had to lead as my wife,” and maintained that she never
cared for the children nor they for her. In more temperate letters, where he
acknowledged her “amiable and complying” qualities, he simply and more
acceptably asserted that their temperaments were utterly incompatible. She was,
apparently, pleasant but rather limited; such faults as she had were rather negative
than positive, though family tradition from a household that knew the Dickenses
well speaks of her as “a whiney woman” and as having little understanding of,
or patience with, the artistic temperament.
18
CHAPTER.II The problem of character and the function of the plot ending in
the novel by Charles Dickens "Great Expectations ".
2.1. The novel by Charles Dickens "Great Expectations "
Great Expectations, novel by Charles Dickens, first published serially in All
the Year Round in 1860–61 and issued in book form in 1861. The classic novel
was one of its author’s greatest critical and popular successes. It chronicles the
coming of age of the orphan Pip while also addressing such issues as social
class and human worth. Pip (Philip Pirrip) narrates the tale from an unspecified
time in the future. He grows up in the marshlands of Kent, where he lives with his
disagreeable sister and her sweet-natured husband, the blacksmith Joe Gargery.
While visiting his family members’ graves in the churchyard, the young Pip
encounters Abel Magwitch, an escaped convict. Pip brings him food and a file, but
the fugitive and Compeyson—his former partner in crime and a supposed
gentleman who is now his enemy—are soon caught. Later Pip is requested to pay
visits to Miss Havisham, a woman driven half-mad years earlier by her lover’s
departure on their wedding day. Living with Miss Havisham at Satis House is her
adopted daughter, Estella, whom she is teaching to torment men with her beauty.
Pip, at first cautious, later falls in love with Estella, who does not return his
affection. He grows increasing ashamed of his humble background and hopes to
become a gentleman, in part to win over Estella. However, he is disappointed when
he instead becomes Joe’s apprentice. Several years later a lawyer named Mr.
Jaggers appears and informs Pip that an anonymous benefactor has made it
possible for him to go to London for an education; Pip believes that the money is
from Miss Havisham, who does not dissuade him of the notion. Once in London,
Pip is taught to be a gentleman by Matthew Pocket and his son Herbert, the latter
of whom Pip met years earlier at Satis House. Also receiving instruction is the
19
slow-witted and unlikable Bentley Drummle.The increasingly snobbish Pip is later
horrified to discover that his mysterious benefactor is Magwitch. Not only is
Magwitch in danger of being arrested, Pip’s social standing is threatened. Pip
reveals the situation to Herbert, and it is decided that Magwitch and Pip should
leave England. Before departing, Pip visits Satis House, where he confronts Miss
Havisham for letting him believe she was his patron. He also professes his love to
Estella, who rejects him. Knowing that Drummle is pursuing her, Pip warns her
about him, but she announces that she plans to marry him. Pip subsequently makes
several startling discoveries, notably that Magwitch is Estella’s father and that
Compeyson was Miss Havisham’s lover. He also grows close to Magwitch, whom
he comes to respect. As Pip and Magwitch attempt to leave London via a boat, the
police and Compeyson arrive. The two convicts end up fighting in the Thames, and
only Magwitch surfaces; Compeyson’s body is later recovered. The injured
Magwitch is arrested, convicted, and dies awaiting execution. A despondent Pip is
arrested because of his debts, but his failing health prevents him from being jailed.
Joe subsequently arrives and nurses Pip back to health. Joe also informs him that
Miss Havisham has died. After Joe leaves, Pip discovers that his brother-in-law has
paid all of his bills. Pip later accepts a job offer at the Cairo branch of Herbert’s
firm, and he enjoys a simple but content life. After more than 10 years away, he
returns to England and visits the place where Satis House once stood. There he
encounters Estella, who is now a widow. As they leave, Pip takes her hand,
believing that they will not part again. Great Expectations works on a number of
levels: as a critique of Victorian society and as an exploration of memory and
writing. However, it is perhaps more importantly a search for true identity. During
the course of the novel, Pip comes to realize that his “great expectations”—social
standing and wealth—are less important than loyalty and compassion. Great
Expectations was also noted for its blend of humour, mystery, and tragedy. In the
20
original ending of the work, Pip and Estella were not reunited, but Dickens was
persuaded to write a happier conclusion. The novel was an immediate success upon
its publication in the 1860s. George Bernard Shaw notably hailed it as Dickens’s
“most compactly perfect book.” Great Expectations inspired numerous adaptations,
including an acclaimed 1946 film directed by David Lean. The major conflict
of Great Expectations revolves around Pip’s ambitious desire to reinvent himself
and rise to a higher social class. His desire for social progress stems from a desire
to be worthy of Estella’s love: “She’s more beautiful than anybody ever was, and I
admire her dreadfully, and I want to be a gentleman on her account.” The plot gets
underway when Pip is invited to go to Satis House, and first encounters Estella and
Miss Havisham. The inciting action, however, has actually been earlier when Pip
had a seemingly random encounter with an escaped convict; neither he nor the
reader will know for a long time that this encounter will actually determine the
course of his life. The rising action progresses as Pip becomes increasingly
dissatisfied with the prospect of living a simple life as a country blacksmith. As he
explains, “I never shall or can be comfortable … unless I can lead a very different
sort of life from the life I lead now.” Pip receives news that he is going to be
financially supported by an anonymous benefactor and moves to London, where he
becomes more refined and sophisticated while also becoming extravagant and selfabsorbed. After some years, Pip is astonished to discover that his benefactor is
actually Magwitch the convict. This discovery intensifies the conflict around Pip’s
desire to be perceived as a gentleman and be loved by Estella, since he is now
tainted by an association with a criminal. The rising conflict forces Pip to declare
his love to Estella, since he is planning to leave England in order to cover up his
secret. He tells her that “you are part of my existence, part of myself,” but she
explains that she plans to marry another man. This conversation resolves part of
the conflict, making it clear to Pip that Estella is incapable of loving him. The
21
conflict surrounding Pip’s shame at his social background and desire to be a
gentleman continues as he struggles to protect Magwitch and get him to safety.
Along the way, Pip realizes that Magwitch is Estella’s father. This discovery
transforms Pip’s understanding of social position and criminality. Up to this point,
Pip has considered Estella and the criminal underworld Magwitch represents as
oppositional to one another, but now Pip understands that Estella and Magwitch
have always been interconnected. At the novel’s climax, Pip confides to a dying
Magwitch that his lost child “is living now. She is a lady and very beautiful. And I
love her!” By showing kindness to a criminal and describing Estella as a both a
lady and the daughter of a convict, Pip shows that he no longer thinks about social
position in a black or white way. The conflict resolves with Pip letting go of his
social aspirations in order to focus on reconciling with the characters who have
been loyal to him all along, paying off his debts, and earning an honest living.
22
2.2. The problem of character and the function of the plot ending in the novel
by Charles Dickens "Great Expectations"
Great Expectations is set during England’s Victorian Era (1837–1901),
which began and ended with the rule of Queen Victoria. The Victorian era was
a time of great change in England as the Industrial Revolution began to transform
the landscape both physically and socially. Agricultural areas were replaced with
industrial factories and coal mines, sending droves of people into cities looking for
economic opportunities to rise in social class.Social class divides remained
significant as a new upper-middle-class began to rise and become wealthy from the
increasing amount of industry and capital while the working class remained quite
poor. Those belonging to the upper and upper-middle classes had to follow
strict rules of decorum, education, and appropriate behaviors in different
social situations.This is the world Charles Dickens set Great Expectations in. Pip,
the protagonist in the novel, leaves his country laborer status to learn how to
become a gentleman, exposing himself not only to the ways of the upper-middle
class but also to the effects of industrialization on the class divide, the
environment, and the individual. Great Expectations follows the story of Pip, an
orphan who lives with his sister and her husband in Kent, England. The story
begins with Pip looking at the tombstones of his parents when an escaped convict
grabs Pip and orders him to get a file and food. Pip does as he is told, but the
convict is captured anyway.A few days later, Uncle Pumblechook takes Pip to play
at Satis House where the dowager Miss Havisham lives. She is wealthy and a bit
odd. She always wears an old wedding dress and all the clocks in her home are
stopped. While visiting Miss Havisham, Pip meets Estella, who is cold towards
him. Pip finds her extraordinarily beautiful and falls in love with
her. He dreams of becoming a wealthy gentleman so he can marry Estella with
23
Miss Havisham’s help. Rather, she helps him become a laborer at his family’s
business.Pip is now an apprentice to his brother-in-law Joe, a blacksmith. Pip does
not enjoy working in the forge and tries to educate himself with the help of
Biddy. One day, Orlick, Joe’s mean laborer, attacks Mrs. Joe (Pip’s sister) and she
is left mute and invalid.One day, Jaggers, a lawyer, comes to tell Pip he has been
given a large fortune from a secret benefactor. Pip must go to London immediately
and begin his gentleman’s education. Pip believes Miss Havisham is the
benefactor and that Miss Havisham is planning to marry Pip and Estella.While in
London, Pip becomes friends with Herbert Pocket, a gentleman, and Wemmick,
Jaggers’s law clerk. Pip shows disdain toward everyone in his previous life
except for Estella. Herbert’s father, Matthew Pocket, begins to help Pip act more
like a gentleman. Pip has decided that as soon as he turns twenty-one and receives
an income, he will aid Herbert in entering into business.Pip and Herbert live freely
in London without caution. Orlick, the laborer who attacked Pip’s sister, appears
once more as Miss Havisham’s porter but is quickly fired by Jaggers once Jaggers
learns about Orlick’s past. Pip’s sister, Mrs. Joe, dies. When Pip returns home he
feels grief. One night back in London, Magwitch, the convict from the beginning
of the story, appears in Pip’s room. He reveals to Pip that he made a fortune in
Australia and has decided to dedicate the money towards Pip’s education to
become a gentleman.Pip is not pleased but feels he must help Magwitch escape
once more as he is being pursued by his former partner in crime, Compeyson, and
the police. Compeyson, it turns out, was the man who left Miss Havisham at the
altar. It becomes more complicated for Pip when he learns that Estella is
Magwitch’s daughter. Estella, who was raised by Miss Havisham, was taught by
Havisham how to break the hearts of men as revenge. Pip was Estella’s first
victim.Pip begins to care for Magwitch as Estella marries Bentley Drummle, an
upperclassman. Miss Havisham begs Pip for forgiveness when he comes to visit
24
her at Satis House. Later on in the day, Miss Havisham leans over the lit fireplace
and catches on fire. She does not die but becomes invalid. During her remaining
time alive, she continues to beg Pip for forgiveness.It is finally time for
Magwitch’s escape. Pip, before the escape, is mysteriously lured to the marshes for
a meeting, which is where Orlick tries to kill Pip. Herbert and friends arrive to
save Pip and they continue on their journey to help Magwitch flee. Magwitch is to
sneak downriver on a small boat, but he is discovered by the police and
Compeyson. Compeyson and Magwitch fight, and Magwitch manages to drown
Compeyson. For his crime, Magwitch is sentenced to death, leaving Pip without a
fortune. Magwitch dies peacefully knowing that his death sentence is God’s way
of showing him forgiveness.Pip becomes ill, so Joe comes to care for him. They
are reconciled and Joe has a lot of news for Pip. Orlick is in jail for robbing Uncle
Pumblechook, Miss Havisham is dead and left her fortune to the Pocket family,
and Joe has learned how to read and write from Biddy and has married her. Pip had
planned to marry Biddy, so his plans were ruined.Pip and Herbert go abroad to
work as merchants and only return many years later. Estella is sitting in the
garden of the Satis House. She is a widow and was not treated nicely by her late
husband. Estella, Pip discovers, is no longer cold but sad and kind. They walk out
of the garden hand in hand with Pip vowing never to leave her side. In Charles
Dickens’ Great Expectations (1861), everything is connected. As plots and
subplots converge and hidden relations are revealed, the novel elaborates a view of
society in which no individual may be considered the master of his or her own
fortunes – or “expectations” in the old-fashioned sense, meaning one’s future
prospects.Great Expectations blends literary styles and genres too. It fuses
elements of the gothic with comic satire, realism, fairytale, crime fiction and
melodrama. It can even be read as autobiographical, insofar as Dickens drew on
aspects of his upbringing when depicting the deprived childhood of the young
25
orphan Pip, the novel’s protagonist and narrator. Though it is a myth he was paid
by the word, Dickens is often accused of wordiness. Great Expectations is,
however, one of his more compact novels, notwithstanding its complex plotting.
His other first-person novel, David Copperfield (1849), is twice as long, with a far
larger cast of characters.The reclusive corpse-bride Miss Havisham is Great
Expectations’ best-known figure. Miss Havisham stopped the clocks on the day
she was jilted by her fiancé and still dresses in her old wedding gown. She lives
shut up in a rotting mansion, where she trains her beautiful ward Estella to enact
her revenge upon men.The muscles in Miss Havisham’s thin arm swell with
“vehemence” when she draws Pip close and commands him to love Estella,
repeating the words “love her, love her, love her” until they sound “like a
curse”.Pip’s motivations are mixed. He confides in his childhood friend Biddy that
Estella has made him feel “coarse and common”, adding “I admire her dreadfully
and I want to be a gentleman on her account.” After a pause, Biddy asks, “Do you
want to be a gentleman, to spite her or to gain her over?”Pip is stumped, but his
wish comes true when he is plucked from his low station as a blacksmith’s
apprentice to be educated as a “London gentleman” by a mysterious
benefactor.G.K. Chesterton wrote that Dickens was “always most accurate when
he was most fantastic”. For the painter and Dickens fan Vincent Van Gogh, the
novelist’s “strangely vivid” prose exemplified how fiction can seem “more real
than reality”. Great Expectations delivers its social observations in a heightened,
hybrid style that can only be called “Dickensian”.The novel’s use of first-person
narration also affords greater psychological depth than may be found in some
earlier Dickens novels, where the emphasis tends to be on human variety more
than human complexity. The gap between Pip’s youthful impressions and his
mature judgement can be especially revealing. It sometimes highlights the
unreliability of memory; at other times, it conjures past events with an immersive
26
intensity that illustrates their hold upon the present.The novel’s imagery and the
characters’ motivations often make it difficult to separate past and present, life and
death, dream and reality, conscious and unconscious, black and white — even love
and hate.But the first-person narration ensures that Dickens’ wordy descriptions
are never gratuitous. The details Pip notices all contribute to our understanding of
his state of mind. Complex patterns of imagery imbue seemingly trivial details
with larger symbolic significance.It might seem inconsequential that Wemmick,
the lawyer’s clerk, has “glittering eyes, small, keen, and black”. But it deepens the
impression of a pervasive blackness in the world Pip inhabits.There is the “black
Hulk” of a prison ship beyond the “black” Kent marshes. Pip blackens his hands at
the blacksmith’s forge. There is the “great black dome of Saint Paul’s” in London
and the “deadly black horsehair” of the lawyer Jaggers’s coffin-like chair.The
cold-blooded Jaggers serves as an intermediary between society’s lowest and
uppermost orders, but his wealth derives primarily from a criminal underclass. The
death masks of hanged former clients gaze down from his shelves. Jaggers allows
Pip to believe that Miss Havisham is his secret benefactor. But in the most
important of the novel’s many twists, Pip discovers that his sponsor is the
“wretched” convict Magwitch, who has grown rich in New South Wales.As a boy,
Pip first encounters Magwitch as “a man started up from among the graves” on the
Kent marshes. The escaped convict demands that the terrified child provide him
with food and a file.Magwitch is captured and transported for forgery, but he
returns from his live burial down under as “a voice from the darkness beneath”. He
risks death to come back and admire the gentleman he has “made”. When
Magwitch tells Pip, “I lived rough, that you should live smooth”, his words evoke
the structural dependence of the British ruling classes on the exploitation of
oppressed groups at home and abroad.Great Expectations is sometimes described
as a Bildungsroman – literally a “novel of formation”, a coming of age story. But
27
the story of Pip’s rise from humble origins to genteel affluence also brings into
focus how class identity is formed. It exposes the material underpinnings of
elevated social status. In turn, it exposes the arbitrariness of class prejudice. At his
forgery trial, Magwitch is made to feel like a “dunghill dog” when he sees how the
system gives preferential treatment to his co-accused, Compeyson, thanks to the
latter’s fine clothes and genteel deportment.In “making a gentleman” of Pip,
Magwitch hopes to infiltrate the ruling class and vicariously beat them at their own
game. Pip recoils from his connection to Magwitch, which he believes bars him
forever from courting Estella. This proves ironic when Estella’s own uncouth
origins are revealed.The novel links the convict stain to race, evoking the
dispossession and exploitation of racially othered peoples in both Australia and
America. As Magwitch tells Pip his Australian story, the smoke of the “Negrohead” tobacco in his “black pipe” threatens to “perplex the thread” of his
tale.References to Magwitch’s blackness and “savagery” evoke the racist discourse
that served to legitimate white settlement in Australia. Magwitch also speaks of
Compeyson having “made me his black slave”. His description of convict life is
reminiscent of Dickens’ critique of U.S. slavery in his American Notes (1842) and
in his novel Martin Chuzzlewit (1844).Pip, in turn, feels “enslaved” by his
dependency on Magwitch. Yet his crippling burden of guilt and debt has more to
do with class and colonial entanglements than individual obligation. He comes to
see himself not as a free agent, but a mere beam in a “vast engine”. He longs to
have “the engine stopped, and [his] part in it hammered off.”Dickens’ exposé of
the intersections of race, class and colonialism remains limited. Edward Said noted
that Pip’s dependence on the colonies, meaning Australia, is transferred to “the
East” with a convenient lack of specificity. An 11-year period is covered in just
two sentences.The novel’s depiction of Australia has inspired postcolonial
rewritings, notably from the Australian novelist Peter Carey, whose Jack Maggs
28
(1997) takes Dickens to task for failing to envisage the possibility that Magwitch
might have forged a meaningful life in New South Wales.Nonetheless, Dickens
promoted emigration to Australia, through the Urania Cottage project aimed at
rehabilitating “fallen women”. His sons Alfred and Edward emigrated to Australia
at their father’s urging.
29
CONCLUSION
Charles Dickens is generally considered the greatest English novelist of
the Victorian era. He populated his novels and other works with dozens of
distinctive characters. This list identifies more than 40 of the most notable ones.
All works are identified by the date and form of their first publication.The use of
the three Freudian subdivisions of the mind to examine the fluctuations of Pip's ego
between the id and superego in Charles Dickens's Great Expectations has proven to
be operative. For the study has managed to answer its key research questions,
reaching the following results: First, Pip's id, his strong desire to win Estella's love,
is illustrated in his feelings and actions alike. Second, Pip's superego is mainly
constructed from the characters that stand in the way of his quest for love. Third,
Pip's disillusionment with love, revealed through his distress at the attitudes of
Estella, Miss Havisham, Biddy and his friends, bring Pip's ego to its knees. Fourth,
the quest of Pip's ego for winning Estella's heart finally becomes possible thanks to
such factors as Miss Havisham's repentance, Estella's painful experience from
which she realizes Pip's worth, and Pip's own transformation into a mature
gentleman. As in the case of Saoudi et al. [2021], applying Freudian criticism to
the analysis of the theme of love in Great Expectations has proven to be a
productive exploration of literature. This project can be taken as a model to study
other works of literature that lend themselves to examination through
psychoanalytic criticism, or even other aspects of Dickens's same novel.
30
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