UNDERSTANDING CULTURE SOCIETY AND POLITICS
4th QUARTER
WEEK 1 MODULE 1: STATE AND NON-STATE INSTITUTIONS
(Background) Institutions
There are different models of social institutions used in different countries nowadays, most of which are inspired by the long
history of their country while others are influenced by other nations. There are two major types of state or social institutions:
the communist, based on command economy; and the democracy, based on capitalist economy (Panopio 1995). Most
communist countries, like the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republic (USSR), and North Korea, are governed by
their respective governments alone. They do not allow private companies or individuals to do business in their land;
thus, the people have no opportunity to choose because the government decide what is best for their own citizens (Panopio
1995). However, democracy is a kind of government based on capitalism where the government provides the major
industries but allows private entities or individuals to produce goods and services for the people; thus, citizens are
given much freedom to choose for themselves.
Political Institutions, State Institutions
Certain organizations help keep these basic institutions in place. Politically, the Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) helps
the government maintain peace and order throughout its territory. The Local Government Units (LGU) is created to
cater the needs of the local barangays or communities. The Department of Education (DepEd) ensures the quality of
education based on the needs and norms the society. The different branches of the government create, implement,
and interpret the laws we use as guide for our conduct. These organized, political bodies are called state institutions.
Government-controlled state institutions fulfil the wishes of the Philippine State: public service and public control. For
example, the government may declare martial law in a troubled area, and the AFP makes sure that this is strictly followed,
whether the people like it or not (De Leon 2008).
Non-State Institutions
Ideally, in a democratic country, major industries must be under the control of the state, like banks, petroleum, transportation,
and communication because they are vital in the economy of the country. However, in the recent years, the said industries are
being sold to private entities to carry away the burden from its operation and maintenance. Today, private corporations headed
by executives controls the major industries in the country with very minimum government supervision, most of these are
petroleum (Shell, Caltex and Petron), telecommunication (Smart, Globe and PLDT), transportation (Cebu Pacific and
Philippine Air Lines), etc. These entities significantly affect the lives of the people either directly or indirectly (Baleña
2016). Meanwhile, corporations based on profit (ABS-CBN, GMA 7 and PTV 5) manage most television networks in the
country. They are duty bound to serve the public by giving current news and information but more so entertainment to attract
viewers. The more viewers a station has, the more product advertisements coming in, and thus the profit comes along. This is
why television networks in the country are becoming antagonistic as shown in their publicity ratings. Moreover, if you wish to
have a car but do not have the enough money to buy, one can find a bank that offers car loan arrangements. If one wishes to
own a business but hesitant to fail, he or she may consider the stock market and be a shareholder in a corporation. If a worker
wants a better compensation, he or she may join and be part of a trade union. These are just some examples of non-state
institutions: nongovernmental organizations operating to satisfy many of our short-term and longterm, small-scale,
and large-scale, and tangible and intangible demands (De Leon 2008). Non-state institutions include the following:
banks, corporations, trade unions, cooperatives, development agencies, civil organizations, and transnational
advocacy groups.
1. Banks help us keep our money, avail different kinds of loan, and exchange currencies. The accumulated money of the
bank is invested to some projects to gain profit; this is how banks pay their workers and depositors’ interest depending on the
agreed terms. Moreover, banks help the country by providing financial assistance to those entrepreneurs who wanted to create
or expand their business. By doing so, they also provide job opportunities among local citizens.
Although there are state and non-state banks in the country, both types serve their respective purposes. Yet, most depositors
choose state banks because the government itself backs it up, thus the possibility of bankruptcy is very small. On the other
hand, corporations or group of individuals manages nonstate banks. Although ensured by the government through the
Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas, it is but only to a minimum extent. Like in the case of certain banks, when a bank declares
bankruptcy, each depositor could only receive only a portion of their deposit (Contreras et al. 2016). Examples of banks include
the Bank of the Philippine Islands, Metrobank, and Rizal Commercial Banking Corporation (RCBC).
2. A corporation is owned by a group of people but has a separate legal identity (the owners of a corporation are not
responsible for its own debts). Corporations offer stocks (determines level of ownership), as well as bonds (allows one to earn
interest). These generate large amounts of capital, which is needed for growth (Contreras et al. 2016). Some well-known
corporations are San Miguel Corporation, Accenture, and Shell. Since a corporation is associated with various industries,
it needs a huge work force to run and operate. This provides job opportunities to number of workers in the country and thus
lessen the problem of poverty.
3. Trade unions. There are some entrepreneurs who are only after for profit, and they tend to maximize working hours and
minimize wages as much as possible. This is where the trade union steps in. They look after the well-being of the workers.
Collectively, they raise issues such as low salary, lack of compensation, etc. to the management that sometimes ends
up with work “stoppage” or strike until the demands of both sides are met. (Contreras et al. 2016). Trade unions are
created to protect the labor force of the country. Workers are essential to the creation of goods and services for the citizenry.
In the Philippines, the Trade Union Congress of the Philippines has the largest membership.
4. Cooperatives are made up of people with common interest who agreed to work together for easy, safe, and affordable
access to commodities, loans, and other services. They are created to help and empower one another with a minimum help
from the government (Contreras et al. 2016). Farmers’ cooperatives and teachers’ cooperatives are common examples.
5. Development agencies promote progress by engaging in projects, policymaking, and dialogue (Contreras et al. 2016).
Some countries with active agencies in the Philippines are Japan (JICA), Canada (CIDA), and U.S.A. (USAID). Those providing
financial assistance include the Asian Development Bank (ADB). Development agencies works as a bank that provides financial
assistance to important projects. The creation of bridge that connects one province to another, or road construction that helps
ordinary farmers transport their products may be put into reality through the help of these agencies.
6. Civil organizations include academic institutions, research teams, mass media, religious organizations, and people’s
organizations. They provide facts about the life’s various realities to influence policy-making (Contreras et al. 2016).
These organizations are created to expose the conditions of the marginalized sector of the society by using mass media as its
platform as they raise critical issues to the government.
7. Transnational advocacy groups influence the government to take action on matters commonly neglected. A group
maybe a national or an international organization that promotes and advocates progress and development related to particular
issues of the society. (Contreras, et al., 2016). Greenpeace and Human Rights Watch are some examples.
WEEK 2: FUNCTIONS AND IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATION
The Meaning of Education
Education {ej-oo-key-shuhn], the act or process of imparting or acquiring general knowledge, developing the powers
of reasoning and judgment, and generally of preparing oneself or others intellectually for mature life
(https://www.dictionary.com/browse/education). However, education, as a social institution has a different meaning. Dr. William
Little (2014) held that education is a social institution through which a society’s children are taught basic academic
knowledge, learning skills, and cultural norms. Furthermore, the word education is derived from the Latin word
“educare” which means “to train”, “to rear or bring-up (a child)”. Hence, it plays a significant role in transferring culture
and social norms among members of society, in the process of training and various modalities of educating. It enables individual
to flourish their personality to withstand the culture and social systems. It will always remain as an essential support pillar in our
society. Hence, Alvin Toffler, an American writer and futurist, is popularly quoted for having said “The illiterate of the twenty-first
century will not be those who cannot read and write, but those who cannot learn, unlearn and relearn.” This marks the highlights
of the extensive journey that occurs in the field of education.
The System of Education in the Philippines
There are two types of education in the Philippines: the formal and the nonformal. Formal education refers to the
standardized method of hierarchically structured and progressive schooling that corresponds to the general notion of
elementary and secondary and tertiary level of education. Yet only the primary and secondary level is compulsory to the
students. In the educational system of the Philippines, the elementary and secondary level is administered and supervised by
the Department of Education. Elementary level is composed of kindergarten and six (6) years of primary education.
Whereas the secondary contains four (4) years of junior high school and two (2) years of senior high school.
Furthermore, the tertiary level is administered and supervised by the Commission on Higher Education. The actual years spent
in this level depends on the curriculum of each course. Nonetheless, the non-formal education refers to an educational
activity carried outside the structure of a formal education. According to UNESCO, non-formal education can cover
programs contributing to adult and youth literacy and education for out-of-school children, as well as programs on life skills,
work skills, and social or cultural development. Thus, this type of education is basically flexible, learner centered, contextualized
and requires learners to participate in every activity. Also, the age of learners in this category is not a necessity. One
example is the Alternative Learning System or ALS overseen by the Department of Education. ALS Non-formal Education
happens outside the classroom, community-based, usually conducted at community learning centers, barangay multipurpose hall, libraries or at home, managed by ALS learning facilitators, such as mobile teachers, district ALS
Coordinators, instructional managers at an agreed schedule and venue between the learners and facilitators.
The Functions of Education and its Importance
Whether formal or nonformal, education addresses various needs of this society. Education also provides a “productive
citizenry” and makes the “selfactualization” possible. Productive citizens are necessary for the improvement of the
community. However, self-actualization refers to the desire for self-fulfillment or the tendency of human to become actualized in
what he is potentially. Again, education takes a vital part to achieve the self-actualization. Education has different functions. This
consists of socialization, transmission of culture, social integration social placement, and social and cultural innovation and/or
preservation.
a) Socialization. Socialization is an essential ingredient in creating a society. Since school is an agent of socialization, thus,
education helps transform human in becoming literate and recognize its function in the society. Through education as a means
of socialization, we also learn social norms, values and culture that are fortified by our teachers, our textbooks, and
our classmates as well.
b) Transmission of Culture. Through socialization in school (teachers to learners, and learner to learner), the
transmission of culture is at the highest possible. Through education, human learn the values, beliefs, and social norms of
their culture.
c) Social Integration. As the saying goes “nations are built because of education”, this is because education portrays
an important role to unify individuals by teaching the common values and social norms.
d) Social Placement. It could be a cliché that “all other professions rooted from teachers” though, it is indeed the reality.
Education provides a social placement for everyone. It prepares us for the later station of our lives, and, to buy the necessities
of life. Now, this makes sense to “productive citizenry” and “self-actualization” Nonetheless, it is not a secret that education can
change one’s life. “Having education in an area helps people think, feel, and behave in a way that contributes to their success,
and improves not only their personal satisfaction but also their community” (cited from Al-Shuaibi, Abdulghani, The Importance
of Education, 2014).
Legal Provisions of Education: Education as a Human Right
It is stated in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights of the UN website:
Article 26:
(1) Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary
education shall be compulsory. Technical and professional education shall be made generally available and higher education
shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit.
(2) Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and to the strengthening of respect for human
rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall promote understanding, tolerance, and friendship among all nations, racial or religious
groups, and shall further the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace.
(3) Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall be given to their children.
In the 1987 Philippine Constitution, Article 14:
Section 1: The State shall protect and promote the right of all citizens to quality education at all levels and shall take appropriate
steps to make such education accessible to all.
Section 2, Paragraph 2: The state shall establish and maintain a system of free public education in the elementary and high
school levels. Without limiting the natural right of parents to rear their children, elementary education is compulsory for all
children of school age;
The right to education is fundamental. It is non-discriminatory. Everyone has the right to education regardless of race, ethnicity,
social origin, gender, political preferences, or disability. It is also a vital human right in exercising all the other human rights.
Furthermore, it stimulates independence and concession to produce significant development benefits for the country. It is a
powerful instrument for economically and socially marginalized individuals away from poverty to become productive citizen of
the country. Since education is a human right, every individual has an equal opportunity to participate in an education system.
WEEK 3: CONCEPT, CHARACTERISTICS AND FORMS OF STRATIFICATION SYSTEMS
Concept of Social Stratification
Have you ever wondered why people don’t have the same status in life when they were born? Why are there rich and poor
people in the society? Have you ever thought this idea wondering what if you were born rich? On the other hand, what if you
were born poor? What if the society is some kind of Utopia where everything is just perfect and equal? Yet, whatever social
class one belongs to in a society, it is hope that one may find reasons to still be grateful and live a life that is full of opportunities.
The idea of rich and the poor may be too familiar to everyone. It can be seen in Pinoy teleseryes or Korean dramas that you
watched back then, and it can be seen in reality just like in the society where you are belong. The activities that you encountered
introduced you to the new lesson which is about categorizing individuals or group of people based on factors such as power,
wealth, and prestige. This is called Social Classes and the layering of these social classes from higher to lower class is
called Social Stratification. Social stratification is defined as the hierarchical arrangement and establishment of social
categories that may evolve into social groups together with statuses and their corresponding roles in the society
(Cordero-McDonald, et al., 1995, 380). Let’s take a look on the pyramid of social classes shown below:
Figure 1. Pyramid of Social Classes or Social Stratification
Social stratification is divided into three social classes. At the top of the pyramid is where the Upper Class. This class in the
society is described by the sociologists as elite individuals or group of people that are most prolific and successful in their
respective areas. These people may be stockholders and investors in very huge well-known companies from different
industries here and abroad. In the second activity earlier, Henry Sy, Sr. and Lucio Tan, Sr. are both considered elite who
belong to the upper class of social stratification. According to the “List of 50 richest Filipinos in 2014” of Pinoy Money Talk
website (as cited by Lanuza and Raymundo 2016, 109), Henry Sy, Sr. and his family had a net worth of 12.7 billion, while Lucio
Tan, Sr. and his family had a net worth of $6.1 billion. These people may own big companies and huge mansions here and
abroad, mingle with the same class, own fancy cars, and value wealthy heritage. Dividing the upper class and lower class is the
Middle Class. Middle class are mostly professional individuals or groups of people like lawyers, doctors, managers,
owners of small businesses in the locality, and executives who work in the corporate world, etc. They are able to meet
both their needs and wants without even worrying about their finances because of the job and salary they have. They
live in spacious houses and situated in best suburbs. Their income can afford them a comfortable lifestyle. They value education
the most since education to them is the most important measure of social status. Last but not the least, the lowest part of the
pyramid of social classes is where the Lower Class situated. These are the skilled and unskilled artisan, farm employees,
underemployed, and indigent families. Because of the given status in life, these people lack revenue or income and
educational training or background. Without the proper education, some of them are jobless or have difficulty to find
a job in order to make ends meet. They also lack support network that could lift them up. How did stratification system start?
Remember the lesson about the earliest form of human societies. According to the sociologists and anthropologists, in earliest
societies, people shared a common social standing; there was no social class back then.
Figure 2. Example of Stratification during Earliest Civilization
As societies evolved and became more complex, it began to elevate some members of the society through land acquisition and
social status or social entitlement. In the earliest civilization, there were kings and priests as the upper class, scribes, merchants
and artisans as the middle class, and slaves as the lower class.
Characteristics of Stratification Systems
Imagine two extremely wealthy people. One of them inherited their money, acquiring it through the luck that comes with being
born to parents or owners of immense amounts of property and wealth, while the other person worked for what he/she had. That
person started at the bottom, and through years of hard work and strategic dealing in life was able to build a business empire
of their own. Now, which one would you say deserves the wealth? Sociologically, the interesting aspect isn’t your answer to the
question; it’s the fact that different societies, in different times and places, have different answers because the question of what
it means to deserve wealth, success, or power, is a matter of social stratification. Let’s take a look at the different characteristics
of social stratification. Social stratification is:
1. Universal but variable. Social stratification is what we are talking about when we talk about social inequality and social
mobility. Society categorizes people and ranks them in a hierarchy. Everything, from social status, prestige, to the kind of job
one holds, or to the chances of living in poverty, is affected by social stratification. Stratification is universal but variable because
it shows up in every society in the world, but how exactly it looks like, how it divides and categorizes people, and what the
advantages or disadvantages are that come with that division - vary from societyto society.
2. Not a matter of individual differences. People are obviously different from each other, so we might assume that stratification
is just a kind of natural outcome of differences, but in reality, it is not. We know we can see the effects of social stratification on
people regardless of their personal choices or traits. For example, children of wealthy families are more likely to live longer and
be healthier, to attend college, and to excel in school as compared to children born into poverty. Moreover, they are more likely
to be wealthy themselves when they grow up.
3. Persists across generations. Stratification serves to categorize and rank members of society across generations, resulting
in different life chances. Yet generally, society allows some degree of social mobility, or changes in the position within the social
hierarchy. People sometimes move upward or downward in social class, which is the basic concept of social mobility.
4. A social belief. A society’s cultural beliefs tell us how to categorize people, and they define inequalities of a stratification
system as being normal, or even fair. If people don’t believe that the system is right, it won’t last. Beliefs are what make systems
of social stratification work and it is through these beliefs about social stratification that inform what it means to deserve wealth,
success, or power.
Forms of Stratification Systems
1. Close System of Stratification or the India’s Caste System is probably one of the best-known forms of close system of
stratification. While it is a social system of decreasing importance, it still holds in parts of rural India, and has a strong legacy
across the country. The traditional caste system contains four large divisions called Varnas. It consists of Brahmin, or priests
and academics in their native language, as placed at the top of the hierarchy; followed by Khsatriya or the rulers (kings),
warriors, and administrators; then Vaishya or merchants and landowners; and last is the Shudra or the commoners, peasants,
and servants.
The system required endogamy - marriage within your own caste category. In everyday life, the caste system determines whom
one could interact with, and how, with systems of social control, contact between lower and higher castes is restricted. This
whole system is based on a set of strong cultural and religious beliefs that living within your own category is a moral and spiritual
duty - the reason why gods are on the top of the pyramid because caste system is governed by religious beliefs of Hinduism.
2. Open System of Stratification
Class System is one of the best examples of open system of stratification and is not based solely on ascribed status at birth
alone. Instead, it combines ascribed status and personal achievement or achieved status in a way that allows some social
mobility. Statuses are not the same. We get different statuses in different ways and chances. Some are ascribed statuses,
which are assigned or given by the society or group based on some fixed category, without regard to a person’s abilities or
performance. Examples of ascribed status are sex, family background, race, and ethnic heritage or wealth. A person did nothing
to earn these statuses, nor has control over these characteristics and had no opportunity or chance to choose family,
sex, and race. On the other hand, achieved statuses are earned by the individual. The following scenarios serve as examples.
A poor teenager becomes an actress-singer after winning in a television contest. A college graduate lands a good job because
the quality of his or her performance satisfied his or her employer. With achieved statuses, one establishes which statuses he
or she wants. Frequently, a person struggles and exerts more effort on others to get hold of them. Class is the system of
stratification we have in Philippine society. The main difference between caste and class systems is that class systems are
open, and social mobility is not legally restricted to certain people. It is possible that through hard work and perseverance, a
citizen can move up the social hierarchy, and achieve a higher-class standing. Instead of ancestry, lineage, or race being the
key to social division, the Philippine system of stratification has elements of meritocracy: a system in which social mobility is
based on personal merit and individual talents. Every Filipino’s dream is that anyone, no matter how poor, can “pull
himself/herself up” and become upwardly class mobile through hard work and perseverance.
Social Stratification in Sociological Perspectives
1. Functionalism.
We may think of social stratification as merely only creating social inequality among groups of people. In some aspects of social
life, it is true. But social inequality brought by social stratification base from wealth, prestige, and power of social groups, is
indeed functional in the society according to Functionalist Theory. Every social class has its purpose or role to play a part in the
society. We can’t expect the owner of a certain business empire to do a construction works; but instead, he will hire someone
to do it for himself. The upper class, although they are getting richer because they have the capacity to exploit natural and manmade resources simply because they have the money. Their role in the society could create job opportunities for other social
classes below them. In fact, there are jobs not requiring a college degree. In this sense, those who are not able to finish their
studies can still be hired. Those with college degree can be employed with a higher paid salary and good position in a company.
2. Conflict Theory.
This sociological perspective is the opposite of the latter. Karl Marx viewed social stratification as creation of inequality between
the rich and the poor, or the powerful versus the powerless. Let’s say for example: The bourgeois capitalists owning highproducing businesses or factories and hire people who work for them. They can enjoy the luxury of life because they earn billions
of money. However, proletariats are the working class earned skimpy wages and experiencing isolation to the society. The very
essence of life is to enjoy it with loved ones. However, working class did not experience this joy because they are isolated to do
the labor for long hours each day to earn money at the end of the month. Marx argued that proletariats were oppressed by the
money-hungry bourgeois.
3. Symbolic Interactionism.
Symbolic interactionism views social stratification on a micro level where individuals affect others whom they have interacted
because of their social class status. In most societies, people can only interact only to those with the same social class status.
For an instance, it is rare for a royal prince or princess to marry a commoner because the commoner doesn’t have the same
class status as to royal prince or princess. But now, there are royal marriages already break this tradition.
WEEK 4: GOVERNMENT PROGRAMS AND SUGGESTIONS IN ADDRESSING SOCIAL INEQUALITIES
The Government and Social Inequalities
The prevalence of social inequality in any society cannot be dismissed. In fact, President Obama (2013) said inequality is “the
defining challenge of our time.” It has been part of us and is ever growing and expanding as time goes by. Social inequality can
be describing as a state of social affairs in which there is difference in opportunity, status and treatment among the member of
a given society.
As Lee and Rawls (2010) assert it, it is more than just a case of geographic difference. While persons from economically
advantaged backgrounds have always gone to college at higher rates than their less-privileged peers, these gaps have
expanded since the 1980s. However pervasive these inequalities might be, though, it could still be addressed. The government,
having identified these inequalities, tries to formulate viable projects and initiatives to support research on programs, policies,
and practices that reduce inequality in different sectors of the society. It extends to many areas like youth development, reflecting
disparities in arenas beyond education such as mental health, criminal justice, and workforce development. The cry of the
minority (any small group in society that is different from the rest because of their race, religion, or political beliefs, or a person
who belongs to such a group) roots from the desire to achieve social inclusion. Social inclusion is a fundamental principle
of social justice. It is the process of improving the terms for individuals and groups to take part in society” and “the
process of improving the ability, opportunity, and dignity of people, disadvantaged on the basis of their identity, to
take part in society” (World Bank, 2013, pp. 3-4). In the Philippines, for instance, the gap between rich and poor regions widens
even more. To address this, the National Economic and Development Authority calls for higher spending on infrastructure and
social services. In 2019, Socioeconomic Planning Undersecretary Adoracion Navarro said the inequality in gross regional
domestic product (GRDP) per capita, or the average income of people in a region, has widened from 2009 to 2018, according
to data from the Philippine Statistics Authority. The richest among all regions is the National Capital Region (NCR), where
the GRDP per capita as of 2018 stood at P253,893, a 40% jump from the P181,748 in 2009. The poorest is the Autonomous
Region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM), with its GRDP per capita barely improving from P14,052 in 2009 to P14,657 in 2018.
This is just one of the many social inequalities identified by the government which are either already addressed with existing
programs or are still being studied for possible formulation of viable projects.
Despite these, although people recognize that no single program or project could actually lead to major changes, the government
should still assure that the measures it is taking are toward approaches, programs, policies, and practices that work to reduce
prevailing inequality in the country.
References:
Understanding Culture Society and Politics Alternative Delivery Mode First Edition, 2021 Published by: Department of Education
Region IV-A CALABARZON