Sociology


"The analysis of the structure of social
relationships as constituted by social
interaction"
interaction (Knuttila, 2002:11)
Systematic and scientific study of
human behaviors, relations and social
structures in various societies
Introduction
1
Sociology: Macro-Analysis

Macrosociology

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Studies large social organizations and categories
Focuses on complex social patterns that have
been formed from a historical perspective and
overtime
Macro - large scale phenomena or entire
civilization



Durkheim's study of suicide
international crime rates
Asians as "model minorities"
Introduction
2
Sociology: Micro-Analysis

Microsociology:
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Focuses:


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on face-to-face relations and interactions
on processes and patterns
on small group interactions and relations
Micro - study of small groups


how divorce affects social roles for men and
women
how conformity influences the manifestation of
prejudiced views
Introduction
3
Sociology Questions CommonSense Knowledge

Sociology is based on analysis of data
gathered based on scientific methods


it systematically studies social relations and
structures
Common-sense explanations are based
on voluntaristic view of social relations
and society

Assumes that we are the authors of our
own lives
Introduction
4
Sociological Imagination

The ability of people to use
information and knowledge in order
to develop an understanding about
what is going on in the world, and
 “what may be happening within
themselves” (as cited in Hale,
1995:5)

Introduction
5
Sociological Imagination

the ability to understand how
relationships between various
elements of society impact
individual life chances (Hale
1995:7)
Introduction
6
Sociological Imagination

Enables us to better understand one's
and other people’s behaviours

If we want to understand ourselves

There is need to locate ourselves in history,

To put ourselves in the context of historical
processes and
 To imagine ourselves in relation to other people
Introduction
7
Sociological Imagination

It is historical, anthropological and
critical


We should avoid ethnocentric views and
see ourselves through the lenses of others
Allows us to understand how societies
control and shape their members
Introduction
8
Questions to Consider
 The following questions are a good way of focusing your
attention on how sociological analysis, theories, and case
studies can be drawn upon to better understand Canadian
issues from both national/local and global perspectives.
Important Questions
(Knuttila, 2004, p. 20)
 What are some of the characteristic of the structures of
Canadian society?
 How is Canadian society organized and “how does it
operate?”
 In what ways is Canadian society “similar to and/or different
from other societies” in the world?
10
Introduction
Important Questions
(Knuttila, 2004, p. 20)
 What are some of the characteristic of the structures of
Canadian society?
 How is Canadian society organized and “how does it
operate?”
 In what ways is Canadian society “similar to and/or different
from other societies” in the world?
11
Introduction
Important Questions
(Knuttila, 2004, p. 20)
 What are some of the characteristic of the structures of
Canadian society?
 How is Canadian society organized and “how does it
operate?”
 In what ways is Canadian society “similar to and/or different
from other societies” in the world?
12
Introduction
Scientific Methods



Assumptions
There is an external objective world which
is apart from individual humans
We can obtain information and knowledge
about the social world by collecting data
through observations or experiments
(Knuttila, 2002:8)
There is order and regular interactions in the
world

i.e. causality
Introduction
13
Sociology


Studies human behaviour (Schaefer, 2003:7)
Looks at the ways in which social experiences
determine (i.e.: structure) social, cultural and
economic characteristics of individuals as
members of various groups based on factors
such as gender, “race”, class, and ethnicity
(Hale, 1995:6)
Introduction
14
Sociology

Developed during social, political and
economic changes in the 19th century

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
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Industrialization
Urbanization
Democracy
A term coined by Comte in 1830
A division of social sciences
Introduction
15
Multidisciplinary Approaches
 Many social scientists study human relations and societies
from the perspectives of a number of disciplines.
 A multidisciplinary approach allows us to look at a
phenomena from several diverse ways in order to offer a
more holistic understanding of social structures and social
change.
Sociology, Humanities & Social
Sciences
 Anthropology, p. is known for its focus on studying non-
industrial and modern societies
 Today, socio-cultural anthropologists study various topics and
subjects such as the formation of grass-roots movements on
university campuses or in inner-city neighborhoods
 Studies human societies/cultures in systematic and
comparative manners
 Interested in a holistic approach to studies of societies
 Several sub-fields, p. socio-cultural, linguistic, physical and
archaeology
17
Introduction
Sociology and Social Sciences
 Economics, p.
 Studies
 how goods and services are produced, distributed and consumed
 the impact of government policies on these factors
 Divided into, p.
 macro (national and international levels)
 micro (individual level, firm level analysis)
18
Introduction
Sociology and Social Sciences
 Economics, p.
 Studies
 how goods and services are produced, distributed and consumed
 the impact of government policies on these factors
 Divided into, p.
 macro (national and international levels)
 micro (individual level, firm level analysis)
19
Introduction
Sociology and Social Sciences
 Economics, p.
 Studies
 how goods and services are produced, distributed and consumed
 the impact of government policies on these factors
 Divided into, p.
 macro (national and international levels)
 micro (individual level, firm level analysis)
20
Introduction
Sociology and Humanities
 History
 Concerned with events and factors that have shaped societies
through the ages
 It is descriptive
 Has not developed theoretical approaches to studying societies
 Sociology makes its theoretical approaches explicit because the aim is to
test these theories
 Studies the human and social development in order to
determine the extent to which these events were unique parts
of the larger processes
 thus pointing to their patterns and regularities (if any)
21
Introduction
Philosophy
 Like sociology it is analytical
 It aims at both refining and testing its theories
 Unlike Sociology it is not empirical
 That is, it does not gather data and information in order to test
its theories
 More concerned with the internal logic of its theories and
arguments
22
Introduction
Sociology
 Aims at understanding how society actually
operates and shapes the lives of people
 Studies the relationship between agency
and social structure
 We create society as much as society creates
us
23
Introduction
Sociological Understanding
 Behaviour is socially and culturally shaped, “determined”
 We can “predict” how social actors may behave by analyzing
the social structures and cultural beliefs that are prevalent in
various social settings
 This knowledge can play an important role in promoting
social justice for all in various parts of the world
 Some sociologists view and label themselves as social activists
as well
24
Introduction
Agency
 Refers to our ability as individuals and social
actors to become self conscious and act as
wilful individuals
 To become involved in actions that aim at
changing the world through social practices that
involve collective decision-making (O’Brian,
2004, p. 149)
25
Introduction
Social Structure
 Patterns within society and social life that are relatively
enduring (Wotherspoon, 1998, p. 7)
 Patterns of social behaviour that are relatively stable (Macionis,
1999, p. 12)
 A set of positions that relate to one another (Cahron, 1998)
 Doctor – Nurse – Patient
26
Introduction
Social Structure
 Patterns within society and social life that are relatively
enduring (Wotherspoon, 1998, p. 7)
 Patterns of social behaviour that are relatively stable (Macionis,
1999, p. 12)
 A set of positions that relate to one another (Cahron, 1998)
 Doctor – Nurse – Patient
27
Introduction
Social Structures
 Examples
 Family
 Economy
 Government
 Education System
 Also conceptualized as social institutions
 They provide us with roles, statuses and rules that inform our social
interactions
 Our identities are formed in the context of our relationships with other
people as members of various groupings in the context of these social
institutions
28
Introduction
Elements of Social Structure
 Institutions
 Status
 Role
 Norms
 Values
 Groups
 Formal Organizations
29
Introduction
Elements of Social Structure
 Institutions
 Status
 Role
 Norms
 Values
 Groups
 Formal Organizations
30
Introduction
Elements of Social Structure
 Institutions
 Status
 Role
 Norms
 Values
 Groups
 Formal Organizations
31
Introduction
Sub fields of Sociology
 Sociology of Education
 Sociology of Religion
 Sociology of Sports
 Sociology of Work
 Sociology of Gender
 Political Sociology
 Sociology Development
 Sociology of Crime
Sociological Perspectives
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“Seeing the general in the particular”
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“Seeing the strange in the familiar”
Questions the idea that


determining the general patterns in the behaviour
of particular individuals
"human behaviour is a matter of what people
decide to do“
“Seeing the Individuality in Social Context”
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Accounts for the extent to which
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society "guides our thoughts and actions” (Macionis,
2008:4)
Introduction
33
Sociological Perspectives
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Perspective or Paradigm:
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a general way of seeing the world
allows to
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ask specific questions and

depending on the questions to come up with
answers and ways of interpreting the data
Introduction
34
Sociological Perspectives

explore how our particular personal
experiences are shaped by factors such
as gender, race and ethnicity (Macionis,
1999:4)
Introduction
35
Theory
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Enables us to discern

how and why

economic,

social and
 cultural facts are related
Introduction
36
Theory
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Allows:



to understand how society is organized,
works and functions
to analyze our data
Provides avenues for explaining social
phenomena

“A way of seeing” the world and/or “ways
of not seeing” the world (Bryant,
2004:576)
Introduction
37
Roles of Theory
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“provides patterns for the interpretation of
data”
"links one study with another"
“supply frameworks within which concepts
and variables acquire special significance”
“allows us to interpret the larger meaning of
our finding for ourselves and others” (Hoover,
1988:35)
Introduction
38
Karl Marx

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“Class Consciousness”
“The awareness of having common
interest”
Promotes collective political goals in
order to bring about change
Introduction
39
Karl Marx


“False Consciousness”
Material conditions and social class position of
the working class is not viewed collectively
and/or in the context of overall capitalist
relations
Workers tend to view themselves through the
lenses of the value systems prevalent in
capitalist societies (ideology)
Introduction
40
Marxism - Marx

Ideology

views about the world

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that tend to promote the interest of
specific groups in society
“interpretive lenses that help us to
understand what we see” (Hiller,
2006:126)
Introduction
41
Marxism - Marx

Dominant ideology

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Refers the beliefs, values and norms that
reproduce the existing systems of power and
economic relations that “support and justify the
overall system and the position of the ruling
classes in that system” (Knuttila, 2004:143)
The Dominant ideology in the West

justifies capitalist relations and class system
Introduction
42
Marxism - Marx
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Dominant ideology in capitalist societies
emphasizes
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individualism
importance of private property
individual responsibility
freedom of expression and economic activity (individual
liberty)
importance of competition
justifies aggressive behavior
Promotes respect for authority
Introduction
43
Marxism - Marx

Dominant ideology in capitalist societies
informs the logic of various institutions

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the education system
The legal system
Popular culture
The media
Introduction
44
Marxism - Marx

Despite this dominant ideology, since
the system tends to produce conflict
different classes also produce their own
ideologies

That is, there are also counterhegemonic ideologies

working classes form counter-hegemonic ideas
based on their experiences as exploited classes
Introduction
45
Theory

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Enables us to analyze and
conceptualize human behaviors and
relations
Eexplains "problems, actions or
behaviours" (Schaefer, 2003:9)
Alows us to organize knowledge about
society and the world
Introduction
46
Feminism

Sociology based on the everyday
experiences of women
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Focuses on condition of women, women's
experiences – subordination
Emphasis on stand-point of women and solutions
for women by women
How gender organizes public and private lives

in such a way as to produce inequality between
men and women
Introduction
47
Feminism

How sexism affects research

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sexist language, methods, concepts and
androcentric perspectives (male
bias/perspectives)
Aims at Examining, understanding and
changing (transforming) gender
inequality
Introduction
48
Feminism
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Criticism: it is political (ideological)
rather than scientific
Despite theoretical differences between
feminists, they share the following
"characteristic“:
Introduction
49
Feminism Shared
Characteristics

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Gender as an element of all social
relations
Gender, class, race and ethnicity are
socially constructed - reproducing
inequality at home and the workplace
Gender relations are not natural but
products of history and culture
Promote social change
Introduction
50
Research and Gender
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Feminist advocates argue for

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a focus on women's lives and standpoints
acknowledgement of the fact that women
experience inequality and subordination
Introduction
51
Research and Gender
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Gender

refers to the importance that is accorded to
being male or femalee

which is social construction
Introduction
52
Research and Gender
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Research in sociology has been referred to as
being affected by Eurocentrism and
androcentricity
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Eurocentrism
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refers to the idea of approaching an issue form the point
of view and concerns of Europeans and being affected
by European standards
Androcentricity

refers to the idea that issues are approached from male
perspectives and experiences
Introduction
53
Research and Gender

Margrit Eichler (In Macionis, 1999:20)
problems with sociological research

Androcentric

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men's positions or views are considered as
important
Overgeneralizing

from men's experiences to conclude about the
society as a whole
Introduction
54
Research and Gender
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"Gender blindness“
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"Double Standards“
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not accounting for gender issues in sociological
studies
performing research based on different standards
for men and women (i.e.: economic contributions)
Interference

a male or a female researcher may be shunned by
the opposite sex informants and denied access
Introduction
55