The Historical Process - Chapter 2
Developing our notions of history
● Caribbean history was previously written by scholars with a Eurocentric and
ethnocentric outlook
● Eurocentric views meant that Caribbean history was often thought to begin with
Columbus' arrival in the New World
● Caribbean scholars have challenged these Eurocentric views and offered alternative
explanations and analyses
● Peoples who were colonised and seeking to establish their identities are more likely to
offer such insights
● The chapter aims to dispel the notion that history is only about understanding the past
and is of limited value in the present
● The history of the Caribbean is closely related to present-day society and culture
● The culture of the region and individual countries has been profoundly affected by the
historical processes through which they have passed.
Migrations
● Movement of people leads to the movement of society and culture, and the meeting
and mixing with other societies and cultures
● Great migrations have occurred throughout history and signalled fundamental changes
and adaptations for both migrants and settled groups
● The Caribbean region has experienced significant migrations that impacted social life
● The focus is on major movements of people into the Caribbean (immigration) and the
establishment of Caribbean diasporic communities in other places (emigration)
● The Caribbean has an ancient history, going back to the end of the last Ice Age
● Different migratory movements brought a range of cultures to the region, beginning
with the early Archaic peoples and continuing through to the Island Caribs and Tainos
● Waves of migration have continued throughout Caribbean history
● Columbus was just one of many pioneers who 'discovered' the Caribbean through the
ages.
Earliest Caribbean Migrations
● The popular misconception about Caribbean history is that it is ‘short’ and ‘relatively
new’.
● The earliest remains of Caribbean habitation are found in both Trinidad and Cuba.
● The region already had a long history before Ceramic groups moved in around two
and a half thousand years ago.
● Different cultural groups with distinctive styles of pottery, ornamentation, and
lifestyles began to migrate from South America into the Lesser Antilles about 2400
years ago.
● The Caribs’ use of the dugout canoe is well known, but trade was also
long-established between the early island dwellers and mainland communities.
● Hybridisation developed differently in different parts of the Caribbean.
● The people of the Greater Antilles when the Europeans arrived were labelled
‘Arawak’, and they evolved out of cultural mixing among the earlier peoples of the
Greater Antilles.
● The Tainos had developed a highly organised civilization of chiefdoms governed by
caciques, centred on city-states similar to those of the Maya and other mainland
societies.
● The last wave of migrants from South America before Contact was that of the Island
Caribs.
European Migrations
● Columbus was not the first European to visit the Americas, but he was the first to
bring tangible evidence of gold back to Europe.
● If Columbus had not found gold, the Caribbean may not have stirred up as much
interest and expectation among Europeans.
● After Columbus' return to Spain in 1492, many Spaniards came to the Americas to
seek their fortunes, including conquistadors, soldiers, priests, and administrators.
● Hispaniola became the first official administrative Spanish settlement in the Americas
due to the presence of gold and a large resident population of Tainos.
● Spanish migrants made war on the Tainos, enslaved them, took their possessions,
killed off their leaders, and exploited the mines until the metals were exhausted.
● The Tainos were vulnerable to European diseases to which they had no immunity,
increasing the death toll resulting from the presence of the Spaniards.
● At the end of the process, few Tainos were left, and the Spanish were responsible for
the genocide of the native peoples of the Caribbean.
Iberian Rivalry
● Spain and Portugal were both advanced in exploration and navigation in 1492 and
were rivals.
● Portugal focused mainly on Africa and the Indian Ocean and was not interested in
exploring the west.
● Columbus was Portuguese, but his country refused to fund his voyages westward, so
he went to the Spanish for funding.
● The Portuguese regretted their short-sightedness and wanted to receive their share of
the gold streaming back from the Americas.
● The Pope at the time, Alexander VI, feared war between the two Iberian nations and
intervened with the Treaty of Tordesillas, apportioning control of the world outside
Europe between Spain and Portugal.
● Britain, the Netherlands, and France ignored papal authority and regarded the
Caribbean as fair game, leading to encroachment on Spanish territory.
● Hispaniola became the hub of a large Spanish American empire, and migrants from
Spain came to settle, own ranches or estates, or get involved in business and trade.
● Spain could not keep the riches of the Indies a secret or monopolise it for long, and
adventurers from all over Europe prepared to take what they could from the Spanish.
● Differences among European nations impacted the Caribbean's history, and it's
important to be aware of these differences.
The Spanish Stranglehold
● Spain was the only European nation to establish permanent settlements in the
Caribbean for over a hundred years after Columbus arrived in the New World.
● The British and French in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries came to the
Caribbean to raid, pillage, and capture the rich Spanish galleons carrying gold and
silver back to Spain.
● The British and French were called "buccaneers", "privateers", and "pirates".
● The British and French did not establish permanent settlements in the Caribbean.
The Slave Trade
● Enslaved Africans were initially provided by the Portuguese for the transatlantic slave
trade, as the Spanish were not allowed to trade in Africa.
● The Dutch, French, and British later became involved directly in the slave trade.
● The Dutch, French, and British dominated the Atlantic slave trade from the 16th to the
19th century when it was abolished.
● Human cargo replaced gold and silver as the way to profit from Spain's empire.
● Smuggling was a way for European nations to encroach on the Spanish empire, and
the Portuguese, Dutch, British, and French all engaged in it to some degree.
● The official holders of the asiento licence from the Spanish government were unable
to meet the demand for slaves and other goods needed by the colonists, so smuggled
goods and slaves were provided by other European nations.
British, French and Dutch Settlement
● St. Kitts was the first permanent settlement established by the British and French in
the Caribbean in 1624.
● The islands were largely ignored by the Spaniards and had small Amerindian
populations.
● By 1650, around 56,900 Europeans lived in the British Caribbean, while around
15,000 Europeans lived in the French and Dutch Antilles.
● The European population grew rapidly, with an average of 2000 to 3000 Europeans
migrating to the Caribbean annually between 1624-1650.
● The English Caribbean islands had more than 50 Europeans per square mile by 1650,
making it one of the heaviest-populated areas in the world.
● Many of the colonies established by the French and British in the early seventeenth
century were proprietorships, and the Lords Proprietors bore the expenses of the
colony while taxing the profits of the colonists.
● The Dutch settled on the Guiana coastlands and small islands such as Aruba, Curaçao,
and Bonaire, and used them as warehouses and places to keep slaves en route to their
final destination.
● Denmark settled St. Thomas in 1672 and later St. Croix and St. John, while Sweden
bought St. Barth's from the French in 1784 and sold it back in 1878.
● Unlike the Spanish, the British, French, and Dutch did not enslave the native
populations, instead relying on indentured or contracted labour from poor and
unemployed persons from Europe before sugar cultivation became widespread.
Barriers
● Europeans came to the Caribbean for economic gain.
● Spain tried to prevent other Europeans from sharing the riches of the Indies but failed.
● British, French, and Dutch migrants established settlements in the Caribbean that
grew into substantial colonial societies.
● Communication and trade between colonies of different European countries were
discouraged through laws and regulations.
● Geographical, political, linguistic, and cultural barriers separated the islands.
● By the end of the nineteenth century, the period of large-scale European migrations
had come to an end, and the Caribbean was subdivided into enclaves owned by
different European empires.
● Even today, there is minimal interaction between the islands and territories of the
French, British, Dutch, and Spanish Caribbean.
● In each island, a society and culture developed heavily influenced by the European
metropolitan country.
● Efforts at cooperation and regional integration across all these cultural groups are still
proving to be very difficult.
Forced Migrations of Africans
● There is a debate about whether Africans came to the Americas before Columbus
● Africans came with the first Spanish expedition as free men
● Slavery had existed in Spain for centuries, but slaves were of different races and
ethnicities
● Slavery had also existed in Africa prior to the Atlantic slave trade organized by
Europeans
● The way Europeans arranged the capture, transport, distribution and servitude of
Africans in the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries was unprecedented in world history
● The Atlantic slave trade involved the forced migration of millions of Africans into a
lifetime of captivity and servitude, continued for centuries, and supported an economy
overseas that could only survive on enslaved labor
● What made the Atlantic slave trade unique was that it was based on race
● The foundation of this trade was based on a full-blown racist ideology that emerged in
the 18th and 19th centuries
● Enslaved people in Europe and Africa were enslaved for different reasons, but what
made the Atlantic slave trade unique was its sheer scale, economic basis, brutality,
and racial stereotyping.
The Atlantic Slave Trade
● Enslaved Africans were brought to the Caribbean from 1503 onwards, with the
permission of the Spanish Crown by 1520.
● Spain was not allowed to trade in Africa according to the Treaty of Tordesillas, so
they relied on Portuguese traders for a supply of slaves.
● The Portuguese sold the slaves initially bought from African slave traders to the
Spanish mines and plantations through a licence called asiento.
● Smuggling was also prevalent among those who had not bought a licence.
● Conservative estimates suggest that around 15 million Africans were forcibly taken
from Africa to the Americas between 1500 and the mid-19th century.
● The Atlantic slave trade was organized differently from previous forms of slave
trading or slavery.
Organisation
● European merchants, banks, and chartered companies provided capital to finance the
Atlantic slave trade, as it was too costly for a lone sea captain.
● European rulers played an active role in the commercial aspects of the slave trade and
founded charter joint stock companies, such as the Royal African Company, Company
of Senegal (French), and the Dutch West India Company.
● The companies were granted monopolies to trade in slaves and other goods for
specific periods, and they were responsible for defending their forts and warehouses
in Africa.
● The companies could also harass other European traders on the African coast by
capturing their merchandise.
● In the early days of the slave trade, some merchant venturers took the risk of
financing the venture with their own money or with a few partners, with some
achieving great success.
Forts and Castles
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European countries built forts at various points along the West African coast.
The forts were used to store goods brought from Europe and to house slaves.
Europeans at the forts were responsible for negotiating with African chiefs.
Chartered companies acted on behalf of their governments, offering gifts and bribes to
uncooperative chiefs.
● Each European country had its sphere of influence on the African coast.
● Portugal's main areas of activity were the Gold Coast and Angola.
● The Dutch established forts and settlements on the Gold Coast, Slave Coast, and Ivory
Coast.
● France's main areas of activity were Benin, Senegal, Guinea, and Angola.
● The European countries nurtured delicate relations with tribal chieftains to safeguard
their own persons and for the good of the trade.
Triangular Trade
● The slave trade was known as the triangular trade, with three branches that formed a
rough triangle on the map.
● Enslaved Africans were treated as commodities and shipped on the second leg of the
triangle, known as the Middle Passage.
● Conditions on slave ships were terrible, with many dying from suffocation in the hold
due to overcrowding.
● The more slaves a ship could carry, the higher the profits, and fatalities were often
expected.
● Occasionally slaves escaped, either due to poor ship maintenance, bad weather, or
overpowering the crew.
● Some slaves chose to jump overboard to avoid a life of slavery, while others resisted
by refusing to work or eat.
Impact of the Slave Trade on Africa
● Slave trading on the coast affected regions hundreds of miles inland.
● Europeans conducted their own raids to capture Africans, with the help of rival
African groups.
● They formed alliances with African groups willing to capture and sell fellow
Africans.
● Europeans were drawn into the internal intrigues of the coastal kingdoms, providing
guns and ammunition to their allies.
● This laid the foundation for later intervention, conquest and colonisation.
● The loss of 15 million able-bodied citizens over more than three centuries severely
depleted the human resources of the region.
● The loss of an estimated 2% per year of the total population of West Africa led to
economic stagnation.
Impact of the Slave Trade on the Caribbean
● The forced migration of millions of Africans to the Americas is the most significant
historical process affecting the Caribbean.
● Caribbean societies became slave societies because of the large numbers of enslaved
individuals present in society.
● Impact of slavery varied across Caribbean countries, with the British, French, and
Dutch colonies having larger African populations and Spanish colonies having fewer
African imports until the late 19th century.
● The British, French, and Dutch abolished slavery before the Spanish, with slavery
being completely abolished by 1886 in Cuba.
● Even though slavery was abolished, people of African descent do not make up a
majority in the Hispanic Caribbean.
The Diaspora
● The forced migration of Africans to the Caribbean created a diaspora, which
continues to impact Caribbean society and culture today.
● The diaspora created an "in-betweenity" as the largest ethnic group in the Caribbean
with a short history in the region, originating elsewhere.
● Although we speak of the Caribbean as an "African" diaspora, it's important to note
the ethnic differences of the enslaved people who were brought there.
● Cultural differences in Caribbean society and culture today are due to large numbers
of people from the same African ethnic group being found only in certain islands.
● The French traded a great deal in Dahomey (Benin) and supplied slaves mainly to
their own colonies, so the strong influence of voodoo (Vodun) in Haiti is easy to
understand.
● Most Africans taken to Cuba were of the Bantu peoples, and the religion they
practised, Santería, is now widespread throughout the island.
● The Big Drum and Nation Dances in Carriacou, usually performed at Easter, are
strongly associated with the Ibo and Koromanti of West Africa.
Migrations of Indentured Servants
● Slavery was abolished in the British Caribbean between 1834-1838, with smaller
territories becoming free overnight and others undergoing a transition period called
Apprenticeship.
● The main post-emancipation issues were centered on the price of labor, which
fundamentally affected Caribbean society and culture.
● In smaller islands like Antigua, St. Kitts, and Barbados, African workers had fewer
options and often had to return to the plantations and accept the wages offered.
● In British Guiana, ex-slaves could make a living by moving into the interior and
becoming small farmers, while Trinidad never developed into a classic slave society.
● Europeans claimed that more labor was needed for the expansion of the industry, and
searched for a reliable source of cheaper labor after Emancipation.
● Any new labor supply was bound to encounter hostility from the Africans who
wanted wages increased, and felt that the Europeans created the labor shortage by
refusing to pay a fair wage.
● The old idea of "indentureship" was brought back to solve the labour problems in the
British West Indies, where indentured servants agreed to work in the Caribbean for a
period of 5-7 years for a minimum wage, with various experiments tried.
● Europeans looked first to Europe, then to other Caribbean islands, Africa, India, and
China for new labour supplies.
Experiments in Indentured Immigration
● Slavery was abolished in the British Caribbean between 1834-1838, with smaller
territories becoming free overnight and others undergoing a transition period called
Apprenticeship.
● The main post-emancipation issues were centred on the price of labour, which
fundamentally affected Caribbean society and culture.
● In smaller islands like Antigua, St. Kitts, and Barbados, African workers had fewer
options and often had to return to the plantations and accept the wages offered.
● In British Guiana, ex-slaves could make a living by moving into the interior and
becoming small farmers, while Trinidad never developed into a classic slave society.
● Europeans claimed that more labour was needed for the expansion of the industry, and
searched for a reliable source of cheaper labour after Emancipation.
● Any new labour supply was bound to encounter hostility from the Africans who
wanted wages increased, and felt that the Europeans created the labour shortage by
refusing to pay a fair wage.
● The old idea of "indentureship" was brought back to solve the labour problems in the
British West Indies, where indentured servants agreed to work in the Caribbean for a
period of 5-7 years for a minimum wage, with various experiments tried.
● Europeans looked first to Europe, then to other Caribbean islands, Africa, India, and
China for new labour supplies.
Indentureship and The Plural Society
● The price of labour was the crucial factor for Indians to enter Caribbean society and
culture.
● Indians came from conditions of extreme poverty in northern India.
● Africans did not trust people who accepted poor conditions of work and excluded
themselves from making wage demands on the planters.
● Indians remained apart on the plantations due to alien customs.
● Indentured migrants added to the diversity and complexity of Caribbean society and
culture.
● The influx of indentured immigrants created additional groups and subgroups and
tensions among them.
● Chinese indentured immigrants assimilated more readily into Caribbean society than
Indians.
● Many Chinese immigrants married African women and became Christian.
Indentured Labourers outside the Anglophone Caribbean
● French planters brought labourers from Pondicherry, a French colony in India to work
in the cane fields in the French Caribbean after 1848.
● Tamil or Madrasi culture can still be found in Guadeloupe today as a result of the Kali
ceremony and other cultural practices.
● The Dutch brought labourers from the island of Java in their colony Dutch Guiana
(now Suriname) in the East Indies.
● The Javanese comprise 15% of Suriname's population, are mostly Muslim, and have
different Islamic traditions than the Hindustanis.
● Indians from British India were also imported into Suriname, and they are referred to
as 'Hindustanis' or East Indians.
● The Hindustanis comprise about 37% of Suriname's population and are mainly
Hindus with a Muslim minority.
Caribbean Diaspora
● Migration has been a traditional and positively regarded practice in Caribbean society
and culture.
● In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, many Caribbean emigrants went
to Panama to work on the canal.
● Large numbers of Caribbean migrants and their children now live and work in
metropolitan countries and elsewhere.
● Caribbean people often send remittances home to assist family members, which also
provide a valuable source of foreign exchange for the home country.
● While migration has benefits, it can also be seen as a negative approach to
development and decolonisation.
● The 'brain drain' effect through the emigration of skilled people has been a negative
influence.
● The experience of racism and treatment as second-class citizens is another negative
influence.
● Seasonal workers often face segregation and hold down jobs that residents think are
too menial.
● The migration experience today continues the syndrome of dependency on
extra-regional countries.
● Agricultural workers in poor communities have become further impoverished as they
cannot match the prices paid to migrant workers in developed countries.
Case Study - Caribbean Diaspora in London
● After WWII, Britain needed help to rebuild its industries and capital after heavy
bombing.
● People from the Caribbean were offered special terms of citizenship and settlement
rights in return for their willingness to work in London and other centres.
● Immigrants arrived in their hundreds, eventually thousands, on ships like the Empire
Windrush.
● They faced discrimination with regard to housing, wages, and employment
opportunities.
● Trade unions and British workers often resented the immigrants' presence, fearing it
would undercut their wages.
● Immigrants formed close links with each other and used self-help strategies such as
Pardner to finance businesses and buy property.
● They set up their own newspapers, such as The Voice, and created cultural gatherings
that reminded them of the Caribbean, including the Notting Hill Carnival.
● Today, members of the Caribbean diaspora are in all walks of London life, including
business and even as Members of Parliament.
● Many Afro-Caribbean persons feel a sense of disadvantage, and the poorest
communities in London have a large Afro-Caribbean component.
● There is still an ambivalent attitude on the part of the police force, which has led to
riots in Brixton in the 1980s and more recently in north London in August 2011.
● Many people of Caribbean origin are second- or third-generation migrants and think
of themselves as British, even if they value their Caribbean cultural heritage.
Caribbean Migrant Farm Labour
● Southern Florida and the Niagara Peninsula in Canada see an annual migration of
Caribbean workers to hand-pick fruit, harvest cane manually and work in tobacco
factories and canneries.
● The field labour is hard, backbreaking work, from sunup to sundown, without
overtime pay, and they are housed in substandard structures.
● Caribbean workers are recruited based on agreements between the Caribbean and the
receiving nations, and their airfares are paid for by the farmers.
● Their contract may be from six weeks to eight months, depending on the type of job
for which they are contracted.
● They are returned promptly to the Caribbean once their contracts expire and are paid a
lowly wage by Canadian or American standards.
● Migrants spend much of their earnings on the eve of their departure buying different
kinds of small appliances and gadgets, clothes, and gifts.
● Most of these migrant labour schemes involve thousands of Caribbean workers,
mainly from Jamaica, with smaller numbers from the Eastern Caribbean.
● These workers are not covered by health and safety legislation, nor can they bargain
collectively, and they cannot move from one farm to another looking for better
conditions.
● There is a social distance between the workers and the farmers and townspeople,
emphasised by race and colour.
● The farmers counter the charges of exploitation by saying that they too have to be
competitive in a system of trade liberalisation and so the cheaper their production
costs, the more likely they are to stay in business.
Summary
● The Caribbean has a long history of migration and each group has contributed to the
creation of Caribbean society and culture.
● Migrants came through various processes, including diffusion, trade routes, forceful
enslavement, and worker indentureship schemes.
● Each group has impacted the territories differently, leading to increasing diversity and
complexity in Caribbean society and culture.
● The Amerindians, thought to have long died out, are experiencing a resurgence and
demanding recognition as a vibrant part of Caribbean society and culture.
● Africans, Indians, Chinese, and whites are not only Caribbean people, but also part of
various diasporas with homelands elsewhere.
● Caribbean people who migrate to metropolitan countries live in a "double diaspora,"
adding to the complexity of their identities.
The Development of Systems of Production
● Early societies relied on hunting and gathering or subsistence agriculture for
production.
● The emergence of surpluses made trade more important.
● The economic organisation of Amerindian societies varied when Europeans arrived in
the Americas.
● The Tainos had a more advanced system of producing agricultural surpluses, and
trade was primarily for the purpose of feeding and providing for urban communities.
● The Spaniards introduced the idea that gold and silver were the desired goal of
production.
● The lure of precious metals was the main driving force behind Spain's colonisation of
the Americas.
● They believed that having access to their own gold and silver mines would make
Spain the most powerful country in Europe.
Slash and Burn Cultivation
● Subsistence agriculture is effective where there is enough land to maintain fertility.
● Slash and burn cultivation is a method used in traditional societies, including those in
the Caribbean, to return nutrients to the soil.
● This method, when combined with a fallow system, is sustainable.
● As populations grow, the demand for land to produce more crops increases, causing
soil fertility to decline.
● Overgrazing and overuse of land for crops can further reduce soil fertility.
● If used today, slash and burn cultivation is usually seen as poor management of soil
fertility.
Encomienda
● The Spanish monarchs divided control over the native population among incoming
Spaniards after conquering the Caribbean.
● The Spaniards were entitled to exact tribute from the native population, including
produce, gold, or personal services, in exchange for religious instruction.
● This system was known as the encomienda and treated Amerindians as slaves, often
putting them to work in mines.
● Many Amerindians died from hunger, overwork, harsh punishments, and European
diseases.
● The system aimed to quickly obtain precious metals and increase Spain's power and
prestige in Europe.
● Many indigenous groups in the Caribbean today follow the Roman Catholic faith due
to the legacy of religious training provided to the Amerindians in exchange for their
labour.
Slavery
● Slavery as a system of production was primarily bound up with the cultivation of
sugar and the social and economic organisation of the plantation in the British,
French, and Dutch Caribbean.
● Slavery was a total institution that imposed institutional organisation on the lives of
African people, including the social and economic arrangements of the plantation and
society.
● Attempts to dehumanise Africans were made by Europeans who owned them, such as
suppressing social and cultural ties, giving them European names, and forbidding
them from practising their religions, customs, and traditions.
● Harsh physical punishments, torture, and even death were common for minor
infringements to force Africans to submit to the will of Europeans.
● Playing one group of Africans against another was meant to promote European values
and ways of life.
● Rigid social stratification according to race and colour involved relegating black
people to the bottom of the social strata, which was dehumanising.
The Plantation System
● The plantation system was developed by Europeans to maximise profits in certain
types of agricultural business, such as sugar, cotton, coffee, and tea.
● Different ethnic groups were brought to live and work on plantations far from their
homelands, encouraged to distrust each other and see Europeans as superior.
● The whites were the owners, managers, and supervisors while labour was coloured.
● The plantation system relied on the Atlantic slave trade for its labour supply and
provided the raw materials for the third leg of the triangular trade.
● The Navigation Laws in Britain and France prevented other nations from getting a
share of the profitable trade arising from the slave plantations of the Caribbean.
● The legacy of the plantation system continues to affect Caribbean societies and
economies today, as it was a system of economic organisation that used slavery as a
form of labour.
● Caribbean society is stratified, reflecting historical divisions among various groups
where caste and class were rigidly tied.
● Whites and people of lighter colour were the wealthier members of plantation
societies and continue to be so today, while other groups are increasingly accessing
social mobility through education.
● Europeans brought systems of production to the Caribbean that began to take the
shape of capitalist enterprises, emphasising the amassing of huge profits that were
repatriated to the metropolitan country.
● The basis of such wealth depended on the enslavement of people who were regarded
as subhuman, and values stressing exploitation of the environment and people for
economic gain and an ideology of European superiority became part of the system of
production.
Indentureship
● Planters in the Caribbean sought a reliable source of labor after emancipation, as
ex-slaves refused to work for low wages.
● Indentureship was introduced as a way to provide labor, with Indian and Chinese
immigrants being brought in.
● While these immigrants were not considered chattels, they were paid low wages, had
substandard accommodation, and were in debt to the company store.
● They were also assigned to a plantation and faced punishment if caught outside of it
without permission.
● Indentureship was related to African slavery and allowed plantation society to
survive.
● Indians were encouraged to keep themselves apart from Africans, leading to disunity
among workers.
● Plantations became less important to European economies as cheaper sugar was
produced elsewhere.
● Indentureship ended in 1917 due to pressure from the Indian nationalist movement.
● Indian indentureship exploited the labour force and allowed plantations to survive
through turbulent times.
● The reliance on forced and indentured labour created a preference for exploitative
systems of production.
● Plantations found they could not survive by paying fair wages, and labour-saving
techniques were not implemented.
● The cost of production in Caribbean territories remained high, which impacted
independence and self-determination struggles later on.
Summary
● The systems of production established by Europeans in the Caribbean have persisted,
despite the passage of centuries.
● The plantation remains the dominant organiser of society and culture in the
Caribbean, even after the abolition of the encomienda system, slavery, and
indentureship.
● The plantation is synonymous with highly stratified, ex-colonial societies where labor
was imported and is now divided into rival groups, in an economy that is still largely
based on monocultural exports.
● European economic institutions were not developed in Caribbean societies, as their
focus was on producing agricultural products by monoculture and exporting raw
materials to Europe for manufacturing.
● Caribbean societies are still struggling with systems of production that are not geared
towards developing a vibrant, indigenous manufacturing sector and food production.
Resistance
● The history of the Caribbean since the arrival of Europeans has been characterized by
violence and genocide.
● Systems of production such as encomienda, slavery, and indentureship were
established for economic gain and led to oppression.
● The plantation system is still seen as the main organiser of society and culture in the
Caribbean, and monocultural exports remain prevalent.
● Despite the perceived dominance of European powers, continuous wars, rebellions,
and other forms of resistance were ongoing.
● Amerindians and Africans were kept in an inferior position by prevailing attitudes and
laws, but they resisted oppression by any means possible.
● The traditional version of Caribbean history presented a European perspective and
referred to Africans as slaves, while more sensitive renderings acknowledge that they
were people who were enslaved by others.
The Native Peoples
The Tainos
● The native people of the Caribbean resisted the invasion of Europeans almost from
the beginning, despite facing superior military might.
● The resistance took the form of open warfare, running away, withdrawing from settled
areas, sabotage, and suicide.
● The Tainos, who were considered "peaceful" by the Spaniards, put up a fierce
resistance that is hardly mentioned in historical records.
● The resistance was led by native leaders, or caciques, such as Guarionex, Hatuey, and
Agueybana.
● The historical record often overlooks the heroes and heroines who first engaged the
Spaniards, in favour of European figures such as Columbus and Magellan.
● One way to resist this ethnocentric version of Caribbean history is to tell the stories of
native leaders and heroes in textbooks and storybooks, so that their voices are not
silenced.
● The theme of resistance continues to be an important part of Caribbean society and
culture.
The Caribs
● The Caribs of the Lesser Antilles fiercely resisted the Spanish invasion.
● Their guerrilla tactics were well-suited to the mountainous terrain of their islands.
● The Caribs did not have a traditional noble line, so leadership resided in the best
warriors.
● Their mobility, especially with the use of dugout canoes, made it difficult for the
Spaniards to capture them.
● The Spaniards eventually left the Caribs alone, as they believed the islands had no
gold.
● However, the Caribs had to deal with the British, French and Dutch, who sought to
colonise the Lesser Antilles.
● The Caribs retreated into the interior and waged continuous raids on the European
settlements.
● The Caribs formed alliances with one European power against another.
● The constant influx of Europeans and their superior weapons eventually drove the
Caribs out of most of the islands.
● The Black Caribs in St Vincent were formed through intermixing with Africans.
● The Caribs persist in Dominica and Grenada, occupying territory won by treaty with
the British.
● The Caribs never let up in their resistance to the Europeans and their fighting spirit
continues today.
● Treaties were finally signed to ensure the survival of the Carib race.
● The Caribs continue to collaborate with archaeologists and use modern technologies
like the Internet to maintain their culture and history.
The Africans
● Millions of Africans were brought to the Caribbean, where they were oppressed by a
minority of whites.
● To keep so many people subjugated for centuries, physical violence and psychological
"brainwashing" were employed.
● Resistance had both active and passive forms, and some resistance was not even
recognized as such.
● Passive forms of resistance included damaging property, malingering,
misunderstanding instructions, committing suicide, and inducing abortions.
● These acts made the powerless feel like they still had some control over their lives,
and were expensive to plantation owners.
● Running away was an option, and Maroon communities were established in territories
with mountainous interiors, often involved in violent resistance and rebellions.
● Haiti is an example of enslaved Africans successfully establishing an independent
republic and forcing colonial authorities to give up power.
● Enslaved Africans did not passively accept their fate and resisted, with some like the
Maroons being successful in their resistance.
Cultural Resistance
● Europeans aimed to erase African culture to replace it with European culture, in order
to control Africans more easily.
● African captives used cunning responses to resist psychological brainwashing.
● They continued to use African words, hybridised African religions with Christianity,
and told their oral folklore.
● Africans ridiculed the white man through songs and performances.
● Drumming was feared by Europeans due to its association with war but continued as a
significant cultural retention.
● Africans made great efforts to protect and practise their cultural heritage as a form of
resistance.
● These efforts resulted in the syncretic religions and the Caribbean's musical heritage.
The Maroons
● Individuals and groups in the Caribbean sought freedom from oppression by running
away throughout the Conquest and colonisation period.
● The Amerindians and enslaved Africans were only successful in hiding from capture
in inhospitable terrains.
● Communities were founded by those who sought refuge in mountainous territories
and interior forests of the Guianas.
● Resistance and resilience were core values in these communities, reinforced by the
practice of African religions and the healing arts, family life and organisation
according to kin.
● Land was communally owned, and decision-making was participatory and based on
kinship networks.
● Self-sufficiency in agriculture was developed in these communities, and they raided
plantations mainly for women, weapons and gunpowder.
● The Maroons in Jamaica escaped from their Spanish slave masters when the British
took over the island in 1655.
● The Maroons set up a rival society based on values at odds with the individualistic,
capitalist enterprise of the plantation economy.
● Communities of free black people, existing long before the abolition of slavery,
proved invaluable as an alternative model or ideal on which enslaved Africans could
base their self-concept.
● The presence of Africans living freely in the interior acted as a beacon or symbol of
what was possible to those on the plantations.
● The Europeans tried every strategy, including importing troops, to destroy these
settlements.
● The symbolic power of freed Africans living nearby acted as a tremendous
psychological boost to enslaved Africans and resurrected hopes that African customs
and ways of life could be restored.
Armed Resistance
● Active forms of resistance were infrequent due to lack of weapons and poor
communication.
● Revolts and rebellions were common but mostly sporadic and isolated.
● Europeans lived with the constant threat of being poisoned by their house slaves.
● Full-scale revolutions involving the entire territory did occur but were suppressed
with great cruelty.
● The most successful and famous of these revolutions was the Haitian Revolution of
1791.
The Haitian Revolution
● Haiti was under French rule and was known as St Domingue.
● It was the largest sugar producer of the French Caribbean and in the late eighteenth
century, the most valuable plantation economy in the world.
● A socially stratified plantation society had developed where half a million Africans
lived in bondage, and many thousands of free coloureds (‘gens du couleur’) were also
dissatisfied.
● The free coloureds suffered discriminatory practices in the rigidly stratified society
because they were not white.
● The relatively privileged free coloureds began the revolt against the whites and
provided the opportunity that was quickly grasped by the enslaved Africans.
● The revolt mushroomed into a full-scale slave rebellion that was further expanded into
a revolution, wiping out society as it was known.
● An estimated 350,000 people died in this revolution before Haiti was declared a free
republic in 1804.
● The main leader of the revolution was Toussaint L’Ouverture.
● This revolution saw Haiti fighting France (under Napoleon) and Britain at different
times and even forming alliances with Spain.
● Caribbean historians credit the success of this revolution to the role of Maroon
communities in mounting guerrilla-type offensives against the Europeans, Vodun
religious beliefs and practices in providing a unifying force, and the genius of African
leaders such as L’Ouverture, Christophe, and Dessalines.
● The existence of a Black Republic in 1804, where the slaves had freed themselves and
were now governing themselves, reverberated throughout the slave societies of the
Caribbean.
Abolition
● Freed African ex-slaves were actively involved in the movement to abolish slavery in
the late 18th and early 19th centuries.
● Olaudah Equiano, a former slave from Virginia, settled in Britain and wrote an
autobiography detailing his life as a slave. He toured the country as part of the
campaign for abolition.
● Ottabah Cugoano was kidnapped and sold into slavery in 1770 at the age of 13. He
was later freed and went to Britain, where he wrote articles and letters arguing for
abolition and published his autobiography.
● Historians believe that the continued violence in the colonies, largely led by enslaved
Africans, played a significant role in the abolition of slavery.
● The traditional account emphasised the role of humanitarian groups like the Quakers
in ending slavery, but now more credit is given to the enslaved Africans themselves.
● The high costs of maintaining the slave system and the uneconomical nature of sugar
plantations also contributed to the end of slavery, as European governments were no
longer willing to support them and opened up markets to free trade.
Resistance after Emancipation
● The end of slavery did not end resistance
● Africans had to struggle to establish viable systems of production and political
arrangements after emancipation
● Attempts to downplay the emphasis on European ideas and ideals and supplant them
with more Afrocentric ones are examples of resistance in the modern era
● The reparations movement is a bold move that continues this theme of resistance
● The movement holds former slaveholding countries accountable for the past in the
present
● The movement has not yet met with a serious response from former slaveholding
countries
● The movement shows that slavery is still part of the issues being debated and analysed
in contemporary life
● This type of thinking is a good example of tracing history in Caribbean society and
culture today.
The Reparations Movement
● The reparations movement seeks compensation for the deaths of millions of Africans
in the slave trade, the forced labor of millions of enslaved Africans over hundreds of
years, and the value of resources taken out of Africa during colonial rule.
● African groups and organisations have set up committees in different countries to
publicise their intention of seeking compensation.
● The movement seeks monetary compensation from the countries that profited from
the slave trade, slavery, and colonialism.
● The movement also seeks acknowledgement of guilt and an apology from European
countries.
● The spirit of resistance and defiance today is seen as necessary by the movement.
● African people need to be aware that some redress has been put in train for the racism
they have suffered at the hands of Europeans.
Indentured Immigrants
● Indian labourers on plantations also faced great hardship and the Indian government
stopped immigration multiple times due to reports of cruelty.
● The Protector of the Immigrants appointed in each colony was biased in favour of
planter interests.
● Bonded labourers couldn't resort to collective bargaining, leading to protests and
unrest in Guyana and Trinidad.
● In 1869, a serious outbreak occurred on Leonora Estate in Guyana, and in 1870, a
commission of inquiry was set up but didn't address the labourers' problems.
● Indentured servants resisted their condition by running away or refusing to work, but
most established small businesses on the side, usually market gardening, and invested
in land, small-scale trade enterprises, and shopkeeping concerns.
● The joint household structure was crucial to their success, where everyone worked in
the family business, and it was the business, not individual success, that was
important.
Summary
● Genocide, slavery, and indentureship are all forms of oppression that have occurred in
the Caribbean.
● The oppressed have managed to forge lives and family structures despite these
circumstances.
● Cultural erasure has occurred but cultural hybridization has also taken place, resulting
in unique forms of culture in the Caribbean.
● Resistance has taken many forms in the Caribbean, including cultural fusion as a
response to domination.
● One of the defining elements of Caribbean culture is its resistant response to
oppression.
Movements Towards Independence
● After Emancipation, Caribbean people had to recover from the trauma of slavery and
bonded labour
● However, colonial society still felt oppressive and challenging even after the abolition
of slavery
● Caribbean people began to understand the meaning of freedom and started
challenging colonialism by the early 20th century
● This was particularly true after the two world wars
● The period after Emancipation until the first half of the 20th century was a time of
preparing for self-determination and throwing off European domination.
Political Enfranchisement
● After Emancipation, Caribbean people started preparing for self-determination and
throwing off European domination.
● Political enfranchisement was the first goal of Caribbean people after Emancipation.
● Thousands of Caribbean people migrated to different destinations for work and better
wages in the years after Emancipation.
● The Panama Canal, modern sugar plantations, oil refineries, and oilfields helped
develop political and economic consciousness in workers and exposed them to new
ideas.
● Returning soldiers who had served Britain in the world wars were unwilling to resume
a lowly status in the social hierarchy and were exposed to different ideas and political
philosophies.
● The ideas and speeches of Marcus Garvey of Jamaica pervaded the entire Caribbean,
promoting black consciousness and nationalist sentiments as enabling strategies of
resistance.
Trade Unionism
● Economic conditions in the Caribbean deteriorated in the 1930s, leading to
widespread labour riots, strikes, and protests.
● Charismatic leaders emerged in the labour movement and transitioned to political
leadership, including Uriah Buzz Butler, Adrian Cola Rienzi, Captain A.A. Cipriani,
Alexander Bustamante, Norman Washington Manley, Grantley Adams, and Nathaniel
Crichlow.
● The leaders organised and developed the Caribbean trade union movement, which
aimed to improve working conditions, health, and education for the poor.
● The trade unions became the birthplace for Caribbean political parties due to their
focus on social welfare.
● Some Creole whites were involved in the early stages of the trade union movement,
but it quickly became a working-class movement.
Political Developments
● The form of government in the British Caribbean was called the "old representative
system"
● A Governor was appointed from England who transmitted the Colonial Office's
dictates to the colonies
● The Governor ruled with the help of a nominated council and an elected assembly
● Disputes were largely between whites from England and Creole whites (planters born
in the Caribbean) about how best to run the colony
● During the 19th century, Britain took more direct control of many colonies by
eliminating the elected assembly
● The Governor and a legislative council, with official and nominated unofficial
members, ruled
● This was called crown colony government
● Crown colony government proved oppressive to a population of ex-slaves and
ex-indentured labourers who were economically distressed and looking for ways to
improve their condition.
Universal Adult Suffrage
● Unrest in the 1930s forced colonial authorities to reinstate elected representation
● Unrest had mainly economic roots, but better political representation was sought for
economic relief
● Between 1934 and 1938, workers across the English-speaking Caribbean came out on
strike, held protests and rioted, while the unemployed and distressed took part in
hunger marches
● Communications between agitators in different territories made it possible for these
protests to be orchestrated
● Race and political radicalism struck fear into the hearts of colonial governors
● The authorities took military action against protesters and strengthened their armed
forces
● The Moyne Commission (also known as the West India Royal Commission) was sent
out in 1938 but its main findings were withheld until after the Second World War
● When it was finally published, it recommended social and political reform
● Political reform had already begun to occur gradually in the wake of the 1930s unrest
● From 1944 onwards, Caribbean territories under British colonial control were granted
universal adult suffrage
● There were no restrictions put on the population (except that of age) in being eligible
to vote and elect members to the legislature
● Once universal adult suffrage occurred, it was only a matter of time before these
territories sought internal self-government.
●
Internal Self-Government
● Limited self-government was granted to Caribbean territories under British colonial
control.
● The Governor General oversaw Britain’s interests, but a chief minister and members
of the legislature were elected from the ranks of Caribbean people of all ethnicities.
● This period of limited self-government was seen as a transition to full independence.
● Trade union leaders realised the need for labour representation in government to pass
laws to protect trade unions and workers' rights.
● The traditional makeup of the legislative bodies was of the planter class and
sympathetic to their needs, but the strategy was to get trade union leaders elected to
office.
● Once trade union leaders were elected to office, they formed a lobby agitating for
internal self-government and full independence.
● The whole colonial system in the Caribbean was being challenged as colonialism
depended on social class divisions with European governors, planters, supervisors,
and property owners exploiting labour and people of different races.
Economic Enfranchisement
● Despite being under colonialism, Caribbean people attempted to resist and develop
their own means of earning a livelihood.
● The aim was to achieve economic enfranchisement.
● People developed alternative sources of income, such as small-scale agriculture and
fishing.
● A black market emerged as a way of circumventing the colonial system.
● The cooperative movement also emerged, with people pooling resources and working
together for mutual benefit.
● There were attempts to establish local industries, such as sugar refineries and light
manufacturing.
● The development of tourism in the 20th century provided new opportunities for
economic growth.
Diversification
● Plantation economies in the Caribbean were based on cheap manual labour and
monoculture of sugar cane.
● Food production was left to ex-slaves and indentured labourers to grow fruits and
vegetables for subsistence and sale in local markets.
● During the 19th century, small farmers turned towards developing alternative cash
crops for export, such as cocoa, bananas, coffee, ginger, cotton, coconuts and
arrowroot.
● Peasant farmers developed a diversified local economy to become self-sufficient and
resilient in the face of economic hardship, while keeping themselves independent of
the planters and the low wages offered on the plantations.
● Peasant farmers received little support and encouragement from the colonial
authorities, who preferred a more subservient peasantry that was easy to control.
● Peasants were charged high rents for land, were frequently evicted, and sometimes
blocked from buying land or seeking credit facilities by the planters.
● Peasant proprietors bought whole plantations from impoverished planters or squatted
on Crown lands in Trinidad and Guyana.
● Baptist ministers assisted in buying land, especially in Jamaica, to establish free
villages.
● Economic diversification assisted in establishing a more balanced economy and
provided the peasants with a sense of independence, but it was ad hoc and could not
raise the peasants far from poverty.
● The efforts to establish an economic basis for independence from the planters were
done under colonial rule and could have been more successful if the colonial
authorities had not been obstructionist.
Savings Societies
● The Caribbean peasantry developed savings societies and building and loan societies.
● Today, commercial banks have largely taken over their functions.
● However, credit unions and cooperatives still exist in the Caribbean.
A Brief History of the Cooperative Credit Union Movement
● Cooperative movement started in the UK with the Rochdale Pioneers
● Members pooled resources to buy mills, bakeries, and shops, with profits distributed
via a dividend system
● The cooperative movement was linked with credit unions, both achieving success in
Europe
● In the Caribbean, traditional systems mirrored the cooperative and credit union, such
as Pardner in Jamaica, Meeting in Barbados, and Sou-Sou in Trinidad
● Members pooled resources, taking turns to access the funds to set up or improve their
businesses
● Consumer cooperatives were established in Guyana, and credit unions were
introduced by North American missionaries in the 1940s
● Credit unions were widely accepted in Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago in the early
1940s, and Dominica from 1951.
Summary
● Economic and political enfranchisement of Caribbean people in the 19th and 20th
centuries was achieved through their continued resistance against the planter class and
colonial control.
● Caribbean societies remained plantation economies dominated by whites, stifling any
initiative that was not solely concerned with their own welfare.
● Economic distress led to the rise of trade unionism and political parties, with a
growing awareness of black consciousness and nationalism.
● The end of enslaved and bonded labour did not minimise resistance, but rather
changed its focus towards bringing down colonialism itself.
● The resilience of Caribbean people in developing vibrant and diversified peasant
economies came out of a spirit of resistance.
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Resistance has been a central theme in Caribbean history.
Ethnocentric ideas have pervaded the traditional account of Caribbean history.
Uncovering ethnocentrism is a form of resistance.
Hybridisation is a process of resistance where the culture of the captors, the enslaved,
and the indentured come together in unique forms.
● The struggle of Caribbean nations to achieve sustainable economies is a continuing
act of resistance to overcome the underdeveloped state in which European countries
left their colonial possessions.
● Independence – political, economic and psychological – continues to be important to
ideas of resistance.
● Tracing history in Caribbean culture and society shows how historical events and
processes arise in contemporary social life in the Caribbean.