Molecules of Life(★★)
1. Molecular structure and functions of proteins {DSE 13 P1-10, ▲AL 02 PIIC-7}
2. Functions of lipid {▲AL 02 PIIC-7}
3. Molecular structure and functions of DNA, RNA (Nucleic Acids) and
nucleotides {AL 05 PIIA-1(a), ▲AL 02 PIIC-8}
Cellular Organization (★★★★)
1. Fluid Mosaic Model {DSE 15 P1-6(a)(b)(c), DSE 14 P1-7(a), DSE PP P1-11(a),
AL 10 PIA-7, AL 08 PIIB-4(a), AL 06 PIA-9, AL 03 PIIA-1(a)(b),
AL 01 PIIA-2(c)}
2. Chloroplast & mitochondrion were once considered as a kind of prokaryotic
organism and were engulfed by a certain kind of eukaryotic organisms during
the course of evolution to form double membrane bound organelles {▲AL 05
PIIA-3(a)}
3. Functions of rough ER and smooth ER; electron micrograph
{DSE 17 P1-4(a), AL 08 PIA-2, AL 07 PIIA-1(e), AL 05 PIA-7, AL 01 PIA-4}
4. Microscopy {CE 08-4(a)(b)}
(a) The use of coverslip/the purpose of using stains(make the cell structures
more distinct)
(b) The role of diaphragm in controlling the light intensity of the microscope
(c) Low power observation vs. High power observation
Movement of Substances across Membrane (★★★)
1. Transport across Cell Membrane
(a) Absorption of mineral salts by active transport (aerobic vs. anaerobic
condition) {DSE PP P1-11(b), ▲AL 08 PIA-1, CE 05 8(b)}
(b) Osmosis
(i)
Molecular structure & properties of starch/glycogen in relation to
(ii)
their roles in plant and animal cells respectively {AL 07 PIIB-5(b),
AL 02 PIIA-2(b)}
In red blood cells/plant cells with colored cytoplasm such as
Rhoeo discolor/potato strips
{DSE 12 PI-8(a), AL 08 PIA-1, AL 07 PIA-8, AL 02 PIIA-2(c), CE
03-1(b), CE 00-3(c)}
(iii)
Osmometer (including the concept of dialysis) {CE 98-1(b)}
(iv)
Key terms include: water potential, net influx or outflux of water,
turgid, flaccid, plasmolyzed, burst….. {DSE 18 P1-2c}
(v)
Application: preservation of food {DSE 17 P1-2}, kidney machine
2. Membrane Permeability
Effects of chemicals (water, sucrose solution & ethanol) on the permeability
of the cell membrane of beetroot {DSE 14 P1-7(b), AL 98 PIA-4}
Cell Cycle and Division (★★★★)
1. Meiosis
-Significance: to form haploid gametes so that the chromosome number of
offspring can be restored to diploid, offspring are genetically different from
parents, contributed to variation
2. Mitosis
-Significance: keeping constant number of chromosomes in the daughter cells,
offspring are genetically identical to parents, keeping desirable trait
-Natural occurrence: growth& repair of tissues, asexual reproduction in
flowering plants (i.e. vegetative propagation) & bacteria
-Application: cloning in plants and animals
{ DSE 17 P1-4(b), DSE 15 P1-2, DSE 14 P1-3(c), DSE 12 P1-11, AL 09 PIIA-1(b),
CE 99-1(a), CE 06-4(a), 8(b)}
Metabolism, Enzymes and Enzymatic Reactions (★★★★★)
1. Factors affecting the rate of enzymatic activities: temperature, ph,
concentration of enzyme& concentration of substrates, competitive
inhibitors)
{DSE PP P1-4, ▲AL 08 PIA-4, AL 06 PIIA-1(b)(c), AL 03 PII-2, AL 02 PIA-9,
CE 03-3(b)}
2. Design of Experiment:
Reagent, volume used, incubation time, factors being kept constant, control
set-up, methods of measuring the rate of chemical reactions;
dependent/independent/controlled variables
{DSE 14 P1-6(c), AL 00 PIA-6}
3. Protease {CE 98-4(c)(i)(ii)(iv), CE 99-1(c)}
(a) The concept of meat tenderization, protease in fresh pineapple juice
(b) Other possible substrates: egg white cube, milk agar plate, photographic
film
4. Coagulation of milk by rennin found in ginger juice {CE 08-6}
5. Amylase (catalyses the breakdown of starch to maltose)
{DSE 14 P1-6(c)}
6. Catalase (catalyses the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide to water and
oxygen)
Application: disinfectant of contact lenses; sterilizing agent of wound {DSE 15
P1-7}
Photosynthesis & Gas Exchange in Plants(★★★★+)
1. Photosynthesis vs. Respiration
(a) Membranous features of chloroplast & mitochondrion in relation to their
functions {AL 05 PIIA-3(b), ▲AL 10 PIIC-7}
(b) Energy processing/transformation in chloroplast & mitochondrion
respectively
{▲AL 06 PIIB-5(a), AL 07 PIIC-7, ▲AL 10 PIIC-7, ▲AL 11PIIB-6(a)}
2. Structural adaptations of a leaf to the process of photosynthesis/gas exchange
{DSE 18 P1-3, DSE 16 P1-11, CE 00-1(b), CE 07-3(a)(b)}
3. Calvin Cycle
(a) Occurrence
(b) Structural adaptation of chloroplasts
(c) Metabolic pathway
(d) The role of NADPH and ATP formed in photochemical reactions in driving
the Calvin Cycle
(e) Fate of TP
{DSE 17 P1-7(c), DSE 16 P1-3, AL 08 PIA-9, AL 04 PIIA-2, AL 01 PIIA-2(a)}
4. Effect of deficiency of water/minerals on the growth of plant
(a) Induce root growth/root density increases
(b) Deficiency symptoms of Mg, N and P
{DSE 16 P1-9, AL 03 PIB-10, AL 08 PIB-12}
5. The necessity of CO2 and chlorophyll in photosynthesis
{CE 97-4(a), CE 03-4(a)(iv)}
6. Light as a factor affecting the rate of photosynthesis
{DSE 17 P1-7(a)(b), DSE 12 P1-5, CE 01-2(b), CE 04-2(b), CE 06-8(a)}
(a) Light intensity (on a water plant/generally refers to all natural plants
during a 24-hour period)
(b) Quality of light (Red, Blue and Green Light)
7. The reason for destarching; the steps for testing the presence of starch in
leaves
Respiration & Gas Exchange in Human (★★★★)
1. Aerobic respiration & anaerobic respiration (alcoholic/lactic acid
fermentation)
{DSE 12 P1-9(c), AL 00 PIIA-3(a)(b), AL 05 PIA-2(a)(c), AL 09 PIA-5, CE
04-4(a)}
2. Respiration of a respiring animal/plant {CE 99-4(b)}
3. Basic metabolic pathway of glycolysis, Krebs cycle and ETC
{DSE 18 P1-9b, DSE 14 P1-1, DSE 12 P1-9(a)(b)(d)}
4. Labeled diagram of a mitochondrion {AL 05 PIIA-3(b)}
5. Gaseous Exchange in Alveolus (the process; structural adaptations of
alveolus)
{DSE 16 P1-11, CE 00-1(c), CE 05-4(a)}
6. Effects of smoking on gaseous exchange
-Tar (deposits on the wall of alveolus, thus reducing surface area for gaseous
exchange)
-CO (decreasing oxygen carrying capacity)
-Nicotine/tar (lung cancer, bronchitis, asthma, emphysema)
-Surface area of alveoli in smoker vs non-smoker
7. Mechanism of Breathing {AL 99 PIA-7(b), AL 02 PIIA-3(b), AL 07 PIB-9}
(a) Significance of increasing the rate & depth of breathing during exercise
(b) Control of breathing (medulla oblongata, the effect of CO2 on the rate &
depth of breathing) {CE 03-1(a) 2(b)(i)}
(c) Inspiration/Expiration {DSE 17 P1-5, CE 01-4(b)}
Basic Genetics (★★★★)
1. Simple Human Genetics/ Plant Genetics {DSE 18 P1-6, DSE 17 P1-10, DSE 15
P1-4(a)(b), DSE 12 P1-8(b), CE 02-3(c), CE 03-2(a)}
(a) The concept of ‘Dominance’ vs ‘Recessive’
(b) Mendel’s Law of Segregation and Law of Independent Assortment
(c) Multiple alleles : ABO Blood Groups
2. Sex Determination-Karyotyping (Photomicrograph) {DSE 18 P1-5, DSE 13
P1-4(b)}
3. Sex-linked Genes {DSE 16 P1-10, DSE 13 P1-4(b), DSE PP P1-9(b), AL 99
PIIA-3(c)}
E.g. Red-green colour blindness, Haemophilia, G6PD deficiency
4. Discontinuous vs. continuous variation {AL 00 PIB-10, CE 01-3(a)}
(a) Discontinuous variation: results of interaction of many genes
(b) Influenced by environment
(c) Drawing bar charts/histogram
5. Distinguish the following pairs of terms(a) gene vs allele
(b) phenotype vs genotype
(c) heterozygous vs homozygous
(d)homologous vs homozygous
Molecular Genetics (★★★★+)
1. The features of genetic codes
2. The process of transcription and translation
{AL 08 PIIA-1, AL 06 PIIA-2(a), DSE 14 P1-6(b), DSE 16 P1-8(a)(b), DSE 17
P1-4(c), DSE 18 P1-9(a)}
3. Distinguish between chromosome and gene mutation {DSE PP P1-9(a)}
Applied Genetics & Biotechnology (★★)
1. The use of recombinant DNA technology
(a) In making proteins
(b) To produce transgenic plants/animals (GMO)
The use of restriction enzymes; plasmids & vectors
{AL 00 PIIC-8, AL 05 PIB-10, AL 07 PIC-12(c)(d), AL 09 PIA-2, AL 10
PIC-11, CE 06-4(b)(c)}
2. The principle of DNA fingerprinting
-Gel Electrophoresis
{AL 04 PIB-11, AL 05 PIA-8, AL 07 PIIA-3(d), AL 08 PIIA-1}
3. Human Genome Project and its implication
4. Ethical Concerns
{AL 99 PIIC-7, AL 07 PIC-12(f)(g)}
Classification (★★★★)
1. Distinguish between kingdoms Protocitista, Prokaryotae & Virus {CE 05-1}
2. Morphological differences and hence their structural adaptations among
mosses, ferns and angiosperms {AL 02 PIA-5, AL 03 PIA-3, CE 09-9(b)}
3. Use of dichotomous key (c.f. numbered key) {DSE 16 P1-4, DSE 12 P1-4, AL
02 PIA-4}
(a) Format in writing up scientific name (Genus species)
(b) Key Sequence
4. How microscopy and DNA sequencing contribute to the development of
different classification systems {DSE 17 P1-6}
Evolution (★★)
1. The concept of Natural Selection
2. Causes of genetic variation
3. Define the term ‘Species’
4. Mechanism of Speciation (Various Isolation Mechanisms)
5. Fossil records as an evidence of evolution and their adaptation
{DSE 18 P1-10, DSE 15 P1-10, DSE 14 P1-6(b), AL 96 PIIA-3(a)(b), AL 07 PIIA-2,
CE 05-10(b)}
Transpiration (★★★★★)
1. Structural features of a leaf in reducing water loss {DSE 13 P1-6(d), CE
97-1(a), CE 99-2(a), CE 05-9(b)}
-the presence of cuticle, the distribution of stomata, needle-shaped leaves,
rolling leaves
2. Transport in Angiosperm {DSE 14 P1-4, DSE 12 P1-3, AL 95 PIA-6, CE
03-3(c)}
(a) Distribution of xylem and phloem in stem and root sections
(b) The structural adaptations of xylem and phloem to their transporting
3.
function
(c) Annotated diagrams: sieve tube element, companion cells, xylem vessel
Weight/Bubble Potometer {DSE 13 P1-6(a)(b)(c), CE 02-3(a)}
(a) change in weight=weight of water loss through transpiration
(b) change in volume=volume of water absorbed
Support and Movement (★★★★+)
1. Support in Plant
{DSE 15 P1-9, DSE 14 P1-4, DSE 12 P1-3, CE 01-3(c)}
2. Support in animals
{DSE 17 P1-1, DSE 13 P1-2, CE 98-2(c)}
3. Neuromuscular junction {DSE 15 P1-5, AL 04 PIA-6}
Food & Nutrition (★★)
1. General functions of human digestive system
(a) Digestion of fats (the role of liver & gall bladder, effect of blockage of bile
duct/pancreatic duct on the digestion of fats) {DSE 18 P1-8, DSE 12 P1-10,
AL 12 P1-10, CE 99-2(b), CE 03-2(c)}
(b) A flow chart to show the flow of absorbed food from small intestine to
heart/ Flowchart to show the route of transport of a fat soluble compound
{CE 04-1(a), AL 04 PIIA-1(c), AL 05 PIA-6, AL 07 PIIA-1(a)}
(c) The role of stomach in digestion; gastric ulcer; gastric reflux
{CE 05-3, CE 07-6}
(d) Digestion of proteins
(e) Role of liver in Deamination
2. Food requirements
(a) The concept of balance diet {CE 06-5, CE 07-9(b)}
-total energy intake＞＞total energy output ->> obesity/gain weight
-total energy intake＜＜total energy output ->> lose weight
(b) Energy value of different types of food/Carbohydrates as an immediate
source of energy {AL 02 PIIA-3(a)(I), AL 10 PIIB-5(c)}
(c) General functions of different types of food {DSE 14 P1-11}
(d) Long term health problem brought about by excessive intake of fat, sugar
or sodium in food {AL 99 PIIC-9}
(e) Food test {Benedict’s test, DCPIP test, Ph test for the presence of fatty
acids}
(f) Calorimeter
3. Structural adaptations of villus/small intestine to the absorption of food {DSE
13 P1-3}
4. (a) The role of teeth in mechanical digestion {CE 01-1(c)}
(b) Dentition of carnivores vs herbivores {AL 04 PIA-3, AL 08 PIA-5}
(c) Dietary requirement for keeping tooth healthy
(d) The cause & prevention of tooth decay
Circulatory System (★★★+)
1. Mammalian Heart
{AL 01 PIIA-1(d), AL 03 PIIB-4(c), AL 04 PIIB-6(a), AL 09 PIIB-4(c)}
{CE 97-2(c), CE 03-4(b)}
(a) Role of coronary arteries and veins (blockage of coronary arteries leads to
heart attack)
(b) Role of tricuspid valves, bicuspid valves & semi-lunar valves (prevents
backflow of blood)
(c) The changes in the heart rate and stroke volume during exercise & its
significance
(d) Trained person vs untrained person (at rest & during exercise)
2. A flowchart to show the flow of blood from small intestine through liver to
lungs (small intestine->hepatic portal vein->liver->hepatic vein->vena
cava->heart->pulmonary artery->lung)
3. (a) Composition of blood in pulmonary arteries vs pulmonary veins (OR
umbilical artery vs. umbilical vein) {blood in pulmonary artery has a higher
CO2 and lower O2 content than pulmonary vein}
(b) Comparison of the cross-section of an artery & a vein (artery has a thicker
wall than vein) {DSE 15 P1-11, CE 04-3(c)}
(c) Structural adaptations of blood capillaries on the exchange of materials
4. Formation of tissue fluid & functions of lymphatic system
{DSE 17 P1-11, AL 05 PIIB-5(b), CE 00-3(a), CE 01-3(b), CE 05-8(a)}
Reproduction (★★★★+)
{CE 98-3(b), CE 99-1(a), CE 99-3(c), CE 00-1(a), CE 01-4(c), CE 02-1(a), CE
04-2(a), CE 05-10(a), CE 09-8(b)}
1. The concept of cloning (both animals and plants)
2. Reproduction in flowering plants vs mammals {AL 06 PIIB-4(a)}
3. Comparison between egg and sperm (food reserve, size, mobility)
4. Clinical test for testing abnormality (amniocentesis, karyotyping, sex
determination)
5. Pregnancy
-function of amnion, amniotic fluid, uterus, umbilical cord and placenta{DSE
16 P1-2}
6.
Reproduction in flowering plants
-Formation of pollen tube {DSE 17 P1-3(b)}
-The role and fate of different floral parts
-Features of wind-pollinated flowers vs insect-pollinated flowers
{DSE 14 P1-8, DSE PP P1-10(b)}
-Cross-pollination vs self-pollination {DSE 17 P1-3(a)(c)}
7. Seed dispersal {AL 00 PIIA-1(a)(b)}
8. Hormonal Control of menstrual cycle {AL 00 PIA-3(b)}
9.
Treatment of infertility; biological principles of contraceptive pills
{AL 00 PIA-3(a), AL 06 PIIB-4(c), AL 11 PIA-2}
Growth and development (★★){CE 04-1(b), CE 06-10(a)}
1. The process of seed germination {AL 99 PIA-9, AL 04 PIIA-3(c)}
2. Changes in the dry mass during seed germination
3. Dry mass vs fresh mass
4. Seed Germination-Importance of Water {DSE PP P1-10(b)(c)}
Sensitivity (★★)
1. Rods vs cones (functions, distribution)
{DSE 14 P1-10, DSE PP-P1-3, AL 04 PIIB-4(a), CE 10-5}
2. Yellow spot vs blind spot
3. Formation of image on retina and signal transduction along the optic nerve
4. Eye Defects (Glaucoma, cataract, etc)
5. Pupil reflex {CE 03-3(a)}
6. Accommodation {CE 01-2(a)}
(a) Focusing near object and distant object (the role of ciliary muscle,
suspensory ligaments, lens)
(b) Short-sightness
7. Sensation in ears {DSE 18 P1-1, DSE 15 P1-1, AL 01-PIIA-1(a), CE 02-4(a)}
Growth Response (★★★★★)
1. Significance of phototropism {DSE 15 P1-7}
2. Effect of auxin on the growth of root and shoot
3. Tropism in flowering plants vs Reflex actions in humans (contrast the nature
and process) {DSE PP P1-12}
4. Significance of geotropism
Coordination (★★★★){CE 95-3(b), CE 00-2(b), CE 04-2(c)}
1. Function of cerebrum, cerebellum, medulla, spinal cord {DSE 14 P1-10, DSE
16 P1-1, DSE 13 P1-1}
2. Nervous transmission across a synapse/neuro-muscular junction
{DSE 15 P1-5, AL 04 PIA-6, AL 07 PIA-6, AL 09 PIA-1}
3. Reflex action vs voluntary action (Compare their nature with named
examples)
(a) Fast vs slow
(b) Under the control of will or not (cerebrum is involved or not)
(c) Stereotype vs different responses, altered through learning or experience
4. Pupil reflex
5. Withdrawal reflex
6. Hormonal coordination vs nervous coordination {AL 02 PIIB-5(b)}
Homeostasis (★★★)
1. Blood glucose level regulation
{DSE 18 P1-7, DSE 15 P1-8, DSE 12 P1-7, AL 06 PIB-10, AL 07 PIIC-8, CE
02-1(c), CE 05-9(a)}
(a) The roles of pancreas and liver in blood glucose regulation
(b) The antagonistic roles of insulin & glucagon
(c) The appearance of glucose in urine under different circumstances
(d) The consequences of the failure in keeping blood glucose level constant
(e) The cause & treatment of diabetes (insulin-dependent diabetes vs
insulin-independent diabetes)
(f) The use of recombinant DNA technology in making insulin
2. General concept of homeostasis-importance, negative feedback mechanism,
parameters of internal environment (e.g. blood glucose level, gas content in
blood, water content and body temperature)
Ecosystems (★★★★★)
1. Energy flow/ Nutrient flow in the ecosystem
-Energy flow {AL 01 PIIB-6, AL 95 PIIB-5}
-Nitrogen Cycle {DSE 13 P1-5, CE 96-2(b)(i), CE 05-8(b), AL 06 PIIC-8}
-Carbon Cycle {DSE 18 P1-11, AL 09 PIIB-5}
2. Energy loss along the food chain/Pyramid of number {DSE 15 P1-3, DSE 12
P1-6, CE 05-6(c)}
3. Ecological Succession (ESPECIALLY PRIMARY SUCCESSION)
{DSE 14 P1-5, DSE PP P1-8(a)}
4. Predation vs Competition; Mutualism vs Commensalism
{DSE 17 P1-8, DSE PP P1-5(b), DSE PP P1-8(b)}
5. Ecological Studies-Rocky Shore {DSE 16 P1-5, DSE 13 P1-8}
6. The use of frame quadrat (Belt/Line transect method) {DSE 13 P1-8, DSE PP
P1-5(a)}
7. Accumulation of toxin along the food chain (e.g. mercury, DDT)
{CE 96-4(b), CE 99-4(c), CE 04-4(b), AL 08 PIA-3, AL 09 PIC-11(a)(c)}
Personal Health (★★★){DSE 14 P1-9, DSE PP P1-7(b)}
1. Effect of exercise on health {AL 00 PIIC-10}
2. Effect of diet on health
3. Effect of smoking on health
Disease (★★★)
1. Infectious disease {DSE 18 P1-4ab, DSE 12 P1-2, DSE PP P1-1}
e.g. Common cold/Influenza, Avian Flu, AIDS, Dengue Fever, SARS
2. Non-infectious disease {DSE 14 P1-9}
-Diabetes Mellitus {DSE 12 P1-7, AL 06 PIB-10}
-Cardiovascular disease {DSE 18 P1-4c, DSE PP P1-7, AL 05 PIC-12}
-Cancer {DSE 16 P1-6, AL 05 PIC-12, AL 04 PIC-13}
3.
Treatment (indiscriminate use of antibiotics) {DSE PP P1-6, AL 06 PIC-13}
Body Defense (★★★★)
1. Human Defense Mechanism {DSE 16 P1-7, DSE 14 P1-2}
2. Vaccination {DSE 17 P1-9, DSE 13 P1-9, CE 98-2(b), CE 03-4(c), CE 04-1(c)}
3. Control of the spread of infectious diseases{AL 04 PIIC-7, AL 00 PIIC-9}