MANTANGGES, ANGELICA G.
CRI 331(5960)
4:30- 5:30 PM
CRI 331 FINAL PROJECT INSTRUCTIONS
Part I: Summarize all the topics from ULOA to ULOC in PDF format.
ULOA
Leaderless resistance- refers to a style of operations where individuals or small
groups that identify with some larger cause undertake violent actions to achieve the
goals of a larger group. They do not act under the direct orders of someone in a larger
group although websites can provide information about potential targets.
Terrorism- is the use or threat of violence that aims to spread fear in a population, and to
advance a political, ideological or religious cause.
Terror- comes from the Latin word “terrere” which means “to frighten” or “to scare.
Noncombatant-Military personnel who at the time of the incident are unarmed and/or
not on duty.
POLITICAL OBJECTIVES- The first key element of this definition is that the violence is
primarily undertaken for political reasons. The fact that the actions are initiated to
achieve political ends is a key element that separates terrorist acts from other forms of
violence.
VIOLENCE- One situation in which the threat of violence might be present would be
one in which a group issues an ultimatum requiring action; if the appropriate action does
not occur, violence will result.
TARGET AUDIENCE- The violence is intended to influence the target audience or
audiences as part of the attempt to gain the political objectives of the organization.
ORGANIZATION- For political violence to be terrorism there must be an identifiable
organization.
ACTORS OTHER THAN STATES INVOLVED- There are three situations in which
terrorism can occur within this definition: first, dissidents may target a government or
governments; second, governments may target a group of their own citizens or support
groups that target a group of their own citizens; or third, groups may target each other
with such violence independent of government.
WEAPON OF THE WEAK- Terrorist campaigns are frequently mounted by
organizations that have failed to bring about their desired changes by other means,
i.e. they are politically weak. The groups have failed in democratic elections to gain
enough power to bring about change.
ATTACKING CIVILIANS- Some definitions of terrorism include the specification that
the targets of terrorist violence are civilians.
TERRORISM AS PSYCHOLOGICAL WARFARE- Terrorism is ultimately a form of
psychological warfare. The goal of the terrorist group is to spread fear in the target
population in order to bring about some kind of change.
POVERTY- has often been considered a basic cause of terrorism
GLOBALIZATION- it involves increasing connections among societies and cultures in
terms of economic, social, political, and communications linkages.
CHANGES IN POLICIES- Some terrorist groups seek changes in the domestic policies
of a government. The groups may want fairer treatment for a particular group in society
or they may want the government to follow domestic policies more in line with either
conservative, more left-wing, or other political views.
CHANGES IN POLITICAL LEADERSHIP- Sometimes groups seek not only changes
in the policies of the government in power, but also changes in the associated group
that is in power in the government. The objective of the group goes beyond the removal
of just one leader.
CHANGES IN THE POLITICAL SYSTEM- When groups are willing or feel compelled to
resort to violence, they are frequently seeking more than policy changes or a different
set of political leaders. They are more likely to want to bring about major changes in the
political system itself. They may hope to replace a military regime or a one-party
government with a democratic system.
CHANGES IN STATE BOUNDARIES- The final change in underlying political
circumstances that terrorist groups may be seeking involves geographic goals.
Anti-colonial movements seek to create independent states that are no longer parts of
the empires that contained them. In other cases, regional groups will use terrorism in an
attempt to break away from existing states and create new nations.
RELIGIOUS GOALS- Many of the terrorist groups that have appeared had objectives
that have been based in their religious views. Al Qaeda has sought policy changes
within Islamic countries and changes in their political systems and changes in the
foreign policies of other countries.
ETHNIC OR NATIONALIST GOALS- Terrorist groups also can be motivated by ethnic
or nationalist concerns. Minority ethnic groups may become dissatisfied with their
position in particular states, and some members may turn to terrorism as part of an
effort to gain autonomy or independence.
IDEOLOGICAL GOALS- Ideologies are frequently referred to as left and right or
left-wing and right-wing. Although there are many variations, left-wing ideologies seek to
promote greater equality for individuals in society. Right-wing ideologies accept greater
inequalities as natural and expected in society, support existing institutions.
COMBINATIONS OF OBJECTIVES- While many of the groups that resort to terrorism
can be seen as primarily ethnic, religious, or ideological, some groups are more difficult
to place in just one category, and, of course, it is not necessary to do so. These groups
have mixed motives and objectives. Both the criminal groups and the political dissidents
opposed to the government in power benefit when the government is weak.
ULOB
Psycho-Pathological Theories- The simple basic assumption of such pure
psychological theory of terrorism is that nonviolent behavior is the accepted norm, and
that those engaged in terrorist activities therefore necessarily must be abnormal.
Psycho-Sociological
Theories-
the
focus
on
individual
characteristics
and
mechanisms is supplemented by recognition of the influence of the environment upon
individual behavior.
Relative deprivation theories- These theories connect individual mobilization of
aggression and political violence to social, economic, and political circumstances.
Dollard et al. first assumed that aggressive behavior always originated in frustration.
Later, Galtung argued that the situation most likely to provoke aggressive behavior is
one in which individuals find themselves in a state of disequilibrium along various
socio-political dimensions of status.
Social distance and mass casualty terrorism- Senechal de la Roche has proposed
that terrorism is most likely to occur under conditions of high levels of ‘social distance’ or
‘social polarization’ between perpetrators and victims, including a high degree of cultural
and relational distance, inequality, and functional independence.
Sexuality, masculinity, and terrorism- A part of this struggle is the cultural clash over
social mores, primarily related to the status of women and sexuality. Promiscuity and
gender equality promoted through Western film and movies are seen as fundamentally
threatening to a Muslim man and his honor, as they violate ‘the sanctuary of his home’,
and jeopardize his ‘mastery’ over his family.
Ideologies and the tactical utility of terrorism- explanations of terrorism should
concentrate on the social context of the terrorists’ ideologies and beliefs. He asserts that
the most powerful tool for understanding terrorism is to explore the individual political
motivations of terrorists, and to relate them to the unique political, historical, and cultural
context, and the ideology and aims of the groups involved.
The contagion theory of terrorism- An important variant of the psycho-sociological
research tradition is the thesis that terrorism is ‘contagious’
SOCIETAL EXPLANATIONS- explanations of terrorism are primarily sought in the
historical development and culture of a larger society or system, and in its contemporary
social, economic, and political characteristics and environments.
The Impact of Modernization- The basic classical argument in this tradition is that the
modernization process has a harrowing effect on the social fabric of society that may
weaken the legitimacy of the state, and, ultimately, promote the use of political violence.
Later, the so-called dependency school linked poverty and underdevelopment in the
Third World to global economic exploitative structures, which caused the proliferation of
predatory regimes and civil wars.
Rapid economic growth and terrorism- The model proposes that industrialization and
economic modernization influence society in such a way that individuals are willing to
resort to terrorism. The hypothesized causal chain runs from the dissolution effects of
modernization upon existing social norms and structures, through the rise of a society in
which individuals find themselves alienated from social bonds, without any recognized
structures of organization and influence, to the mobilization of frustration into terrorist
activity.
Resource wars- This is first and foremost the case in underdeveloped countries where
political institutions are weak, corruption is pervasive, and elite groups fight over the
spoils. While resource scarcity previously was believed to be a major conflict-generating
factor, it is increasingly acknowledged that the very abundance of certain natural
resources is perhaps more dangerous than scarcity.
From tribal societies to mixed market-clientelist economies- Another variant of the
modernization-causes-violence theory is found in the writings of Michel Mousseau.99
The links social approval for terrorism with the difficult transition process of clientelist
societies to modern market democracies.
Economic
inequality
and
terrorism.-
Income
inequality
is
another
modernization-related factor that has been claimed to be conducive to political violence,
both in developed, as well as in less developed countries.
Poverty and terrorism- level of wealth and economic development is highly significant
in accounting for variations in support for political violence
Terrorist Violence and the Role of the Media-The classical theory of a symbiotic
relationship focuses on the mutual benefits between terrorists who are given a pulpit for
propagating their causes, and the media, which receives sensational news stories.
Terrorists are dependent upon the ‘oxygen of publicity’
The Impact of Economic and Cultural Globalization on Terrorism- After September
11th it has been commonplace to blame globalization for the new wave of transnational
terrorism. Globalization can be directly related to changes in international terrorism.
However, in many cases, processes associated with globalization impact only indirectly
on patterns of terrorism, via changing the political, socio-economic, and societal context
for terrorist activities.
State Sponsors- international terrorism is seen as being driven primarily by the
material, financial, and propaganda assistance provided by government sponsors.
NGOs and the Rise of Transnational Private Support Networks- State sponsorship
has not become irrelevant, but alternative sources of sponsorship have emerged and
increased in importance. These include various forms of private transnational support
networks, and involve a multitude of contexts and actors, such as immigrant
communities, NGOs, refugee camps, religious organizations, sympathetic guerrilla
movements, and wealthy private individuals.
State Strength: Weak and Collapsed States- While state sponsorship and hegemonic
rivalry may have encouraged the growth of international terrorism during the Cold War,
the existence of weak and collapsed states in the post-Cold War period has increasingly
become a cause of concern as potential ‘breeding grounds for instability, mass
migration, and murder’, as well as ‘reservoirs and exporters of terror’
Terrorism as armed conflict- First, when reaching a certain level of intensity, a
terrorist campaign is an armed conflict.
Relative deprivation and inequality: Widespread perceptions of deprivation and
inequality, especially among culturally defined groups, serve as the basic condition for
participation in collective civil violence. Terrorism may be part of this violence.
Terrorism by spoilers- Peace processes based on negotiated settlements are
frequently accompanied by increased levels of terrorism by rejectionist groups
The contagion theory-The occurrence of terrorism in one country often leads directly
or indirectly to more terrorism in neighboring countries. Terrorists learn from one
another, and new tactics are usually quickly emulated. Spillover occurs in a variety of
ways.
Terrorism and mass media- Paradigmatic shifts in modern mass media appear to
influence patterns of terrorism, by enhancing its agenda-setting function, increasing its
lethality, and by expanding its transnational character.
Poverty, weak states, and insurgencies- Poor societies with weak state structures are
much more exposed to civil wars than wealthy countries. Economic growth and
development undercut the economics of armed insurgencies. Economic growth and
prosperity also contribute to lower levels of transnational terrorism.
Democratization- States in democratic transition are more exposed to armed conflict
and terrorism than democracies and autocracies. Because of pervasive state control,
totalitarian regimes rarely experience terrorism. States with high scores on measures of
human rights standards and democracy are less exposed to domestic ideological
terrorism. Levels of transnational terrorism also seem to be highest in semi authoritarian
states, especially when undergoing a democratization process.
Political regime and legitimacy- Terrorism is closely linked to a set of core legitimacy
problems. Lack of continuity of the political system, and a lack of integration of political
fringes, tend to encourage ideological terrorism. Ethnic diversity increases the potential
for ethnic terrorism. A high density of trade union membership in a population has
tended to contribute to a lower level of domestic ideological terrorism.
The ecology of terrorism- Technological developments offer new and more efficient
means and weapons for terrorist groups, but also increase the counter-terrorist
capabilities of states. Transnational organized crime and terrorism are partly interlinked
phenomena, and growth in transnational organized crime may contribute to increased
levels of terrorism.
Hegemony in the international system- An international state system characterized
by strong hegemonic power(s) is more exposed to international terrorism than a more
multi-polar system. High levels of bipolar conflict in world politics invite the use of
state-sponsored terrorism as a means of war by proxy. A strongly unipolar world order
or a world empire system, on the other hand, will experience high levels of transnational
anti-systemic ‘anti-colonial’ terrorism.
Economic and cultural globalization- Economic globalization has mixed impacts on
transnational terrorism, depending on how globalization is measured. Cultural
globalization, measured by the rate of INGOs, tends to cause higher levels of
transnational terrorism, especially against US targets.
State-sponsored terrorism - is government support of violent non-state actors
engaged in terrorism.
Ideology - is a set of beliefs or philosophies attributed to a person or group of persons,
especially as held for reasons that are not purely epistemic, in which "practical
elements are as prominent as theoretical ones.
Modernization - is the transformation from a traditional, rural, agrarian society to a
secular, urban, industrial society.
ULOC
DISSIDENT TERRORISM- is a distinct terrorist typology that encompasses subnational
political violence, and it is therefore important for the people to engage in a focused
examination of the nuances of dissident political violence.
Liberación Nacional- A guerrilla group in Mexico, founded in the late 20th century and
named for the early 20th-century peasant revolutionary Emiliano Zapata. On Jan. 1,
1994, the Zapatistas staged a rebellion from their base in Chiapas, the southernmost
Mexican state, to protest economic policies that they believed would negatively affect
Mexico’s indigenous population.
RELIGIOUS TERRORISM- is a type of political violence motivated by an absolute belief
that an otherworldly power has sanctioned and commanded terrorist violence for the
greater glory of the faith. Acts committed in the name of the faith will be forgiven by the
otherworldly power and perhaps rewarded in an afterlife.
CRUSADER- During the Middle Ages, the Western Christian (i.e., Roman Catholic)
Church launched at least nine invasions of the Islamic East, the first one in 1095. These
invasions were called the Crusades because they were conducted in the name of the
Cross.
Purpose: To recapture the holy lands from the disunited Muslims, who had previously
conquered these lands, and to whom Crusaders referred collectively as Saracens.
This religious ideology was reflected in the war cry of the early Crusades: “Deus vult!”
(“God wills it!”)
The Assassins - The Order of Assassins, sometimes referred to as the Brotherhood of
Assassins, was founded by Hasan ibn al-Sabbah (d. 1124) in 11th-century Persia.
Al-Sabbah was a caliph (religious head) of the Ismaili sect of Islam.
A Secret Cult of Murder- In India during the 13th through the 19th centuries, the
Thuggee cult existed among worshippers of the Hindu goddess Kali, the destroyer
Phansigars (“noose operators”), and Dacoits (“members of a gang of robbers”).
Thuggee comes from thag, Hindi for thief, from which the English word thug is
derived.
An Observation and Caveat -The caveat is the degree of misunderstanding in the
West about the historical and cultural origins of the growth of radical interpretations of
Islam. One is the common belief that the concept of holy war is an underlying principle
of the Islamic faith. Another is that Muslims are united in supporting jihad. This is
simplistic and fundamentally incorrect. Contrary to misinterpretations common in the
West, the term literally means a sacred “struggle” or “effort” rather than an armed
conflict or fanatical holy war.
Hezbollah- Hezbollah (Party of God) is a Shi’a movement in Lebanon that arose to
champion the country’s Shi’a population.
Dissident religious terrorism-Is political violence conducted by groups of fervent
religious true believers with faith in the sacred righteousness of their cause. Any
behavior in the defense of this cause is considered not only justifiable but also blessed.
The Hebron Mosque Massacre- On February 25, 1994, a New York–born physician,
Baruch Goldstein, fired on worshippers inside the Ibrahim Mosque at the Cave of the
Patriarchs holy site in the city of Hebron, Israel.
Mujahideen- are Islamic fighters who have sworn a vow to take up arms to defend the
faith. They tend to be believers in fundamentalist interpretations of Islam that have
defined their jihad, or personal struggle, to be one of fighting and dying on behalf of the
faith.
Central tenets of ISIS- are its refusal to recognize the borders of Syria, Iraq, and other
Eastern Mediterranean nations and its war to achieve the avowed goal of establishing.
Boko Haram in Nigeria- The Boko Haram organization was founded in 2002 in the city
of Maiduguri in northeastern Nigeria.
PART II
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Research one international terrorist (provide at least 3 pictures).
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ABU SAYYAF GROUP (ASG)
Background and history
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The Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF) was the main Muslim rebel group fighting in Basilan and Mindanao in
the early 1970s. Abdurajak Abubakar Janjalani, the older brother of Khadaffy Janjalani, was a teacher from
Basilan who studied Islamic theology and Arabic in Libya, Syria and Saudi Arabia. He went to Afghanistan to fight
against the Soviet Union and the Afghan government during the Soviet-Afghan War and received $6 million from
Osama bin Laden to build a more Islamic version of the MNLF.
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Abdurajak Abubakar Janjalani leadership (1989–1998)
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Abu Sayyaf was established in 1991 by radical members of the old MNLF who wanted to resume armed struggle.
It was funded by a Saudi Islamist, Mohammed Jamal Khalifa, who came to the Philippines in 1987 or 1988 and
was head of the Philippine branch of the International Islamic Relief Organization foundation. By 1995, Abu
Sayyaf was active in large-scale bombings and attacks. On December 18, 1998, Abdurajak was killed in a gun
battle with the Philippine National Police on
Basilan Island. The group shifted to kidnappings, murders, and robberies, under younger brother Khadaffy. Abu
Sayyaf is one of the smallest, but strongest of the Philippine Islamist separatist groups.
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Khadaffy Janjalani leadership (1999–2007)
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Khaddafy Janjalani was the nominal leader of Abu Sayyaf until his death in 2006, when he took leadership of
one of the group's factions in an internecine struggle. After his leadership was secured, Abu Sayyaf began a new
strategy of taking hostages, which became more financial than religious. Jainal Antel Sali Jr. was killed during a
gunfight with the Philippine authorities in 2007. Abu Sabaya's death in 2002 marked a turning point for the
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group, as the number of operatives working for Abu Sayyaf decreased from 1100 in 2001 to 450 in late 2002.
Abu Sayyaf leader Galib Andang was captured in December 2003 and Khadaffy was indicted in the US for his
alleged involvement in terrorist attacks.
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He was added to the FBI Most Wanted Terrorists list in 2006 along with two fellow members, Isnilon Totoni
Hapilon and Jainal Antel Sali Jr. Isnilon Totoni Hapilon was killed by the Philippine Army during the battle of
Marawi in 2017. Khadaffy's remains were recovered near Patikul in Jolo and DNA tests were ordered to confirm
the discovery.
Supporters and funding
Abdurajak Abubakar Janjalani's first recruits were soldiers of MNLF and the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF). Both
groups deny links with Abu Sayyaf, but the Philippine military has claimed that elements of both groups provide support to
Abu Sayyaf. Intelligence reports from the United States, Indonesia and Australia found intermittent ties to the Indonesian
Jemaah Islamiyah terrorist group. Initial funding for ASG came from al-Qaeda through the brother-in-law of Osama bin
Laden, Mohammed Jamal Khalifa. Al-Qaeda-affiliated terrorist Ramzi Yousef operated in the Philippines in the mid-1990s
and trained Abu Sayyaf soldiers. As of mid-2005, Jemaah Islamiyah personnel reportedly had trained about 60 Abu Sayyaf
cadres in bomb assembling and detonations.
Motivation, beliefs.
Abu Sayyaf is a Filipino Islamist guerrilla group that has been described as "rooted in a distinct class made up of
closely-knit networks built through the marriage of important families through socioeconomic backgrounds and family
structures". It is not recognised by the Organization of Islamic Cooperation and is seen as "nothing more than a
criminal operation" prior to 2001. It is seen as the latest iteration of Moro political dissatisfaction and some members
are also "shabu" (methamphetamine) users. Its spokesman, Abu Rami, appears to lack knowledge of the activities of
other members, as the group has separated into many small groups with their own leaders.
Targets
Abu Sayyaf has kidnapped and attacked a variety of nationals, including Filipinos, Australians, British, Canadians,
Chinese, Dutch, French, German, Indonesian, Japanese, Korean, Malaysian, Norwegian, Swiss and Vietnamese. In
recent years, Americans have been particularly targeted. Between March 2016 and July 2017, Abu Sayyaf
kidnapped 65 hostages from six countries on 17 ships. Thirty hostages have been released, seven escaped, three
were rescued, four were executed, two others were killed, and eight seamen escaped during the shipjackings. An
additional forty seamen were not taken hostage.
Crimes and Terrorism
Abu Sayyaf has carried out numerous bombings, kidnappings, assassinations, and extortion activities.These include
the 2000 Sipadan kidnappings, the 2001 Dos Palmas kidnappings and the 2004 SuperFerry 14 bombing
Although the group has engaged in kidnapping hostages to be exchanged for ransom for many years, this means of
funding grew dramatically beginning in 2014, providing funds for the group's rapid growth.