Typical Heating Curve
q = m ∙ cp ∙ ∆T (within the same state)
q = ± m ∙ cx (between different states: fusion, s/l, or vaporization, l/g)
m = mass
q = heat
cp = heat capacity
∆T = TFinal - Tinitial = change in temperature
Heat capacity values for water:
Cx (heat of fusion: solid to liquid) = ∆Hfus = 333 J/g or 6.02 kJ/mol
Cx (heat of vaporization: liquid to gas) = ∆Hvap = 2260 J/g or 40.61 kJ/mol
cP,(liquid) = 4.18 J/g-K or 75.2 J/mol-K
cP,(solid) = 2.077 J/g-K or 36.9 J/mol-K
cP,(gas) = 1.9 J/g-K or 36.76 J/mol-K
Joule = kg ∙ (m/sec)2
1 calorie = 4.18 kJ = 4.18 kilojoules
Stronger I.M Force
Van der Waals
Dipole – Dipole
Hydrogen Bonding
Ion-Dipole
Ionic Bonding (Ion-Ion)
(polar & non-polar atoms/molecules)
(polar molecules only)
(polar molecules only; O-H, N-H, F-H)
(charged atom & molecule)
(type of chemical bond)
How to Determine Boing Point Temperatures:
 Molecule w/stronger intermolecular force has higher boiling pt.
 Molecule that covers more area (more spread out) has higher
boiling pt.
 Molecule that has more mass has higher boiling pt.
Gases




Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases provide us with the gas laws
The theory assumes gas particles are far away relative to their size; collisions between
gas particles are elastic (new heat is not generated by the collisions); there are no forces
of attraction between gas particles; the average kinetic energy of the particle is determine
by temperature, not by particle’s identity; gas particles are like solid spheres
Real gases do not have elastic collisions; real gas particles do take up volume; real gas
particles do experience some intermolecular forces of attraction; real gas particles are not
solid spheres, but have a variety of shapes, many asymmetrical.
Real gases behave like ideal gases in KMT at high temperatures and low pressures; in
other conditions, there is some noticeable deviation
Liquids

When pressure goes up for a liquid, its boiling point temperature goes up, and vice versa
when pressure goes down
Solutions






Every solution (liquid mixture) is made up of two components: the solute and the solvent
The solute is whatever there is less of (minor component)
The solvent is whatever there is more of (major component)
In an aqueous solution, the solvent is water and solute can be anything (solid, liquid, or
even gas) that dissolves in the water
Solutions are measured in terms of concentration, which is defined as quantity of solute
per quantity of solvent
Molarity, M, is a common measurement for concentration; the unit for morality is molars.
Molarity is defined as:
𝑴 =
𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝑳𝒊𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒔 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
=
𝒎𝒐𝒍
𝑳
where 1 molar = 1 mol/L
,